Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2015: Turbine Technical Conference and Exposition

GT2015
June 15 19, 2015, Montral, Canada

GT2015-42620

DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS OF A 6 KW HIGH-SPEED MICRO

GAS TURBINE PROTOTYPE

Aki Gronman
, Juha Honkatukia, Petri Sallinen, Jari Backman, Antti Uusitalo

Teemu Turunen-Saaresti and Ahti Jaatinen-Varri

Laboratory of Fluid Dynamics
Institute of Energy
Lappeenranta University of Technology
Lappeenranta, Finland
Email: gronman@lut.fi

ABSTRACT
Small portable electricity generating systems are suitable in
remote locations where the access by vehicles is restricted or not
even possible. These kind of places include for example catastrophic areas after earthquakes or tropical cyclones. Such machines can also be used as auxiliary power units in motor or
sail boats. Gas turbine based electricity generation systems offer
a good alternative for typical engine-generator units which are
characterized by lower specific powers. It is suggested that the
power to weight ratio of a 6 kW micro gas turbine can be more
than eight times higher than that of the corresponding enginegenerator unit. The biggest drawback is the higher specific fuel
consumption; however, by introducing a recuperator, the specific
fuel consumption can be improved.
In this article, the design process and experiments of a 6
kW micro gas turbine prototype are described and discussed in
detail. The built non-recuperated prototype is based on a commercial, small jet engine originally designed to give thrust to
radio controlled model airplanes. The jet nozzle of the jet engine
was replaced by an axial power turbine which was directly connected to a small, high speed permanent magnet generator. The
experiments showed the potential of the prototype.

cos electric generator power factor, [-]

m mass, [kg]
N rotational speed, [rpm, Hz]
P power, [W]
qm mass flow, [kg/s]
R degree of reaction, [-]
Tt,in turbine inlet temperature, [K]
V volume, [m3 ]
effectiveness, [-]
efficiency, [-]
pressure ratio, [-]
fuel power, [W]
work coefficient, [-]
Subscripts
c compressor
e electric
gen generator
mech mechanical
t turbine
t-s total to static
Abbreviation
MGT Micro Gas Turbine
PWR Power to Weight Ratio
FEM Finite Element Method

NOMENCLATURE
A heat transfer area, [m2 ]

Address

all correspondence to this author.

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TABLE 1: GAS GENERATOR DESIGN VALUES.

INTRODUCTION
Gas turbine based electricity generation systems offer a good
alternative for typical reciprocating engine-generator units which
are characterized by low power to weight ratios. In addition, gas
turbines can use various fuels, represent high reliability, and low
maintenance costs [1, 2]. It has been pointed out that the market potential of micro-scale gas turbines is uncertain, and it has
to be defined whether the potential is in large volume applications or in more specific applications [2]. The largest potential
in using micro gas turbines is identified to be in different industrial sectors, remote off-grid applications, and in burning waste
or biomass [2]. On the other hand, small portable electricity generating systems based on micro gas turbines (MGT) are suitable
in locations where the access is restricted or is not even possible
by vehicles. Such places include for example catastrophic areas
after earthquakes or tropical cyclones. Alternatively, they can be
also used as auxiliary power units in motor or sail boats.
Only few applications are currently available in the few kW
power scale. Visser et al. [3] presented a conceptual design of a
recuperated 3 kW micro gas turbine for combined heat and power
production for domestic applications. They proposed the use of
existing automotive turbochargers as an opportunity to reduce
the cost of micro gas turbines, due to the very large production
volumes of automotive turbochargers. Their test demonstrated a
power output of 2.7 kW and electric efficiency of 12.2%. In a
more recent paper [4], the efficiency of the system was reported
to have increased from 12.2% to 17.2% and the power output
from 2.7 kW to 3.4 kW. These performance improvements were
mainly achieved by redesigning and modifying the compressor,
turbine, combustor, and the recuperator. A recent study of Heshmat et al. [5] showed that a small turbogenerator can yield 8.8
kW power with an estimated efficiency of 12% without a recuperator.
Head and Visser [6] studied the size-related loss mechanisms in small-scale turbomachines. Their results indicated that
the obtainable efficiency reduces significantly when a microturbine is scaled down from about 30 kW power level. Their results
indicated that at power levels below 10 kW the efficiency drop
becomes very steep when scaling down the size of the turbomachinery. This loss of efficiency can be related to the Reynolds
number effects [7], which decrease the performance of small
scale turbomachinery in comparison with larger ones.
In addition to the design and optimization of the turbomachinery components, the use and design of the recuperator
has a significant impact on the gas turbine system performance,
weight, and cost. McDonald [8] presented a compact primary
surface recuperator concept aiming to provide cost effective recuperators for micro gas turbines by using all-welded heat exchanger construction. In a more recent paper [9], the development of recuperator materials was discussed in order to increase
the efficiency of micro-gas turbines. The temperature limitations
in the turbine and in the recuperator are the main reasons for

Tt,in [K]

c [-]

c [%]

t [%]

mech [%]

1011

2.67

65

75.3

95

the limited efficiency, but the use of ceramic recuperators could

permit to increase the efficiencies in the future. In addition, the
use of heat recovery systems have been proposed to increase the
obtainable efficiency of micro-gas turbine systems [10].
If the fuel has to be transported and, in some cases, also
stored on-site such as in sail boats, the total weight of fuel and
electricity generation unit should be examined coupled. The
overall time of operation is therefore an essential parameter for
the applicability of different energy generation options.
In this study, the design process and experiments of a
portable 6 kW micro gas turbine prototype are described and discussed. The design presented here is based on a commercially
available jet-engine, when only the power turbine and the generator has to be designed and built. First, the design of MGT
components is presented and the performance is modeled for several scenarios with and without a recuperator and is compared to
available designs. Second, the experimental setup is presented
and the performance of the unit is analysed.

HIGH-SPEED MICRO GAS TURBINE

The process diagrams of the studied micro gas turbines are
shown in Figs. 1 (a) and (b). The basic design consists of a separate gas turbine (i.e. a gas generator including the compressor,
combustor, and the turbine) and a power turbine that is connected
to a high-speed electric generator without a gear box. Additionally, the applicability of a recuperator that heats the compressed
air with power turbine exhaust gas is evaluated.
Jet engine tests
The whole design process was started by first measuring the
jet engine with a jet nozzle in a separate test rig including the
thrust measurements. The fuel consumption, air mass flow, and
the pressure and the temperature at the jet nozzle were measured.
These measurements were then used as a basis for a detailed
design of the power turbine and the generator. Also the input
(shown in Table 1) for MGT calculations with and without a recuperator are based on these measurements.
Power turbine design
The design values of the power turbine are shown in Table 2. The turbine power is approximated to be 6.1 kW with a
stage total to static pressure ratio of 1.26. The efficiency was

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Net electric efficiency [%]

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
40

50
60
70
80
Power turbine isentropic efficiency [%]

90

(a)

FIGURE 2:

INFLUENCE OF POWER TURBINE EFFICIENCY ON NET ELECTRIC EFFICIENCY.

mains for an additional improvement for the turbine efficiency if

a radial turbine is designed instead. This potential is illustrated
in Fig. 2, where the influence of power turbine efficiency on the
net electric efficiency is evaluated. It suggests that a ten percentage points increase in power turbine efficiency will increase the
net electric efficiency less than one percentage point. In case of
a radial turbine, the achievable electric efficiency would be over
7% according to the radial turbine efficiency predictions of Rohlik [13], where the isentropic efficiency would be over 85%.
Generator design
The electric generator was a four-pole permanent magnet
generator with the design electric efficiency of 97 percent (see
Table 3). The nominal power of the generator was 6 kW at 40000
rpm nominal speed. Generator cooling was designed so that the
incoming airflow cools the generator windings and the rotor to
limit the temperature of the permanent magnets. The generator
rotor included 12 permanent magnets that were assembled under
a carbon fibre sleeve.

(b)

FIGURE 1: SCHEMATIC PROCESS DIAGRAM OF THE GAS

TURBINE (a) WITHOUT AND (b) WITH A RECUPERATOR.

calculated by the methods of Traupel [11] and Kacker and Okapuu [12], which predicted the isentropic efficiency to be 76.0 and
79.3 percent, respectively. The design chosen here was a 50%
reaction turbine to provide good off-design characteristics and a
simple design. The specific speed of the turbine was 0.73, which
means that typically the turbine should be a radial inflow type.
However, for the MGT studied here, the use of a radial turbine
would require more complex ducting between the gas generator
turbine and the power turbine. For this reason an axial turbine
was chosen for the prototype design. Therefore, a potential re-

Mechanical design and rotordynamics

Bearings of the power turbine were made with two angular
ball bearings. The bearing close to the power turbine was aircooled without an external blower. A detailed description of the
bearing cooling solution is given by Saari [14].
FEM simulations were carried out for the power turbine to
simulate the rotordynamic behaviour. First, the free-free situation without bearings was modeled. This simulation predicted
the first critical bending shape speed to be about 1140 Hz. This

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TABLE 2: POWER TURBINE DESIGN PARAMETERS.

P [kW]

[-]

Tt,in [K]

R [-]

ts [-]

ts [%]

N [rpm]

qm [kg/s]

6.1

864.3

0.5

1.26

76.0-79.3

40000

0.16

TABLE 3: GENERATOR DESIGN PARAMETERS.

11

x 10

gen [%]

Pgen [kW]

N [rpm]

cos

97

40000

Damped natural frequencies [rpm]

10
9
8
7

Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 5
Mode 6

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

2
3
Rotational speed [rpm]

5
4

x 10

FIGURE 4: WHIRL SPEED MAP OF THE POWER TURBINE

(a)

WITH BALL BEARINGS.

FIGURE 3: ROTOR-BEARING ANALYSIS OF THE POWER

TURBINE WITH BALL BEARINGS. THE FIRST BENDING

CRITICAL SPEED IS ABOUT 1900 Hz.

Comparison with other designs

As stated before, the overall weight of the MGT and fuel is
crucial when evaluating the applicability of the unit in comparison with the engine-generator units in some special locations.
This is illustrated in Fig. 5, which shows how the specific fuel
consumption is affected by the operation time and the type of
electricity generation unit. The weight of the new MGT is approximated to be 30 kg based on the prototype. It has been
approximated that by designing the MGT housing to be more
compact, the overall weight could be considerably decreased to
approximately 20 kg. When compared to the two commercially
available engine-generator units, the new MGT seems to be feasible in terms of the total weight when the operating time is less
than 20 hours. In practice, this limits the applicability of the
MGT to applications where the usage time is small.
Since the total weight of the MGT and fuel is a limiting factor for the applicability of the unit, it is beneficial to evaluate
different ways to improve the performance. Here, a recuperator
is considered as an option to improve the overall unit efficiency.
It will increase the weight of the unit, but the net effect depends
on the overall efficiency improvement. The examined recupera-

was also verified by performing an impulse hammer test for the

rotor, which gave a natural frequency of 1090 Hz. After this, also
the bearings were included in the FEM simulation (see Fig. 3),
where the stiffness of the bearing was varied with speed. This
simulation predicted that with the bearings included, the first
bending critical speed is about 1900 Hz. This is much higher than
the nominal speed of the power turbine 667 Hz, which makes the
rotor shaft design subcritical regarding the first bending critical
speed. Also damped vibration modes were studied, as presented
in Fig. 4. The simulation predicts the first and the second critical speeds due to synchronous unbalance excitation to be 18400
rpm (Mode 1) and 27000 rpm (Mode 2), respectively. The latter
is forward synchronous critical speed, which is recommended to
be avoided. Mode 3 and Mode 4 are predicted to be slightly over
the operating speed range, 0 rpm40000 rpm.

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Total weight [kg]

500

60

MGT 6 kW
EngineGenerator 6 kW
EngineGenerator 5.6 kW

50
Recuperator weight [kg]

600

400
300
200
100
0
0

m/A=1.2 kg/m2
2
m/A=1.6 kg/m
2
m/A=2.0 kg/m

40
30
20
10

10

20

30
40
50
Operating time [h]

60

70

0
0

80

0.2

0.4
0.6
Effectiveness []

0.8

0.8

(a)

FIGURE 5: INFLUENCE OF THE OPERATING TIME ON

THE COMBINED WEIGHT OF ENERGY PRODUCTION

UNIT AND FUEL.

30

Recuperator volume [dm3]

25

tor is a plate heat exchanger where a linearily changing pressure

loss for the air and exhaust gas sides as a function of effectiveness was assumed (maximum pressure losses about 3 kPa on both
sides).
Figure 6 (a) illustrates the influence of the recuperator effectiveness on the weight of the heat exchanger for different mass
to area ratios. The figure shows that the additional weight from
the recuperator increases rapidly while employing effectiveness
that are higher than 0.6. The increase of the effectiveness also influences the recuperator volume as shown in Fig. 6 (b). If 1000
m2 /m3 is used as a design value for the heat transfer area density
of the recuperator, the volume of the recuperator will experience
a rapid increase for effectiveness higher than 0.6. These results
indicate that in order to maintain the portability of the unit by
limiting the additional weight to 5 kg10 kg, the effectiveness
should not exceed 0.6.
Figure 7 presents how the effectiveness influences the combined weight of the MGT and fuel during the operation. The
positive influence of the recuperator is well visible in the figure;
it suggests that in order to have at least 10 hours more usage time
compared to engine-generator units, the effectiveness should be
0.4. It can be approximated that the additional weight due to
the recuperator would be less than 6 kg for = 0.5 and approximately 8 kg for = 0.6. It is therefore suggested that if a recuperator is used for the studied MGT, the effectiveness should be
chosen close to 0.5.
The influence of the recuperator on the electric efficiency is
illustrated in Fig. 8. In comparison with the existing MGT designs, the experimental results of Visser et al. [3] have a 6.28%

A/V=1000 m2/m3
A/V=3000 m2/m3
A/V=5000 m2/m3

20
15
10
5
0
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Effectiveness []

(b)

FIGURE 6: ESTIMATED RECUPERATOR WEIGHT (a) AND

VOLUME (b) WITH VARYING EFFECTIVENESS.

electric efficiency without a recuperator, which is well comparable with the LUT design, where e = 6.5%. The cycle equipped
with a recuperator ( = 0.8) has an electric efficiency of 12.2%
[3] (measured Tt,in = 1334 K and c = 2.69). In the LUT design,
the electric efficiency with = 0.8 is 12.7%, and with lower suggested = 0.5, the electric efficiency is 9.1%. The power to
weight ratio of the LUT MGT is 0.19 kW/kg, and if the expected
weight of the optimized unit is considered, the PWR can be increased to a value of 0.28 kW/kg without a recuperator. The
weight optimized PWR with a recuperator ( = 0.5) is about 0.2

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600

Total weight [kg]

500
400

are 680x360x310 mm3 , and it weights approximately 30 kg. The

gas generator rotates close to 200 000 rpm, and it is based on a
commercially available jet engine of a radio controlled model
airplane from which the jet nozzle has been removed. During the measurements, the electrical power is measured with a
power analyzer and the electrical load is adjusted by connecting
a proper amount of halogen lights with the maximum capacity of
6.5 kW (each halogen has 500 W electric load). Before the electrical power is fed to the halogen lights, the current is rectified.
Temperatures before and after the power turbine are measured
with K-type thermoelements. Additionally, two coil temperatures in the electric generator were measured with Pt100 temperature sensors. Bearing temperature was also measured with
Pt100 to avoid too high temperatures in the bearing area. The rotational speed of the power turbine was measured with a separate
speed transmitter. Fuel (Kerosene JET-A1) consumption of the
gas generator was measured with scales and manual time keeping. A pressure tapping was used to measure the static pressure
before the power turbine and the static pressure after the turbine
was assumed to be equal with the laboratory pressure.

=0
=0.2
=0.4
=0.5
=0.6
EngineGenerator 6 kW
EngineGenerator 5.6 kW

300
200
100
0
0

10

20

30
40
50
Operating time [h]

60

70

80

FIGURE 7: INFLUENCE OF THE OPERATING TIME ON

THE COMBINED WEIGHT OF ENERGY PRODUCTION

UNIT AND FUEL.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The performance of the prototype is plotted in Fig. 10 (a)
and Fig. 10 (b) showing the measured values for the electric
power and efficiency, respectively. The electric efficiency is defined as

18

Net electric efficiency [%]

16
14
12
10

e = Pe /.

(1)

During the first test run, it was noticed that the electrical
power measured from the inverter was clearly below the design
value as shown in Fig. 10 (a). When the reasons for this were
studied, it was found out that the back pressure caused by the
power turbine was not as high as designed. This was found to be
due to the throat of the power turbine being larger than designed.
In order to improve the performance of the MGT, the throat was
decreased by narrowing the flow channel in the spanwise direction. The results after this modification are presented in Fig. 10
(a) as the Modified case. As can be noticed, this had a positive influence on the electric power. However, the back pressure
caused by the power turbine was still below the calculated value,
and an additional throat size reduction would be needed. This
difference between the designed and measured backpressure is
illustrated as static to static pressure ratio in Fig. 11 for different
rotational speeds for the modified case in comparison with the
design value. It is also noticeable that the power turbine did not
reach the design rotational speed. This was also concluded to be
due to the off-design operation of the gas generator during the
experiments. The peak efficiency is about 2.5%, which is clearly
lower than the target value of 5.9%.

6
4
2
0
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Effectiveness []

0.8

FIGURE 8: THE EFFECT OF EFFECTIVENESS ON THE TO-

TAL ELECTRIC EFFICIENCY.

kW/kg, which is higher than the previously commercially available recuperated 2.6 kW MGT [15] had (PWR=0.04 kW/kg and
e = 6.1% with estimated Tt,in = 1087 K and c = 3.35).

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The non-recuperated micro gas turbine prototype is shown
in Fig. 9 (a) and Fig. 9 (b), the outer dimensions of the unit

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2500

Original
Modified

Electric power [W]

2000

1500

1000

500

(a)
0
0.5

1.5
2
2.5
3
Power turbine rotational speed [rpm]

3.5

4
4

x 10

(a)
3.5

Electric efficiency [%]

(b)

Original
Modified

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5

FIGURE 9: MGT PROTOTYPE LAYOUT (a) AND THE BUILT

PROTOTYPE (b).

1.5
2
2.5
3
Power turbine rotational speed [rpm]

3.5

4
4

x 10

(b)

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

The potentiality of a micro gas turbine operated with a small
gas turbine and a separate power turbine connected to a highspeed permanent magnet electric generator was studied. A special attention was given on the applicability of the MGT in catastrophic areas and boat applications where the special requirement
is portability in terms of light weight and small physical size.
The weight of the MGT cannot be investigated alone without the
fuel consumption if the feasibility on the above mentioned applications is evaluated; therefore, the simulations are conducted
for the overall weight of the MGT and fuel in comparison with
available engine-generator units.
The calculations indicate that the simplest design without a
recuperator can produce approximately 6 kW electric power having electric efficiency of 6.5 percent, which is comparable with

FIGURE 10: THE MEASURED ELECTRIC POWER (a) AND

ELECTRIC EFFICIENCY (b) OF THE MGT.

some of the previous prototypes. In comparison with the enginegenerator units, the studied MGT without a recuperator seems to
be a feasible choice in terms of the overall weight (MGT+fuel)
if the operation time is less than 20 h. The power to weight ratio
of the MGT is 0.19 kW/kg, which can be considered an acceptable value. The maximum achievable PWR would be approximately 0.28 kW/kg without a recuperator. The electric efficiency
of MGT can be improved by adding a recuperator, but this will
increase the weight of the unit. It is suggested that a recuperator with = 0.5 can be included in a portable MGT and still
avoid excessive increase in the weight. The potentiality of the

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1.3

[5] Heshmat, H., Walton II, J. F., and Hunsberger, A., 2014.
Oil-Free 8 kW High-Speed and High Specific Power Turbogenerator. In Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo, June
16-20, Dusseldorf, Germany., GT2014-27306.
[6] Head, A. J., and Visser, W. P. J., 2012. Scaling 3-36kW
Microturbines. In Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo
2012, June 11-15, Copenhagen, Denmark, GT2012-68685.
[7] Casey, M. V., 1985. The Effects of Reynolds Number on
the Efficiency of Centrifugal Compressor Stages. Journal
of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 107, April,
pp. 541 548.
[8] McDonald, C. F., 2000. Low-Cost Compact Primary
Surface Recuperator Concept for Microturbines. Applied
Thermal Engineering, 20, pp. 471497.
[9] McDonald, C. F., 2003. Recuperator Considerations for
Future Higher Efficiency Microturbines. Applied Thermal
Engineering, 23, pp. 14631487.
[10] Invernizzi, C., Iora, P., and Silva, P., 2007. Bottoming
Micro-Rankine Cycles for Micro-Gas Turbines. Applied
Thermal Engineering, 27, pp. 100110.
[11] Traupel, W., 1966.
Thermische Turbomaschinen,
Vol. I - Thermodynamisch-stromungstechnische Berechnung. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
[12] Kacker, S. C., and Okapuu, U., 1982. A Mean Line Prediction Method for Axial Flow Turbine Efficiency. Journal
of Engineering for Power, 104, pp. 111119.
[13] Rohlik, H. E., 1968. Analytical Determination of Radial
Inflow Turbine Design Geometry for Maximum Efficiency.
Tech. Rep. NASA TN D-4384, NASA.
[14] Saari, E., 2012. Thermodynamical and Mechanical Modelling Analysis of High-Speed Turbomachine Rotors. PhD
thesis, Lappeenranta University of Technology.
[15] Monroe, M. A., 2003. A Market and Engineering Study
of a 3-Kilowatt Class Gas Turbine Generator. Masters
thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Modified
Design

Pressure ratio []

1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.5

1.5
2
2.5
3
Power turbine rotational speed [rpm]

3.5

4
4

x 10

FIGURE 11: THE MEASURED STATIC TO STATIC PRES-

SURE RATIO OF THE POWER TURBINE.

gas-generator driven power turbine-generator MGT was also experimentally demonstrated to prove the concept. Due to the problems in the power turbine design, the electric power of the MGT
was below the targeted value.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The study was funded by Tekes (the Finnish Funding
Agency for Innovation) during the BOAT-MGT-project. The efforts during the completion of the project by Professor Jaakko
Larjola and Dr. Esa Saari are greatly acknowledged.

REFERENCES
[1] Pilavachi, P. A., 2000. Power Generation with Gas Turbine
Systems and Combined Heat and Power. Applied Thermal
Engineering, 20, pp. 14211429.
[2] Pilavachi, P. A., 2002. Mini- and Micro-Gas Turbines for
Combined Heat and Power. Applied Thermal Engineering, 22, pp. 20032014.
[3] Visser, W. P. J., Shakariyants, S. A., and Oostveen, M.,
2010. Development of a 3kW Micro Turbine for CHP Applications. In Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2010:
Power for Land, Sea and Air, June 14-18, Glasgow, UK,
GT2010-22007.
[4] Visser, W. P. J., Shakariyants, S., de Later, M. T. L.,
Haj Ayed, A., and Kusterer, K., 2012. Performance Optimization of a 3kW Microturbine for CHP Applications.
In Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2012, June 11-15,
Copenhagen, Denmark, GT2012-68686.

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