Thomas

Clark
Biology 1551

Effects of Antioxidants in Anti-Aging

Every aerobic organism on this planet contains within them many

different chemical processes, most occurring at fast rates and on a constant
basis. For example, the conversion of oxygen gas to carbon dioxide gas as
we inhale and exhale. Often times during a chemical reaction, unwanted
products become expelled through a natural course. The human body is built
to withstand the tests of time for the most part; however as we age the
trillions of cells in our bodies begin breaking down and do not function as
optimally, increasing the risk for a cell to produce free radicals (Fisher 2006).
An example of formation of free radicals is through the natural chemical
reaction of converting food into energy for the cell such as ATP; the
byproducts of these conversions are what allow for free radical formation
(Domenico et al. 2007). Though there are many different kinds of
antioxidants, they all work to achieve the same goal, which is to eliminate as
many harmful radical molecules from the body as possible. The role of
antioxidants in relation to aging is a very important one. Antioxidants are
crucial in controlling the amount of damaging free radicals in the body.
Antioxidants are potent eliminators of oxidative damage in cells (Fisher

2006). The promotion of antioxidants in the role of anti-aging is well founded

and documented; the most efficient way to obtain antioxidants is naturally
through diet. Artificial antioxidant supplements, on the other hand, have not
been researched extensively enough to determine the benefits they may
possess and is therefore unethical to promote such products. In order to
understand the tremendous health benefits of antioxidants, one must first
consider what an antioxidant and what free radicals exactly are.
Antioxidants are the protagonists in the story of cellular damage and
aging. Antioxidants, or anti-oxygen, first became known in the 19th and early
20th century and were researched extensively for their benefits in the
industrial world such as the corrosion of metal and other oxidation reactions
(Fisher 2006). For the past half century, more than 300 theories have been
proposed to sum up the aging process, with very few favored results (Masaki
2010). In 1956, scientist Denham Harman theorized that free radicals are
related to the aging process, this was later revised in 1972 by Harman to
include that mitochondria were the initiators of the free radicals occurring in
cells; his theory still holds strong today and is accepted by most
gerontologists (Domenico et al. 2007). Throughout this past century, this
field of science has progressed tremendously and the processes in which
antioxidants are used in the body are more understood than they ever were.
The role that antioxidants have in the body is an important one, and to fully
understand how they work one must first understand what antioxidants are
trying to eliminate; free radicals.

A free radical is an atom such as oxygen that has unstable electrons

and thus can cause all types of havoc on the bodys cells by stealing any
electron that it can and pairing with anything it can. Free radicals exist in
many forms, for example hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen can all be free
radicals, though the most important in aerobic organisms is oxygen
(Antioxidants 2009). Though most oxygen molecules pair with other
chemicals to perform vital functions in the cell it is a rogue singlet O2
molecule that can cause oxidative damage to cells, creating a free radical
chain reaction that cannot be broken until halted by antioxidants (Held
2010). Reactive oxygen species, or ROS for short, are byproducts which are
made during mitochondrial electron transport; ROS is used to give a number
of reactive oxygen molecules and free radicals produced from molecular
oxygen (Held 2010).

Atomic oxygen has two unpaired electrons in separate

orbits in its outer electron shell. This allows for oxygen to become
susceptible to radicalization. A few examples of ROS include: superoxide,
hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, hydroxyl ion, and nitric oxide (Held
2010). ROS can also be generated by some enzymatic reactions such as
NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase, on top of being produced as a
byproduct of the respiratory chain reaction in the mitochondria (Masaki
2010). ROS are vital to a cells function, they perform such functions as cell
signaling and bacterial defense (Domenico et al. 2007). For example, Nitric
Oxide (NO), has been shown to serve as a cell to cell messenger, responsible
for producing such effects as lowering blood pressure (Held 2010). High

levels of ROS in the cells can cause oxidative damage to surrounding tissues,
cause cancer or mutations, attack the instructions coded in a strand of DNA,
and increase the rate of the aging process (Antioxidants 2009).
A high level of ROS in the cell can lead to what is called a prooxidative state, thus allowing for free radicals to exist, this is known as
oxidative stress (Held 2010). Free radicals can be generated from a host of
reactions including UV exposure, food consumption, air pollution and alcohol
consumption (Held 2010). Oxygen radicals generated in cells and the
oxidative modification of biological molecules such as lipids and proteins
have been held responsible for the aging and death of all living things
(Harman 1956). Physical activity, emotional stress, smoking and drinking can
all catalyze the production of free radicals in the body (Iannitti et al. 2011). In
order to effectively neutralize these unstable oxygen electrons, the body had
to evolve over time an antioxidant defense system that neutralizes and halts
free radical damage in the body (Domenico et al. 2007).
Antioxidants are the bodys natural defense system against oxygen
radicals and other free radicals. There are hundreds, even thousands of
different antioxidants; some are enzymes and others are minerals and
vitamins (Antioxidants 2009). As a oxygen radical is rogue in a cell,
antioxidants work to donate an electron without becoming electron
scavengers themselves (Halliwell 2012). Every time a free radical is
neutralized, the antioxidant stops functioning due to its electron loss, this is
why the body needs to constantly supply its antioxidant reserves.

Antioxidants block the process of oxidation by reducing free radicals, this is

called a oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox for short. As antioxidants
donate an electron it becomes oxidized in the process, indicating it as a
reducing agent (Masaki 2007). Free radicals are a part of redox molecules
and can become harmful if they do not stabilize by attaching to a molecule
or antioxidant, thus creating unsatisfied free radicals is what creates the host
of problems as explained earlier (Antioxidants 2009).
Antioxidants work in many ways. One example would be: as a radical
steals an electron, a second radical is formed and then a third and so forth,
the process continues until it is stabilized by a chain-breaking antioxidant
such as vitamin C or E. However, the effectiveness of any antioxidant in the
body is dependent on which free radical it is, where it is generated, and
the damage it is doing (Iannitti et al. 2011). This is why there are so many
different kinds of antioxidants; each one has unique chemical behaviors and
biological properties (Antioxidants 2009). No one is interchangeable, as some
are lipid soluble and some are water soluble, the range of antioxidant
function is vast (Held 2010). Antioxidants defenses are both non-enzymatic
(eg. Uric acid, bilirubin, thiols, glutathione and most importantly vitamins and
minerals) and also enzymatic (eg., superoxide dismutaste)(Domenico 2007).
Eg., glutathione is a very significant non enzymatic oxidant defense
mechanism, it exists in large amounts and serves to detoxify peroxides and
regenerate a number of important antioxidants such as vitamin A and C
(Held 2010). In our culture, the most well known antioxidants are some of the

most important. Below is a table of some of the most important antioxidants

and their specificity and function, as no antioxidant is the same or performs
the same task.
Vitamin E

Vitamin C
(Ascorbic)
- water-soluble
-first defense
against free
radicals in whole
blood and plasma.
- a powerful
inhibitor of lipid
peroxidation and
regenerates vit. E
in lipoprotiens.
-reduce peroxide
concentrations and
repair oxidized
membranes
-eliminates most
ROS due to
oxidation of
ascorbate
-found in citrus
fruits, leafy
vegetables,
strawberries,
potatoes.

-lipid soluble
-protects against
oxidative damage by
directly reacting with
a variety of O2
radicals
- most well known as
alpha-tocopherol.
- reduces oxidative
stress
- applied topically
heals sunburn.
- comprise a
chromanol ring and a
hydrophobic side
chain of an isoprene
molecule.
-antioxidant
mechanism of
tochopherol is
partially due to the
hydroxyl group in the
chromanol ring by
donating a hydrogen
atom to reduce free
radicals
-found in nuts,
broccoli, green leafy
vegetables.
Table 1- this table usues information from

B-Carotene

CoQ10

-Cartotenoids
naturally produced
by plants and
algae.
- protects against
UV damage.
- quenches radical
O2
Molecules.
-reduces skin
roughness
-found in carrots,
and green leafy
substances.
-fights cancer by
inhibiting
production of DNA
in cancerous
mutated cells, also
slows down tumor
growth.

- intracellular and
antioxidative
energizing
molecule
- reduces DNA
damage due to
UVA irradation.
-anti-aging effects
-especially found in
the heart, liver,
and pancreas.
-has a role in
producing ATP in
cells.
-strengthens the
immune system
-can be found in
meats and
seafood.

(Masaki 2010) (Domenico 2007)

Antioxidants can be consumed naturally through a healthy diet of

vegetables and fruits. They can also be consumed artificially through vitamin
supplements. The vitamin supplement industry is a 500 billion dollar a year
industry (Antioxidants 2009). However, very little research exists on
supplements and the evidence is insufficient to suggest supplemental
antioxidants reduce oxidative stress and free radicals in the body (Masaki
2010). The promotion of these supplements is unfounded and unethical.
Current evidence does not allow to recommend antioxidant supplementation
as a useful mean to prevent age-related clinical conditions (Domenico 2007).
The best way to obtain healthy levels of these antioxidants is through diet.
Eating foods rich in antioxidants is a great way to arrest much of the physical
stress and damage caused by free radicals. While anti-aging effects of
antioxidants are well documented, supplementation is still under research
and is not recommended and promoting such supplements is seen as being
highly unethical.
Oxidative damage is responsible for the aging and death of all living
things (Harman 1956). Antioxidants are potent eliminators of free radicals,
without them our cells would age much quicker and die much faster. In
American culture, we are a superficial culture driven by looks and youth.
Antioxidants are a proven and useful tool in the battle of anti-aging, rightfully
so. Not only are they vital to a bodys function, without them the body would
metaphorically rust from the inside out, mutations would run rampant and
our bodys would eventually shut down. As our bodies age, free radicals exist

in larger numbers allowing for more oxidative damage to wreak havoc in the
cells. Though aging and death is an inevitable part of life, a diet rich in
antioxidants will keep one feeling young and slow the aging process. It is well
established that consuming antioxidants is key to the battle of aging; in a
society driven by superficiality, materialism and looks antioxidants hold the
key to the youth and beauty we all so desire.