PRELIMINARY

DRAFT CIRCULATION
NOTICE
Our Ref:
WRD 14/T-39

Date
31-01-2008

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE:

Water Conductor Systems Sectional Committee,

WRD 14
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ADDRESSED TO: All Members of Water Conductor Systems Sectional Committee,
WRD 14
Dear Sir(s),
As per the decision taken in the 8th meeting of the sectional committee, we are posting the
draft standard as mentioned below on the BIS website www.bis.org.in for your ready reference.
Doc.WRD 14(496)

Guidelines for Design of Branching in Penstocks for Hydro

Electric Projects

Kindly examine this draft and forward your views stating any difficulties which you are likely to
experience in your business or profession, if this is finally adopted as a national standard and
kindly provide your specific suggestions for revising the same in view of latest technology.

Last date for comments : 15 March 2008

Comments, if any, may please be made in the format attached to the draft and mailed to
the undersigned at the above address. Comments will be appreciated in electronic form at the
email address bsharma@bis.org.in. In case you have any difficulty in accessing the document
at our website, please write to us for a hard copy.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,

[ Bhavana Sharma ]
Asstt Director (WRD)
Note: Please inform your e-mail address for faster communication at the e-mail address above

For official use only

Doc. WRD 14(496)
February 2008

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS

PRELIMINARY DRAFT
Indian Standard
GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF BRANCHING IN PENSTOCKS FOR HYDRO
ELECTRIC PROJECTS
__________________________________________________________________________
_
(Not to be reproduced without the
Last date for receipt
permission of BIS or used as a
of comments is
STANDARD)

FOREWORD

(Formal clauses to be added later)

Different types of branching like bifurcation, trifurcation etc are used in penstocks carrying water from
surge tanks or reservoirs to the power houses.This standards covers guidelines for design of branching in
Penstocks for Hydro Electric Projects.
For the purpose of deciding whether a particular requirement of this standard is complied with, the final
value, observed or calculated. Expressing the result of a test or analysis, shall be rounded off in accordance
with IS 2:1960 Rules for rounding off numerical values (revised). The number of significant places
retained in the rounded off value should be the same as that of the specified value in this standard.

1. SCOPE
This standard covers guidelines for design of branching in Penstocks for Hydro Electric Projects. It covers
Types of Branching, Requirement for Design, Types of Reinforcements, Analysis of Wyes, Analytical
Design of Internal Sickle Plate Type Bifurcation and Design of Spherical Branch.

2. TERMINOGY: Definition for some of the key terms used in the Code are given
below for ready reference:
2.1

2.2
2.3

Branch: A penstock is generally called a branch when the flow of water is to be

divided into two or more branches, or when two or more flows are to be gathered to
a main pipe.
Wye Branch: It is a branch to diverge a main pipe to two branch pipes, attaching
stiffening girders on their intersection lines.
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Branch: In a symmetrical branch, as shown in
the Fig.1, below, angles a and b are equal. Otherwise, the branch is unsymmetrical
(see fig. 12).
Crotch

Branch Pipe

Main Pipe
Angle a
Angle b

Fig.1.

Branch Pipe

2.4

Equibranch: When branches have similar diameter, the branch is known as equibranch.

2.5

Tie Rod: A tie rod is the structural member placed inside the pipe for support, at the branching. The
same is illustrated in Fig. 2 below.

Section of main
pipe at branch

Tie Rod
Fig. 2 Tie Rod

2.6

Spherical Branch: It is a type to connect main pipe and branch pipes to a spherical shell through
reinforcing rings (see fig. 12).

2.7

Sickle Plate: It is a crescent shaped rib inside the branch pipe, to give strength at the joint. The
Sickle Plate, shaped as an internal horse-shoe girder, is also called splitter plate. It is provided at
the intersection of the two branches for resistance against the forces being developed there.

2.8

Reinforcement: It is the support provided to counter the unbalanced forces acting on unsupported
areas at the branching junction.

3. TYPES OF BRANCHING

3.1 Geometrically, there are several types of branching possible, such as bifurcation,
trifurcation etc. However, in practical applications, generally a bifurcation is
employed.
3.2 The Wye Branching is the one in which the main pipe diverges into two branch pipes.In the Wye
branching, the following categories are available:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Wyes with sharp transition.

Wyes with conical transition.
Wyes with tie rods.
Wyes with sickle.

3.3 In case of branching into 3 or more branches, the following types are available:
a) a type in which the main is pipe directly trifurcated
b) manifold type in which pipes are branched in the same direction in succession
from a straight main pipe, and
c) a type to combine bifurcation.
These are illustrated in the Fig.3.
3.4 Another type of branching used in Hydro Electric Projects is the Spherical branching in which the main
pipe is connected to the branch pipe through a spherical shell and having reinforcing rings. In India, so far
the application of Spherical branching has been rather restricted.

4. REQUIREMENT FOR DESIGN OF BRANCHING

For the safe design of a branching, the following considerations are relevant:
a) Hydraulics of Water Flow through the branch
b) External Pressure
c) Internal Pressure
4.1 Hydraulic Considerations for Flow of Water through the Branch
4.1.1 While designing the branch, the following hydraulic considerations are required to be taken care of,
during pressure flow conditions:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Head loss due to branch should be small.

The total head loss in the penstock before and after the branching should be small.
Turbulent and secondary flows should not be allowed to be generated.
For equibranch, head loss in each pipe should be of similar value.
In case the flow rate in one branch pipe changes, a large vortex or a hydraulic pulsation should not
take place in the flow of the other branch pipes.

4.1.2 Design Considerations :

In order to achieve the above conditions, the following design considerations are
recommended:
a.

b.

c.
d.
e.
f.

g.
h.
i.

In case of equibranch, the angle of branching should be kept symmetrical about the main pipe axis,
i.e., symmetry should be ensured in case of equibranch. In the context of Fig. 1, angle a and angle
b should normally be equal.
The head loss coefficient due to branching varies to a large extent due to the distribution ratio of
the flow. It has been observed that the head loss coefficient is minimal when the angle between the
equi-diverging branches is between 45 to 600, and it rises sharply with increase of angle beyond
this limit. Therefore, in the context of Fig.1, the sum of angle a and angle b should normally be
between 45 to 600.
Sharp changes in cross sectional area of a passage should be avoided as far as possible.
While deciding on the type of support for a branching, the fact that any hindrance to the flow leads
to significant increase in head loss, should be taken in to view.
Right angle branches and cylindrical outlets or inlets should be avoided where hydraulic efficiency
is important or cavitation cannot be allowed..
While selecting Tie Rod type of support at the branching, the fact that the head loss coefficient
increases largely due to presence of a tie rod, should also be considered. Tie Rod is an obstruction
to the flow in the penstock as shown in Fig.1A .
Similarly, the head loss coefficient largely increases due to presence of obstruction to the flow in
the penstock, caused by sickle in Sickle type branching.
The velocity of flow in the branches is to be selected so that the Reynolds Number (Re) is greater
than 104.
The use of conical connections with side-wall angles, F , equal to 6-8 degrees, reduces hydraulic
losses to about one third of those resulting from use of cylindrical connections. Therefore, in
practical applications, appropriate conical angles are generally implemented.

4.1.3 Additional Hydraulic Considerations for Spherical Branch:

Apart from the overall hydraulic considerations given above, for the spherical branch the following
additional aspects are also required to be considered suitably:
a.

The ratio of sphere diameter to main pipe diameter should not be kept very high in order to limit
the head loss coefficient. When the flow distribution ratio of a branch pipe becomes high, i.e.,
when the % of flow in one branch is much higher than the other branch, the head loss increases
rapidly. However, from construction point of view, it is not desirable to employ a spherical branch

having too small a diameter compared with the main pipe. Therefore, the ratio of sphere diameter
to a pipe diameter of 1.3 to 1.6 should generally be used.

b. It is normally preferable to install a flow regulating plate inside. However, this

method is insufficient when the ratio of sphere diameter to a main pipe diameter is
larger than 1.6.
c. While designing the Diameter of the spherical branching, it is to be kept in view
that the head loss in spherical wye increases rapidly with increasing diameter of
wye.
4.1.4 Loss Coefficient for Bifurcation
a) The head loss due to branch, H, can be expressed in the following equation:

v2
H=a
where v0 is the mean velocity of flow in the main pipe, and a is the head loss
2g
0

coefficient. Values of a are influenced by the branch angle, change in the sectional area,
distribution ratio of the flow to each branch pipe, and the Reynolds Number. An
estimation of the head loss coefficient for different branch angles can be made from Fig.
4, while influence of Reynolds number of main pipe over the head loss coefficient, in
case of conical wye having equal distribution amongst the branches, is given at Fig. 5.
b) The head loss coefficient for conical wyes and manifolds, with various types of
transitions, and with/ without tie rods is given in Fig. 6, wherein Open branch refers to
branch where no gate is provided, while Closed branch refers to branching having gates
for regulating flow through the branch. An estimate of the head loss in spherical wye with
increasing diameter may be made from Fig.7.
4.1.5 Loss Coefficient for a Trifurcation
A trifurcation is illustrated in figure 12. The loss coefficient for a trifurcation can be
2
2
Q3
Q2
given as
Sin 2
Sin 3 Entry Loss Coefficients
Qm
Qm
where Qm is the Discharge through main pipe, Q2 and Q3 are the discharges through the branches, and 2
and 3 are the horizontal angle of take off (see Fig.8. below). However, the losses would be higher than that
calculated by the above formula, in case when one or more branches are closed.

Main Pipe, Qm
Angle

Angle

Branch Pipe, Q2

Branch Pipe, Q3

Fig.8

5 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS

5.1 To compensate for the openings for the branching made in the normal circular section, some
reinforcement is required to be provided to take care of the unbalanced forces acting on unsupported
areas resulted by these junctions. These reinforcements can be either inside the pipes (internal) or
provided externally at the junction (external).

5.2 External Reinforcements

Based on the extent of unsupported area, internal water pressure, ratio of main and branch pipe
areas, clearance restriction for fabrication etc., various types of external reinforcements are possible.
Most common practice is to provide one or more exterior girders welded with tie rods or ring girder
or a combination of these. The various types of external reinforcement are:
a) one plate
b) two plate reinforcement, and
c) three plate reinforcement.

The placement of reinforcements in case of one plate, two plate and three plate reinforcements is
shown in the figure 9 below.

ONE PLATE
REINFORCEMENT

TWO PLATE
REINFORCEMENT

THREE PLATE REINFORCEMENT

FIGURE 9 - ONE PLATE, TWO PLATE AND THREE PLATE

REINFORCEMENTS

The exterior girder, also called as yoke, is of horseshoe shape which is welded to the periphery of the
junction of the pipes and finally welded to a tie rod or a ring girder provided at the beginning of the
bifurcation. The section of the girder may be T shaped attached to the penstock surface. Some
portion of the penstock steel liner also is assumed to act monolithically as a flange of the yoke girder
as in the case of stiffener rings (see Fig. 10).

5.3 Internal Reinforcements

Another type of reinforcement is to provide an internal horse-shoe girder called splitter or sickle
plate. This type has been developed by Escher Wyes and generally consists of crescent shaped rib
inside the branch pipe and it is designed in such a way that rib is directly subjected to tension and
has the same magnitude as the stress in shell section of pipes adjacent to it. Apart from being
structurally strong, this type is more economical because of smaller external dimensions taking lesser
space and enables large branch pipes to be fabricated, transported, stress relieved and erected as a
single unit (see Fig.11).

5.4 Spherical Branch

It is a type to connect main pipe and branch pipes to a spherical shell through reinforcing rings. This
type is normally treated as an axis symmetrical shell, and it is possible to decrease the local bending
stress of a spherical shell connected to a reinforcing ring if its cross section is properly selected.
Therefore, the plate thickness is comparatively less. The arrangement of a spherical branch, vis--vis
a wye branch is brought out in Figure 12.

5.5 Selection of type of Branch

On account of higher plate thickness in case of wye branch, normally it is preferred for low Design
Head. For comparatively higher discharge values or heads, Spherical branch is normally preferred.
However, no strict rules are available and the selection of type of branch is generally left to the
discretion of the designer.
6.0 ANALYSIS OF WYES
6.1 As mentioned above, at the junction where the main pipe diverges into two branch pipes, the attaching
stiffening girders on their intersection lines can be carried out internally or externally.
6.2 The forces on a bifurcation with external reinforcement, are shown in Fig.13. Some typical examples of
reinforcements for non-wye branching are illustrated in Fig. 14, while examples for wye branching are
given in Fig. 15.
6.3 The method of stress analysis used for branch outlets and wyes is approximate, with simplifying
assumptions. The reinforcement is proportioned to carry the entire unbalanced load as indicated by the
loading diagrams in the figures above. The total load carried by the reinforcement is equal to the product of
the internal pressure and the unsupported area projected to the plane of fitting. A portion of the pipe shell is
considered to be acting monolithically with the girders as in the case of stiffener rings.
6.4 Allowable Stresses
For branching, it is prudent to use lower allowable stresses as compared to the penstock, on account of
limitation of the designers to determine critical stresses in these complex structures with the same degree of

accuracy as is possible for the penstock. Consequently, these allowable stresses are based on one half times
the minimum specified yield stress or one-fourth times the minimum specified tensile strength, whichever
is less.
6.5 Analysis of External Reinforcement
6.5.1 In case of simple curved reinforcing plate, it is assumed that the plate is acting as a plane ring and the
loads in both directions are uniformly distributed and the plate is circular.
6.5.2 When the external girders are used in combination with tie rods or ring girders, the analysis becomes
statically indeterminate. For analysis, the deflection of the girder at the junctions of the tie rods or ring
girder under the load in both directions are evolved and equated to the deflections of the tie rods or ring
girders.

6.5.3 The loads considered for external reinforcement are shown in the Fig.13. As seen
from the figure, the yoke is considered as an elliptical cantilevered beam. It is assumed to
be loaded by vertical forces varying linearly from zero at X=0 to P (r1 cos 1 + r2 cos 2) at
X=L and by the forces V1 and V2 due to tie rod at 0 and C and by the moment M (see
Fig. 15).
6.5.4 Analytical Design of External Reinforcement:
The method of stress analysis used for branch outlets and wyes is approximate. Simplifying assumptions
are made in the analysis that yield results of efficient accuracy for practical design purposes. The
reinforcement is proportioned to carry the entire unbalanced loads. The total load carried by the
reinforcement is equal to the product of the internal pressure and the unsupported area projected to the
plane of the fitting. A portion of the pipe shell is considered to be acting monolithically with the girders,
similar to the stiffener rings.
The external stiffener(s) (see fig. 9) are analyzed as a C-clamp with a portion of the pipe shell considered as
an equivalent flange. The width (W) of the equivalent flange may be obtained from the formula :

1.56

Rt

where a is the thickness of girder, R is the radius of the main pipe and t is the shell thickness. The
distribution of the design load in the case of one plate external reinforcement is shown in fig. 15 (b). The
increase in the bending stress, if the radius of curvature at the crotch is small, can be evaluated using a
correction factor in the bending formula for straight beams.
If the external girder is used in conjunction with the ring girder (see fig. 15(c)), the same is statically
indeterminate. To simplify analysis, the ring girders are assumed to be free at the common intersection
point, and loaded with the triangularly distributed design load and the unknown shear load concentrated at
the intersection point. The deflection of each girder is calculated with the direction of the unknown shear
force assumed. The deflection of all intersecting members are equated and the shear forces calculated, and
the direct and bending stresses at any point along the girders and ring may be determined. With the
elongation known, the stress in the tie rod can also be determined.
The sample computation sheet, with figure 13 as reference, illustrates the steps taken in the analysis of a
typical external reinforcement analytically. The same is placed at Annex 2.

6.5.5 The typical design of one plate and two plate external reinforcement using
Nomograph:
As an alternative to the complex calculations involved in analytical method, a simplified
graphical method has been devised, which has simplified the process of design of

external reinforcement to a great extent. The steps involved in use of Nomograph for
design of external reinforcement are illustrated below. While wye depth dw and base
depth db refer to two plate design, dw and db refer to one plate design:
Step 1. Lay a straight edge across the nomograph through the appropriate points on the
pipe diameter and internal pressure scales. Read off the depth of plate (d) from its scale.
This reading is the crotch depth (for understanding crotch, see fig.-1) for 1-inch thick
plate for a two plate 90 degree wye branch pipe.
Step 2a. Based on the deflection angle, use the N factor curve (Fig.17) to get the factors
that, when multiplied by the depth of the plate found in Step 1, will give the wye depth
dw and base depth db for the new wye branch.
Step 2b. If the wye branch has unequal diameter pipe, the larger diameter pipe will
have been used in steps 1 and 2a, and these results should be multiplied by the Q factors
found on the single plate stiffener curves (Fig.18) to give wye depth dw and base depth

db. While Qw is to be multiplied with dw to get dw, Qb is to be multiplied with db to

get db. These factors vary with the ratio of radius of small pipe to the radius of the large
pipe.
Step 3. If the wye depth, dw found so far is greater than 30 times the thickness of the
plate (1 in.) then wye depth dw and base depth db should be converted to conform to a
greater thickness t, by use of the general equation:
0.917

t1
360
t
in which d1 is the existing depth of plate, t1 is the existing thickness of plate, d is new
depth of plate, t is the new thickness of plate selected, and is the deflection angle of the
wye branch.
d

d1

Step 4. To find the top depth, dt (for two plate design) or dt (for one plate design), use
Fig. 19. This dimension gives the top and bottom depths of plate at 90 deg from the
crotch depths (see figure 20).
Step 5. The interior curves follow the cut of the pipe, but the outside crotch radius in
both crotches should equal dt plus the radius of the pipe for two plate design, or, in the
single plate design, dt plus the radius of the smaller pipe. Tangents connected between
these curves complete the outer shape.
The important depths of the reinforcement plates, dw, db and dt (see Fig. 20) can be
found from the nomograph. If a curved exterior is desired, a radius equal to the inside
pipe radius plus dt can be used, both for the outside curve of the wye section and for the
side curve of the base section.

6.6 Three Plate Design

In the case of three plate external reinforcement, as shown in Figure 9, the function of the
third plate is to act like a clamp in holding down the deflection of the two main plates. In
doing so, it accepts part of the stresses of the other plates and permits a more economical
design. This decrease in the depths of the two main plates is small enough to make it
practical simply to add a third plate to a two plate design. The two factors that dictate the
use of a third plate are diameter of pipe and internal pressure. When both of these are
above certain limits, a ring plate may be used advantageously. These limits may be
considered as a nominal diameter of 1500 mm and a design pressure of about 2 N/ mm2.
If either of these limits is exceeded, the designer may elect to use a third plate.
The size should be dictated by the top depth (dt). Since the other two plates are flush with
the inside surface of the pipe, the shell plate thickness, plus clearance, should be
subtracted from the top depth. This dimension should be constant throughout, and the
plate should be placed at right angles to the axis of the pipe, giving it a half ring shape. Its
thickness should be equal the smaller of the main plates.
7.0 DESIGN OF INTERNAL SICKLE PLATE TYPE BIFURCATION
7.1 The design of internal sickle plate is based on the principle that the stresses which occur in the line of
intersection of two parts of pipes are transmitted to a strengthening collar which lies in the plane of
intersection.
7.2 The design of strengthening collar involves firstly, the determination of resultant of all forces from the
beginning of the collar to the point in question, determined according to size, direction and position for
various points along the line of intersection. The cross-section of the strengthening collar which passes
though this point and is at right angles to the resultant, is made symmetrical to this resultant and
proportional to its size. This results for the strengthening collar in a body of constant strength, which is
only subjected to normal stresses, i.e., with an absolute minimum of material requirements.
7.3 Considering the requirement of equal thickness for ease of fabrication purpose, the collar is obtained in
the shape of sickle, which lies symmetrical to the line of intersection at the crown right inside the branch
piece and at its apexes.
7.4 For designing the strengthening collar, the size, position and direction of the resultant forces which are
transmitted at various points from the pipe walls at the line of intersection to the strengthening collar, must
be known.
7.5 Escher Wyss has developed a purely analytical method for design of strengthening collar. Fig. 21-24
show half of the sickle shaped strengthening rib and also the resultant forces. The coordinates of the
intersection curve are obtained as follows:
7.5.1 The coordinates of the intersection curve (x and y coordinates) are obtained as below. The Notations
are explained below and also in the Fig. 21to Fig.24 :
R1 Radius of the main pipe

- Half angle of bifurcation

f Cone angle
- angle varied from 0 oat vertical to 90 0 at horizontal,

in steps of 2.5 0

x=r

sin
sin

y = r cos

, where r is given by r =

R1
1 tan Sin Cot

Similarly, z is given by z = R1 Sin Cot

1 Tan .Sin Cot

Therefore dz = R1 Cos Cot

1 Tan .Sin Cot

Therefore x =

and y =

R1.Sin
Sin 1 tan Sin Cot

R1.Cos
1 tan Sin Cot

Length of the Sickle Plate:

Projection of the intersection curve on the horizontal plane is obtained by putting
above.

x /2 =

R1
Sin 1 tan Cot

/ 2 in value of x

which gives the length of the sickle plate.

7.5.2 The pipe walls transmit forces at the point of intersection from both sides on to the
strengthening collar which lies in the plane of intersection AB (see Figure 22-24). On
account of their symmetry the resultant of these forces must always fall in the plane of
the intersection. It is assumed that the wall of the pipe are so thin that they can be
considered as membranes and therefore possess no resistance against bending. Hence,
they inflict only tractive and shearing forces on the strengthening structure in the case of
internal pressure.
7.5.3 With an internal pressure p, the forces per unit length in a cylindrical membrane are:
in circumferential direction =

in axial direction

pr
cos
pr
2 cos

7.5.4 In an element of the line of intersection of length dl the following forces are
inflicted on the strengthening from one side:
(a)

As a result of the circumferential stresses :

Pl =

pr
dz {which can be seen in Fig.24}
cos

R1Cos Cot d
1 Tan Sin Cot

dz

But since

R12 Cos Cot d

P1
Cos 1 Tan Sin Cot
(b)

As a result of axial stresses :

pr
rd
2 cos

Tl =

{which can be seen in Fig.22}

pR12 d
T1
2Cos 1 Tan Sin Cot

7.5.5 The forces Pl and Tl acting from both sides on the elemental length dl can be resolved into vertical
and horizontal components in the plane of strengthening collar. The resolution of forces is shown in
Fig.23. The forces in vertical direction are given by

2 pR12 cot sin cos

dV = [
K 3 cos

pR12 sin 1
]d
K 2 cos

The forces in the horizontal direction are given by:

dH =

2 pR12 cot cos 2 sin

K 3 cos

where K = 1+tan sin

1 tan

pR12 cos 1cos(

K 2 cos

]d

cot

y
R1cot

Resulting vertical force is V =

1 sin

1 tan

Integration of this equation from 0 to

Resulting horizontal force is H =

7.5.6

1)

cot
gives the forces:

dV
0

dH

For the resultant of all forces which act in the elliptical arc EF (see Fig. 21) on the strengthening
collar is finally obtained as below:
R=

V2

tan

tan

x
y

V
H

7.5.7 As seen from the geometry of the triangle RVH in figure 21, when the branches are cylindrical (i.e.,
R1 = R2),
and hence the resultant R will be perpendicular to the line OF (see Fig. 21). In the case
of Conical branches,
and therefore R has components giving rise to a normal stress fn and shear
stress qt on the plane passing through O.
The principal stresses, to be kept within permissible limits, are

ft =

1
2

fn

and fn =

1
2

fn

4 qt

1
fn
2

4 qt

1
fn
2

To determine the position of the resultant R, moments of the forces with respect to O are calculated as
below:

Moment of Vertical Forces Mv =

x.dV

and MH =

y.dH

The integration of V, H, Mv and MH are done numerically using Simpsons Rule or other such numerical
techniques.
Total Moment = Mv + MH
The distance of the resultant from O is given by l =

/ 2, l

For

/2 =

M
.
R

M /2
R /2

7.5.8 Theoretical width of sickle plate at its crown, i.e.,

B
2

ax - l / 2

but ax =

x /2

R1
Sin (1 tan Cot )

/ 2 , is given by the following expression:

However for practical consideration, since additional width is required to be provided to project outside the
intersection, the actual width is enhanced by a factor Ax where Ax ranges from 30 to 50mm.
7.5.9 Width of the plate at any other section is then calculated in proportion to the value of R , i.e., b = B

R
R /2
The thickness of sickle is such that the principal stresses are within acceptable limits. Theoretical estimate
of the sickle thickness S may be taken as
S=

2tR / 2
pR1B 3

7.6 A procedure for design of internal sickle plate using analytical method given above, is enclosed at
Annex 1 in a tabular form.

8 Design of Spherical Branch

8.1 When a model consisting of a sphere and a cylinder having cave cover as Fig. 25 is considered :
s HC

pr
2

where p is the internal pressure and r is the radius of the connecting main branch.

The horizontal component of a spheres membrane tensile force pr/2 is :

s HS =

pa
cos
2

pr
, where a is the radius of the sphere and angle is the angle from vertical to
2

the point where the cylindrical main branch meets the sphere.

Thus, the horizontal direction force is kept balanced with sHC = sHS
8.2
On the other hand, a reinforcing ring is attached so as to resist the vertical component s v of a
spheres membrane tensile force as illustrated in Fig.26. The tensile force T1 generated in a reinforcing ring
by the internal pressure acting on the reinforcing rings breadth b is T1 = prb, where b is the width of the
reinforcing ring . The tensile force T2
spheres membrane tensile force is T2
ring, and

generated in a reinforcing ring by the vertical component of a

1
pro a cos , where r0 is the radius of the C.G of the reinforcing
2

is the angle shown in Figure 26.

8.3 Supposing only the membrane tensile force acting on a sphere, i.e. a sphere under membrane stress
condition, the cross sectional area S of reinforcing ring is :

S=

T2

r0

where

r0 :

(br + 0.5 ro a cos

r0

Tensile stress of reinforcing ring.

This formula includes the stress of a reinforcing ring

the formula which does not include
follows:

r0

r0

but if is possible to determine

from a displacement boundary condition as

The radial force V acting on a reinforcing ring is :

V = pb +

p
2

=p(b+

a cos

a
cos
2

Then, the displacement dr , of a reinforcing ring in radial direction is :

r2
V
S

a 2 sin 2
ES

p b

a
cos
2

, where E is the modulus of elasticity and S is

the cross area of the reinforcing ring.

The displacement dS, of a sphere in radial direction at connecting point with reinforcing
ring is :

pa 2
1
2 Eh

sin

where h is the spheres plate thickness.

dr = dS is to be essential in order that a sphere is under the membrane stress condition, which gives

a
cos
2

h sin

The spheres plate thickness h is, saying the spheres membrane tensile stress s so
h=

pa
2 so

While, a cylinders plate thickness t is to be determined only by the tangential stress

consideration given to the reinforcing rings effect :
t =

s po

with no

pr
2 po

If thickness of cylinder t is to be determined so that the radial displacement dc of cylinder may be equal
to the radial displacement dr of a reinforcing ring, it is not required to consider the effect of a cylinder of
a reinforcing ring and the sphere, and the sphere can be kept under a membrane stress.

pr 2
1
Et '
1

pa 2
1
2 EL

sin

8.4 With dc = dS, a.Sin

r,
= 0.3, and the corrosion allowance is expressed
with e, the cylinders plate thickness required is expressed with the following equation :

r
2.43 h
a

t'

The range to increase t to t is determined from the following equation :

'

2 r t'
1.3

where b is the new width of the reinforcing ring.

8.5 Practically, it is seldom to satisfy the above equations in computation of S, t and h, and so it is
necessary to calculate a bending moment and a shearing force at each point by a statically indeterminate
calculation method etc., to attempt a strict solution.
8.6 When considering an actual use of steel penstocks, concave covers do not exist, and thus the axial
forces HS and HC in Fig.25 do not act. As a practical solution in this case, there is a concept to
solve a structure model shown in Fig.27 with an assumption that a pipe is embedded in concrete and
the pipes axial displacement is restrained and fixed at a certain distance point from a reinforcing
ring. Internal pressures acting on the branch are explained above, but it is also necessary to examine
the external pressure.

9.0

DESIGN OF BRANCHES BY NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES

The Wye piece, designed based on the above mentioned criterion is an indeterminate
structure. It is necessary that stress concentration occurring at the various intersection
points are ascertained and suitable strengthening measures carried out, if found
necessary. For this either physical model studies / photo elastic studies or mathematical
modeling deploying methods as Finite Element etc. with appropriate boundary and
loading conditions, are deployed.

ANNEX -1
PRACTICAL PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF INTERNAL SICKLE PLATE
Data to be provided :
R1 Radius of the main pipe
F - angle of cone
half angle of intersection
t thickness of sickle plate (assumed to be checked through stresses)
Table 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 x
Alpha
Alpha
r=
x=
y=
tan
(deg)
(Radia
R1
r cos
y
sin
r
ns)
1 tan Sin Cot
Radians
sin

7
t1=
tan

sin

8
1

tan

tan

y
R1 cot

Degree

Radians

Radial
Dist.
=
(x2+y2)1/2

0
2.5
5.0
..
..
90

1
Alpha (deg)
0

Table 2
OUTER & INNER PROFILE OF THE SICKEL PLATE
2
3
4
5
6
7
xo
yo
x
y
xi
yi
= x + h Sin
= y + h Cos
= x b Sin
= y - b Cos
(b to be determined
subsequently)

2.5
5.0
..
..
90
Table 3
CALCULATIONS OF VERTICAL FORCE
ALPHA
= X

dV/dX
2 cot sin cos
[
3
K cos

dV

avg dV

K
=

sin 1
K

cos

1+tan

=[ dV/dX (R1) ] x
susequent
current
[2(a
a
)]

= 0.5(dV

prev.

+dV

current

sin cot

= S avg dV

0
2.5
5.0
..
90

ALPHA

dH/dX

Table 4
CALCULATIONS OF HORIZONTAL FORCE
dH

avg dH

Resultant

= X
R=

2 cot

cos
K

sin

cos 1 cos(

cos

V2

1)
2

=[ dH/dX (R1) ] x
subequent
current
[2(a
a
)]

cos

=
prev.
current
0.5(dH +dH
)

= S avg dH

0
2.5
5.0
7.5
..
90
Table 5
CALCULATION OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL MOMENT
2
3
4

1
ALPHA
= X

dM V /dX

2 cot
[
K

sin
4

cos

dMV

avg dMV

=[ dMv /dX ] x
susequent
current
[2(a
a
)]

= 0.5(dMv

5
MV

sin 1Sin

cos sin

cos sin

prev.

+dMv

current

= S avg dMv

0
2.5
5.0
7.5
..
90
6

dM H /dX
3

2 Sin Cos
[
K

cot

cos

10
M=Mh+mV

Cos 1Cos Cos(

K

dMH

avg dMH

=[ dMH /dX ] x
susequent
current
[2(a
a
)]

= 0.5(dMH

9
MH

T)

cos

11
Resultant =
pR/36

12
Resultant Moment =
(R1)3 pM/36

prev.

+dMH

TABLE 6

= S avg dMH

13

14

M/R

b
B*(Resultant)
1000*(Resultant
at alpha 90)

Col.12 x 1000
Col.11

B = 2 (x at alpha 90 * 1000 M/R at alpha 90)

current

CALCULATION OF THE VALUES OF PRINCIPAL TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRESS

1
Alpha

2
Gamma
-1

Tan (V/H)

3
Theta

4
Theta - Gamma

5
Normal Stress

6
Shear Stress

From Table 1

Col.3-Col2

Resultant (from col.11 of

table 5 above) *Cos (col.4)

Resultant (from col.11 of

table 5 above)* Sin (col.4)

0
2.5
5.0
7.5
..
90

7
Fn
(Col. 5)*100000/
(thickness in cm * b from
table 5 * 1000)

8
Qt
(Col. 6)*100000/ (thickness
in cm * b from table 5 *
1000)

9
Pt

10
Fc
2

(Col. 7) + sqrt(col.7 + col.8 )

2

(Col. 7) - sqrt(col.7 + 4*col.8 )

2

ANNEX 2
SAMPLE COMPUTATION SHEET FOR ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF EXTERNAL
REINFORCEMENT (SEE FIG. 13 AND FIG. 13-a)
NOTATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

AR
AU
E
IR
IU
IUC
MU
IUC

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

R
R1
R2
R3
T
Y
b1
b2
c
c
e
e'
ki, ko

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

mc
p
q

x
a
dc

Cross sectional area of circular ring

Cross sectional area of U beam of section considered
Modulus of elasticity of steel
Moment of inertia of circular ring
Moment of inertia of U-beam at section considered
Moment of inertia of U-beam at centre of element s
Bending Moment of U beam at section considered
Bending Moment of U beam at at centre of element s due to reaction between circular
ring and U beam, and unbalanced pressure
Radius of main pipe
Radius of branch pipes at point M
Radius of centroidal axis of circular rings
Radius of curvature of inside of U beam at point considered
Total vertical shear in U-beam at section considered
Reaction between inner circular ring and external U-beam girder.
Effective width of inner ring (equivalent flange)
Effective width of U-beam (equivalent flange)
Distance from centroidal axis to extreme inner fiber of U beam
Distance from centroidal axis to extreme outer fiber of U beam
Distance from centroidal axis of extreme inner fiber of inner ring
Distance from centroidal axis of extreme outer fiber of inner ring
Ratio of actual stress in inner or outer fiber, respectively, to stress computed by flexure
formula for straight beam
Bending moment of U-beam at center of element s due to unit load at C.
Internal pressure
Constant for steel
Poissons ratio for steel
Horizontal distance from centre line of circular ring
Angle of cross section of U beam with vertical
Deflection of U beam at point C
Note: positive moments produce tension of inner fiber
+ sign of tension
- sign of compression

FORMULAE:
A. Calculation of Y
1. Deflection dc of U beam at point C
a. Moments and Vertical Shear (for a and L see Fig. 13) :
MUC = Yx
MUC =
MUC =

for x from C to K
for x from K to M

2
1
pR1 ( x a ) Cos
3L
2
pR1 ( x a
L)Cos
3

Yx
for x from M to N

Yx

mc = x

T = -Y
2
1
pR1 ( x a ) Cos
L
T = pR1 LCos
Y

T=

For x from C to N

M UC mc s
EI UC

b. Deflection dc =

MUC

3
S

4
MUC x S

5
IUC

Edc = S

2. Deflection dc of circular ring:

a. Hoop Stress S1 due to internal pressure =

1285
.
RT

Find the value of

pR
d
AR

21
q

q with this formula.

b. Radial deflection dc at point C:

Due to S1

Edc1 = (+) S1R . Find Edc1 based on this formula.

Due to Triangular load Edc2 = +0.0274

Due to Y Edc3 = +0.0745

pbRR22
IR

YR2
IR

3. Solve for Y : Edc = Edc = Edc1 + Edc2 + Edc3

b. Stress in U Beam:

6
Col.4/ Col.5

1
x

2
MU

3
c

4
c

10

5
k1

11
12
Combined stress
Inside
Outside

Bending Stress

M U ck1
I
u

M U c' ko
I
u

c. Stress in Circular Ring:

Point
MR

T sin
A
U

C
E
F

-0.07074pbR22 0.3183YR2
-0.065pbR22 + 0.0353YR2
+0.6959pbR22 + 0.1817YR2

Point

Direct Stress

IR

Bending Stress
Si = M R e
So = M R e '
IR
IR
+
+

Inside
C
E

1
0.1768 pbR
AR

S1 =

1
0.5 pbR 0.54Y
AR

0.354Y

4. Determination of Values for ki and ko:

Case I ( See Fig. 13-a(a)-considering tie rod and inner circular ring)
A= b1t + t1h; h1 = r-R3 ; h2 = R6 r

r=

b1 Log e

ki =

R4
R3

h1 I u
AeR3 c

t1 Log e

; ko =

R5
R4

h2 I u
AeR5 c '

Case II ( See Fig. 13-a(b)-considering tie rod, inner circular ring and external girder))
A= b1t + t1h + b2t2; h1 = r-R3 ; h2 = R6 r

Combined Stress
Outside

S1
S1 =

6
IU

r=

b1 Log e

ki =

R4
R3

h1 I u
AeR3 c

t1 Log e

; ko =

R7
R4

b2 Log e

R6
R7

h2 I u
AeR5 c '

5. Determination of C, Rmax, Rmin and R3 pertaining to elliptical intersection of U-beam:

See Fig. 13-a (c). F and F1 are the foci of the ellipse. R is the Radius of curvature at any point P.
r1 = a +cx; r2 = a -cx; r1 + r2 = 2a;

c =

a2

b2
a

; Rmax =

a2
b

b2
Rmin =
;
a

R3 =

r1r2
ab

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