REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON BUILDING DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENTAL

STATES FOR ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

20 22 JULY 2015, PRETORIA, SOUTH AFRICA

The Building a Democratic Developmental State in Botswana

By

EMMANUEL BOTLHALE
UNIVERSITY OF BOTSWANA
BOTLHALE@MOPIPI.UB.BW

Regional Conference on Building Democratic Developmental States

for Economic Transformation in Southern Africa, 20-23 July 2016,
Johannesburg, South Africa.

The Building a Democratic Developmental State in Botswana

(Emmanuel Botlhale, University of Botswana;
botlhale@mopipi.ub.bw)

The Building a Democratic Developmental State in Botswana

Abstract
African countries emerged from colonialism undeveloped, and to graduate from this state,
development became a top priority. Early nationalist leaders championed the cause of
development

through

developmental

states.

Similarly,

Botswana

emerged

from

colonialisation very poor. Therefore, it adopted a democratic developmental state to direct

economic development. This was a difficult feat at the time because there were no high-value
minerals such as diamonds. The discovery and exploitation of diamonds brought about a turnaround. Botswana graduated from the ranks of least developed countries into a middle
income economy in 1992. While Botswana has achieved laudable human development as
sufficiently documented in United Nations Development Programmes Human Development
Reports, it is afflicted with myriad development challenges such as poverty, unemployment,
income inequality, mono economy and middle income trap. The government has responded
to some of these challenges, for example, through social protection programmes. Many
general lessons emerge from the Botswana case study. Key ones are: (i) the developmental
state is an imperative and possible in Africa; (ii) the need for a ruling political party to direct
the trajectory of economic development; (iii) development of a legalinstitutional framework
of mineral wealth management; and (iv) the need to respond to development challenges.
Key words: Underdevelopment; Development; Developmental State; Botswana.

1. Introduction
With the exception of Liberia (although it was briefly a colony) and Ethiopia, African
countries were colonised by Western powers. The legacy of colonialism was
underdevelopment. To graduate from this state of underdevelopment, development became a
top priority. Early nationalist leaders; e.g., Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta and Julius
Nyerere, championed the cause of development. Though none of the early states had
developmentalism as an official policy, it can be inferred from their deeds, notably
favourable expenditures on education and physical infrastructure, that they were crafting
developmental states. What is a developmental state? The term is originally associated with
East Asian economies, chiefly, Japan (Johnson, 1982). At a broad level, there are two types
2

of developmental states; (i) authoritarian (e.g., South Korea) and (ii) liberal democratic [e.g.,
Botswana and Mauritius] (Kieh, 2005). There is no universal agreement on the meaning of
the term (Stubs, 2009). Therefore, its meaning is disputed and evolving (Evans, 2010a;
2010b). Several authors have attempted to define the term (e.g.: Cumings, 1984; Fritz and
Menocal, 2010; Johnson, 1982; Leftwich, 1995; Stubbs, 2009). Similarly, its constituent
elements are problematic (Routley, 2014). However, there is a consensus that a
developmental state is one in which the government assumes a leading role in the
development process (Cumings, 1984; Fritz and Menocal, 2010; Johnson, 1982; White, 1992)
and is the primary agent of socio-economic change (Edge, 1998). In a similar vein, Beeson
(2007:141) holds that the developmental state has become a generic term to describe
governments that try to actively intervene in economic processes and direct the course of
development rather than relying on market forces. Some of the defining features of prototype
Asian-type developmental states are: developmentoriented political leadership; autonomous
and effective bureaucracy; productionoriented private sector; and performanceoriented
governance (Meyns and Musamba, 2010); and competent bureaucracy and embedded
autonomy (Kasahara, 2013). Lastly, added to the definitional issues, are disagreements
concerning what counts as developmental outcomes (Routley, 2012). Amongst others,
developmental states are associated with economic growth (Mkandawire, 2001). Also, some
argue that growth must be accompanied by features such as legitimacy (Leftwich, 2000).
The developmental state suffered a major retreat in the 1980s as a result of cut-back
management ordered by multi-lateral bodies such as the International Monetary Fund and
World Bank through Structural Adjustment Programmes. It suffered another assault in the
1990s as waves of public sector reforms in the form of New Public Management diffused
from forerunners such as the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand to
the developing world. Amongst others, the New Public Management movement called for the
shrinking of the state through privatisation. However, the effects of the global economic
crisis brought back the developmental state in the form of stimulus packages across Africa.
Thus, the crisis ... rekindled discussion on the role and nature of the state in the development
process (UNECA, 2011:95). Notably, in 2011, the United Nations Economic Commission
on Africa called for developmental states to deal with post-recession challenges in Africa
(Africa Focus, 2011). It argued that African countries ... needed a developmental state that
can facilitate rapid economic, democratic and social transformation in the post-adjustment era
3

in Africa (UNECA, 2011:96). The developmental state envisioned by UNECA entails some
of the following traits: vision setting, capable leadership and a developmentalist ideology;
relative state autonomy, especially in formulating and implementing policy; state institutional
capacity, notably a strong and competent bureaucracy; effective national development
planning; coordination of economic activities and resources; and support for a national
entrepreneurial class (UNECA, 2011:96-100).
Without necessarily responding to UNECAs call, the governments developmental
role in Africa became more visible in the post-crisis era in various ways. The role of the state
saw an expanded role and, subject to resource availability, the state was catapulted to the
forefront of economic growth and development. Thus, governments were retreating from the
axiom of private sector-led economic growth and development. In a way, it was apparent
that the private sector could not grow and develop the economy unaided by the state. Matters
were not helped by the fact that, save in a few cases such as South Africa, the private sector is
either small or operating sub-optimally. To illustrate, following a declining revenue envelope
due to a fall in demand for diamonds as a result of the global economic crisis, the
governments developmentalist role in Botswana assumed a new dimension. The government
was forced to stimulate the economy although, at the same time, it was implementing public
sector reforms such as privatisation (see Privatisation Policy of Botswana, 2000 [RoB, 2000]
and Privatisation Master Plan I, 2004 [PEEPA, 2004] that advocated for the shrinking of the
state. The post-2008 period saw a re-think in terms of the role of the state in Botswana. In this
regard, when presenting the 2009/10 Budget Speech, then Minister of Finance and
Development Planning, the late Baledzi Gaolathe, justified the fiscal stimulus saying; while
under normal conditions a deficit of that magnitude would not be prudent, at the same time,
we must recognise that in the extraordinary circumstances such as these, a fiscal stimulus to
boost growth and employment in the economy is appropriate... (Gaolathe, 2009:30). It is
notable that other African countries did the same to stimulate economies out of a recession.
This paper is organised as follows. Firstly, it answers the question; is Botswana a
developmental state?; secondly, it discusses the emergence of a democratic developmental
state in Botswana; thirdly, it discusses the Diamonds for Development Policy and
developmentalsim; fourthly, it discusses challenges of the developmental state in Botswana;
fifthly, it discusses lessons from the developmental state in Botswana; and, finally, concludes.

2 Is Botswana a Developmental State?

Opinion is divided on the matter. On the one hand, are dissenters such as Hillbom (2012
she argues that Botswana is a gate-keeping state as per Frederick Cooper model [2005]), and
Taylor (2005). On the other hand, others support the assertion that Botswana is a
development state. Examples are: Dassah (2011); Edge (1998); Hwedi (2001); Kieh (2005);
Lockwood (2006); Maundeni, (2004; 2008); Mapunye (2009); Mbabazi and Taylor (2005);
Meyns (2010); Mkandawire (2001); Sims (2012); Thovoethin (2014); Tsie (1998). Edge
(1998:333) asserts that ...Botswana is a developmental state comparable to those of the
Asian Tigers and replicable in Southern Africa. Similarly, Tsie (1998:13) argues that
Botswana is a democratic developmental state in the sense that it has promoted rapid
economic growth and capitalist development without abandoning democratic norms and
practices. Likewise, Taylor (2003:17) concedes that Botswana, alongside Mauritius, belongs
to a category of countries outside Asia whose phenomenal levels of growth have earned them
the label so-called development states. Corroboratorily, Mothusi (2010:3) holds that the
strength and influence of a developmental state that emerged after independence are felt in all
spheres of society, social, economic and political. Lastly, Sims (2012) argues that Botswana
is a developmental state for; (i) it beat the traps; (ii) achieved sustained levels of growth; and
(iii) displayed key elements of the developmental state model. To take a stand, this paper
supports the view that Botswana, based on developmental success, is a developmental state.
A developmental state is an aspiration and this aspiration must be translated into
something concrete such as social and human development. When Botswana embarked on
the developmental state path in 1966, it did not have resources to finance this development
quest, largely, because there were no exploitable resources at the time. Providentially, the
discovery and exploitation of minerals, particularly diamonds, in the early 1970s changed
everything. In the consequent, it formulated a mineral management policy, particularly, the
Diamonds for Development Policy. With the strategy in place, the government exploited
diamonds and reinvested proceeds from their sales in the economy and diamonds made
Botswana (Brook, 2013:1). In the consequent, Botswana graduated into the ranks of middle
income countries in 1992. Despite these achievements, there are development challenges,
mainly, poverty, unemployment, income inequality, HIV/AIDS, mono economy and middle
income trap. However, these problems are not essentials of a developmental state; they are
pathologies. The key question is; how is the state addressing these development challenges?
5

3. The emergence of a Developmental State in Botswana

Botswana, like all African colonies, suffered neglect, therefore, it was one of the poorest
nations in the world when it gained independence on 30 September 1966 (Acemoglu et al.,
2001; 2003; Edge, 1998; Leith, 2005; Tsie, 1998). Its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1966
was estimated at US$60 million and this consisted of beef exports to Britain and South Africa
(Tsie, 1998). On account of the foregoing, its economic viability was in doubt, therefore, it
was largely held that it would eventually become a Bantustan of then apartheid South Africa
and/or be everlastingly dependent on international aid and charity (Chiepe, 1973; Munger,
1965). Despite the unforgiving circumstances, then (still is) ruling Botswana Democratic
Party, then led by Seretse Khama, had chart the way forward lest independence became a flag
independence. The all-important questions were: which development path/policy do we
take? and what role should the state play in the economy? By default, Botswana became a
development state. It is important to note that Botswana did not officially adopt a
Developmental State Policy. It just happened by the force of circumstances that the country
adopted developmentalism. Given the fact that, at the time, there were no exploitable
minerals such as diamonds, this became a difficult feat. The economy was largely agrarianbased and the country also had to deal with erratic and insufficient rainfall and occasional
droughts. In the ultimate, founding a developmental state by a country that was aid-dependent
and dominated by an ill-performing agrarian sector posed formidable challenges.
Providentially, the country discovered high-value minerals such as diamonds in the
early 1970s. The first diamond deposit was discovered in Orapa in 1972 and production
started almost immediately. This was followed by other discoveries of diamond deposits in
Orapa, Letlhakane and Jwaneng (1982). However, this is not to say that there was no mineral
exploitation before diamonds. There were others such as copper nickel, iron and manganese.
These were low value minerals, therefore, could not finance the founding of a developmental
state. High-value minerals such as diamonds were responsible for changing the economic
fortunes of Botswana in the mid 1970s. However, it is notable that mineral wealth alone
cannot beget economic growth and development. A few fundamentals need to be place. Key
ones are: (i) development of a legalinstitutional framework of mineral wealth management1;
(ii) development planning and budgeting regime; and (iii) trained and apolitical bureaucracy.

Due to poor mineral wealth management policies, some mineral-rich countries have suffered resource curses.

3.1 Legalinstitutional framework of mineral wealth management; before Botswana started

mining on a big scale, it established a legal-institutional framework for the management of
mineral wealth. The country had to address issues relating to the following: (i) ownership of
mineral rights; (ii) mining legislation; and (iii) mining agreements (Masire, 2006). Then
ruling Bechuanaland Democratic Party (now Botswana Democratic Party) was wedded to the
belief that such rights had to be transferred to the state to ensure even economic development.
The partys pre-independence election manifesto is very instructive for it stated that;

leaving mineral rights vested in tribal authorities and private companies must necessarily
result in uneven growth of the countrys economy, as well as deprive the Central Government
of an important source of revenue for developing the country.It will be the policy of the
BDP Government to negotiate with all parties concerning the takeover of the countrys
mineral rights by the Central Government...(quoted in Leith, 2006:31).

After independence, the Botswana Democratic Party) embarked on nation-wide

negotiations to convince the tribes to cede their mineral rights to the state. In the end, this
objective was achieved eventuating in the passage of the Mineral Rights in Tribal Territories
bill into law. This was the Mines and Minerals Act (1967). The Act, as amended, provides the
legal-institutional framework of minerals wealth management in Botswana (Botlhale, 2013)
and regulates activities such as issuance of exploration and mining licenses.
3.2 Development Planning and Budgeting; Botswana did not establish a centrally-planned
economy. Nonetheless, it adopted centralised development planning, paradoxically,
combined with decentralised development planning. National Development Plans (NDPs)
outline short to medium-term development initiatives for Botswana. Building on the
transitional NDP (1963-69), the government formulated the first National Development Plan
(1968-1973) and development planning has become public policy in the country. The first
National Development Plan (NDP) was revised in 1970 and, currently, the country is on the
10th NDP. Due to the importance attached to development planning, this office was located
in the Office of the President. Hence, from the founding of the republic on 30 September
1966, the Vice President was also the Minister of Finance and Development Planning. This
tradition obtained until April 2008. In a related vein, Samatar (1999) credits the Ministry of
Finance and Development Planning for having contributed to Botswanas economic success.
7

3.3 Trained and apolitical bureaucracy; the country inherited a poorly trained bureaucracy,
therefore, developing a highly trained bureaucratic cadre became an imperative. Rents from
the mineral sector were used to train bureaucrats both locally and abroad. In addition, the
principle of meritocracy is used in the public service and bureaucrats are apolitical so as to
serve any government in power. This is in contrast to other political jurisdictions were party
cadres are deployed into the public service to push the agenda of the ruling party. Overall, the
bureaucracy was instrumental in delivering the developmental state in Botswana. In a
confirmatory note, Samatar (1999) states that Botswana's success as a developmental state
was facilitated by a professional bureaucracy that implemented public policies efficiently.
Besides the above factors, some have tried to explain Botswanas success; e.g.,
Leftwich (2010) and Leith (2005). Leftwich (2010) attributes the success to history,
circumstance, institutions and good policies. On the other hand, Leith (2005) credits
Botswana prosperity to a democratic political system, visionary leadership and effective
institutions. No matter the causative factors, it has achieved rapid economic growth (table 1)
and also delivered an arguably successful developmental state in Africa. Notably, between
1980 and 2013, Botswanas HDI value increased from 0.470 to 0.683 (UNDP, 2014a).
Table 1; Botswana Human Development Indices (HDI), 1980-2013;
Life expectancy

Expected

at birth

of schooling

schooling

per capita (2011 PPP$)

1980

60.7

7.4

2.3

4,935

0.470

1985

62.7

8.5

3.8

6,025

0.528

1990

62.7

10.0

5.4

7,833

0.583

1995

56.3

10.6

6.6

8,751

0.580

2000

48.7

11.7

7.5

9,611

0.560

2005

54.6

12.0

8.2

10,486

0.610

2010

63.4

11.7

8.8

12,763

0.672

2011

64.0

11.7

8.8

13,930

0.678

2012

64.2

11.7

8.8

14,400

0.681

2013

64.4

11.7

8.8

14,792

0.683

Year

years

Mean

years

Source: UNDP (2014a).

8

of

Gross National Income

HDI value

4. Diamonds for Development Policy and Developmentalsim

Botswanas transformation from a poor country to a middle income economy and the
achievement of a developmental state could not have been possible without the contribution
of diamonds. This point was articulated by Festus Mogae, president 1998-2008, when giving
the Diamonds and Development: the Botswana Story interview to the Center for Global
Development (Washington DC) on 11 October 2006. Emphasising the centrality of the
diamonds sector to Botswana success story and founding of a developmental state, he said;
Botswanas economic success is in a large measure attributed to the exportation of natural
resources, more especially diamonds. The basic tenant of our development philosophy has
been to optimize the benefits of revenues from natural resources by reinvesting them into
developing further productive capacity of the economy such as education and training, health,
infrastructure, and others. The vesting of mineral rights in the state is the foundation on which
development of minerals has been premised. This has allowed the government to equitably
spread services and development across the country. I must here point out that this is not an
antithesis of free market policies but a recognition of the development imperatives that we
face as a small developing nation (Mogae, 2006:1).

Even though Botswana does not have an official Diamonds for Development Policy,
diamonds have been designated as development diamonds, hence, talk about the Diamonds
for Development Policy.2 Mogae was the champion of the Diamonds for Development Policy
and took the message to western countries such as the USA (for example, see Mogae takes
Diamonds for Development campaign to the US capital [Mmegi, 2006]). The message was
also taken to the continent. To illustrate, when Mogae was presenting at a seminar in Tunisia
under the theme Extractive Industries and Africa's Development; lessons from Botswana on
4 December 2008, he underscored the centrality of diamonds in Botswanas economic
development (African Development Bank Group, 2008; BOPA, 2008). Even back home, he
sold the Diamonds for Development story. An example is when he delivered a public lecture
at the University of Botswana main campus on 4 September 2007 (Mogae, 2007).
Clearly, the Diamonds for Development Policy has delivered the modern Botswana
and also made possible the delivery of an arguably successful development state. However,
the developmental state is not perfect. It is freighted with myriad development challenges
such as poverty, unemployment, income inequality, mono economy and middle income trap.
2

This is in contrast to labels such as blood diamonds that were appended to countries such Sierra Leone.

5. Challenges of the Developmental State in Botswana

5.1 Poverty; poverty means different things to different people and it is also diverse and
multi-faceted (for example, see Alkire and Foster, 2007; Bourguignon and Chakravarty,
2003; De Vos and Garner, 1991; Foster et al., 1984; Rowntree, 1901). This paper adopts the
World Banks (2000:15) definition which describes poverty as pronounced deprivation in
well-being. Despite Botswanas economic successes, for example between 1980 and 2013 its
Human Development Index value increased from 0.470 to 0.683 (UNDP, 2014a), poverty is
still endemic although poverty figures have gone down as per the latest Botswana Core
Welfare Indicators Survey (BCWIS). The BCWIS results showed a decrease in poverty
incidence between 2002/03 and 2009/10 (Statistics Botswana, 2013). The number of the
population living below the poverty datum fell from 30.6% in 2002/03 to 19.3% in 2009/10
(ibid). In a similar vein, there has been a decrease in the absolute number of people who live
below poverty datum line from 499,467 in 2003 to 362,116 in 2009 (ibid).
Despite the falling poverty statistics and success in economic growth (see UNDP
2008-14b), poverty is still a problem and the government admits to the problem. To illustrate,
when delivering the 2015/16 Budget Speech on 2 February, the Minister of Finance and
Development Planning, Kenneth Mathambo, alluded to this problem when saying;
Madam Speaker, despite the positive economic growth registered in the past years, the
country continues to face development challenges of unemployment and poverty. To address
this, Government will be promoting inclusive growth by creating a conducive environment
for productive economic opportunities (Mathambo, 2015:10).

The realisation that the war on poverty is yet to be won has galvanised the
government into action as amply instanced by the fact that there has been a shift away from
poverty alleviation to poverty eradication (Khama, 2009). Relatively, government spends lots
of money on social protection programmes (World Bank and BIDPA, 2013). Furthermore,
poverty eradication is a flagship government programme (Khama, 2009; 2010) and the
government is formulating a Botswana Poverty Eradication Strategy (Mathambo, 2015).
5.2 Unemployment; overall unemployment on the basis of population aged 18 years and over
was estimated at 17.6 percent in 2009/10 (Statistics Botswana, 2013). This is an intractable
problem and it represents underutilisation of one of the country's important resource, namely
our human capital (ibid:10). Several employment creation initiatives are yet to bear fruit.
10

5.3 Income inequality; alongside Brazil and Namibia, Botswana is one of the most unequal
socities in the world. The 2009/10 BCWIS results indicated that income inequality has
increased from 0.573 in 2002/03 to 0.645 in 2009/10 (Statistics Botswana, 2013).
5.4 Mono Economy; Botswana is a diamonds-reliant economy and this exposes it to vagaries
of the international primary commodity market such as falling demand during economic
crises. The recent global economic crisis demonstrated in living colour to all that reliance on
a single product makes the economy susceptible to external shocks. As a policy response to a
mono economy, there is the Economic Diversification Drive (EDD). The EDD was a result of
Presidential Directive 11 (A) of 2010. The EDD is premised on the fact that the country has a
huge import bill and aims to diversify the economy by developing sectors other than the
primary sectors to contribute meaningfully to Gross Domestic Product (MTI, 2011). The
EDD strategy is based on the use of government interventions such as local procurement, the
use of preference margins and citizen economic empowerment strategies (ibid). The EDD is
one of President Ian Khamas flagship programme and it is yet to bear commendable fruit.
5.5 Middle Income Trap; the term middle income trap has entered development policy
discourse (for example, see ADB 2011; Felipe et al., 2012; Kharas and Kholi, 2011). Despite
its wide use, it is yet to be assume definitional legitimacy (Felipe et al., 2012). In this paper,
we adopt the ADBs (2011) definition of a middle income trap. ADB (2011:54) defines
countries in the middle income trap as those which are unable to compete with low-income,
low-wage economies in manufactured exports and with advanced economies in high-skill
innovationssuch countries cannot make a timely transition from resource-driven growth,
with low cost labor and capital, to productivity-driven growth. Amongst others, the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) contends that Botswana is in a middle income trap (Leigh
and Mills, 2014). At a seminar held in Mauritius from 1821 November 2014, Sub-Saharan
Africas small middle-income countries were advised to implement strong reforms to boost
growth and avoid the middle-income trap (ibid). Botswana committed to finding new
engines of growth to graduate the country into a high income status (Benza, 2015). Notably,
talk about graduating Botswana into the high income ranks was mooted a few years ago. To
illustrate, President Ian Khama alluded to it when signing a Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU) between Botswana, Namibia and Malawi on poverty eradication on 26 March 2013.
He stated Botswana was striving to reach high income status (BOPA, 2013:1). He repeated
the same delivering the 2013 State of the Nation Address on 4 November (Khama, 2013).
11

6. Lessons from the Developmental State in Botswana

Botswana does not constitute the best practice model but there are general lessons such as:
6.1 The developmental state is an imperative and possible in Africa; that Botswana was able
to graduate from underdevelopment by adopting a developmental state demonstrates the fact
that developmentalism is an imperative in Africa. Furthermore, it, alongside others such as
Mauritius, has demonstrated that a successful developmental state in Africa is possible.
6.2 The need for a ruling political party to direct the trajectory of economic development;
before the country gained independence, then Bechuanaland Democratic Party, through its
election manifesto, decided to direct the trajectory of economic development in Botswana. It
decided on a developmental state. It decided to nationalise mineral wealth and extracted rents
from the mineral sector to found a developmental state. Furthermore, it founded a sound
development planning and budgeting regime and institutions and trained a bureaucratic cadre.
6.3 The development of a legalinstitutional framework of mineral wealth management;
Botswana has demonstrated that resource blessings need not degenerate into resource curses.
It did so by developing a sound legalinstitutional framework of mineral wealth management.
This model can be adopted in existing and emergent resource-rich African countries.
6.4 The need to aggressively respond to development challenges; developmentalism is
freighted with development challenges such as poverty, unemployment and income
inequality. These need to be decisively tackled for they are pathologies of developmentalism.

7.0 Conclusion
Emerging as one of the poorest nations in the world in September 1966, Botswana adopted
developmentalism to graduate from underdevelopment. This was a difficult feat at the time
because there were no diamonds. The discovery and exploitation of no diamonds graduated it
into the ranks of middle income countries in 1992 and delivered an arguably successful state.
While Botswana is one of the few successful states in Africa, it is afflicted with myriad
development challenges such as poverty, unemployment, income inequality, mono economy
and middle income trap. These are pathologies of developmentalism, not its essentials.
Therefore, moving forward, there is a need to develop policy responses as Botswana is doing.
12

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