Holotropic Breathwork Can Occasion Mystical Experiences in the Context of a Daylong Workshop

Iker Puente

Holotropic Breathwork Can Occasion

Mystical Experiences in the
Context of a Daylong Workshop
La Respiracin Holotrpica Puede Provocar
Experiencias Msticas en el Contexto de un Taller de un da
Iker Puente*
Universidad Autnoma de Barcelona
Barcelona, Spain

Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to explore the subjective effects of Holotropic
Breathwork (HB), specifically looking at the incidence of mystical experiences or peak experiences, in a Russian sample in the context of a daylong workshop. A single group design was
used. A total of 134 subjects, aged 18-64 years, participated in the study. The States of Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ) was administered to determine the incidence of mystical or peak experiences. Thirteen of the 134 participants (9.7%) met criteria for a complete mystical experience.
The higher scores were found in deeply felt positive mood, transcendence of time and space and
internal unity subscales of the SCQ. We found similar scores in the CEC to those found in a previous study in people under the influence of 5mg/70kg and 10mg/70kg of psilocybin.

Keywords: holotropic breathwork, states of consciousness questionnaire, mystical experience, peak experience, transpersonal psychology

Resumen
El presente estudio tiene como objetivo principal explorar los efectos subjetivos de la respiracin holotrpica, centrndose especficamente en la incidencia de experiencias msticas o experiencias cumbre, en una muestra de voluntarios rusos obtenida en Mosc, en el marco de un taller de respiracin holotrpica un da de duracin. Se utiliz un diseo de un solo grupo. Un total
de 134 sujetos, de entre 18-64 aos, particip en el estudio. Se administr el Cuestionario de Estados de Consciencia (CEC) para determinar la incidencia de las experiencias msticas o experiencias cumbre. Trece de los 134 participantes (9,7%) en el estudio cumplieron con los criterios para
una experiencia mstica "completa. Las puntuaciones ms altas se encontraron en las subescalas
estado de nimo positivo sentido profundamente, trascendencia del tiempo y el espacio y
unidad interna del CEC. Encontramos resultados similares en el CEC a los encontrados en un
estudio previo en personas bajo la influencia de dosis de 5mg/70kg y 10mg/70kg de psilocibina.

Palabras clave: respiracin holotrpica, cuestionario de estados de consciencia, experiencia mstica, experiencia cumbre, psicologa transpersonal

Received: March 12, 2014

Accepted: December 1, 2014

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Introduction
Transpersonal psychology was born in
1968 in the US by a group of psychologists, psychiatrists and psychotherapists (including Anthony
Sutich, Abraham Maslow, Stan Grof and James
Fadiman) to expand the framework of humanistic
psychology beyond its focus on the individual self,
including also the study of the spiritual and transcendent dimension of human nature and existence
(Grof, 2000; Ferrer, 2003).
Etymologically, the term transpersonal
means "beyond" or "through" the personal, and is
used to refer to motivations, experiences, developmental stages, modes of being, concerns and
other phenomena that include but also transcend
the sphere of individual personality, the self or ego
(Ferrer, 2003). Among its core interests are transpersonal processes, values and states, unitive consciousness, peak experiences, ecstasy, mystical
experience, transcendence, the theories and practices of meditation, spiritual paths, and concepts,
experiences and activities related to it (Walsh and
Vaughan, 1982). A brief but comprehensive definition was offered by Rowan, who believes that the
main goal of transpersonal psychology would be
the demarcation of the borders and the varieties of
the conscious human experience (Rowan, 1996).
Thus, transpersonal psychology has been interested
in the study of mystical experiences since the beginning of its existence (Grof, 2012; Maslow,
1964, 1969; Sutich, 1969).
During the last decades different ways to
measure mystical experiences has been developed.
In general, the field of mystical experience research is characterized by a lack of uniformity
regarding definitions, methods and instrumentation
(Lukoff and Lu, 1988). Different authors have
proposed different criteria and characteristics to
define this experience, including William James
(1986), Evelyn Underhill (1993), W. Stace (1960),
R. C. Zaehner (1961), A. Maslow (1968) and Walter Pahnke (1963, 1966), and different questionnaires have been developed to measure this experience (Hood, 1975; Pahnke, 1963). Among the
most used questionnaires to measure mystical experiences we can found the Hood Mysticism Scale
and the Peak Experience Profile (also known as the
States of Consciousness Questionnaire and the
Mystical Experience Questionnaire), both based in
the characterizations of the features of mystical
experiences provided by Stace (1960).
The modern empirical study of mysticism
has focused on measuring the mystical experiences
that individuals have had across their lifetime. The
most widely used quantitative measure of lifetime

mystical experiences is the Hood Mysticism Scale

(HMS) (Hood, 1975; Hood and Williamson, 2000).
The HMS has been shown to be a reliable and
cross-culturally valid measure of lifetime experiences (Chen et al, 2012; Hood et al, 2001), although recent research suggested the existence of
cultural differences in the specific structure of
mystical experience (Chen, Hood et al, 2011;
Chen, Qi, et al., 2011).
The Peak Experience Profile (PEP) was
originally developed in the 1960s by Walter
Pahnke (1963, 1966, 1969) with the aim of measuring and for the evaluation of the potential single
mystical experiences occasioned by psilocybin.
The PEP was developed based on the classic descriptive work on mystical experiences and the
psychology of religion by Stace (1960), and covers
the main dimensions of classic mystical experience
which he describes: 1) unity (external and internal), 2) transcendence of time and space, 3) alleged
ineffability, 4) paradoxicality (claim of difficulty
in describing the experience in words), 5) sense of
sacredness, 6) objectivity and reality (claim of
intuitive knowledge of ultimate reality), 7) deeply
felt positive mood, and 8) transiency. The criteria
established for considering a volunteer as having
had a complete mystical experience were that the
scores on each of the following scales had to be at
least 60 to 70 percent: unity (either internal or external, whichever was greater), transcendence of
time and space, ineffability, paradoxicality, sense
of sacredness, objectivity and reality, deeply felt
positive mood and transiency. Pahnke performed a
double-blind experiment to determine if the administration of high doses of psilocybin with an appropriate environment and preparation could produce or induce mystical experiences. The author
found that the participants who received psilocybin
experience more intensely the phenomenon that
was described and characterized as mystical experience. Specifically, he found that four of the ten
subjects who received psilocybin reached the 60 to
70 percent level of completeness, whereas none of
the controls did (Pankhe, 1963; Pankhe, 1966).
The original version of the PEP questionnaire used by Pahnke has been modified and expanded over the years by Pahnke, William Richards, Franco Di Leo and Richard Yensen for its
use in subsequent psychedelic research (Di Leo,
1982; Richards, 1975). New categories measuring
transpersonal but not necessarily mystical experiences were added (Doblin, 1991). A modified
version of the questionnaire, the States of Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ) was developed
and administered recently by Griffiths et al (2006,
2008, 2011) to conduct a number of studies to cha-

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racterize the mystical-type effects of psilocybin

using double-blind and placebo controlled methodologies. In 2012, MacLean et al. (2012) performed a factor study of the SCQ, examining the
factor structure of this questionnaire.
During the 1960s a new way to work with
psychedelics in psychotherapy was developed in
Canada and the United States, called psychedelic
psychotherapy. In this type of psychotherapy the
goal was to induce mystical experiences in the
participants of the studies, giving high doses of
LSD and other psychedelics in a very controlled
and safe setting, using a few sessions with psychedelics (between one and five), and a number of
preparation and integration psychotherapy sessions
without psychedelics. A number of studies using
this new methodology were conducted at Spring
Grove during the 1960s and the early 1970s. In
some of these studies the researchers used the PEP
to measure the appearance of mystical experiences
(Pahnke, 1967; Richards et al, 1977).
In the paper Implications of LSD and Experimental Mysticism, Pahnke and Richard (1966)
described the changes found in people who have
mystical experiences or peak experiences in the
following way:
Persons who have experienced the contents of
the eight categories discussed above are also
known to report concomitant changes in attitudes (1) towards themselves, (2) toward others, (3) toward life, and (4) toward mystical
consciousness itself. Increased personality integration is reported, including a renewed
sense of personal worth coupled with a relaxation of habitual mechanisms of ego defense
One feels as though personal problems can
now be so confronted that they may finally be
reduced or eliminated. Ones faith in ones
own potential for creative achievement tends
to be increased, at least at the subjective level.
In ones relationships with other persons,
greater sensitivity, increased tolerance, and
more real compassion are reported. Theologically trained persons frequently feel that they
have acquired new and profound insights into
the meaning Martin Buber sought to convey in
his term <the I-Thou relationship>, finally
knowing the meaning of genuinely meeting
another person without the subtle masks that
separate man from man. Changed and enlarged
attitudes towards life are reported in the areas
of deeper sensitivity to values that are felt to be
eternal, increased sensitivity to an inner imperative that seeks expression through othercentered behavior, increased vocational com-

mitment, loss of a fear of death coupled with

an expanded awareness of the significance of
historical existence, and an enriched appreciation for the whole of creation. As an expression of these attitudes, more time may be spent
in meditation. The memory of mystical consciousness itself is regarded, as deeply meaningful and similar experiences may be sought
as a source of growth and strength.
Although attitudinal and behavioral changes
such as these are subjectively reported by psychedelic subjects who have experienced the
content of the preceding eight categories, the
duration and permanence of such changes and
the extent to which they are manifested in everyday existence are topics in need of extensive
research. Only after such research is completed
can the degree of correspondences between the
positive changes claimed by psychedelic subjects and the effects of spontaneous lifeenhancing mystical experiences be determined (Pahnke and Richards, 1966: 76-77).
The recent studies conducted by Ronald Griffiths and William Richards team at the Department
of Neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University have
replicated and extended these results (Griffiths et
al, 2006, 2008, 2011). Griffiths et al (2006) conducted a double-blind study evaluating the immediate (7h) and medium term effects (2 to 14
months) of a high dose of psilocybin at a psychological level and in the state of mood, compared
with an active placebo, administered in a comfortable atmosphere and with therapeutic support.
Griffiths et al found that psilocybin produced a
"complete mystical type experience in 61% of the
volunteers (in 22 of the 36 subjects who participated in the study). At 2 months, volunteers rated
the experience as very significant personally and
spiritually, and attributed sustained positive
changes in their attitudes and behavior. In 2008
Griffiths et al published another article describing
the persistent, long-term effects that these experiences had on volunteers, 14 months later. They
conclude that, when administered in a comfortable
setting and with interpersonal support, psilocybin
produces mystical type experiences similar to
spontaneous mystical experiences, and that these
experiences are considered by the volunteers
among the most personally and spiritually significant experiences of their lives 14 months after the
experience.
Griffiths et al (2011) also conducted a doseeffect study with psilocybin in 18 volunteers, using
4 different doses of the substance in 4 sessions

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conducted at intervals of one month. Griffiths et al

found that the percentage of volunteers who had a
complete mystical experience increased with the
dose (being 0, 5.6, 11.1, 44.4 and 55.6 for doses of
0, 5, 10, 20 and 30mg/70kg respectively). They
also found that, in high doses, volunteers considered the experience with psilocybin as very significant personally and spiritually, 1 month and 14
months after the session. They also found that the
acute and persistent effects of the psilocybin increased depending on the dose.
Historically, the PEP and the SCQ has
been used to measure the subjective effects of psilocybin and other classic psychedelic compounds,
and several studies have demonstrated the sensitivity of this questionnaire to the effects of psilocybin, LSD and other psychedelics (Pahnke, 1963,
1966, 1967, 1969; Pahnke and Richards, 1966;
Richards et al, 1972, 1977; Turek, Soskin and Kurland, 1974). Nevertheless, it has rarely been used
for the evaluation of the potential mystical experiences occasioned by other techniques employed
in the context of the transpersonal psychology and
psychotherapy, such as Holotropic Breathwork.
Holotropic Breathwork (HB) is a technique
developed and used in the context of the transpersonal psychology to induce non-ordinary states of
consciousness and transpersonal experiences. HB
was developed in the mid 70s by Stanislav Grof,
one of the founders of the Transpersonal Psychology movement, (Grof, 1988, 2000; Grof and Grof,
2010) at the Esalen Institute, California, after two
decades working with LSD and other psychedelic
substances in psychotherapy (Grof, 1972, 1973,
1975, 1980). This method was conceived as a nondrug way of accessing non-ordinary states of consciousness and, specifically, a subgroup of NOSC
called holotropic states, a neologism proposed
by S. Grof. The word holotropic is derived from
the Greek words holos and trepein, and means
moving toward wholeness (Grof, 2000). According to Grof, the HB can induce different kinds of
transpersonal experiences, including mystical experiences, among others (Grof, 1985; Grof and
Grof, 2010). Grof claims are based in more than
three decades of work with this technique, and in
the anecdotic observations and subjective reports
of many of the participants in his workshops and
HB sessions.
HB is a novel, experientially oriented, therapeutic technique that involves a number of diverse elements, including music, elective bodywork and accelerated breathing. HB sessions
usually last between 2 and 3 hours, and are terminated voluntarily by the client. Both individual and
group therapies are possible, but the group therapy

context is the most commonly used. The most characteristic and unique element of this procedure,
compared with other psychotherapeutic methods,
is the prolonged, voluntary hyperventilation or
overbreathing (Rhinewine and Williams, 2007),
which can be sustained longer than an hour, but all
the cited elements are considered mandatory in the
HB procedure.
To date, few studies have examined empirically the potential of this hyperventilation procedure to produce mystical experiences, giving some
preliminary evidence (Puente, 2014a; Puente,
2014b). Puente (2014a; 2014b) conducted some
preliminary research exploring the subjective effects of HB using the SCQ in the context of a
weeklong workshop. In a first study Puente
(2014b) explored the effects of HB on levels of
distress, meaning of life, death anxiety and personality in a young adult sample, aged 18-35, in the
context of a weeklong workshop, and also the subjective effects and persistent effects of HB, using a
battery of tests. A single group, Pre-Post test design, with a 12-month follow-up was used. A total
of 29 subjects, aged 18-35 years, participated in the
study. The tests used include the States of Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ). 29 of the participants in the study filled out the SCQ after their
first HB session during the workshop. Puente
found that HB occasioned mystical-type or peak
experiences in 6 participants (20.7% of the participants who filled out the SCQ) during their first HB
session during the workshop (each participant had
two HB sessions during the weeklong workshop).
Three of the volunteers that had a complete mystical experience were first breathers, and the
other three had previous experience with the HB.
The higher scores were found in the ineffability
(0.58), intuitive knowledge (0.5) and deeply felt
positive mood (0.46) subscales of the SCQ.
In a similar study Puente (2014a) explored
the effects of HB in the context of a weeklong
workshop on levels of distress, meaning of life,
death anxiety and personality, and also the subjective effects and persistent effects of HB, using a
battery of tests, including the SCQ. The SCQ was
filled out after the two HB sessions that each participant had during the workshop. After the first
HB session (N=37) three participants had a complete mystical experience (the 8.11% of the participants who filled out the SCQ). The higher scores
of the SCQ were obtained on deeply felt positive
mood (0.55 above 1), ineffability (0.51 above 1)
and sacredness (0.49 above 1) dimensions. After
the second HB session (N=29) four participants
had a complete mystical experience (the 13.8% of
the participants who filled out the SCQ). The high-

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er scores of the SCQ were obtained, again, on

deeply felt positive mood (0.59 above 1), ineffability (0.55 above 1) and sacredness (0.55 above 1)
dimensions. All the participants who had a complete mystical experience were nave in the use of
HB, and did not have any previous experience with
the technique.
This preliminary evidence encourages the
author of the present study to conduct additional
research on the subjective effects of HB, specifically exploring the occurrence of mystical experiences during the practice of this technique. The
aim of the present pilot study was to explore the
subjective effects of HB in a Russian sample in the
context of a daylong experiential workshop. The
study analyzed the relationship between the use of
HB and the occurrence of mystical type or peak
experiences during the HB sessions. Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that participants in the HB daylong workshop would report
mystical-type or peak experiences occasioned by
the HB.

Method
Participants
In this pilot study, a convenient sample
was used. Eligible participants were individuals
enrolled in a daylong HB workshop held during
the 14th International Transpersonal Association
(ITA) Conference in Moscow, in two big rooms of
the conference venue. Eligibility criteria were as
follows: aged +18 years, Russian speaking and
able to provide informed consent. Both first
breathers (participants who were exposed to HB
for the first time in their life) and those who have
previous experience with HB were allowed to take
part in the research. No control group was used in
the present study.
All the participants of the daylong workshop who completed the inclusion criteria (N=412)
were approached about participating in the study.
From all the participants of the workshop, 136
individuals consented and filled out the SCQ after
their HB session as breathers. We were successful
in obtaining complete data in 134 individuals
(32.5% of the eligible subjects).
Participants in the study who completed
the questionnaires (N=134) age ranged between 18
and 64 years (Mean=32.9, S.D. =8.8). Eighty of
the participants were female (59.7%) and fifty-four
were male (40.3%). 48 participants were first
breathers (35.8%), and another 86 have previous

experience with HB (64.2%). The level of studies

was above average, and 85.0% has university studies.
Table1. Age, gender, education and previous experience with HB for the study volunteers.
Pre measure
(N=134)
Age
32.9 (8.8)
Gender
Man
54 (40.3%)
Woman
80 (59.7%)
Education
College finished
114 (85.0%)
College unfinished
10 (7.5%)
High School
2 (1.5%)
Primary studies
8 (6.0%)
HB
RH Yes
experience
86 (64.2%)
RH No
48 (35.8%)

Study design
In the present study a single group design
was used. The variables examined were measured
using the States of Consciousness Questionnaire
(SCQ), to explore the subjective effects of the participants during their HB session as breathers. The
SCQ was assessed 1 to 5 hours after the HB session of the volunteers in which they have the
breather role.

Psychometric measures/materials
The variable examined was measured with
the States of Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ).
The SCQ is a self-assessed 100-item questionnaire,
which was designed to assess mystical experiences
based on the classic descriptive work on mystical
experiences and the psychology of religion by
Stace (1960). It provides scale scores for each of
seven domains of mystical experiences: internal
unity (pure awareness; a merging with ultimate
reality); external unity (unity of all things; all
things are alive; all is one); transcendence of time
and space; ineffability and paradoxicality (claim of
difficulty in describing the experience in words);
sense of sacredness (awe); noetic quality (claim of
intuitive knowledge of ultimate reality); and deeply felt positive mood (joy, peace, and love). The
data on each scale were expressed as a proportion
of the maximum possible score, fixed in 1. Based
on prior research (Pahnke, 1969), the criteria for
considering a volunteer as having had a complete mystical experience were that the scores on
each of the following scales had to be at least 0.6:

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unity (either internal or external, whichever was

greater), transcendence of time and space, ineffability and paradoxicality, sense of sacredness, noetic quality, and deeply felt positive mood. Fortythree items on this questionnaire comprised the
PahnkeRichards Mystical Experience Questionnaire (Pahnke, 1969; Richards 1975), and the remaining 57 items in the questionnaire served as
distracter items.

er 48 have previous experience with HB (35.8%).

Based on prior criteria, 13 of the total group of 134
volunteers (9.7%) had a complete mystical experience during the HB session. Eight of the volunteers that had a complete mystical experience
were first breathers, and the other five had previous experience with HB. The higher scores were
found in deeply felt positive mood (0.57), transcendence of time and space (0.43) and internal
unity (0.43) sub-dimensions of the SCQ (see Table
2 and Figure 1).

Procedure
The data were collected the first day of the
14th ITA Conference, during a daylong HB workshop. The workshop was held at the conference
venue in Moscow in June 2010, and the researcher
stayed at the workshop all the day to collect the
data. Permission to conduct the study was requested from and granted by the organizer and the
directors of the workshop. After the introductory
talk of the workshop, all the Russian participants
aged +18 were invited to participate in the research
and to fill out a consent form, a socio-demographic
survey and the SCQ. Participants were told that the
study was part of the researchers study on HB.
Participation in the study was completely voluntary. Written informed consent was obtained prior to
the assessments. The questionnaire and survey
took around 20-30 minutes to fill out. No compensation was offered for participation in the study.

Results

Table 2.Volunteers ratings (N=134) on the States of

Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ) completed 1 to 5
hours after their HB session.
Subscale description
HB session (N=134)
Internal unity

0.43 (0.29)

External unity

0.39 (0.3)

Transcendence of time
and space

0.43 (0.23)

Ineffability

0.4 (0.25)

Sacredness

0.37 (0.25)

Noetic quality

0.42 (0.27)

Deeply felt positive mood

Complete
experience

0.57 (0.26)

mystical
13 (9.7%)

Note: Data are mean scores with the SD shown in parentheses.

For the seven sub-dimensions of the States of Consciousness
Questionnaire, data are expressed as a proportion of the maximum possible score.

Data analyses
The data were statistically analyzed for the
134 volunteers who completed the SCQ using the
17.0 version of SPSS.
Measure of the Subjective effects of the HB assessed during the workshop.
134 of the participants in the study filled
out the SCQ after their HB session during the
workshop. Eighty of the participants were female
(59.7%) and fifty-four were male (40.3%). 86 participants were first breathers (64.2%), and anoth-

Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to
explore the subjective effects of a single HB session in a Russian sample in the context of a daylong workshop. The overall results of this study
suggests that HB, administered to healthy individuals in the context of a day-long workshop, is capable of occasioning complete mystical experiences. Thus, the study provides some initial positive findings regarding the possible usefulness of
this technique to induce mystical experiences in
the context of a daylong workshop.

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Figure 1: scores of the 7 dimensions of the SCQ, expressed as a proportion of the maximum possible score,
fixed in 1.

1
Internal Unity

0,9
0,8

External Unity

0,7

0,57

0,6
0,5

0,43

0,39

0,43

0,4

0,37

Trascendence of Time-Space

0,42

0,4
0,3

Ineffability
Sacredness

0,2
Noetic Quality

0,1
0
HB session (N=134)

Table 3.Comparison between volunteers ratings on the

SCQ after their HB session and the ratings for the
5mg/70kg and 10mg/70kg psilocybin doses obtained by
Griffiths et al (2011) in their dose-response study.
SCQ subHB
Psilocybin Psilocybin
dimensions
session
5mg
10mg
and total
(N=134)
(N=18)
(N=18)
score
Internal unity
0.43
0.38
0.45
External unity

0.39

0.32

0.35

Transcendence
of time and
space
Ineffability

0.43

0.40

0.44

0.4

0.48

0.59

Sacredness

0.37

0.49

0.54

Noetic quality

0.42

0.47

0.54

Deeply
felt
positive mood
Complete
mystical
experience

0.57

0.48

0.57

13
(9.7%)

N=1
(5.6%)

N=2
(11.1%)

Note: For the seven sub-dimensions of the States of Consciousness Questionnaire, data are expressed as a proportion
of the maximum possible score, fixed in 1.

In the present study, thirteen of the 134

participants (9.7%) met criteria for complete
mystical experience in the SCQ. This rate is comparable to those found in previous research on HB
in an adult sample in the context of a weeklong

Deeply felt possitive mood

workshop (8.11% after the first HB session, and

13.8% after the second HB session) (Puente,
2014a), but lower than the rate found in a previous
research on HB in a young adult sample, aged 1835, in the context of a weeklong workshop (20.7%
of the participants who filled out the SCQ after the
first HB session) (Puente, 2014b). Compared with
the rate of mystical experiences obtained in the
different studies using high doses of psilocybin
(40% found by Panhke, and 61% found by Griffiths et al), the percentage of participants who met
criteria for complete mystical experience in the
SCQ is lower during HB. If we look to the percentages of mystical experiences obtained by Griffiths
et al (2011) in their dose-effect study with psilocybin (being 0, 5.6, 11.1, 44.4 and 55.6 for doses of
0, 5, 10, 20 and 30mg/70kg respectively), the percentage obtained in the present study (9.7%) is
similar to the 10mg/70kg psilocybin dose (11.1)
obtained by Griffiths et al (see table 3).
Eight of the thirteen volunteers who have a
complete mystical experience were first breathers (61.5%), and the other five had previous experience with HB (38.5%). This data might suggest
that subjects who have no previous experience
with the HB technique may be more likely to have
a mystical experience, especially if we consider
that the 64.2% of the participants in the study have
previous experience with the HB, and only 35.8%
were first breathers. Thus, the 16.7% of the first
breathers who participate in the study (8 of 48)
met criteria for complete mystical experience in

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the SCQ, versus the 5.8% of the participants with

previous experience with HB (5 of 86). This finding is partially consistent with previous research on
the topic. Puente (2014a) found a similar outcome
in a study exploring the effects of HB in the contexts of a weeklong workshop in an adult sample,
in which all the participants who had a complete
mystical experience were first breathers. However,
in another study exploring the effects of HB in a
young adult sample, aged 18-35, in the context of a
week-long workshop (Puente, 2014b), three of the
volunteers who have a complete mystical experience were first breathers, and the other three
had previous experience with the HB.
In the present study, the higher scores were
found in deeply felt positive mood (0.57), transcendence of time and space (0.43) and internal
unity (0.43) subscales of the SCQ. The high score
in the deeply felt positive mood subscale (0.57
above 1) might indicate that the subjective experience during the HB session is remembered and
assessed as having an overall positive tone, more
than a negative one. Puente also found that the
higher scores of the SCQ were obtained on deeply
felt positive mood (0.55 above 1) in a previous
study (Puente, 2014a), followed by ineffability
(0.51 above 1) and sacredness (0.49 above 1). In
another study (Puente, 2014b) deeply felt positive
mood (0.46) subscale obtained the third higher
score, after ineffability (0.58) and intuitive knowledge (0.5).
The results obtained in the present study
also support Grofs claims of the potential of HB
to induce mystical experiences (Grof, 1985).
Therefore, the outcomes found in the SCQ during
the HB session in the present study seem to confirm Grofs statement of the potential of HB to
induce similar experiences to those found when he
was working with psychedelics (Grof and Grof,
2010). We found that HB can induce mystical experiences of the same type as those produced by
psilocybin, although less frequently and in a smaller percentage of participants (Griffiths et al, 2006).
Furthermore, our results indicate that the percentage of participants having mystical experiences
during a HB session is similar to the percentage
obtained by Griffiths et al. (2011) using a
10mg/70kg psilocybin dose (11.1%).
Despite some initial positive findings suggesting that the use of HB in the context of a daylong workshop might induce mystical experiences,
some limitations can be pointed also to the present
study. First, a convenient sample was used for the
present study, and there was no comparison group.
Thus, we cannot draw cause-effect statements from
it. Second, the 134 participants of the present study

only represents around the 30-33% of the total

number of participants of the workshop. Thus,
these results cannot be generalized to all the participants of the daylong workshop, or to other contexts where the HB is used, but they do support the
idea that HB may contribute to induce mystical
type or peak experiences in these specific samples.
Nevertheless, it is remarkable that HB occasioned mystical-type or peak experiences in
some participants during the workshop, because
the present study is the first to measure these kinds
of experiences using the SCQ during a daylong HB
session. It is also remarkable that almost one out of
each of the ten volunteers who filled out the SCQ
had a complete mystical experience (the 9.7%),
considering the relative low frequency of these
kinds of experiences in other contexts. Similar
outcomes have been found in human research with
psychedelic compounds like LSD and psilocybin
(Grof, 2001; Griffiths et al., 2006, 2008; MacLean
et al. 2011; Pahnke, 1963, 1967). These experiences have been related to improvements in several mental health measures (Grof, 2001; Griffiths
et al., 2006, 2008).

Conclusions and future projects

Further research into the subjective effects,
and the short and long-term effects of HB is
needed. There are a number of areas of potential
interest that might be examined in future research,
including the assessment of physiological and neurophysiologic variables, and the use of qualitative
methodology, to try to find correlations between
them, the subjective experiences of the participants
during the HB sessions as breathers and specifically with the occurrence of mystical experiences. We
also believe that the setting, the context surrounding the experience, is very important in relation to
the subjective effects that this technique can induce. Thus, future research examining the degree
to which these results are specific to the context is
needed. The development of similar studies in
other contexts where HB and other similar hyperventilation procedures are used could be very fruitful.
Despite its limitations, and recognizing the
exploratory nature of this pilot study, our results
shows that HB occasioned mystical experiences in
some of the volunteers in the context of a day-long
workshop. These preliminary results give support
for further research on the subjective effects induced by this technique, as well to the study of the
possible link between this subjective effects and
the possible increase on wellbeing and life satisfac-

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Holotropic Breathwork Can Occasion Mystical Experiences in the Context of a Daylong Workshop
Iker Puente

tion of the people who report mystical experiences

during the HB sessions.

Acknowledgements

Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., McCann, U., &

Jesse, R. (2006).Psilocybin can occasion
mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and
spiritual significance. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 187: 268-283.

This research was supported by UAB-PIF

grant from the UAB. We thank: Stan Grof and
Vladimir Maykov for allowing us to collect the
data during the day-long workshop; Bill Richards
and Ronald Griffiths, for permission to use the
SCQ; Vladimir Maykov and his team, for the Russian translation of the SCQ.

Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., Johnson, M. W.,

McCann, U., and Jesse, R. (2008). Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal
meaning and spiritual significance 14
months later. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22 (6): 621-632.

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*Iker Puente, PhD. is a psychologist and researcher from the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB). He holds a degree in Psychology
from the University of Deusto and a degree in
Anthropology from the UAB. In 2014 obtained his
PhD degree at the UAB with his dissertation
Complexity and Transpersonal Psychology:
chaos, self-organization and peak experiences in
psychotherapy, exploring the short and medium
term effects of two breathwork techniques, Holotropic Breathwork (HB) and Holorenic Breathwork
(HrnB), and the subjective effects of HB. He has
been trained in Gestalt Therapy at the Institut Gestalt in Barcelona, in Altered States of Consciousness at the Society of Etnopsychology and Cognitive Studies, and in Holotropic Breathwork and
Transpersonal Psychology at the Grof Transpersonal Training. He has been visiting scholar at the
California Institute of Integral Studies (CIIS),
coordinator of the psychedelic emergency service
at BOOM festival, and has teaching experience in
the field of transpersonal psychology.
E-mail: ikerpuente@hotmail.com

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