Chapter 23: Light- Geometric

Optics
Giancolli Notes by Hocson
Introduction
We see objects in 2 ways; light
arrives at our eyes:
1. A source of light emitted
directly from the source
2. By light reflected from
and object (more
common)
23-1: Ray Model of Light

Light travels in straight lines

Ray model of light

o Assumes that light travels in straight-line
paths (light rays)
o Ray- represent an extremely narrow
beam of light; straight-line path light
travels in
o When we see an object, light reaches out
eyes from each point on the object
o If you move your head, a different bundle
of rays will enter the eye
o Geometric optics- describes reflection,
refraction, and formation of images by
mirrors and lenses
23-2: Reflection; Image formation by a plane
mirror

When light strikes an object, some of the light is

reflected, the rest of the light is absorbed (
thermal energy)

Object is transparent? Part of light is transmitted

o Very shiny obj. over 95% of light is
reflected

a.
b.

Incident ray being reflected off a flat surface

Side/ end-on view of the same

Angle if incidence, i- angle an incident ray

makes with the normal (perpendicular) to the
surface
Angle of reflection, r- angle the reflected ray
makes with the normal
Incident and reflected rays lie on the same plane
with the normal to the
surface
Law of Reflection:
Angle of reflection equals
the angle of incidence, r
= i

Diffuse Reflectionwhen light is incident

upon a rough surface and is reflected in many
directions
o Law of Reflection still holds at each small
section of the surface

Beam of light on white paper diffuse

reflection
Beam of light on a mirror reflected light only
when eye is placed correctly, r = I specular
reflection

Mirrors

a.
b.

Diffuse reflection in all directions

object can be seen at many different
angles by light reflected from it
Specular reflection- reflection from a mirror
o Light shined onto mirror wont reach your
eye unless your eye is at the right place
where the law of reflection is satisfied
image-forming properties of mirrors
o

When you look into a mirror, left and right are

reversed you dont see yourself as others see
you
Good mirror: made by putting highly reflective
metallic coting on one surface of a very flat piece
of glass
Image distance = object distance (plane mirror)
Law of reflection r = I at point B
Angle ADB and CDB are right angles
Angle ABD and CBD are equal
Triangles ABD and CBD are congruent
Length AD = CD image appears as far behind
the mirror (like the object is father from you) as
the object is in front
Image distance, di (distance from mirror to
image) = object distance, do (distance from
object to mirror)
di = do
Dashed lines= projections (Virtual image), not
rays
Real image- light passes through the image
image can appear on paper or film placed at the
image position
Curved mirrors- can form real and virtual
images
Projector lens real image

For her to see her whole body:

o Light rays from top of her head and
bottom of her foot must reflect mirror
and enter her eye
Ray leaving head top- point G
Ray leaving toe- point A
Since angle of incident = angle of reflection
mirror can
T be lower than B: Ray leaves her foot at A,
reflects at B, enters eye at E
Height BD is height AE = 1.6 BD = 0.75
To see top of head: Top of the mirror must reach
point F, which is 5cm below the top of her head
(1/2 of GE = 10cm GF = 5cm)
DF = 1.55 m (since 1.6m 5cm = 1.55m)
Mirror must have a vertical height of (1.55m 0.75m) = 0.80m and bottom edge must be
0.75m above the floor

23-3: Formation of Images by

Spherical Mirrors

Most common curved mirrors

are spherical (form a section
of a sphere)
Spherical mirrors:
1. Convex- reflection takes
place on the outer surface of
the spherical shape; center of
the mirror surface bulges out
toward the viewer (cars,
trucks, shops) reduce
image size wide field of
view
2. Concave- reflecting surface
is on the inner surface of the
sphere; center of the mirror
sinks away from the viewer
(used as shaving/cosmetic mirrors) magnified
image
r = I for each ray
If the objects distance is large compared to
mirror/lens size nearly parallel rays
Rays are precisely parallel for an object infinitely
far (sun)

Focal Point and Focal Length

Parallel rays onto concave mirror

Law of reflection true for

each ray

Rays dont strike a single

point on the mirror
To form a sharp image,
rays must come to a
point spherical mirror
wont make an image as
sharp as that a plane
mirror will

Mirror is small compared

to its radius of curvature
reflected ray makes a
small angle with the
incident ray rays will
cross each other at a
single point, focus

Principal axis
o Straight line
perpendicular to the
curved surface at tis
center (Line CA)
o Rays are parallel to it

Focal point- Point F;

where incident parallel
rays come to a focus
after reflection

Focal length, f- distance

between focal point and center of the mirror;
Length FA

Paraxial rays- rays that make a small angle

with the principal axis

Point C- center of curvature of the mirror

(center of the sphere of which the mirror is part)
CB = r (radius of curvature)

Triangle CBF: Isosceles- 2 of its angles are equal

Length CF = BF

FA = FC, FA = f (focal length)

CA = 2 x FA = r

Focal length of mirror:

f=

r
2

It is equal to half the radius of curvature

Its only approximately true the rays come to a
perfect focus at F more curved the mirror, the
worse the approximation, more blurred the
image spherical aberration
Parabolic reflector- will reflect rays to a perfect
focus; harder to make more expensive; Eg:
Telescopes

Image Formation- Ray Diagrams

Determine where the image will be for a given point O
on top of the obj.:

All 3 rays leave point O of the object after

reflection, all rays cross at the image point I

Image point- where reflected rays intersect

To find the image point for any object point, draw
these 3 types of rays; only 2 needed, 3rd serves
to check
Since light passes through the image itself
real image
Virtual image- light doesnt pass through image
in a plane mirror
Image can be seen when the eye is placed to the
left of the image

1 1 1
+ =
do di f

Relates the object and image distances to focal

length
Magnification, m

m=

hi d i
=
ho d o

Sign conventions

Image height, hi:

o (+) if image is upright;
o (-) if inverted, relative to object
(assuming ho is positive)

di or do:
o (+) if image/object is in front of mirror;
o (-) if image/object is behind mirror
Magnification
(+) for upright image
() for upside down/inverted image
a.
b.
c.

Ray 1- drawn parallel to axis after reflection,

passes through F
Ray 2- passes F reflects parallel to the axis
Ray 3- passes C, the center of curvature, along a
radius of the spherical surface; drawn
perpendicular to mirror reflected back on itself

Mirror Equation and Magnification

Object distance, do- distance of the object

from the center of the mirror; point O

Image distance, di- distance of the image from

the center of the mirror; point I

Height of the object, ho: OO

Height of the image, hi: II

Ray OAI reflects at the center of the mirror 2

right triangles OAO and IAI are similar

ho d o
=
hi d i

Ray OFBI triangles OFO and AFB are similar

AB = hi
FA = f

ho OF d of
=
=
hi FA
f

Divide both sides by do

Mirror Equation

If you eye was between O and I converging

rays blurry image
You see a clear inverted image of your face when
you are beyond C (do > 2f)
o Rays that arrive at your eyes are
diverging your eye can focus them
You see yourself clearly and upright if you are
closer to the mirror than its focal point (do < f)
image is cirtual, upright, and magnified; Eg:
Cosmetic/shaving mirror

Magnification, m

m=

hi d i
=
ho d o

(For spherical mirrors)

How to solve: Spherical Mirrors Problems
1. Draw ray diagram: draw 2-3
a. Image point- where the reflected rays
interest or appear to intersect
2. Apply mirror equation & magnification
equation
3. Sign conventions
a. Object, image, focal point on reflecting
side of mirror (left of drawing) (+)
distance
b. Object, image, focal point behind the
mirror
(-) distance
c. Image is upright (+) Image height hi
d. Image is inverted relative to object (-)
Image height hi
ho is always (+)

Convex Mirrors

Mirror Equation
applicable, but f and r
(radius of curvature) are
negative

Spherical aberration:
present

Reflected rays diverge,

but seem to come from
point F behind the mirror

Focal Point- point F

Focal length, f- distance

from focal point to center
of mirror

Focal length of mirror:

f=

r
2

(For spherical mirrors)

Object at infinity virtual image

No matter where the object is on the reflecting
side upright and virtual image
Draw rays 1 & 3 to find the image
o Both rays dont pass points F & C
(dashed)

23-4: Index of Refraction

Index of Refraction, n

Ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the

speed v in a given material

n=

c
v

Never < 1
n varies with wavelength of light- except in
vacuum

n1sin1 = n2sin2

Absorption and reemission of light by atoms and

molecules of the material Light travels slower
in matter than in vacuum

23- 5: Refraction: Snells Law

Light passes from one transparent medium to

another w/ different index of refraction part of
incident light is reflected at the boundary;
remained passes into new medium

Ray of light is incident at an angle to the surface

(aside from perpendicular) refraction- ray
changes direction as it enters the new medium

a.
b.

Light refracted when passing from air (n1) into

water (n2): n2 > n1
Light refracted when passing from water (n1) into
air (n2): n1 > n2
Angle of incidence, 1 angle the incident ray
makes with the normal
Angle of refraction, 2 angle the refracted ray
makes with the normal
Ray bends toward the normal when entering the
water always the case when the ray enters a
medium with less speed of light (greater index of
refraction)
Ray bends away from the normal: when light
travels from 1 medium into a 2nd with greater
speed of light

Snells Law (Law of Refraction)

1 = angle of incidence
2 = angle of refraction
n1 and n2 = indices of
refraction of materials
Incident and refracted
rays lie in the same plane
If n2 > n1 2 < 1
o If light enters a
medium with
greater n (less
speed) ray is
bent toward the
normal
If n2 < n1 2 > 1
o Ray bends away
from the normal

a.
b.

Light rays
View looking upward from beneath the water
(requires smooth water surface)

23-6: Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

Occurs only if refractive index is smaller beyond

boundary

Critical Angle, C- incident angle where the

angle of refraction will be 90 and the refracted
ray would skim the surface (Ray K)

sin c =

Binoculars use total internal

reflection within a prism
total internal reflection
nearly 100% of light is
reflected
45 prisms will reflect all light
internally (Eg: Binoculars)

n2
n
sin 90 = 2
n1
n1

For any incident angle less than C theres a

refracted ray, part of the light will also be
reflected at the boundary
Total internal reflection: For incident angles
greater than C no refracted ray all light is
reflected (Ray L)
o Only if light strikes a boundary where the
medium beyond has a lower index of
refraction

Fiber Optics

Total internal reflection- Principle behind it

Light pipe- bundle of glass and plastic fibers

where light can be transmitted along with almost
no loss due to total internal reflection light is
transmitted almost fully to the end (small loss
due to reflection at end and absorption w/i fiber)

Applications: Communications and medicine

23-7: Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

a.
b.

Converging lenses
Diverging lenses

c.
d.

L: converging lens; R: diverging

lens
Above: converging; Below:
diverging

We see a sharp image for rays diverging from

each point (we see normal objects when rays
diverge from each point)
If eye was between F & I: blurry image

Lens faces: concave, convex,

or plane
Importance: form images of
objects
Glass/transparent plastic:
index of refraction greater
than air
Thin lens- lens diameter
small compared to radii of
curvature
Focal point, F- point rays will be focused onto after
rays parallel to the axis fall onto thin lens
o Image point for an object at infinity on the
lens axis focal point can be found by
locating the point where the suns rays are
brought to a sharp image

Focal Length, f- distance of focal point to lens

center
o If lens is rotated, focal length is equal on
both sides even if curvatures of the 2
lens varies
Focal plane- plane where all points (F and Fa)
fall
o Fa- where rays focus if parallel rays fall
on a lens at an angle
Converging lens- lens thicker at the center
than edges
o Converges parallel rays to a point
Diverging lenslens thinner in the
center than edges
o Make parallel
light diverge
o Focal point,
F- where
refracted
rays
originating from parallel rays seem to
emerge
o Focal Length, f- distance from F to lens
Power, P of lens (strength of eyeglass)reciprocal of focal length; unit: diopter (D)inverse meter: 1D = 1m-1

P=

1
f

To determine the image point:

1. Ray 1- drawn parallel to axis refracts through
the focal point F behind the lens
2. Ray 2- drawn on a line passing through other
focal point F (front of lens) parallel to the axis
behind the lens
3. Ray 3- passes the center of lens where 2
surfaces are parallel to each other emerges
from the lens at the same angle as it entered
Image point- Point where 3 rays of 1 object
point cross
Image point for all other object points can be
found similarly
Rays pass through the image real image

Diverging Lens

1.
2.
3.

Ray 1- drawn parallel to axis seems to come

from the focal point F in front of the lens
(dashed)
Ray 2- drawn directed towards other focal point
F (behind lens) parallel to the axis behind the
lens
Ray 3- passes the center of lens where 2
surfaces are parallel to each other emerges
from the lens at the same angle as it entered
(same as converging)
Image point, I- a point on the left of the lens
where 3 rays seem to emerge from
Virtual image- rays dont pass through the
image
Both are visible Eye cant distinguish a real
from virtual image

23-8: The Thin Lens Equation; Magnification

Relates image distance to object distance and

focal length of thin lens determine image
position

Object distance, do- distance of the object

from the center of the lens; point O

Image distance, di- distance of the image from

the center of the lens; point I

Height of the object, ho: OO

Height of the image, hi: II

Converging Lens

di is negative when the image is on the

same side of the lens as the light comes
from
use these negative sign conventions
same formula as that for converging
will work

1 1 1
=
d o di f

2 right triangles FII and FBA are similar

Triangles OAO and IAI are similar

AB = ho
FA = f

hi d if
=
ho
f

hi d i
=
ho d o

Left sides are the same equate right sides and

divide by di

Thin Lens Equation for converging lens

(same as Mirror Equation)

1 1 1
+ =
do di f

Relates the object and image distances to focal

length

If the object is at infinity, then

1
=0
do

so

di = f
focal length is the image distance for an
object at infinity

Diverging Lens

hi d i
=
ho d o

and

hi f d i
=
ho
f

Thin Lens Equation for diverging lens

o f is negative

Sign Conventions
1. Focal length, f
a. (+)- converging
b. (-)- diverging
2. Object distance, do
a. (+)- object is on the side of the lens from
which light is coming
b. (-)- otherwise
3. Image distance, di
a. (+)- image is on opposite side of lens
from where light is coming from; real
image
b. (-)- same side; virtual image
4. Image height, hi
a. (+)- upright image
b. (-) inverted image (relative to the object)
ho is always (+)
5. Power
a. (+) converging lens aka positive lens
b. (-) diverging lens aka negative lens
How to solve: Thin Lenses Problems
1. Draw a ray diagram
2. Solve for unknowns using thin lens equation
and magnification equation
a. Take reciprocals when needed
3. Follow sign convention

23-9: Combination of Lenses

Multiple lenses: image formed by first lens is

object for second lens; image formed by 2nd lens
= final image

Thin lens equation can be used for each lens in

the sequence

Total magnification = product of the separate

magnification of each lens
mtotal = mAmB

SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS
1. Index of Refraction, n

c
v

n=
2.

Focal length, f

f=

r
2

3.

Mirror equation

4.

Magnification (lens and mirror)

1 1 1
+ =
do di f

m=

hi d i
=
ho d o

5.

Law of refraction (Snells Law)

n1sin1 = n2sin2

6.

Critical angle

sin c =
7.

Power of a lens

P=

23-10: Lensmakers Equation

Relates the focal length f of a lens to the radii of

curvature R1 and R2 of its 2 surfaces and its index
of refraction n

1
1 1
=(n1)( + )
f
R 1 R2

(+) R1 and R2 if both surface convex

(-) radius if surface concave
Focal length is the same even if 2 lens
surface differ

n2
n
sin 90 = 2
n1
n1

1
f

8.

Thin Lens Equation

9.

Lensmakers Equation

1 1 1
+ =
do di f

1
1 1
=(n1)( + )
f
R1 R 2

Points to remember:

Plane mirror- image is virtual, upright, same

size as object, as far behind the mirror as the
object is in front

Spherical mirror
o Concave- focuses parallel rays of light
into focal point; same with converging
lens
o Convex- parallel rays reflect from the
mirror as if theyve diverged from a

common point behind the mirror; (-) focal

length; same with diverging lens
Real image- rays pass through the image then
converge to form an image

Virtual image- rays dont pass through the

image