ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

CONSOLIDATION OF CLAY

Page 1 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Requirements:
1. Deformation (especially vertical deformation known as settlement) must be
within a tolerable limit.
2) Shear strength of soil must be adequate to withstand the stress induced

Sample Practical Situation:

The leaning tower of Pisa is the classic
example
of
differential
settlement.
Construction of the tower started in 1173
and by the end of 1178 when two-thirds of
the tower was completed it tilted. Since
then the tower has been settling
differentially. The foundation of the tower
is located about 3 m into a bed of silty
sand that is underlain by 30 m of clay on a
deposit of sand. The structure of the tower
is intact but its function is impaired by
differential settlement.
Causes of settlement:
1. Deformation of soil particles
2. Relocation of soil particles
3. Expulsion of water and/or air from the void spaces
4. Viscous deformation (creep)
Types of settlement:
1. Elastic (or immediate) settlement (Se)
-Elastic deformation without change in moisture content
-Occurs directly after application of load
2. Primary consolidation settlement (Sc)
-Volume change in saturated soils due to expulsion of water from void
spaces
3. Secondary consolidation settlement (Ss)
-Rearrangement of soil particles in saturated cohesive soils under constant
effective stress (creep)
Total settlement, ST = Se + Sc + Ss

Note: If foundation is constructed on very compressible clays, the consolidation

settlement could be several times greater than the elastic settlement.
Page 2 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Fundamentals of Consolidation

Ps = 0
Pw = P

P = Ps + Pw
Ps = P
Pw = 0
Ps > 0
Pw < P

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ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

= + u

Page 4 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

First suggested by Terzaghi
Performed in a consolidometer (sometimes known as Oedometer)
Soil specimen placed in a metal ring, with two porous stones (one top and
one bottom)
Specimen size: 64 mm (2.5 inch) dia, 25 mm (1 inch) thick
Loads are applied using a lever arm
Compression is measured using a dial guage
Specimens kept is water
Each load is kept 24 hours, after that load doubled
At the end dry unit weight of the specimen is calculated

Page 5 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Stage I: Initial compression, mostly by preloading

Stage II: Primary consolidation, excess pore water pressure gradually

transferred to effective stress because of expulsion of water

Stage III: Secondary consolidation, after completion of excess pore

water dissipation, deformation takes place because of plastic
rearrangement of soil fabric

Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

Normally consolidated: Present effective overburden pressure is the maximum
effective overburden pressure the soil was subjected ( = c)
Overconsolidated: Present effective overburden pressure is less than the effective
overburden pressure soil experienced in the past (< c)
Underconsolidated: Soil is under the process of consolidation.
The maximum effective past pressure is known as Preconsolidation Pressure c.
Page 6 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Example 1: Consolidation test was conducted on a soil specimen collected from a

clay layer shown below. The test results are shown in Table 1. Assume that the
primary consolidation of the clay layer in the field under overburden pressure is
completed.
a) Plot e-log curve
b) Using Casagrandes method determine the Preconsolidation Pressure (c)
c) Determine Compression Index (Cc) and Swelling Index (Cs)
d) Determine OCR for a soil element at the middle of the clay layer.
e) Calculate primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer if a uniformly
distributed load 100 kN/m2 is applied on ground surface. Assume a constant
initial void ratio e0=1.14 throughout the depth of the soil layer.
f) Instead of 100 kPa uniform load, if a 3m x 4 m spread footing loaded with
12,000 kN is placed at 2 m depth. Calculate the primary consolidation
settlement of the footing using simplified method.
g) Given that the time required for primary consolidation is 5 years. Calculate
the Secondary Consolidation Settlement and Total Consolidation Settlement
of the clay layer 25 years after the construction. The secondary compression
index C=0.02.
Table -1: One-dimensional Consolidation Test results
Applied
stress, '
(kN/m2)
12.5
25
50
100
200
400
800
400
200

Void Applied Void

ratio stress, ' ratio
(e)
(kN/m2) (e)
1.215
100
0.9
1.21
50
0.92
1.196
100
0.91
1.15
200
0.898
1.06
400
0.88
0.96
800
0.85
0.865
1600
0.76
0.867
3200
0.67
0.884

Page 7 of 17

Sand

2m

d = 15 kN/m3

Sand

3m

sat = 18.81 kN/m3

Clay

10m

sat = 19.81 kN/m3

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Preconsolidation Pressure

Swelling index, Cs

Compression index, Cc

Page 8 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Comments on Conventional Consolidation Tests

Comments:
1. As time t is increased, the amount
of secondary consolidation is
increased that reduce void ratio e
2. The value of Preconsolidation
Pressure c increases with
decrease of t

Comment:
In curves II & II (/0.25) the
position of the end of primary
consolidation is very difficult to
determine.

Page 9 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Comment:
When / is increased, the e-log
curve gradually moves down.

Page 10 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Primary consolidation settlement:

a) For normally consolidated clays
CH

S c c log 0
where Cc is compression index
0
1 e0
b) For overconsolidated clays 0+ c

Sc

Cs H
log 0
0
1 e0

where Cs is swell index

c) If 0+ c
Sc

C H

Cs H
log c c log 0
1 e0
0 1 e0
c

Empirical Correlations and Typical Values of Cc and Cs

Compression Index (Cc)
Skempton (1944):

C c 0.009( LL 10)

LL = Liquid limit

Kulhawy & Mayne 1990):

(based on Cam-Clay)

C c PI / 74

PI = Plasticity Index

Swelling Index (Cs)

Tyipcal value
Kulhawy & Mayne 1990):
(based on Cam-Clay)

Cs

1
1
to Cc
5 10

C s PI / 370

Page 11 of 17

PI = Plasticity Index

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Secondary Consolidation Settlement

Secondary compression index
e
e
C

log t 2 log t1 log(t 2 / t1 )

where e = change in void ratio
t1 & t2 are the times
Secondary consolidation settlement:
t
S s C H log 2
t1
where C

C
1 ep

Typical values:
OC clays C0.001
NC clays C=0.0050.03
Organic soils C0.04
Comments:
(a) Secondary consolidation settlement
is more important than primary
consolidation settlement for organic and
highly compressible inorganic soils
(b) For overconsolidated inorganic clays
secondary consolidation has less
practical significance
(c) C/ Cc 0.05

Page 12 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Time Rate of Consolidation

u
k 2u
2u

c
v
t mv w z 2
z 2

cv

k
mv w

= coefficient of consolidation

cv can be determined using logt or method

ct
Tv v2
=Time factor
H dr
Degree of consolidation at depth z,

Uz

u0 u z
u0

Page 13 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Average degree of consolidation for entire depth of clay layer:

Sc (t )
Sc

Where,

Sc(t) = settlement of clay layer at time t

Sc = ultimate primary consolidation settlement

Approximate solution:
For U= 0 to 60%
For U> 60%

U%
Tv

4 100

Tv 1.781 0.933 log(100 U %)

Page 14 of 17

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Example 2: Time rate of consolidation

A 12 m thick soft clay layer is doubly drained as shown in Figure below. From one-dimensional
consolidation tests it was found that the coefficient of consolidation (cv) is 8x10-8 m2/s. A
uniformly distributed load of 100 kN/m2 is applied at the ground surface over a large area.

u0

uin
a) Find the degree of consolidation of clay elements 5 years after loading at depths of 0, 3 m, 6
m, 9 m and 12 m depths.
b) Calculate the excess pore water pressure remaining in clay elements 5 years after loading
at depths of 0, 3 m, 6 m, 9 m and 12 m depths.
c) Calculate the average degree of consolidation of the clay layer 5 years after loading.
d) Given that the primary consolidation settlement is 82 cm. Calculate the settlement of the
clay layer 5 years after loading.
e) The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25 mm thick clay specimen prepared from a
soil sample collected from this clay layer is 140 sec for load the increment of 100 to 200 kN/m2.
Also, given that the average vertical effective stress in the clay layer prior to application of
vertical stress at the ground surface is 100 kN/m2. Calculate the time required for 50% and
30% consolidation of the clay layer in the field.
f) Calculate the consolidation settlement of the clay layer for 30% consolidation.

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ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

a & b) Tv

cv t

2
H dr

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

(8 10 8 )(5 365 24 60 60
0.35
62

Depth
(m)

z
(m)

z/Hdr

12

c) Assume U 60 %

u z u0 (1 U z

Uz

U %
Tv

4 100

U%
0.35

4 100

(Fig. 11.23)

(kPa)

1.0

1.2

0.61

39

Tv 1.781 0.933 log(100 U %)

1.0

0.46

54

0.5

0.61

39

0.35 1.781 0.933log(100 U %)

U=65.8%

12

1.0

d)

e) Tv

cvt
2
H dr

Sc (t )
Sc

Or use Fig. 11.24: for Tv=0.35 U66%

65.8 Sc (t )

S c (t ) 54 cm
100
82

for field: Tv _ field

Now Tv _ field Tv _ lab

t field

U=66.7% >60%

cv t field
2
H dr
_ field

cv t field

for lab: Tv _ lab

2
H dr
_ field

H
t
ct
v2 lab field dr _ field
tlab H dr _ lab
H dr _ lab

6 1000
6

3.22 10 sec 373 days

140 25 / 2
Tv

For U= 0 to 60%
Therefore,

cv t U %

2
4 100
H dr

U%

4 100

also

Tv

cv t
2
H dr

For consolidation in the field or laboratory:

cv t1 U 1

2
4 100
H dr

At time t1:

t U
Therefore, 1 1
t2 U 2
f) U

Sc (t )
Sc

ct
U
& At time t2: v 22 2
H dr 4 100
2

t
t30 30
30
30 t30 134 days
373 50
t50 50

30 S c (t )

S c (t ) 24.6 cm
100
82
Page 16 of 17

cv tlab
2
H dr
_ lab

ENGI 9723 Soil properties and behaviour

Instructor: Dr. Bipul Hawlader

Hypothesis A & B (Jamiolkowski et al. 1985)

One of the most important issues in consolidation analyses involves the
use of laboratory test results on a thin soil specimen to predict the development
of strain with time for thick soil layers in the field. It is assumed in general that
the time required for a certain degree of consolidation is proportional to the
t
square of the drainage length as H
th

H
, where where, tH and th are the times
h

required for the same degree of consolidation of a field clay layer and laboratory
specimen having drainage distance H and h, respectively.
Jamiolkowski et al. (1985) considered the above equation as a limiting case of
consolidation prediction, and referred to it as Hypothesis-A (Fig. below).
According to this hypothesis, creep occurs only after the end of primary
consolidation, and hence the time required for excess pore pressure dissipation
has no effect on the void ratio reduction at the EOP (Mesri and Godleski 1977).
On the other hand in Hypothesis-B (Jamiolkowski et al. 1985), creep is assumed
to cause void ratio reduction even during the excess pore pressure dissipation.
Since the time required for excess pore pressure dissipation in the field is more
than that of a laboratory sample, the field EOP strain is expected to be higher.

log(t)
Thin

Thick
Hypothesis-A
Hypothesis-B

EOP

Hypothesis A and B (Jamiolkowski et al. 1985)

Comparison with field data (Hawlader et al. 2003)

Page 17 of 17