Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Guide Book 2
BOILERS &
FURNACES
STRATEGY
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
EARNINGS
STRATEGY
RG
MI
E
RA
3E
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
LS
AND
EN
TSI
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN BOILERS AND FURNACE SYSTEMS
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN BOILERS AND FURNACE
SYSTEMS
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN BOILERS AND FURNACE SYSTEMS
SAVE
SAVE
SAVE
SAVE
SAVE
SAVE
ENERGY AND
ENERGY AND
ENERGY AND
ENERGY AND
ENERGY AND
ENERGY AND
MONEY:THE 3E STRATEGY
MONEY IN ELECTRICITY USE
MONEY IN STEAM SYSTEAMS
MONEY IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
MONEY IN REFRIGERATION
MONEY IN INSULATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Energy Research Institute would like to acknowledge the following for their contribution in the production of
this guide:
Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), UK, for permission to use information from the Energy
Efficiency Best Practice series of handbooks.
Doug Geddes of South African Breweries for the cover colour photography.
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................................................................1
2. COMBUSTION ..................................................................................................................................................................................................1
2.1 Combustion air.........................................................................................................................................................................................1
2.1.1 Excess Air.....................................................................................................................................................................................4
2.1.2 Glue Gas Analysis....................................................................................................................................................................4
2.1.3 Determination of Excess Air ............................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Heat losses ..................................................................................................................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Heat loss due to incomplete combustion................................................................................................................8
7. ENERGY SAVING EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................................................................23
7.1 Flue gas heat exchangers ................................................................................................................................................................23
7.1.1 Economiser (Feedwater heater)..................................................................................................................................26
7.1.2 Recuperator (Air heater) ................................................................................................................................................26
7.2 Accumulators ..........................................................................................................................................................................................26
7.3 Insulation ....................................................................................................................................................................................................26
7.4 O2 Analysers ............................................................................................................................................................................................27
7.5 Variable speed fan drives ................................................................................................................................................................28
7.6 Flue gas dampers ..................................................................................................................................................................................28
7.7 Waste heat boilers ..............................................................................................................................................................................28
8. POLLUTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................................29
8.1 Environmental Equipment ..............................................................................................................................................................30
8.1.1 Ash Handling Equipment ................................................................................................................................................30
8.1.2 Air Pollution Control Equipment ................................................................................................................................30
9. BOILERS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................31
9.1 Types of boilers......................................................................................................................................................................................31
9.1.1 Water Tube Boilers..............................................................................................................................................................32
9.1.2 Multi-Tubular Shell Boilers ..............................................................................................................................................34
9.1.3 Reverse Flame or Thimble Boilers..............................................................................................................................36
9.1.4 Steam generators ................................................................................................................................................................37
9.1.5 Sectional Boilers ....................................................................................................................................................................38
9.1.6 Condensing Boilers..............................................................................................................................................................39
9.1.7 Modular Boilers ....................................................................................................................................................................40
9.1.8 Composite Boilers ..............................................................................................................................................................41
9.2 Boiler system selection ....................................................................................................................................................................42
10. ENERGY AND COST SAVING FOR BOILERS ..............................................................................................43
10.1 Potential Losses ..............................................................................................................................................................................43
10.2 Boiler Energy Balance ................................................................................................................................................................43
10.3 Minimizing Boiler Losses ..........................................................................................................................................................44
10.3.1 Maintenance saving opportunities ..............................................................................................................................44
10.3.2 Blowdown Heat Loss ........................................................................................................................................................45
10.3.3 Heat Transfer ..........................................................................................................................................................................46
10.3.4 Excess Air Reduction..........................................................................................................................................................48
10.3.5 Flue gas heat recovery ......................................................................................................................................................49
10.3.6 Combustion air pre-heat ................................................................................................................................................53
10.3.7 Load Scheduling ....................................................................................................................................................................54
10.3.8 On-Line Cleaning ................................................................................................................................................................56
10.3.9 Flue Shut-Off Dampers ....................................................................................................................................................56
10.3.10 Variable speed fan drives ................................................................................................................................................56
10.3.11 Integrated control ................................................................................................................................................................57
10.4 What to do first a quick checklist ................................................................................................................................58
10.4.1 Check list ..................................................................................................................................................................................58
11.TYPES OF FURNACES ............................................................................................................................................................................59
11.1 Batch Furnaces ................................................................................................................................................................................59
11.2 Continuous Furnaces ..................................................................................................................................................................59
11.3 Direct Fired Furnaces ................................................................................................................................................................60
11.4 Indirect Heated Furnaces ........................................................................................................................................................61
12. ENERGY AND COST SAVINGS FOR FURNACES ............................................................................................................62
12.1 Potential Losses ..............................................................................................................................................................................62
12.1.1 Furnace Energy Balance....................................................................................................................................................62
12.2 Minimizing Furnace Losses ......................................................................................................................................................63
12.2.1 Flue gas heat loss..................................................................................................................................................................63
12.2.2 Heat Loss to incomplete combustion......................................................................................................................66
12.2.3 Radiation Heat Loss............................................................................................................................................................66
12.2.4 Furnace pressure control ................................................................................................................................................67
12.2.5 Furnace efficiencies and Monitoring and targeting ..........................................................................................68
12.3 What to do first a quick checklist ................................................................................................................................69
APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Conversion Tables ................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Boiler Efficiency Test ............................................................................................................................................................................................71
Furnace Efficiency Test ........................................................................................................................................................................................83
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMBUSTION
Example: Combustion air requirements for a furnace using 700 l/h of Number 6 fuel oil, at 15 per cent
excess air can be calculated. From Table 1, theoretical combustion air is 327 kg/GJ.The heating value of fuel
oil with 2.5 per cent sulphur is about 42.3 MJ/L (sulphur content can usually be obtained from the fuel
supplier).
Combustion air requirement
Combustion air requirement
Combustion air requirement
=
=
=
=
or
=
1.204 kg / m
3
9248 m /h at standard conditions.
% Excess air =
% Excess air =
% Excess air =
Where O2
CO
N2
=
=
=
O2 0.5CO
x 100
Figure 3: Excess air versus flue gas analysis. (Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7.
Page 7. Figure 4)
=
=
% Excess Air
% Excess Air
% Excess Air
=
9.8 (0.5 x 0)
=
x 100
= (0.2682 x 84) [9.8 (0.5 x 0)]
= 77%
% Excess Air
% Excess Air
% Excess Air
=
=
=
=
=
2.1 (0.5 x 0)
=
x 100
= (0.2682 x 87.9) [2.1 (0.5 x 0)]
= 9.8%
O2
CO2
CO
N2
2.1%
10%
0%
87.9% (by difference)
=
=
=
=
0%
11%
2%
87% (by difference)
=
01 (0.5 x 2)
=
= (0.2682 x 87) [0 (0.5 x 2)]
= 4.1%
x 100
Fuel
Stoichiometric
kg/GJ As Fired
Air Typical
Excess
(minimum as a %)
Natural Gas
318
334
#2 Fuel Oil
323
10
355
#6 Fuel Oil
327
10
360
Coke-oven Gas 1
295
15
340
Refinery Gas 2
312
10
343
Propane
314
330
2
1
Analysis by volume
Analysis by volume
CH4
31%
CO
12%
C2H6
20%
H2
42%
C3H8
38%
CH4
37%
H2
5.6%
5%
CO2
Remainder
Inert Gases
As
Remainder
Figure 4: Flue-gas loss for fuel oil. (Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 6.
Page 12. Figure 10)
Figure 5: Flue-gas loss with moisture content for biomass fuel. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 6. Page 13. Figure 11)
3. HEAT TRANSFER
3.1 CONDUCTION
10
Example: A muffle furnace has a 10 mm thick, high nickel steel enclosure with a surface area of 55 m .
Useful heat to the product, all of which is transmitted through the wall, is 1.9 GJ/h.The thermal conductivity
of high nickel steel is 31 W/(mC).The temperature drop through the muffle wall can be determined as
follows:
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Conducted
=
31W / (mC) x 55m x DT x 3.6
Conducted
=
Conducted
=
0.01 m
6
conducted is 1.9 GJ/h, or 1.9 x 10 kJ/h
=
=
=
=
1.9 X 10 X 0.01
31 X 55 X 3.6
3.1C
The temperature drop across the enclosure is 3.1C at the specified rate of heat transfer.
3.2 CONVECTION
0.78
23.46 x A x T x V
xd
Where, Q
Example: A furnace is 3 metres long and has a 1 metre by 1 metre cross-section. Flue gas flows through
the furnace at an average velocity of 0.5 m/s with a gas temperature of 500C.The temperature differential
between the furnace walls and the flue gas averages 150C. For most practical purposes, the density of air
3
can be used for flue gas. From standard references, the density of air at 500C is 0.458 kg/m .The average
rate of heat transfer by convection to the walls, floor and roof can be determined as follows.
Furnace area swept by flue gas
Q
=
=
(1 + 1 + 1 + 1) m x 3m
2
12 m
=
=
11
0.78
x 0.458kg/m
3.3 RADIATION
[( ) ( )]
K x F x [( T1 ( T2 ]
KxFx
K x F x 100
100
Where, Q
=
=
T1,T2 =
F
F
F
F
F
=
=
=
K
F
Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Where, A1
A2
e
2
e
=
=
( )( )
1 + ( A1 ) ( 1 1)
1 + ( A1 ) ( 1 1
e1 + A2 e2 1
Example: A furnace with a square cross section of 1 metre by 1 metre is heating carbon steel billets
100mm by 100mm.The furnace wall temperature is 1000C.The furnace floor does not radiate heat. From
Table 3, the emissivity of a fireclay brick furnace wall is 0.75, and the emissivity of oxidized carbon steel is
0.80.The heat input to the billet per metre of length when the steel is heated to 650C can be calculated.
A1
A2
F
F
F
F
F
T1
T2
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
( )(
1 + ( 0.3 ) ( 1 1)
1 + ( A1 ) ( 1
1
0.8 + 3
0.75 1
0.234
1000C + 273
1273K
650C + 273
923K
12
[( ) ( )]
(923 ]
100
91 604 kJ/h
4. the fuels
13
14
Fuel Oil
Type
Grade
*
Viscosity
*Cst @ 100C
Minimum Storage
Temperature C
Typical Pumping
Temperature C
Gas/Oil
1.0
None stated
None stated
Light
8.2
10
10-12
Medium
20.0
25
30-35
Heavy
40.0
40
55-60
Bunker
56.0
45
70
15
4.4 COAL
16
Fuel
Calorific ValueMJ/Unit
Gas
Natural Gas
38.0/cu m
LPG Propane
50.0/kg
LPG Butane
49.3/kg
Fuel Oil
Gas Oil
38.0/liter
Heavy Oil
41.0/litre
Coal
29.0/kg
Capital
Cost For:
NATURAL GAS
Disadvantages
Advantages
FUEL OIL
Disadvantages
Advantages
COAL
Disadvantages
Advantages
Advantages
Tanks
Bunkerage
Insulation
Fuel Handling
Heavy Fuel Oil
Ash Handling
Running Cost For:
Tank Heating
Boiler Cleaning
Environmental Costs:
Boiler/Furnace
Cleaning
Burners
Environmental
Costs:
Interrupt Tariff
Heavy Oil as Second Fuel
Maintanance Costs For:
Safety Equipment
Environmental Costs:
Smoke Emission
No Sulphur
Maintenance Costs
For:
No Storage
No Sulphur
Maintenance
Costs For:
Low Cost
Maintenance Costs
For:
Safety Equipment
Environmental
Cost:
High NOx
Smoke Emission
High NOx
Higher NOx
17
Advantages:
18
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
19
Figure 7:Type of fuel oil with recommended burners and controls. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 67. Figure 38.)
20
6. combustion equipment:
solid fuel combustion
6.1 STOKERS
21
Fluidised bed combustion is the most recent coalburning technology, the fuel being fed onto a hot,
air-agitated bed of refractory sand.This system has
two main advantages:
22
LMTD =
( )
U x A x LMTD x 3.6
Where, Q
U
=
=
23
Example of savings
3
A heat exchanger is to be added to a dryer which is exhausting 450 000 m /h of moist air at 100C.The
3
exhausted air is used to heat up 350 000 m /h of incoming air from an ambient temperature of 10C to
85C, which is within 15C of the hot exhausted air (Figure 8). The heat exchanger design has a heat
2
transfer coefficient quoted by the manufacturer of 28 W/(m C). Heat given up by the exhausted air is
equal to the heat gained by the incoming air, since there are no significant heat losses in a heat exchanger
3
of this type. Density of air at standard conditions is 1.204 kg/m , and specific heat is 1.006 kJ/(kgC). The
surface area of the heat exchanger required can be calculated as follows:
Cold air heat gain (Q)
=
=
=
=
=
24
=
=
=
=
LMTD
LMTD
LMTD
LMTD
LMTD
=
=
=
=
=
=
31.7 C 15 C
=
=
=
=
=
In
31.7 C
15 C
22.3C
28 x 22.3 x 3.6
14 142m2
If the cold air is heated to within 5C of the exhausted moist air instead of 15C, the size of the heat
exchanger required in increased considerably.The calculations are as follows:
Temperature of heated air
=
=
100C 5C
95C
=
=
(100C Tout)
(100C Tout)
(100C Tout)
Tout
=
=
=
=
=
=
T1
T2
LMTD
LMTD
LMTD
LMTD
LMTD
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Surface Area (A)
Surface Area (A)
Surface Area (A)
=
=
( )
23.9 C
5 C
12.1C
6
36.03 x 10
28 x 12.1 x 3.6
2
29 541 m
25
It should be noted that the reduction in the temperature differential to 5C would require the heat
exchanger area to be slightly more than doubled. An increase in design temperature rise of the incoming
air from (85C 10 0C) = 750C to (95C 10C) = 85C results in an increase in heat recovery of
(85 C 75 C)
(85 C 75 C) x 100 = 13%
75 C
A careful analysis of capital costs and savings in fuel costs for different possible heat exchanger sizes is
important.
7.2 ACCUMULATORS
7.3 INSULATION
26
Figure 9: Energy loss from furnace or boiler wall as a function of wall temperature.
(Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7. Page 23. Figure 12.)
7.4 O2 ANALYSERS
27
28
8. POLLUTION
29
8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL
EQUIPMENT
30
9. BOILERS
Boiler Type
Condensing Gas
High Efficiency Modular
Shell Boiler Hot Water
Shell Boiler Steam
Reverse Flame
Cast Iron Sectional
Steam Generator
Water Tube with Economiser
Efficiency %
88-92
80-82
78-80
75-77
72-75
68-71
75-78
75-78
31
condensing boilers,
modular boilers and
composite boilers.
32
Figure 11: Forced Water Circulation Water Tube Boiler. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 50. Figure 29.)
33
34
35
As indicated above, the major problem with multitubular shell boilers is thermal stress brought
about by differential expansion. The expansion of
the furnace tube is much higher than for the first
pass of smoke tubes - and this, again, is higher than
for the second pass. This puts stress on the tube
plates supporting each end of the boiler.
The reverse flame or thimble boiler is an attempt
to reduce the problem by using a floating
combustion chamber. As shown in Figure 13 the
36
37
38
To some extent the cast iron boilers preeminence is being challenged by stainless steel
welded boilers which are more compact, much
lighter in weight and more energy efficient.
However, the former unit still offers a cheap and
very tolerant package suited to LTHW
applications.
39
40
41
Figure 18: Boiler selection flow chart for steam boilers. (Source ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 74. Figure 41.)
42
2.7 MW
7 bar g
50C
232C
A comprehensive boiler heat balance is given in the appendix. This gives both the direct and indirect method for evaluating efficiency, and a
breakdown of the losses.
43
44
4.
5.
6.
7.
EXAMPLE
Diverting the flash steam to the de-aerator and/or putting the blowdown water through heat exchangers
to heat the feedwater make-up can recover blowdown heat.
45
Consider a boiler evaporating 13 500 kg/h of dry saturated steam at 1400 kPa (absolute) with a blowdown rate of 5 per cent.The feedwater is supplied to the boiler at 1500 kPa and l05C.
Enthalpy of boiler water at 1400 kPa (absolute) 830.1 kJ/kg
Blowdown heat
=
=
A study of the steam and feedwater systems shows that 75 per cent of the blowdown heat is recoverable.
The boiler operates 5000 hours per year and fuel costs R50/GJ.
Annual savings
=
560317 x 0.75 x 5000 x 50
Annual savings
=
6
Annual savings
=
1 x 10
=
R10 506
Blowdown heat recovery equipment including a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the blowdown
water to treated water make-up, plus the associated piping, costs in total about R150, 000.
Simple payback
=
R150000
Simple payback
=
Simple payback
=
R105060
=
1.4 years
46
Example 1
For example, consider a packaged watertube boiler with a full load rated output equivalent to 50 GJ/h
with all four furnace walls water cooled. From the chart, the heat loss due to radiation would be 0.65 per
cent of gross heat input. Note that if the boiler were operating at half capacity, the radiation loss would be
14 per cent of gross heat input. It can therefore be seen that a penalty will be paid, in increased percentage
radiation losses if a boiler is operated on part load for an extended period of time.The absolute heat loss
to the flue gas would be lower at part load, because the gas volume is lower. However, the overall boiler
efficiency would likely be lower.
The remaining 30% of heat transfer is by convection from the hot flue gases and this is determined mainly
by the flue gas velocity and degree of surface fouling.The fouling of heat transfer surfaces is a result of soot
and ash on the fire side and incorrect water treatment on the water side. In order to minimise the
thickness of the boundary layer limiting heat transfer rates modern shell boilers use smaller multiple tubes
and in some cases, induce additional turbulence to increase combustion gas velocity.
Example 2
Add insulation to areas previously left uninsulated or increase thickness in areas already insulated: Boilers
installed 15 to 20 years ago were sometimes insulated for reasons of personnel protection rather than
energy conservation. Insulation thickness was selected to give an outside casing temperature of 55C. If
additional insulation was added to reduce the skin temperature to 40C, the energy saving could amount
to at least 0.25 per cent of the annual fuel bill. Also, some areas out of the reach of operating staff may
not be insulated.
47
EXCESS AIR
For every fuel it is possible to calculate the exact
amount of air that is needed for combustion. In
practice, some surplus air is required to ensure
complete combustion, the amount varying with
the type of fuel being burned. Any further excess
air is heated, passes through the boiler and is
passed out of the stack, thereby reducing system
efficiency.
Figure 22: Increase in boiler efficiency per 1% reduction in excess air versus stack temperature.
(Source: ETSU) (Good Practice Guide 30. Page 78. Figure 45.)
Fuel
Natural Gas
Fuel Oil:
Light
Heavy
Coal
NB
Max
15.0
12.5
20.0
30.0
20.0
25.0
50.0
2.3
3.3
4.9
3.5
4.2
7.0
the above settings are typical for boilers without low excess air combustion equipment.
48
EXAMPLE
A boiler burning natural gas is operating at 60% excess air. Boiler efficiency has been tested and found to
be 77%. Annual fuel costs are R4 000 000. Recalibration of the controls and minor repairs to the burner
windbox dampers cost R20 000.These changes permit operation at 40% excess air.
A reduction in excess air from 60% to 40% results in a reduction in flue gas losses from 21% to 19% at a
flue gas temperature of 210C. Assuming that other losses and the flue gas temperature remain
unchanged, the boiler efficiency will be 79%.
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Payback
Payback
Payback
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
R4 000 000
R4 000 000
R4 000 000
R4 000 000
R101 270
R20000
R101270
x 77
=
x
=
x 79
=
- R3 898 730
=
=
=
R3 898 730
R3 898 730
R3 898 730
By ensuring that the flame is of a clear bright colour and nearly fills the combustion chamber, and that
excess air is kept to a minimum, an increase in overall thermal efficiency of some 5% can be achieved.
49
Example
The analysis that follows is based on the actual addition of a free standing economizer to a forced draft
packaged water-tube boiler producing a maximum of 20 000 kg/h of superheated steam at 3100 kPa
(gauge).
The natural gas fired boiler operated with 10 per cent excess air, 300 C gas outlet temperature and a
50
tested efficiency of 80 per cent. Before conversion, the boilers annual fuel consumption was 292 780 GJ
at a cost of R42.4/GJ. The modification included changes to the F.D. fan, burners and feed pump motors.
The total cost of the project was reported to be R1 580 000 (1984).
Annual fuel cost before conversion
=
=
After conversion, the excess air was still 10%, but the exit flue gas temperature had decreased to 180C.
The reduction in the flue gas heat loss would be equal to 4.8 per cent. An additional radiation loss of 0.2
per cent of the fuel input can be allowed for the economizer heat transfer efficiency of approximately 96
per cent.Thus, the heat recovered in the economizer = 4.8 - 0.2 = 4.6 per cent of fuel input.
Annual steam heat
234 224 GJ
=
=
=
234224
(0.80 + 0.046)
276 860 GJ
=
=
=
=
=
=
Generally the potential for energy saving will depend on both the type of boiler installed and the fuel used.
For a typical older-model shell boiler with a flue gas exit temperature of 260C an economiser could
reduce temperatures to 200C, increasing the feedwater temperature by 15C and raising the overall
thermal efficiency by 3%. For a modern three-pass shell LTHW boiler firing natural gas with a flue gas exit
temperature of 140C a condensing economiser would reduce the exit temperature to 65C, giving an
increase in thermal efficiency of 5%. An economiser must be correctly sized so that the heat transfer does
not cause the water temperature to exceed the system operating temperature or to be flashed off to
steam.
51
Figure 24: Flue gas dew point versus fuel sulphur content. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 88. Figure 55.)
52
53
EXAMPLE
A boiler firing No.2 oil uses 14 500 kg/h of air at 20C average temperature. Installation of a duct to the
top of the boiler house increases the average air temperature to 30C.The specific heat of the air is 1.01
kJ/kgC.
Heat recovered
The boiler operates 6000 hours per year, and the fuel costs R50/GJ.
Annual fuel savings
Annual fuel savings
Annual fuel savings
=
=
=
=
1 x 10
R43 930 per year
R1000000
R43930
= 2.3 years
Generally, the savings achieved will depend on the type of system installed. Ducting hot air from the top
of the boiler house typically results in savings of 1%, while savings of 2% are more typically achieved by
drawing combustion air over/through the boiler casing.
54
55
56
Figure 29: Schematic of a flue shut-off damper and interlock. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 86. Figure 53.)
maintenance
scheduling
can
incorporated into the system.
be
57
blowdown losses;
fuel consumption;
heat output;
flue gas conditions;
make-up water consumption;
subsidiary electricity consumption.
58
11.2 CONTINUOUS
FURNACES
59
Figure 30: High Temperature Electric Box furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 7. Page 25. Figure 15.)
60
61
A furnace energy efficiency test is described in the appendix.This gives the direct method for evaluating efficiency, and a breakdown of the losses.
62
Classification
Melting furnace for metal casting
Steel slab continuous reheating furnace
Metal reheating furnace other than steel
slab continuous reheating furnace
Continuous heat treating furnace
Gas generator and gas reheating furnace
Petroleum refinery furnace
Pyrolyzer and reformer
Cement baking furnace
Alumina baking furnace and lime baking
furnace
Continuous glass melting furnace
63
Furnace
temperature
(C)
Air
ratio
before
correction
1.20
1.10
1.00
700
1.70
11.6
14.9
17.9
20.8
23.4
1.60
7.72
11.1
14.3
17.3
20.1
1.50
3.86
7.43
10.7
13.8
16.7
1.40
3.76
7.27
10.5
13.5
1.30
3.65
7.01
10.1
1.20
3.48
6.74
1.10
3.38
1.70
18.7
23.5
27.7
31.5
34.9
1.60
12.5
17.6
22.2
26.3
29.9
1.50
6.23
11.7
16.6
21.0
25.0
1.40
5.94
11.3
16.0
20.2
1.30
5.66
10.7
15.2
1.20
5.29
10.1
1.10
5.06
1.70
30.8
37.3
42.6
47.1
51.0
1.60
20.6
28.0
34.1
39.3
43.7
1.50
10.3
18.6
25.6
31.4
36.4
1.40
9.43
17.3
23.8
29.4
1.30
8.67
15.9
22.1
1.20
7.91
14.7
1.10
7.36
1300
1.70
55.0
61.9
67.1
70.9
74.0
1.60
36.7
46.5
53.6
59.1
63.4
1.50
18.3
31.0
40.2
47.3
52.9
1.40
15.7
27.2
35.9
42.7
1.30
13.7
23.9
32.1
1.20
11.9
21.3
1.10
10.7
900
1100
64
64
x 193 000
100
123 500 kJ/h
65
=
=
Energy savings =
Savings
Savings
Savings
=
=
=
=
=
=
66
2mx6m
2
12 m
(2m x 6m x2) + (2m x 2m)
2
32 m
67
= R50 x 400
= R20 000/yr
68
Heat recovered =
=
=
c x DT x w
1.006 kJ/(1KgC)
x (30 - 20)C x 5,000 Kg/h
50 300 kJ/h
69
APPENDIX
CONVERSION TABLES.
FROM/TO KILOGRAM
TON (a)
MULTIPLY BY
1 Kilogram 1.000
3
1
Metric 1.000x10
ton (a)
2
1
Ton 9.072x10
(USA) (b)
3
1 Ton (UK) 1.016x10
(c)
-2
1 Ounce
2.835x10
-1
1
Pound 4.536x10
(USA)
-1
1
Pound 4.124x10
(UK)
METRIC
(b)
1.000x10
1.000
9.072x10
-3
-1
1.016
-5
2.835x10
-4
4.536x10
4.124x10
-4
1.102x10
1.102
-3
-4
9.842x10
-1
9.842x10
1.000
8.929x10
1.120
1.000
-5
3.124x10
-4
5.000x10
4.545x10
-1
OUNCE
(UK)
POUND
POUND
3.527x101
4
3.527x10
2.205
3
2.205x10
2.425x10
3
2.425x10
3.201x10
3.584x10
-5
2.790x10
-4
4.464x10
4.059x10
-4
1.000
-1
1.600x10
1.455x10
2.000x10
2.240x10
2.200
2.464x10
6.251
1.000
9.083x10
6.873x10
1.100
-1
1.00
FROM/
LITER
TO
METRE
MULTIPLY BY
1 Litre
1.000
3
1 Cubic
1x10
metre
1 Gallon 3.785
(USA)
1 Gallon 4.546
(UK)
2
1 Barrel
1.590x10
(USA)
-1
1
Pint 4.732x10
USA
-1
1
Pint 5.683x10
(UK)
1
1 Cubic
2.832x10
foot
CUBIC
(USA)
-3
1x10
1.000
3.785x10
4.546x10
1.590x10
4.732x10
5.683x10
2.832x10
-1
-3
-1
-4
-4
-2
1.000
8.327x10
1.201
1.000
4.200x10
1.250x10
1.501x10
7.481
-1
-1
3.498x10
1.041x10
1.250x10
6.231
70
-1
2.381x10
2.860x10
-1
-1
PINT
(UK)
-3
-2
-2
1.000
2.976x10
3.574x10
1.781x10
-3
-1
CUBIC
-2
2.113
1.760
3.531x10
3
3
1
2.113x10 1.760x10 3.531x10
8.000
6.662
1.337x10
9.606
8.000
1.605x10
3.360x10
-3
PINT
FOOT
8.328x10
-1
1.0001
4.984x10
2.799x10
8.328x10
-1
4.984x10
-1
5.615
1.671x10
-2
-1
1.0001
1
-1
2.006x10
1
1.000
FROM/TO
JOULE
CALORIE
THERM
BTU
THERMIE
ERG
kWh
MULTIPLY BY
1 Joule
1.000
2.388x10
1 Calorie
4.187
1.000
1 Therm
1.055x10
8
3
1 BTU
1.055x10
1 Thermie
4.186x10
6
7
Erg
1.000x10
kWh
3.600x10
2.520x10
2.520x10
9.995x10
2.388x10
8.599x10
-1
9.479x10
3.968x10
4
2
5
8
5
-9
5
1.000
9.478x10
3.968x10
-4
-3
1.000x105
1.000x10
3.967x10
9.479x10
3.413x10
-5
5
-16
-2
1.000
3.967x10
9.478x10
3.412x10
2.389x10
1.001x10
-11
3
-6
2.521x101
2.521x10
-7
-4
1.000
2.398x10
8.600x10
1.000x10
4.187x10
1.055x10
1.055x10
4.186x10
-14
-1
7
7
15
10
13
1.000
3.600x10
2.788x10
1.163x10
-6
2.930x101
2.930x10
1.163
2.778x10
13
-7
-14
1.00
1 Toe
42Gj
1 Tse
29.3 Gj
71
Energy Input
72
Measured Values
Coal Flow
Feedwater Flow
Feedwater Temperature
Superheater outlet temperature
Superheater Outlet pressure
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Ash
Moisture Inherent
-Superficial
Nitrogen
Sulphur
3,3kg/s
30,4kg/s
175,4C
450,0C
4,00 Mpa
Energy Input
= Coal Flow Rate x Gross Calorific Value
= 3,3 x 27 320
= 90 156 kJ/s (Kw)
=
=
=
27,32MJ/kg
Energy Output
= Steam Flow Rate x Enthalpy Gain
= 30,4 x (3330 - 743) kJ/s
= 78 644,8 kJ/s
Efficiency
64,6%
4,0%
7,0%
14,4%
3,4%
4,1%
1,0%
1,5%
100%
CO2
CO
O2
N2
Energy Output
Energy Output
78 644,8 x 100%
90 156,0
87,32 %
14,9%
0,4%
4,4%
80,3%
100,0%
Measured Values
Carbon in ash
Flue Gas Outlet
temperature
Ambient Dry Bulb Air
Temperature
Ambient Wet Bulb Air
Temperature
12,87%
139,0 C
30,0 C
22,0 C
73
mg
cp
Tg
and
EXAMPLE 1
Quc = mash CVc Ca
= 14,4 x 33820 x 12,87
=
x 33820 x
= 100 x 33820 x 100
= 626,78 kJ/kg of coal
or = 626,78
or =
x 100%
or = 27 320
= 2,29%
Mass of unburned
carbon
=
=
=
mash Ca
0,144 x 0,1287
0,0185 kg carbon/kg fuel
Process
Ta
..(2)
74
In other words:-
(4)
(4)
= Carbon Consumed
+ Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
Carbon in the Flue Gas
75
EXAMPLE 3
= 0,6275 + 0,0056
0,0601
= 10,53 kg dry gas/kg fuel
But Qfd = mg cp (Tg Ta)
= 10,53x 1,005 x (139 - 30)
= 1 153,96 kJ/kg fuel
or
= 1153,96 x 100 %
27 320
= 4,22 %
76
EXAMPLE 4
Hydrogen in the fuel
4,0 %
(7)
28CO
weight of dry flue gas
77
A x 28CO
Weight of C in dry flue gas
EXAMPLE 5
The percentage of carbon monoxide in 1 kg of
fuel
Dry-Bulb
Wet Bulb
Temp C
Temp C
Relative
Humidity
(%)
20
20
30
40
20
14
22
30
100
50
50
50
Kilogram
Water per
kilogram
Dry Air
0,016
0,008
0,014
0,024
or
78
Combustion Air
Moisture Loss
EXAMPLE 6
From psychrometric charts, at 30C dry bulb
temperature and 22C wet bulb temperature, the
relative humidity is 50% and the moisture content
of the air is 0,014 kg/kg.
Qfm
=
=
=
or =
cp(Tg Ta)
2,01 x (139 30)
219,09kJ/kg vapour
219,09 x 0,014kJ/kg of dry air entering
boiler
= 3,07kJ/kg
Mass of Air
= 10,97 kg/kg
0,144 kg/kg
(from Analysis)
1 kg (by definition)
Heat Balance
Having established the magnitude of all the losses
mentioned above, a simple heat balance will give
the efficiency of the boiler. The efficiency is the
difference between the energy input to the boiler
and the heat losses calculated.
79
KJ/kg fuel
626,78
2,29
1153,96
4,22
197,17
0,72
946,44
3,46
391,14
1,43
31,03
0,11
273,20
1,00
TOTAL LOSSES
3619,20
13,23
EXAMPLE SOLUTION
86,77%
____%
____%
____%
____%
____%
____%
____%
____%
100%
____ MJ/kg
Mass of unburned
carbon = massash % x Carbonash %
100
100
= ____ x ____
100
100
= ____ kg carbon/kg fuel
Unburnt Carbon
Loss
= kg C/kg Fuel x CVcarbon
_____ x 33 820 kJ/kg fuel
or = Carbon Loss x 100%
GCV of fuel
= ______ x 100
= ____%
____%
____%
____%
____%
100,0%
(or by difference)
= 12 CO2% + 12 CO%
44 CO2% + 32O2% + 28 CO%
+ 28 N2%
= 12 x
+ 12
44 x ____ + 32 x ____ + 28 x ____
+ 28 x ____
= ______ kg carbon / kg flue gas
Measured Values
Carbon in ash
Flue Gas Outlet temperature
Ambient Dry Bulb Air Temperature
Ambient Wet Bulb Air Temperature
____%
____C
____C
____C
80
Qhf
= ____ x 12
100
32
= ____kg
or
Mass of Dry Gas per kg of Fuel
= Carbon Consumed
+ Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
Carbon in the Flue Gas
=
+
_______
=
____ kg dry gas / kg fuel
Incomplete Combustion
The percentage of carbon monoxide in 1 kg of
fuel
= (% carbon consumed + % sulphur
x 12/32)
x 28 CO
12CO2 + 12CO
= (
+
x 12/32) x 28 x
12 x ____ + 12 x ____
= ____ %
or
= ____ kg CO/kg fuel
Calorific Value of CO =
10 143 kJ/kg
CO Heat Loss/kg fuel =
10 143 x _____
= ______ kJ/kg fuel
or
= _____ x 100 %
___
= ____ %
or
Qcm
=
=
or =
=
%+
100
%)
Qfm
Hydrogen Loss
Hydrogen in the fuel
or
=
_____%
81
=
=
=
=
cp (Tg Ta)
2,01 x (___ - ___)
_____ kJ/kg vapour
____ x ____ kJ/kg of dry air
entering boiler
= ____kJ/kg
Mass of Air
Mass of dry gas/kg fuel = Mass of (Wet Flue
Gas + Ash - Fuel)
Moisture in fuel
= _____ kg/kg
Moisture from H2
=
_____ kg/kg
Total Wet Gas/kg fuel = _____
Total Ash Content
= _____
Total fuel burnt
= 1
kg/kg
kg/kg
(from Analysis)
kg (by
definition)
KJ/kg fuel
TOTAL LOSSES
82
m
m
m
= MLm
83
e = 1,152
e = 1,152 = 45%
e = 2,585
Cp = A + BT + C + DT2
Cp = A + BT + C + DT22
Cp = A + BT + T2 + DT
For some materials it may be necessary to use
several such formulae to cover the range of
temperatures required. For comprehensive
information on specific heats, latent heats of fusion
and evaporation. Specialist textbooks on the
processes in use in specific industries usually also
provide this information.
84
SOURCES OF
FURTHER
INFORMATION
85