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Name

Affiliation

National Coordinator

Sujata Patel

Professor,
Sociology,
Hyderabad

Department
University

of
of

Subject Coordinator

Sujata Patel

Professor,
Sociology,
Hyderabad

Department
University

of
of

Paper Coordinator

Dev Pathak

Assistant Professor, Department of

Sociology, South Asian University

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Subrat Rath

Centre for the Study of Social

Systems, School of Social
Sciences,
Jawaharlal
Nehru
University, New Delhi

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Dev Pathak

Assistant Professor, Department of

Sociology, South Asian University

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Dev Pathak

Assistant Professor, Department of

Sociology, South Asian University

Technical Conversion

Module Structure
Robert King Merton

The Person, The Work, Objective Consequences

and Subjective Dispositions, The System
Analysis, Defining Sociology

Description of the Module

Items

Description of the Module

Subject Name

Sociology

Paper Name

Contemporary Social Theory

Module Name/Title

Functionalism, neo-functionalism and system

analysis: R. K. Merton

Module Id
Pre Requisites

Knowledge of Functionalism, Talcott Parsons,

System Theory

Objectives

This module seeks to clarify the concept of

social system on the assumption of old
functionalist approach and the shift from
functionalism to structural functionalism.

Key words

Functionalism, System analysis, Sociology and

Science

FUNCTIONALISM, NEO-FUNCTIONALISM AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Robert King Merton

1. The Person
Robert King Merton (R.K. Merton) was born on July 4, 1910 in Philadelphia to a family of Jewish
immigrants from Eastern Europe. In Philadelphia the Library next to his home founded the base for
his ideas on science, literature, history and biographies etc. The emergence of new libraries,
educational institutions, art museums in the 1920s, enabled Merton to flourish in his academic
endeavours. Looking at his addiction towards books, G.E.Simpson, a Sociology instructor at
Temple College appointed Merton as a research assistant to study the public imagery of Blacks.
This triggered Mertons lifelong passion for social inquiry. The creation of Merton was a deliberate
influence of some of the profound social thinkers both at peer level as well as the teachers.
In the starting of his academic journey, P. A. Sorokin advised Merton to apply for graduate study at
Havard University and also made him his teaching and research assistant. Sorokin along with
Merton co-authored Social time and a chapter in Social and Cultural Dynamics. Besides Sorokin,
Talcott Parsons introduced Merton to the works of classical sociologists like Durkheim, Weber,
Marx and Simmel. Followed by the above two prominent social thinkers, Merton was introduced to
George Sarton who introduced him with history of science. However Merton spent a long span of
his life with mathematician-psychologists turned sociologist Paul F. Lazarsfield with whom he codirected the famous Bureau of Applied Social Research.

1.1 The Works

After his graduation in the year 1931, Merton won a fellowship at Harvard University and in 1936
defended his Doctoral Dissertation, Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century
England. Under the Supervision of George Sarton his doctoral work was published in book form
after two years. Mertons influential article, entitled The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive
Social Action was published in 1936. Following this in 1938 another article Social Structure and
Anomie was published. Most of his works reflect upon the role of the intellectuals in public
bureaucracy (1945), social responsibilities of technologists (1947), the role of applied social
sciences in the formation of policy (1949) etc. His theoretical works deal with deviance, anomie,
racial discrimination, marriage patterns, political machineries, propaganda and medical education.
Ideologically speaking his articles dealt with destruction by science in Nazi Germany and the
defence of scientific ethos. Some of his other works include, Civilisation and Culture (1936),
Social Structure and Anomie (1938), Recent French Sociology (1934), Durkheims Division of
Labour in Society (1934), Self Fulfilling Prophecy (1948), a series of lectures on Singletons and
Multiples in Scientific Discovery (1996), The Mathew Effect in Science: The Reward and
Communication System of Science (1968), Socially Expected Durations (1984), The Fallacy of
the Latest World:The Case of Pietism and Science (1984), etc.

1.2 Objective Consequenses and Subjective Dispositions:

In social sciences, there has always existed an ambiguity between subjective motives and objective
function of action. For Merton function involves the standpoint of the observer and not necessarily
that of the participant. Hence a social function refers to observable objective consequences and not
subjective dispositions. He believed that science develops cumulatively and incrementally by
standing on the shoulder of giants. There are mainly three directives of relating to the masters:
(a)

A Selective Approach: To derive the core ideas of the masters and remodelling of it to
avoid their blind alleys and mistakes.
(b)
A New Reading of the Masters: After critically analysing their ideas, reworking their
ideas by relating to new perspectives and approaches, discoveries and experiences etc.
(c)
Injuction of Critical Enrich: This refers to partly or entirely rejection of past ideas
which are found to be incomplete, deficient and obsolete.
The above approach goes into the establishment of Mertonian Theories. However, the question that
comes to a readers mind is that - who are/were those scholars /giants on the shoulder of which
Merton self consciously places himself. Lets analyse them.
In the list of his recognised ideals Durkheim is quoted more often than any other. His major theories,
analysis of social structure and other works basically looked similar to the works of Durkheim.
Unlike Durkheim in terms of common theoretical approaches (functional and structural analysis)
had given importance on objectivity/social facts. Mertonian idea of anomie and deviance is
basically influenced by the Durkheimian analogy of anomic suicide, for example. Marxian notions
of the structure and factors of human phenomena such as contradictions, conflict and circularities of
social processes influenced Merton. Mertons indebtness to Simmel becomes all the more apparent
in the context of conceptual analysis of patterned interactions, social visibility, observability, ingroup integration and inter-group conflicts, the completeness, openess, closedness of groups,
reference groups, etc.
Weberian theory of action, idea of valuefree sociology, the ideal type of bureaucratic organisation,
etc. are some points where Merton agreed upon. He was mostly influenced by the ideas of George
Sarton in science, its development, the operation of scientific community and specific techniques
for studying historical sources. Parsons influence on Mertons interest towards theoretical
considerations was very immense. Parsonian abstract theorisation was a subject of Mertons
persistent challenge, leading him to propose of the notion of middle-range theory in 1945.
Similarly Parsonian idea of Structural Functionalism was a subject of Mertons contribution to the
birth of his own dynamic functional analysis in 1949. Similarly Mertons focus on discursive,
conceptual clarification and elaboration went in parallel to Lazarsfelds emphasis on turning
concepts into operationalised, testable variables.They together brought about the study on
Friendship Formation (1954).

2. The System Analysis

The Durkeimian analysis is perceived to be the foundation of functionalism in Sociology, though
functionalism is traced back to the root of Darwinian idea of Organic Analogy. Durkheim
basically deals with the question of, how social order is possible and remains relatively stable? To
answer this he argued that society is more than the sum total of parts and each part is functional for
the stability of society as a whole. So the functionalists hold the view that social structure or the
organisation of society is more important than the individual. He sees society as a system: a set of
interconnected parts which together forms the whole. According to this theory the social system is
maintained by social concensus in which memebers of the society agree upon and work together to
achieve the best for society as a whole. Hence society is a self-regulated system of interrelated

elements with structured social relationships and observed regulations.

Comte viewed society as a functionally organised system with its parts and components in harmony
while Durkheim emphasised the primacy of the system over elements maintained by the social facts
which is the proper subject matter of sociology. For him through social facts it is possible to explain
the cause and consequences of functionalism. Similarly Malinowski treated social and cultural
systems as collective response to fundamental biological needs of individuals modifed by cultural
values. Radcliffe Brown on the other hand emphasised upon structured social relationships where
each elements functions for the maintainance and development of total structure.
However, after 1930s the functionalism as a theory got refined in the form of structural
functionalism that sees system within system. Merton is believed to be the founder of this thesis of
functionalism who identified new aspects of social life which are sociologically significant. He
coined the term neologism to designate them. He identified and highlighted earlier concepts and
terms throughout his works. His canons of contemporary sociology contains manifest-latent
function, dysfunctions, self-fulfilling prophecy, homophily- heterophily, status-set role-set,
opportunity structures, anticipatory socialisation, reference group behaviour, sociological
ambivalence etc.The clearcut understanding of these concepts helps better understanding of the
social system as a whole.
2.1. Meaning and Goal of Sociology
For Merton Sociology can be described as lucidly presenting claims to logically interconnected and
empirically confirmed propositions about the structure of society and its changes, the behaviour of
man within the structure and the consequences of that behaviour (Merton, 1968, p.70). After
describing the call of sociologists his next attempt was to focus on the goal of sociology as a stream.
For him in the large, Sociology is engaged in finding out how mans behaviour and fate are
affected, if not minutely governed, by his place within particular units and changing kinds of social
structure and culture (Merton, 1976, p.184). Hence from the above discussion the prime subject
matter of Sociology has the following aspects:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Genetic: How it came to be?

Functional: How it affects behaviour?
Static: How it operates?
Dynamic: How it changes?

Hence for Merton, Sociology is the study of social structure.Though Merton started the Functional
Analytical Approach, for him the central orientation of functionalism is the practice of interpreting
data by establishing their consequences for larger structure in which they are implicated (Merton,
1968, pp.100-1). However he has logically extended this functional analysis in the year 1975 in his
writings on structural analysis in Sociology. In this he explained that functional analysis specifies
the consequences of a social phenomenon for its differentiated structural context and structural
analysis searches for the determinants of the phenomenon in its structural context.

2.2. Criteria of Social Structure

Mertonian analysis of functionalism based on structural context has the following four defining
criterias:
(i)

Organised set of social relationship: the focus is on relating and linking various
components of society,
(ii) A pattern: a regular and repetitive character of social relation
(iii) The latent function: the idea of a deep, hidden and underlying level consequences

(manifest vs. latent function)

(iv) Structural context and structural constraints: the idea of constraining or facilitating
influences exerted by social structure on more concrete, more directly accessible social
phenomena and events (behaviour, beliefs, attitudes and motivations, etc.)
For Merton the fourth criterion is of great importance, he argues that human behaviour is a result
not merely of personal qualities, but of those in interaction with the patterned situations in which
the individual behaves. It is these social contexts which greatly affect the extent to which the
capacities of individuals are actually realised (Merton 1982a, p.174). Further, he argues that it
should not be taken only in a negetive sense rather it positively influences, facilitates, encourages
and stimulates certain choices by actors or agents (Merton 1968).
Mertonian structural analysis is best reflected in his work Anomie, that talks about the structural
condition of dissociation between uniform cultural demands of success and the differentiated
opportunities of success that results in innovations, ritualism, retreatism,rebellion, etc. depending
upon the wider structural context within which it appears.

2.3. Traits of Social Structure

The Mertonian flavour of social structure analysis consists of the following two traits:
(a)

Complex and multidimension: a plurality of components, elements such as statuses,

roles, role-set, status-set, norms, values, institutions, collectivities, groups etc. shaped
into various kinds of network and interlinkages,

(b)

Emphasis on asymmetrical relationship: because of social statuses, stratas,

organisations, communities there arises social conflicts leading to dysfunctions, strains
and tensions.

Hence Mertons core idea is to consider human individuals and their actions as structurally located,
anchored in the network of social relationship.There are two senses of structural changes that
Merton emphasises upon.

2.4. Senses of Social Structure

Merton proposes the distinction between the social structure in narrow senses and the cultural sense.
For him, the salient environment of individuals can be usefully thought of as involving the cultural
structure on the one hand and the social structure on the other (Merton 1968). For him cultural
structure comes to be characterised exclusively in normative terms such as networks of norms,
values, roles and institutions etc. Influenced by Weber and Marxian ideas on life chances and
vested interests, Merton has argued that social structure in the narrow sense has the notion of
opportunity structure. It is understood as a hierarchically differentiated access to resources,
facilities and valuables such as wealth, power and prestige.

2.5. Types of Structural Changes

For Merton, social structure generates changes both within the structure and changes of the
structure through cumulatively patterned choices in behaviour and the amplification of
dysfunctional consequences resulting from strains, conflicts and contradictions. Hence, through his
theory Merton incorporated structurally produced changes in and of social structures.The following

types of structural changes fall within the purview of Mertonian Dynamics:

(1)

The reproductive changes: changes that involve regular functioning of everyday

society consisting of the ongoing adaptive processes which in turn reproduce specified
states of a social structure. As a result, those changes keep them within the limits by
maintaining the structural identity concerned.

(2)

The transformation of structure: changes that disrupt the existing structure create a
new one in its place.

From the above analysis, it is clear that Mertons theory of social structure basically based upon the
assumptions that structural conflicts bring about transformations of social structure upto a point
when a new structure emerges and the structural conflict is reproduced in a new form. Hence he
talks about the amplification rather than compensation.

2.6. Mechanisms of Structure Building

The next question that strikes Merton in the process of theory building is what could be the
general mechanism of structure building? Hence he singles out the following general mechanisms
of structure building, such as:
a) Mechanism of accumulated dysfunctions: the accumulation of dysfunctions occurs when certain
structural elements are dysfunctional for a social system as a whole or some of its core elements.
The larger the number of such dysfunctional elements and the more dysfunctional each of them, the
more likely is the system to break down. Similarly it also happened that some elements are basically
functional for a social system but has some additional dysfunctional side effects.
But the question that comes to mind is regarding the relative weight of the accumulated
dysfunctional side effects. Merton argues that basic and empirically frequent case obtains when
certain structures are functional for certain groups or strata in society and dysfunctional for
others.The net outcome towards stability or change is then determined by the relative (comparative)
power of the various group benefited or affected by those patterned social arrangements. When they
come to possess sufficient power they introduce structural changes. The pressure of change depends
on the complex set of historical circumstances determining the relative functional significance of
the subsystems dysfunctionally affected. If the subsystems touch the subsystems core strategically
then change is likely.
b) Mechanism of accumulated innovations: Here Merton focuses on the crescive change of
normative structure (Sztompka 1996: 14). He argues even though certain norms are generally
legitimate, certain individuals find the norms too demanding for them, thereby evading norms.
When the evasion becomes more widespread, undertaken by a plurality of persons and repeated on
various occasions, public awareness is generated. But the belief that everybody does it along with
the tendency to imitate successful evaders leads to the patterning of evasions (Sztompka 1996: 14).
It is clearly now realised that institutionalised evasion fully applies through the granting of a
degree of legitimacy.This leads to the final phase of a structure building.

3. Function: Manifest, Latent and Dysfunctions

From the above analysis it is now clear that Mertonian functionalism questions basically the three
primary postulates of early functionalism, viz. the functional unity of social system, the functional

universality of social items and the indispensability of functional items for social systems.Rather for
Merton the components of social structure at both levels such as social structure proper and of
cultural structure are variously interrelated. Rejecting the earlier functional ideas of equilibrium,
consensus and harmony, Merton sees these ideas (integration) as problematic and contingent, not as
given. For him various kinds of strains, tensions, contradictions and conflicts in social structure are
very much functional and not pathological. They are normal, typical, and permanent.
Merton has adopted these two terms manifest and latent from Freud. Merton defines manifest
functions as those objective consequences contributing to the adjustment or adaptation of the
system which are intended and recognized by participants in the system. By contrast, latent
functions are those which are neither intended nor recognized (Merton 1949: 51). Thus, manifest
functions are objective consequences for a specified unit (person, subgroup, social or cultural
system) which contribute to its adjustment and are intended but latent functions are unintended and
often unrecognized consequences. The concept of latent functions extends beyond whether or not
behavior attained its purpose. It directs attention towards individual personalities involved in
behavior, and the persistence and continuity of larger group. As a result, sociologist will be
concerned with determining whether a practice instituted for a particular purpose does, in fact,
achieve this and also sociologist can be capable in examining the familiar (or planned) social
practice to determine the latent, unrecognized, functions.
Be it a manifest or latent function, it is the objective, observed consequences which makes for the
adaptation and adjustment of a given system. However, for Merton there are certain consequences
those lessen the adaptation and adjustment of the system, he uses the term Dysfunction to explain
this. To ascertain the causes and consequences of particular structure and process, Merton insists
that functional analysis begins with sheer description of individual and group activities. In
describing the patterns of interaction and activity among units under investigation, it will be
possible to discern clearly the social items to be subjected to functional analysis.They can also
provide a major due to the functions performed by such patterned activity. Hence the first step of
the investigator is to indicate the principal alternatives that are excluded by the dominance of a
particular pattern. The second analytical step beyond sheer description involves an assessment of
the meaning, mental and emotional significance of the activities of a group. Merton has also devised
alternative functions known as the substitutes which could instead deliver the sort of functions
advocated by Talcott Parsons in the form of functional pre-requisites. He termed them as
Functional Alternatives.
4. The Reference Group
For Merton a reference group is one to which an individual always refers in order to evaluate
his/her achievements, role performance, aspirations and ambitions. It is through this reference group
that an individual is judged. Membership groups as well as non-membership groups can be
reference groups. Human beings look at themselves not solely through the eyes of their group
members but also through the eyes of those who belong to other groups. Merton & Kitts (1950)
synthesized studies involving reference groups has offered detailed discussions on research related
to the field of reference group theory, introducing a new concept, anticipatory socialization. They
argued that anticipatory socialization occurs when individuals chose as a reference group, a nonmembership group, and began to socialize them to what they perceived to be the group's norms.
5. Middle Range Theory
Functional theories, according to Merton were value-neutral. There are no good or bad aspects,
just objective analysis. There may exist intended, manifest functions or there could be unintended,
latent consequences of action. In the year 1940s he used the term middle range theory to

overcome the problems inherent in the new sociological emphasis on abstraction. There was an
increasing desire among sociologists of the time for a unified sociological theory but which
ultimately became so broad as to render it empirically untestable. Merton argued that middle range
theories could be developed to test subsections of these high-level, abstract theories. Thus, middle
range theory was developed to guide the empirical investigation of higher-order theories. The goal
of this new level of theorizing was to generate the theories that were sufficiently abstract to allow
behavioral generalization, and yet was satisfactorily grounded in reality, so that they could be
empirically verified. To put it simply middle range theory is, at its most basic level, a set of theories
or propositions that bridge the gap between the empirical observation and broad, often abstract and
untestable, general or high-level theories. According to Merton theories of the middle range, lie
between the minor but necessary working hypotheses that evolve in abundance during day-to-day
research and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to develop a unified theory that will explain all the
observed uniformities of social behavior, social organization, and social change (Merton, 1968, p.
39).
The main features of Middle Range Theories are as follows:
(a)

they are not directly inferred from experience but rather themselves generate
inferences about experience:

Each of these theories provides an image that gives rise to inferences. To take but one case: if the
atmosphere is thought of as a sea of air, then, as Pascal inferred, there should be less air pressure on
a mountain top then at its base. The initial idea thus suggests specific hypotheses which are tested
by seeing whether the inferences from them are empirically confirmed. The idea itself is test for its
fruitfulness by noting the range of theoretical problems and hypotheses that allow one to identify
new characteristics of atmospheric pressure (Ibid. 40).
(b)

These inferences guide empirical inquiry:

Middle-range theory is principally used in sociology to guide empirical inquiry it is

intermediate to general theories of social systems which are too remote from particular classes
of social behavior, organization, and change to account for what is observed, and to those
detailed orderly description of particulars that are not generalized at all (Ibid. 39).
(c)

middle-range theories are limited in scope:

Middle-range theories involve abstractions, of course, but they are close enough to observed data
to be incorporated in propositions that permit empirical testing. Middle range theories deal with
delimited aspects of social phenomena One speaks of a theory of reference groups, of social
mobility, or role-conflict and of the formation of social norms just as one speak of a theory of prices,
a germ theory of disease, or a kinetic theory of gases (Ibid.:.39).
Hence, Merton has suggested that social sciences focus on theories of the middle range, rather than,
on the one hand, mere hypotheses with little explanatory power, or, on the other hand, high-level
all-encompassing theories that can be neither clearly defined nor empirically validated. Although
middle-range theories are not, at least in the usual circumstances, derived from more general
theories, yet they may have logical relationships to those broader theories.
6. Understanding Merton through Examples
Merton tells that sociology should not be committed to studying only functions roles of
Sociologists need to develop an empirical idea about functional, dysfunctional and non-functional
relationship between different social institutions in a given society. Hence he rejects out-rightly the
thesis that there is presence of a universal functional role of every institution in society. Rather the
subject matter of sociology should be the analysis of function, dysfunction and non-function. For

example, students go to the university to obtain academic degrees. They pass out of the university
with the degrees and subsequently enter the job market. Here the function of university is to supply
manpower to the working/service industry. But what people generally forget about is that university
is also a place for political socialisation- students contest elections, participate in campaigns based
on different kinds of issues. In return these help the students to grow up in the national political
system. Hence one must observe such implicit functional role of the educational system. Also one
will find a series of dysfunctional roles of university that includes when students are not going for
their own choice based course. They are carried away by the compulsion of market. Their interest in
a particular stream of knowledge is lost. Education becomes a pathological experience for the child.
This could result in disillusionment among children and their dropping out from the education
system. This way Merton highlights that every institution could have functional, dysfunctional
manifest and/or latent roles.
Merton indicates that crime should not be treated as dysfunctional phenomena. People generally
adhere to culturally prescriptive means to achieve goals; but in many cases they are not in a position
to accomplish their goals. There emerges a huge gap between commitment to culture and
accomplishment of goals. This dichotomy leads to the manifect function of criminality, hence
deviance is present in every society and the deviant itself have functional, dysfunctional and nonfunctional roles to play. Therefore while looking at deviance as an act we should not be jumping at
the conclusion that deviance has positive roles to play or negative roles to play. So deviance needs
to be studied in every possible detail. Merton took the American culture into account by saying that
it promotes hardwork and individualism and by adhering to these values, citizens can become rich
irrespective of their ethnicity, gender and age. America considers itself as an achievement-oriented
society. However, one can find that though many people are confined to prescriptive cultural norms,
all are not in a position to accomplish their goals. As a result the gap between the means and the end
emerges, giving rise to the acceleration of deviance and conflict in American society.
Further, Merton argues there are different categories of people. There are conformists who conform
to institutionalised prescriptions of norms and some of them accomplish the goal and others who are
deprived of feel that one day or the other their goals will be accomplished. But Merton argues if
their goals are not accomplished then its difficult to say that their behaviour is normal. The ritualists
keep on doing works primarily in a continuous basis following rules of law, going for education
again but never in a condition to accomplish their goal in a lifetime. They follow the rules in a
sytematic ritualistic manner but ultimately nothing comes to their hand and they stand as poor,
marginalised and deprived. They too are deviant as they are unable to establish a coresspondence
between means and end. There are the innovators who primarily use new methods, they stay away
from culturally prescriptive means, they place more importance on goals, manipulate rules and laws.
Drug indicts, corrupt politicians are of these categories.They ultimately become famous through
violation of rules and laws by creating a space for them in the public sphere. Society gives them
respect for their innovating ideas of goal accomplishment. In the fourth category are the retreatists
who think conforming to norms cannot directly lead them to accomplishment of goal as goal is
almost unattainable. So they reject both the goals and means. They become drug addicts, hippies
and lose faith in the systems. In its place, they create a kind of new culture for themselves. Finally,
there are those who think some of the rules and norms are not to be followed so they accept some
and reject the others. They partly accomplish some goals by bringing about new rules. They are
known as the rebellions. So what Merton tries to emphasise is that there is a gap between
institutionalised prescribed norms and culturally designed goals.This gives rise to the existence of
deviance.
To understand the dynamics of social change in India, Mertonian social theories help a lot. Talking
about civil society movement one can talk about the movement against corruption. It can be
fundamentally addressed by Mertons sociology of deviance.There is a way of addressing coruption
not by considering whether corruption is bad or good but the fundamental question is why

corruption persists in society? How it addresses the needs of people in different way? What are the
various dimensions of corruption? Also apart from corruption in India one can find various kinds of
abnormal activities (crime, human trafficking, child labour, bonded labour, poverty, etc.). All these
questions can best be explained by Mertons theory of deviance and social structure.
Merton was not concerned in developing grand theories, but rather paid importance on empirical
facts on the basis of synchronic data. According to Merton theories ought to explain the facts in a
systematic manner. Without theory facts cant have a systematic gathering of ideas. Hence theory
provides a broad framework in the light of which we can understand facts in an organised and
systematic manner.
Talking about reference group theory as mentioned above one can understand how an individual
shapes his everyday life, how a group negotiates with another group, how a community interlinks
itself with another community? We follow them in a distictive manner keeping in mind that oneday
or the other we can reach into their position. As an example one can think of Jawaharlal Nehru who
initiated development programme for India. He considered the developed countries as the point of
reference by keeping multiple reference groups, borrowed ideas from Soviet Russia, capitalist
America and consolidated them as per needs of the indigenous people of India. Nehru and
Mahalanobis in turn brought out the idea of mixed economy as the Indias root of development.
For Merton every individual lives in hope, ambition and believes that success is achievable in life.
So the individual tries to find out a group of individual famous for their excellence. Hence different
groups of people are acting as our different reference point. Also, within a particular reference
group there may be multiple individuals. Without becoming a member, people follow the individual
within that group. Systematically they follow the behaviour of that individual hoping that in future
they will fit into that group the individual referred belonged to. This is called as anticipatory
socialisation. Similarly, even though Gandhiji is dead many people consider Gandhian philosophy
as their point of reference. Young people don Gandhi kurta, slippers and cap. This kind of
behaviour can be a menifestation of anticipatory form of socialisation.This helps them in becoming
a Gandhian leader and follower in future time. Likewise many children imitate the behaviour of
parents which G.H. Mead argued is a form of anticipatory socialisation. Hence anticipatory
socialisation enables the individual to experience the social mobility to negotiate with the future
time changing positions in an effective manner.
Lets talk about the negetive aspects of anticipatory socialisation. For example an individual prone
to drug addiction often justifies her/his addiction by highlighting the ability of drugs to generate
experiences of transcendence, self confidence etc. This celebration by the drug addicts often entices
non-addicts into the gang of drug users. This is negative reference group.
Similarly talking about economic success, it can be observed few people are economically
successful; but most of them have violated rules of law. They use different kinds of means to
convert black money into white money and become extremely successful in life. However a person
who strictly follows the rule of law does not become successful in life. When society celebrates
those people who are the big achievers the conformists treat them as the point of reference. As a
result they deviate from the normal path. They started violating the rule of the law and strive for
easy way to success. That is how one criminal creates two more criminals, followed by many more.
So, Merton argued that in every society there exist reference groups. They may be good professors,
drug addicts, black money keepers, good journalists and nationalist leaders. Therefore whom one
takes as the point of reference is of importance. One shapes his behaviour by taking them as their
point of reference. Defines his personality and determines his course of future experience. As there
are the presence of both positive and negative reference groups, some becomes conformists and
others kinds of deviants. Hence being the student of Sociology our prime aim should be to
understand how these reference groups make and shape personalities?

While talking about the reference group one should keep in mind that there are normative reference
groups too. Norms, values, customs of particular values are appreciated. We never want to become
a part of that reference group but we appreciate them as worthy. For example the brahmins in
traditional India used to take bath early in the morning and performed series of ritual performances,
giving importance on bodily purity. But there are many who may not be intereseted to become a
Brahmin and follow the same kind of practices and regulations .So non-violence, morality fraternity,
humanism are the norms propagated by Gandhiji. Many people follow these norms, but that does
not mean that all of them become Gandhians.Without putting Gandhian cap, Kurta or participating
in the nationalist movement they are accepting and internalising into this kind of Gandhian ideology.
Also, in every society there are present comparative reference groups. They are basically the great
social activists.They have kept different persons as their point of reference. They try to imitate their
behaviour and accordingly shape their personality. Also we can have referent power an important
one to understand the dynamics of politics in contemporary India. In India the kin of people in
powerful positions bask in the halo of their power. The relatives empower themselves with the
power of the politician, he becomes the referent power. They exclaim my father is this and this, my
uncle is this and this to gain access to further benefits. These are the problems Merton highlights in
his theory of reference group.There is a comparative advantage that a member of particular group
find in other group.

7. Summary
A few important points learnt in this chapter are summarised as follows:
Most of his works reflect upon the role of the intellectuals in public bureaucracy, social
responsibilities of technologists, and the role of applied social sciences in the formation of
policy. His theoretical works deal with deviance, anomie, racial discrimination, marriage
patterns, political machineries, propaganda and medical education.
For Merton function involves the standpoint of the observer and not necessarily that of the
participant. Hence a social function refers to observable objective consequences and not
subjective dispositions.
Merton is believed to be the founder of this thesis of functionalism who identified new aspects
of social life which are sociologically significant. He coined the term neologism to designate
them.
The prime subject matter of Sociology has the following a Genetic, Functional, Static and
Dynamic components.
Hence for Merton, Sociology is the study of social structure.
Mechanisms of Structure Building consists of a) Mechanism of accumulated dysfunctions and
b) Mechanism of accumulated innovations
The different types of functions are: Manifest, Latent and Dysfunctions. Manifest functions are
those objective consequences contributing to the adjustment or adaptation of the system which
are intended and recognized by participants in the system. By contrast, latent functions are
those which are neither intended nor recognized. For Merton there are certain consequences
those lessen the adaptation and adjustment of the system, he uses the term dysfunction to
explain this.
The main features of Middle Range Theories are as follows: a) they are not directly inferred
from experience but rather themselves generate inferences about experience; b) These
inferences guide empirical inquiry; and c) middle-range theories are limited in scope:
Merton argues there are different categories of people. There are conformists, ritualists,
innovators, retreatists, rebellions.