1 Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

Chapter I
Infrastructure Development and Environment
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:

define infrastructure and infrastructure management
enlist the characteristics of infrastructure
discuss the impact of infrastructure on environment
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:

state the need for public awareness
enlist the importance of environmental studies
discuss the efforts in environmental protection
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

understand the need for public education and awareness
explain the benefits of infrastructure management
get an overview of sustainable development
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Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need
1.1 Introduction
The environment in which we live and work is undergoing tremendous changes. Pressures associated with population
growth, urbanisation, energy efficiency and water scarcity are driving ongoing private and government investment
in the urban environment which sustains our societies and enable our lifestyles. The major environmental concerns
have been identified as important areas where background information is essential for a better understanding of
environment. It stresses on a balanced view of issues that affect our daily lives. These issues are related to the conflict
between existing development strategies and the need for environmental conservation. There are reasons to know
about the state of the environment. First, there is a need for information which clarifies modern environmental
concepts such as the need to conserve biodiversity, the need to lead more sustainable lifestyles and the need to
use resources more equitably. Second, there is a need to change the way in which the environment is viewed by a
practical approach based on observation and self learning. There is a need to create a concern for the environment
that will trigger pro-environmental action; including activities that can be done in daily life to protect it.
1.2 Definition
Following are the definition of some very important terms:
1.2.1 Environment
Environment may be defined as the complex of climatic, biotic, social and edaphic factors that acts upon an organism
and determines its form and survival. It therefore, includes everything that may directly affect the metabolism or
behaviour of a living organism or species, including light, air, water, soil, and other living beings. The environment,
encompasses all living and non-living things.
1.2.2 Infrastructure
Infrastructure is the basic physical and organisational structure needed for the operation of a society or enterprise, or
the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function. The term typically refers to the technical structures
that support a society, such as roads, water supply, sewers, power grids, telecommunications, and so forth. Viewed
functionally, infrastructure facilitates the production of goods and services.
1.2.3 Infrastructure Management
For an organisations information technology, infrastructure management (IM) is the management of essential
operation components such as policies, processes, equipment, data, human resources, and external contacts, for
overall effectiveness.
Infrastructure asset management is the discipline of managing infrastructure assets that underpin an economy, such
as road, water supply, wastewater, storm water, power supply, flood management, recreational and other assets.
1.3 Characteristics of Infrastructure

The traditional characteristics of infrastructure are:
Economies of scale and scope
The economies of scale and scope come in because there is high investment and decreasing marginal cost. This
tends to create natural monopolies, and hence the need for regulation.
Essentiality of infrastructural services
In economic infrastructure, the service part of infrastructure is essential to realise the benefits of the infrastructure.
For example, physical infrastructure has no value without transport services. In the social infrastructure, the service
part is much more expensive. This is true even for the health sector, where hi-tech hospitals require high investments,
but still the service part is much more important.
Usage of a key national resource
Another important factor of infrastructure is that, it typically uses a very key national resource, which again needs
regulation. For e.g., if we consider ports, an important national resource that cannot be ignored easily, is coastline.
One really needs to worry about what is the best use of coastline. If we consider telecom, we talk about the network.
If road or rail is considered, the key national resource is not just land but it is contiguous land, and that contiguity
in land creates lot of problems. So, there are issues, which may go beyond viewing things at an enterprise level.
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Benefits from users to non-users

Infrastructures benefits are enjoyed by not only the direct users but also by non-users. In fact, in any infrastructure
like urban transport, the benefit is the utility derived by the direct user. However, given the benefits to non-users,
urban transport as an activity is economically viable for society at large and that is the reason why cities and societies
continue to provide it. A crucial challenge therefore is, how to channelise the funds from the non-user so that it goes
back appropriately into the revenues and development of that infrastructure.
Non-exportability
Typically infrastructure is created and consumed locally, and hence it is non-exportable. However, telecom is now
exportable with satellites, cellphones etc. In fact today India can and has, in many ways taken advantage of what we
claim as the cheaper labour economy where banks of people in Delhi and Gurgaon provide key telephone services
to companies abroad. So, in a sense, because of this connectivity, there is exportability.
Non-excludability
Once infrastructure is created, it may be difficult to exclude people from the use of that infrastructure. Roads are a
good example. But again with toll roads, there is a possibility of exclusion. Exclusion is important because of the
idea of pricing to realise direct user charges.
Non-subtractability
By non-subtractability, it is implied that infrastructure is consumed like a service i.e., the basic infrastructure does
not get reduced in any manner with consumption. This is the fundamental cause for decreasing marginal costs.
1.4 Benefits of Infrastructure Management

Infrastructure management seeks to:

reduce duplication of effort
ensure adherence to standards
enhance the flow of information throughout an information system
promote adaptability necessary for a changeable environment
ensure interoperability among organisational and external entities
maintain effective change management policies and practices
1.5 Infrastructure and its Impact on Environment

Infrastructure is supposed to facilitate economic development, alleviate poverty, and protect the natural
environment. Infrastructure development includes the following areas:
power or energy
communication
transport
oil, gas and mining
urban development
water supply and sanitation
Infrastructure services are vital for supporting economic growth and improving the quality of life by improving
transport and communications, sanitation, access to education, health services, etc. However, providing these
services can have environmental impacts including both biophysical and social aspects. Infrastructures have
had harmful, long-term, and potential effects on environment.
Infrastructure development has the following impacts on the environment:

Depletion of resources
Resources like energy, water, minerals and land get depleted during construction and operation. Due to
overpopulation, and the relaxed manner in which different natural resources are utilised, there is a serious
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lack of resources.
As has been noticed, the rising fuel prices are due to the lower amounts that are now available. Several
countries face huge water problems and also at places where the ability to provide water to people depends
on the erratic rains. Electricity is another serious problem which is not available to some countries even
today.

Air pollution
The activities of the industry release several million tons of gases each year into the atmosphere. In addition
vehicles, marine engines, locomotives and aircraft are some other sources of pollution in the form of gas and
particulate matter emissions which affects air quality causing damage to human health. Toxic air pollutants
are associated with health problems like cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological diseases.
The most important emissions are carbon monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), methane
(CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O), and particulate matters (ash, dust). These greenhouse
gases also participate in depleting the stratospheric ozone (O3) layer which naturally screens the earths
surface from ultraviolet radiation.
The emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere form various acidic
compounds which when mixed in cloud water creates acid rain. Acid precipitation has detrimental effect
on the built environment, reduces agricultural crop yields and causes forest decline.
The reduction of natural visibility by smog has a number of adverse impacts on the quality of life and the
attractiveness of tourist sites. Particulate emissions in the form of dust emanating from vehicle exhaust as
well as from non-exhaust sources such as vehicle and road abrasion having an impact on air quality.
Water pollution
Infrastructure has its impact on hydrological conditions also. Fuel, chemical and other hazardous particulates
discarded from industries, aircraft, cars, trucks and trains or from port and airport terminal operations,
such as de-icing, can contaminate rivers, lakes, wetlands and oceans. The main effects of marine transport
operations on water quality predominantly arise from dredging, waste, ballast waters and oil spills.
Dredging is the process of deepening harbour channels by removing sediments from the bed of a body of
water. Dredging is essential to create and maintain sufficient water depth for shipping operations and port
accessibility. Dredging activities have a two-fold negative impact on the marine environment. They modify
the hydrology by creating turbidity that can affect the marine biological diversity. The contaminated sediments
and water raised by dredging require spoil disposal sites and decontamination techniques.
Waste generated by the operations of vessels at sea or at ports cause serious environmental problems, since
they may contain a very high level of bacteria that can be hazardous for public health as well as marine
ecosystems when discharged in waters. Besides, various types of garbage containing metals and plastic
are not easily biodegradable. They can persist on the water surface for a long period of time and can be a
serious impediment for navigation.
Oil spills are perhaps the biggest environmental issues. Major oil spills from oil cargo vessel accidents are
one of the most serious problems of pollution from maritime transport activities. For e.g., recently, an oil
spill also occurred in the Arabian Sea, off the coast of Mumbai, India. Oil spills damage the prime source
of water for various cities, the marine life, and even affect birds. Indirectly, they cause severe harm to the
environment and are perhaps, one of the most important environmental issues to reckon with.
Habitat fragmentation: Declining biodiversity

Biodiversity includes flora, fauna and habitat. One of the major impacts of infrastructure development on
environment is habitat fragmentation, which can be described as the splitting of ecosystems into smaller,
more isolated patches.
Transportation, agriculture and urbanisation are three main causes of fragmentation. The ecological effects
of infrastructure include disturbance in terms of noise and visual nuisance and pollution, which act to reduce
the suitability of adjacent areas for wildlife. This may result in the isolation and extinction of vulnerable
species.
The steady increase in the number of animal causalities associated with roads, railways and to a lesser extent
with the drowned animals in the waterways provides a further indication of the fragmentation effect. Mortality
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of fauna, in particular, is important consideration in traffic safety. Finally, the devaluation of landscape and
the nature for human recreation can make an important negative factor.

Climate change
The aforementioned oil spills, air pollution due to the development of several industries, water pollution and
due to discarding of toxic waste in the oceans, the high rate of deforestation, are also contributing towards
a drastic climate change.
These wide spread misuses are causing global warming like never experienced before. Erratic changes in
weather, floods and heat waves, are now affecting lands where such phenomena were not so common. The
water cycle of nature is also affected.
The global biogeochemical cycles are critical to life, most notably those of water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen
and phosphorus are also affected.
Land degradation
The fast paced urban life has had a deep impact on the land that we live on. For example, to accommodate
the rising urban population, a lot of deforestation has taken place. This not only affects the climate, but also
destroys the natural habitat of other life forms.
Furthermore soil erosion contributes to land degradation and its subsequent effects on humankind.
Other
Land Use
Infrastructure
construction
and maintenance
Vehicle and parts
manufactrue
Travel
Economics
Vehicle
maintenance and
support
Habital changes
Emissions
Ambient levels
disposal of
vehicles and parts
Causes
Activities
Social or
ecological
effects
Exposure
Outputs
Health,
environmental
or welfare
effects
End Results
Fig. 1.1 Environmental dimensions of transportation

(Source: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch8en/conc8en/dimenvtransp.html)
1.6 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

Environmental science is a multidisciplinary subject which deals with each and every aspect of life. It requires the
knowledge of various subjects like biology, chemistry, physics, statistics, micro-biology, bio-chemistry, geology,
economics, law, sociology etc. It is a relatively new field of study which has evolved from integrated use of many
disciplines.
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Physical Sciences
Physics, Chemistry, Earth Science,
Atmospheric Science, Oceanography,
Geography etc
Life Sciences
Biology, Biochemistry,
Microbiology,
Biotechnology, etc
Mathematics,
Statistics,
Computer Science Modelling
etc.
Basic and
Applied Studies
Environmental
Studies
Technology
Management
& Awareness
Civil Engineering,
Chemical
Engineering,
Hydraulics,
Nanotechnology,
etc.
Economics, Sociology, Law, Education,

Management, Mass Communication etc.
Fig. 1.2 Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

1.7 Scope of Environmental Studies

Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It encompasses large areas and aspects, which may be
summarised as follows:
natural resources, their conservation and management
ecology and biodiversity
environmental pollution and control
social issues related to development and environment
human population and environment
These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every section of society.
Environmental studies can also concentrate on more technical aspects like environmental engineering and
environmental biotechnology. In the recent years, the scope of environmental studies has expanded dramatically
all over the world. Several categories have emerged in this field that are broadly categorised as:
i Research & Development (R & D) in environment

Skilled environmental scientists play an important role in R & D activities for developing cleaner technologies
and promoting sustainable development.
Increasing competition for water among various sectors, including agriculture, industry, domestic, drinking,
energy generation and others, is causing this precious natural resource to dry up.
Increasing pollution is also leading to the destruction of the habitat of wildlife that lives in waterways. These
are some of the critical issues that India grapples with every day. But as the countrys population and economy
continue to grow, the need to find solutions becomes more urgent every day.
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to improve the environment
(air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and for other
organisms, and to remediate polluted sites. It involves waste water management and air pollution control,
recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and public health
issues as well as knowledge of environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental
impact of proposed construction projects.
Environmental biotechnology encompasses all the biotechnological approaches applied to the management of
environmental problems. It employs genetic engineering techniques to improve the efficiency of microorganisms
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to reduce the burden of toxic substances in the environment.

Rapid industrialisation, urbanisation and other developments have resulted in a threatened environment and
depleted natural resources. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg
(S. Africa) during August 26 to September 4, 2002 has assessed the global changes which occurred after 1992
i.e., the Rio Earth Summit. The two problems which are receiving constant attention of environmentalists are:
control of environmental pollution
conservation of nature and natural resources
R&D thrust areas include:

environmental monitoring
environmental modelling
environmental biotechnology & genomics
environmental system design and optimisation
environmental impact & risk assessment
environmental policy
ii Green infrastructure
Green infrastructure is a concept that highlights the importance of the natural environment in decisions about land
use planning. In particular there is an emphasis on the life support functions provided by a network of natural
ecosystems, with an emphasis on interconnectivity to support long-term sustainability. Examples include clean
water and healthy soils, as well as the more anthropocentric functions such as recreation and providing shade and
shelter in and around towns and cities.
iii Green advocacy
With increasing emphasis on implementing various acts and laws related to environment, need for environment
lawyers has emerged. These lawyers should be able to plead the cases related to water, air and land pollution, forest,
wildlife etc.
iv Green marketing
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis on marketing goods
that are ecofriendly. Any product which is made, used or disposed off in a way that significantly reduces the harm it
would otherwise cause to the environment, are categorised as environment friendly product. The specific objectives
of the ecomark are as follows:

to provide an incentive for manufacturers and importers to reduce environmental impact of products
to reward genuine initiatives by companies to reduce adverse environmental impact of their products
to assist consumers to become environmentally responsible in their daily lives by providing information to take
account of environmental factors in their purchase decisions
to ensure citizens to purchase products which have less harmful environmental impacts
ultimately to improve the quality of the environment and to encourage the sustainable management of
resources
v Green computing
Green computing or green IT, refers to environmentally sustainable computing or IT. It is the study and practice of
designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing of computers, servers, and associated subsystemssuch as monitors,
printers, storage devices, and networking and communications in an environmentally sustainable way.
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vi Green media
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like TV, radio, newspapers, magazines,
hoardings, advertisements etc.
1.8 Importance of Environment Studies

At present a great number of environment issues have grown in size and complexity day by day, threatening the
survival of mankind on earth. Environmental study helps us:

to gain knowledge about the importance of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution
into the environment
to find practical solutions to the present environmental problems
to handle carefully the issues like over exploitation of natural resources, food security and sustainable
development
to find ways and means to maintain the ecological balance
to demonstrate how man can derive benefits from environment without destroying it
1.9 Public Awareness

Publicity and education are important to raise awareness of the general public. The environmental protection should
not only be of concern to the government, but also of every individual. The success of a policy depends on public
awareness.
1.9.1 Need for Public Awareness
Common environmental challenges faced by various countries are:
explosively growing population
poverty
agricultural growth
need of ground water
degradation of land and forests
reorientation of institutions
reduction of genetic diversity
evil consequences of urbanisation
pollution

These challenges force the need for public awareness.
A survey conducted by environmental awareness program showed that 89.6 percent of the respondents paid
attention to the conservation of water, electricity and gas in their daily life, but only 22.1 percent intentionally
avoided using plastic bags when shopping. The fact that only 27.8 percent of the respondents knew about
biodiversity sends a message that the general publics knowledge about environmental protection is still at an
initial stage.
This survey on peoples awareness of environmental protection suggests that still much more needs to be
done.
But we believe that action on the part of the governments is even more important. The fact that more than 60 percent
of the respondents were not satisfied with what their local governments have done in environmental protection
points to their policies that are tilted in favour of economic growth rather than balanced development.
It is essential to get the country acquainted with environmental challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly.
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate
release of pollution into the environment.
It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal.
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Need to save humanity from extinction

Because of the human activities constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development,
it is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable
consequences of the environmental degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken would result
in the extinction of life.
Need for wise planning of development
Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have to be synchronised with the ecological cycles and in
any plan of development our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and
development.
1.9.2 Funding for Public Awareness
Funding for awareness and education initiatives may come from a variety of sources. Often, it comes from the budgets
of specific agencies or ministries, it is uncommon for such initiatives to receive funding directly from the central
budget. Some states have accessed their national environment funds to provide partial funding for environmental
awareness and education.
1.9.3 Creating Public Awareness

Action can be taken in a variety of areas to increase environmental awareness and education. Some of these
categories are:
environmental legal rights and responsibilities and associated consequences
use of the media
awareness raising campaigns
incorporation of environmental issues in mainstream education
increasing awareness and education in target groups
encouragement of public participation in environmental matters
Many sectors of society are involved in developing and delivering educational courses and public awareness
campaigns. These include Governmental institutions at the national, regional, and local levels; domestic and
international NGOs; primary, secondary, and post-secondary schools; journalists and the media; celebrities; and
other individuals and institutions.
Moreover, awareness efforts can practically target any sector of society. They can seek to raise public awareness
broadly on environmental issues (e.g., through the media) or they may be a targeted campaign or educational
effort focused on a specific sector (or target audience) on a specific issue.
Raising the environmental education and awareness can include any of the following types of activities:
reorienting current education and awareness programs to include environmental dimensions
basic education and awareness programmes (e.g., in schools)
adult and community education and awareness programmes
education, training, and awareness programmes for professional, technical, and vocational personnel
Working with the media

The print, broadcast, and internet media can be a powerful supporter in educating the public on environmental
matters. In order to perform this role effectively, it is often necessary for the government to work with the media.
This is often done informally, through regular briefings and information centres.

Some states have found that educating the media can be quite effective in building capacity to report on
environmental matters. The case study from Bulgaria is one example of how the government has worked closely
with the mass media to build its environmental reporting capacity through regular press conferences and large
public awareness campaigns.
Information centres that are accessible to the media and to the public constitute one approach. These centres
may be run by a governmental agency or Ministry or by an NGO. An information centre may disseminate
recent information (such as press releases), have a public library with a range of environmental resources, and
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actively disseminate information.

Traditional, religious and local community leaders can play an influential or even decisive role in how people
act. This is particularly true in rural areas.
1.9.4 Environment Protection: National and International Efforts

Environmental issues are addressed at a regional, nation or international level by government organisations.

Environmental organisations or protection agencies

An environmental organisation is an organisation that seeks to protect, analyse or monitor the environment
against misuse or degradation.
The organisation may be a charity, a trust, a non-governmental organisation or a government organisation
i.e., environmental organisations can be global, national, regional or local.
The largest international agency, set up in 1972, is the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
The International Union for Conservation of Nature brings together 83 states, 108 government agencies, 766
non-governmental organisations and 81 international organisations and about 10,000 experts and scientists
from countries around the world.
International non-governmental organisations include Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and World Wide
Fund for Nature.
Environment Protection Act
The Environment Protection Act was enacted in 1986 with the objective of the protection and improvement of the
environment. It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing
environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different
parts of the country. The Act was last amended in 1991.
1.9.5 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a
proposed project may have on the environment, consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects. EIA was
made a legislation in the US in the National Environmental Policy Act, 1969. It is an important management
tool for integrating environmental concerns in development process and for improved decision making.
EIA hasthefollowingobjectives:
protectionandsustainabledevelopment optimisesresourceuse
ensure that environmentalconsiderationsareaddressedand incorporated into decisionmakingprocesses
predict the environmentalconsequencesofaproposed activity
ensure projectssuitthelocalenvironment
providepredictionsandoptionstodecisionmakers
anticipate,avoid, and minimise the adverse environmental impacts of a proposal
providetheinvolvementofallstakeholders,includingthepublic
1.9.6 Sustainable Development

In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which defines sustainable development as
development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. Thus, sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human
needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for
generations to come.
Sustainable design or environmentally sustainable design or environmentally conscious design is the philosophy
of designing physical objects, the built environment, and services to comply with the principles of economic,
social, and ecological sustainability.
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The intention of sustainable design is to eliminate negative environmental impacts completely through skilful
and sensitive design.
Applications of this philosophy range from the microcosm small objects for everyday use, through to the
macrocosm buildings, cities, and the earths physical surface. It is a philosophy that can be applied in the fields
of architecture, landscape architecture, urban design, urban planning, engineering, graphic design, industrial
design, interior design, and fashion design.
Sustainable design principles

Low-impact materials: non-toxic, recycled materials.
Energy efficiency: manufacturing processes and produce products.
Quality and durability: longer-lasting and better-functioning products were replaced less frequently, reducing
the impacts of producing replacements.
Design for reuse and recycling
Design impact measures: for total carbon footprint and life-cycle assessment for any resource used are
increasingly required and available.
Sustainable design standards and project design guides
Biomimicry: redesigning industrial systems on biological lines i.e., enabling the constant reuse of materials
in continuous closed cycles.
Renewability
Healthy buildings: sustainable building design aims to create buildings that are not harmful to their occupants
or to the larger environment.
Robust eco-design: robust design principles are applied to the design of a pollution sources.
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Summary

The major environmental concerns have been identified as important areas where background information is
essential for a better understanding of environment. It stresses on a balanced view of issues that affect our daily
lives.
The balanced view issues are related to the conflict between existing development strategies and the need for
environmental conservation.
There is a need to create a concern for the environment that will trigger pro-environmental action; including
activities that can be done in daily life to protect it.
Environment is the complex of climatic, biotic and social factors that acts upon an organism and determines
its form and survival.
Environment includes everything that may directly affect the metabolism or behaviour of a living organism or
species, including light, air, water, soil, and other living beings.
The environment, encompasses all living and non-living things.
Infrastructure asset management is the discipline of managing infrastructure assets that underpin an economy,
such as road, water supply, wastewater, storm water, power supply, flood management, recreational and other
assets.
Environmental science is a multidisciplinary subject which deals with each and every aspect of life.
Rapid industrialisation, urbanisation and other developments have resulted in a threatened environment and
depleted natural resources.
The World Summit on sustainable development held in Johannesburg (S. Africa) during August 26 to September
4, 2002 has assessed the global changes which occurred after 1992 i.e., the Rio Earth Summit.
Publicity and education are important to raise awareness of the general public. The environmental protection
should not only be of concern to the government, but also of every individual. The success of a policy depends
on public awareness.
The intention of sustainable design is to eliminate negative environmental impact completely through skilful
and sensitive design.
References

Infrastructure management. Available at http://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/infrastructure-management.

Last accessed on February 1, 2011.
Infrastructure, Online Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Available at http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/
infrastructure. Last accessed February 2, 2011.
G. Raghuram. Issues in Infrastructure Development and Financing http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/~graghu/idf%20
introductoynote.pdf. Last accessed February 2, 2011.
Habitat Fragmentation due to Transport Infrastructure. Available at http://www.iene.info/cost-341/finalreportdef.
pdf. Last accessed February 2, 2011.
Public Environmental Awareness and Education. Available at http://www.unep.org/dec/onlinemanual/
Enforcement/InstitutionalFrameworks/PublicAwarenessEducation/tabid/99/Default.aspx. Last accessed February
5, 2011.
Environmental Science Importance. Available at http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/environmental-scienceimportance#ixzz1Ch26YDRU. Last accessed February 5, 2011.
Recommended Reading

A. Kaushik, (2006). Perspectives in environmental studies, New Age International, 2nd edition, 280 pages.
United Nations. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, (2006). Sustainable Infrastructure in
Asia: Overview and Proceedings: Seoul Initiative Policy Forum on Sustainable Infrastructure, Seoul, Republic
of Korea, 6-8 September 2006. United Nations Publications, 206 pages.
Joseph, (2009). Environmental Studies. Tata McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition, 347 pages.
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Chapter II
Natural Resources & Management
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:

define natural resources
enlist the different types of natural resources
introduce the different trends in exploitation of natural resources
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:

describe the importance of natural resources
enlist the problems associated with over-exploitation of natural resources
discuss the efforts in environmental protection: individual and community level
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

describe the reasons for degradation of natural resources and suggest measures to prevent them
define biodiversity and describe the need to conserve biodiversity
get an overview of natural resources and its management
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2.1 Introduction
There is something called a balance in nature. As we continue to overuse natural resources, a serious imbalance has
been caused. Deforestation, depletion of oil and gas, shortage of water and power, soil erosion leading to lack of
agricultural growth, are all contributing to environmental issues such as global warming and environmental pollution.
It is these environmental issues that are leading to further shortage of natural resources. Simply put, we are trapped
in a vicious circle. As mentioned earlier, saving the constant loss of these invaluable resources, or simply, natural
resources conservation is essential for survival. Environmentalists have already predicted major shortages and even
the complete extinction of natural resources such as oil and gas, if we continue depleting these at the present rate.
2.2 Natural Resources

Natural resources are naturally occurring features or characteristics of the environment.
Natural resources (economically referred to as land or raw materials) occur naturally within environments that
exist relatively undisturbed by mankind, in a natural form.
A natural resource is often characterised by amounts of biodiversity existent in various ecosystems. Natural
resources are derived from the environment.
2.3 Types of Natural Resources

Natural resources may be further classified in different ways:

On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:

Biotic resources: These resources are obtained from the biosphere, such as forests and their products, animals,
birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms. Mineral fuels such as coal and petroleum are also
included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter.
Abiotic resources: The abiotic resources include non-living things. Examples include land, water, air and
ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.
With respect to renewability, natural resources can be categorised as follows:

Renewable resources: This category of resources can be replenished or reproduced easily. Some of
them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not affected by human
consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus
maintaining a flow. Some of these, like agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water,
take a comparatively longer time, while still others, like forests, take even longer.
Non-renewable resources: These resources are formed over a very long geological periods. Since their rate
of formation is extremely slow, they cannot be replenished once they get depleted. Minerals and fossil fuels
are included in this category. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them. But coal
and petroleum cannot be recycled.
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Natural
Resources
Origin
based
Biotic
resources
Renewability
based
Abiotic
resources
Renewable
resources
Non-Renewable
resources
Fig. 2.1 Types of natural resources
2.4 Major Natural Resources

Resources are substances found in nature, which are useful to human beings. Resources are the basis for the
development of any country. Here are some of examples of natural resources:

Water resources
Forest resources or agriculture resources (natural vegetation)
Mineral resources (coal, fossil fuels, rock)
Food resources
Energy resources (wind energy, solar energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy etc.)
2.5 Exploitation of Natural Resources

Exploitation of natural resources is an essential condition of the human existence. Throughout history, humans
have manipulated natural resources to produce the materials they needed to sustain for growing human populations.
This refers primarily to food production, but many other entities from the natural environment have been extracted.
Often the exploitation of nature has been done in a non-sustainable way, which is causing an increasing concern, as
a non-sustainable exploitation of natural resource ultimately threatens the human existence.
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Diffuse
Easy to explore
Easy to mine
Unskilled labour
Simple technology
High-price-to-weight ratio
Strategic mineral
Exploitable Natural
Resources
Easy to transport/smuggle
Easy to store
No need to refine
the product before
transport/export
Fig. 2.2 Exploitable natural resources

(Source:http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/events/jointsessions/paperarchive/edinburgh/ws9/Lujala.pdf)
Resources are under pressure because of the following reasons:

increase in sophistication of technology enabling natural resources to be extracted quickly and efficiently,
increase in rates of deforestation
rapidly increasing population leads to greater demand for natural resources
cultures of consumerism or materialistic views leads to gold and diamonds mined and used for jewellerysomething unnecessary for human life or advancement
excessive demand often leads to conflicts due to intense competition
non-equitable distribution of resources
2.6 Trends and Problems with Exploitation of Natural Resources

The root causes associated with depletion of natural resources include:

overpopulation
inefficiency in resource utilisation
overconsumption
poverty and socio-economic problems
ineffective structures (human institutions, regulations and attitudes)
The different trends which are responsible for warning on a global scale are:
2.6.1 Species Extinction
A species becomes extinct when the last existing member of that species dies. Extinction therefore becomes a
certainty when there are no surviving individuals that are able to reproduce and create a new generation.
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2.6.2 Land Resources

The problems with land resources exploitation include:
Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use.
Examples include conversion of forestland to agriculture or urban use. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to
climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the
past through the fossil record. Deforestation occurs for many reasons such as trees or derived charcoal are used as,
or sold, for fuel, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements. The
removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has
adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforested regions typically incur significant
adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland.
Destruction of wetlands
A wetland is an area of land that is either saturated or flooded a majority of the time and supports vegetation that
can withstand an extremely moist environment. The destruction of wetlands leads to loss in biodiversity, flooding
and decreased quality of water in lakes, rivers, and tributaries. Destruction of wetland ecosystems will generate
massive greenhouse gas emissions in coming years.
Desertification
Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas due to various factors: including climatic
variations and human activities. A major impact of desertification is reduced biodiversity and diminished productive
capacity.
Soil erosion
Soil erosion by water, wind and tillage affects both agriculture and the natural environment. Soil loss, and its
associated impacts, is one of the most important of todays environmental problems.
Declining oil, gas and mineral supplies
Oil, gas and mineral deposits are the raw materials that drive the global economy. Mineral, gas and oil exploitation
directly affects organisms through both physical and chemical modification of their environment, and indirectly
in a variety of ways. Excavation alters landform, drainage and soil conditions, while waste disposal has parallel
effects and, along with processing, may cause pollution problems elsewhere. Adverse effects include direct habitat
destruction, ecological disturbance, destruction of natural flora and fauna, pollution of air, land and water, instability
of soil and rock masses, landscape degradation and radiation hazards. The environmental damage has in turn resulted
in waste of arable land, as well as economic crops and trees.
2.6.3 Marine Resources
The problems with marine resources exploitation include:
Coastal degradation
Coastal degradation may be defined as the impact of any human activity that alters the features or processes that
occur naturally along coastlines. It can be seen that the causes group themselves into several categories:

pollution of coastal environments
destabilisation of coastal landforms
introduction of human landscapes
Over-fishing
The practice of commercial and non-commercial fishing which depletes a fishery by catching so many adult fish that
not enough remain to breed and replenish the population. Over-fishing exceeds the carrying capacity of a fishery.
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Land Based
Discharge 44%
Oil Exploration
and Production
1%
Dumping 10%
Atmospheric Inputs
33%
Maritime transport
12%
Fig. 2.3 Marine pollution chart

(Source: http://saferenvironment.wordpress.com/2008/10/04/marine-pollution-%E2%80%93-degradationmitigation-management-is-essential-for-improving-marine-environment/)
2.6.4 Freshwater Resources

The over-exploitation problems associated with freshwater resources include:
Groundwater contamination and depletion
Groundwater is an integral part of the environment, and hence cannot be looked upon in isolation. An uncontrolled
use of the borewell technology has led to the extraction of groundwater at such a high rate that often recharge is
not sufficient. The causes of low water availability in many regions are also directly linked to the reducing forest
cover and soil degradation. There has been a lack of adequate attention to water conservation, efficiency in water
use, water re-use, groundwater recharge, and ecosystem sustainability.
Pollution of groundwater resources has become a major problem today. The pollution of air, water, and land has an
affect on the pollution and contamination of groundwater. The solid, liquid, and the gaseous waste that is generated,
if not treated properly, results in pollution of the environment; this affects groundwater too due to the hydraulic
connectivity in the hydrological cycle. For example, when the air is polluted, rainfall will settle many pollutants on
the ground, which can then seep into and contaminate the groundwater resources.
Surface water shortages
Surface water is water collecting on the ground or in a stream, river, lake, wetland, or ocean. Many areas of surface
water are now contaminated with heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants that have an adverse effect on
health. Water-borne diseases and water-caused health problems are mostly due to inadequate and incompetent
management of water resources.
2.6.5 Atmospheric Resources: Ozone Depletion

The reduction of the protective layer of ozone present in the upper atmosphere by chemical pollution. There is
a slow, steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earths ozone layer.
The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ozone hole. Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful
ultraviolet waves from passing through the Earths atmosphere, it decreases ozone layer.
CFCs, carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane are ozone depleting substances. It is suspected that a variety of
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biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton
populations in the oceans photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.
2.7 Forest Resources

Forest is an eco system which consists of trees and it is an important element of environment.
2.7.1 Uses of Forests
People began life on this planet as forest dwellers. They were food gatherers and depended on the forest for all
their needs: food, clothing, and shelter. They gradually became food growers, clearing a small patch in the forest
to grow food. But they continued to depend on forests to meet a lot of their needs. Forest products utilisation may
be grouped as under:

fuel wood: timber, grasses, cane, bamboo
wood pulp and paper
fruit, fodder
fencing, wind breaks and shelter belts
soil erosion check
soil improvement
medicinal use: Since time immemorial humans have been depending on the forest to cure them of various
ailments. Even today man is dependent on the forest for herbs and plants to fight against disease. Of all the
medicinal trees found in India, the neem is the most important. Leaves, bark, and other parts of many other trees
also have medicinal value and are used to make various ayurvedic medicines.
fibre: Plant fibre has many different uses. Soft fibres such as jute are derived from the stems of the plant. Hard
fibre from the leaves of hemp and sisal are used to make fabrics for various applications. Coir, another form of
fibre from the fruit of the coconut, is used to make ropes.
essential oils: Tropical grasses such as lemon grass, citronella, and khus are the source of essential oils. Oil
is distilled from the wood of various species such as sandalwood, agar, and pine. Oil is also derived from the
leaves of certain plants and trees such as eucalyptus, camphor, wintergreen, and pine. These oils are used for
making soaps, cosmetics, incense, pharmaceuticals, and confectionery.
Ecological uses of forests

Ecological services provided by forests include:
production of oxygen
reduction of global warming
wild life habitat
regulation of hydrological cycle
soil conservation
pollution moderators
2.7.2 Over-exploitation of Forests: Deforestation

Forests are overexploited when they are logged at a rate faster than reforestation takes place. Reforestation
competes with other land uses such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space for further economic
growth. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood
products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity (hence reduction
in natures services).
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use. The
removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity.
It has adverse impacts on bio-sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforested regions typically incur
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significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland.

2.7.3 Causes of Deforestation
Deterioration of forest resources and loss of biodiversity are caused due to:

increased demand for raw materials
increased dependency on natural forests due to improper management of industrial forestry
increase in rate of degradation and deforestation, not only to natural forests but also to cultivated
industrial forests due to increase in illegal logging when supply of raw materials is low
deterioration of forest ecosystems, threats to biodiversity and loss of endemic species
social impacts due to destruction of local communities surrounding and/or within the forest
2.7.4 Major Consequences of Deforestation

The major consequences of deforestation can be outlined as below:

loss of biodiversity and genetic diversity
threatens species existence
hydrological cycle is effected
soil erosion
2.7.5 Case Study: Timber Extraction

Forests, and its important component, Timber is vital for the sustainable development of many countries. Timber
is used to build homes, furniture, paper and paper products, agriculture, mining, and oil and gas extraction.
Timber is important as revenue, especially value added, and for ecological function. Timber generates billion of
world trade, and provides employment. Timber exploitation involves cutting trees for sale as timber or pulp.
A case study of the deforestation in Uttaranchal revealed that timber trees were continuously over-cut after
independence. It was argued that timber over-cutting in Uttaranchal in the recent years has substantially exceeded
the annual regeneration capacity of the forests. This was reflected in the poor condition of forests.
In 1992, it was suggested that less than 4.4% of the geographical area has forests with crown density over 60
per cent; 15.1% has crown density of 40 to 60 %; and in 9.2% of the geographical area, the crown density is
20 to 40 %. This picture was very much different from the earlier description of the forests of Uttaranchal as
`quite natural and untouched and large tracts as `almost impenetrable.
This case study of deforestation not only informs us of the scale of environmental changes but also opens up
possibilities for further research. Deforestation leads to wider agro-ecological changes with serious consequences
for the natural resource base of the communities. An exploration into how these changes affected the economies
of communities on the one hand and ecology on the other can give insights into the intricate relationship between
man and nature.
The study of this relationship throws significant light on the process of commercialisation of forests and their
integration into the wider trade network.
This article suggests that unlike the Gangetic plains, which saw a long historical process of deforestation,
Uttaranchal remained largely well wooded until the early 19th century. Increased demand for timber by the
railways and the Public Works Department encouraged the state to take over forest management. The revenue
from forests was increasing and a large part of this was invested in building roads to forests to make them
further accessible for exploitation.
2.7.6 Case Study: Coal Mining

The Indian reserve of coking coal is mainly located in the Jharia Coalfield of Bharat Coking Coal Ltd. The
coal reserves have been exploited intensely over the last 80 yr. Air pollution is increasing in the area due to
large-scale opencast mining. But no well-defined method of estimating the generation of air pollutants is used
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due to different mining activities.

An investigation was conducted to evaluate the air pollution due to a large opencast coal project. The mining
project under study was one of the largest opencast projects of Bharat Coking Coal Ltd and the details have been
described. Ambient air monitoring stations were chosen considering the dominant wind directions (upwind and
downwind) and covering industrial, residential and sensitive zones.
The air quality survey was carried out for four seasons. The data revealed high air pollution potential and
are in respect of suspended particulate matter and respirable particulate matter in the project area as well as
in the surrounding locations. Impacts on the air quality were assessed on the basis of upwind and downwind
concentration of air pollutants.
2.8 Water Resources

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.
Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. 97% of water on the Earth is salt water, and only 3% is
fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen
freshwater is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.
Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the worlds supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. Water
demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world population continues to rise, so
too does the water demand.
Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged
as, during the 20th century, more than half the worlds wetlands have been lost along with their valuable
environmental services.
Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems.
The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as
water rights.
2.8.1 Uses of Water Resources

Uses of water can be categorised as follows:
Agricultural use

It is estimated that 69% of worldwide water use is for irrigation, with 15-35% of irrigation withdrawals being
unsustainable. In some areas of the world irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all, in other areas it permits
more profitable crops to be grown or enhances crop yield.
Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water. Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be
considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation.
Industrial use

It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water use is industrial. Major industrial users include power plants, which
use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e., hydroelectric plants), ore and oil refineries, which use water in
chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.
The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive varies widely, but as a whole is lower than agricultural
use.
Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric
power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, nonpolluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water,
which condenses as rain in higher altitudes, from where it flows down.
Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used
for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment.
It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from over-heating.
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Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in
addition to its use as a chemical solvent.
Household use

It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for household purposes. These include drinking water, bathing,
cooking, sanitation, and gardening.
Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of
immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the
water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very
small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.
Recreational use

Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Recreational water
use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation, then the
water retained could be categorised as recreational usage.
Release of water from a few reservoirs is also timed to enhance white-water boating, which also could be
considered a recreational usage.
Recreational usage is usually non-consumptive. Golf courses are often targeted as using excessive amounts of
water, especially in drier regions.
Recreational usage may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example,
water retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not available to farmers during the spring
planting season.
Environmental use

Environmental water usage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish
ladders, and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn.
Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for
other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not
be available to farms upstream.
2.8.2 Over Exploitation of Water Resources

It happens frequently in areas with low rainfall and high population density, and in areas with intensive agricultural
or industrial activity. Apart from causing problems by providing water to users, over-exploitation of water has
led to the drying-out of water courses and wetland areas in many countries.
In many areas, groundwater is the dominant source of freshwater. In a number of places water is being pumped
from beneath the ground faster than it is being replenished through rainfall. The result is sinking water tables,
empty wells, higher pumping costs and, in coastal areas, the intrusion of saltwater from the sea which degrades
the groundwater.
Intrusion of saline water due to excessive extraction of water is also a problem in northern countries.
Sinking water tables can also make rivers less reliable, since many river flows are maintained in the dry season
by springs that dry up when water tables fall. Groundwater also helps sustain surface reservoirs of water such
as lakes and wetlands that are often highly productive ecosystems and resources for tourism as well as leisure
activities. These, too, are threatened by over-abstraction of groundwater.
Irrigation is the main cause of groundwater over exploitation in agricultural areas.
2.8.3 Floods & Droughts: Highlighting Water Challenges

Catastrophic floods cause human tragedy, endanger lives and bring heavy economic losses. Higher surface
temperatures and changes in precipitation cause floods in some places, and droughts in others.
A rise in sea level and severe rain are two causes of floods.
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Long term changes in the hydrological cycle (the flow of water throughout Earth) due to higher temperatures
(more evaporation; melting of ice, more intense rain fall) contribute to more floods.
More water vapor in the atmosphere, because the atmosphere is heating up, can cause floods to happen more
regularly.
Sea level rising will also contribute to more floods. The sea level is predicted to go up from four inches to
three feet. Sea level rises when the water warms and increases in amount, or when glaciers and ice melt. As
the glaciers and ice turn into water the sea level increases and floods could start to last for a longer amount of
time and happen more frequently.
Droughts, like floods, could also cause famine because they ruin crops. Droughts are a result of climate
change.
The Rising Waters

0.5 Sea Level Rise (m)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1860
2100
Fig. 2.4 Rising sea level
(Source: http://climatechange.sea.ca/climate_change.html)
2.8.4 Case Study: Effect of Dam Construction

The Sardar Sarovar Dam is a dam on the Narmada River near Navagam, Gujarat, India. The dam is the largest
dam in and part of the Narmada Valley Project, a large hydraulic engineering project involving the construction
of a series of large irrigation and hydroelectric multi purpose dams on the Narmada River. The project was
first conceived in the 1940s by Jawaharlal Nehru. The project only took form in 1979 as part of a development
scheme to increase irrigation and produce hydroelectricity.
Of the 30 large dams planned on river Narmada, Sardar Sarovar Dam is the largest structure to be built. It had a
proposed final height of 136.5 m. The project would irrigate more than 18,000 km2, most of it in drought prone
areas of Kutch and Saurashtra.
Benefits
The benefits of the dam as listed in the Judgement of Supreme Court of India in 2000 were:

The benefits are so large that they substantially outweigh the costs of the immediate human and environmental
disruption.
Without the dam, the long term costs for people would be much greater and lack of an income source for future
generations would put increasing pressure on the environment.
If the waters of the Narmada river continuous to flow to the sea unused there appears to be no alternative to
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escalating human deprivation, particularly in the dry areas of Gujarat.

The project had the potential to feed as many as 20 million people, provide domestic and industrial water for
about 30 million, employ about 1 million, and provide valuable peak electric power in an area with high unmet
power demand (farm pumps often get only a few hours power per day).
In addition, substantial economic multiplier effects (investment and employment triggered by development)
from irrigation development would be there. Set against the futures of about 70,000 project affected people,
even without the multiplier effect, the ratio of beneficiaries to affected persons is well over 100:1.
The dam would irrigate 17,920 km2 of land spread over 75% of which is drought-prone areas in Gujarat and
the arid areas of Barmer and Jalore districts of Rajasthan.
The dam would also provide flood protection to riverine reaches measuring 74,000 acres covering 210 villages
and Bharuch city and a population of 400,000 in Gujarat.
Criticism

Critics maintain that its negative environmental impacts outweigh its benefits. It has created discord between
its government planners and the citizens group Narmada Bachao Andolan.
The Sardar Sarovar Dam is development on the backs of the poor, as the people being displaced are amongst
Indias most vulnerable and disadvantaged social groups i.e. tribal people. For these reasons, the Sardar Sarovar
Dam project cannot be considered to be ethical development.
2.9 Mineral Resources

The minerals occurs naturally in the earths crust, however, their distribution is not even. Minerals essential to
our industrialised society and daily life are non-renewable resources. Due to the increase in industrialisation, the
consumption of minerals has increased tremendously all over the world. Even the minerals which are relatively
plentiful is becoming extremely expensive because of the depletion of large, rich and easily accessible deposits
of these metals. Minerals can be metallic e.g. iron, copper, gold, etc. or non metallic, e.g. sand, stone, and salt,
phosphate, etc.
2.9.1 Uses of Mineral Resources
The uses of mineral resources are as follows:

Building Materials: sand, gravel, stone, brick (clay), cement, steel, aluminium, asphalt, glass
Plumbing and Wiring: iron and steel, copper, brass, lead, cement, asbestos, glass, tile, plastic
Insulation: rock wool, fiber glass, gypsum (plaster and wallboard)
Paint and Wallpaper: mineral pigments (Fe, Zn, Ti) and fillers (talc, asbestos)
Plastic Floor Tiles: mineral fillers, pigments, petroleum products
Appliances: iron, copper, many rare metals
Furniture: synthetic fibers (from coal and oil) steel springs, wood finished with mineral varnish
Clothing: natural fibers grown with mineral fertilizers, synthetic fibers from minerals
Food: grown with mineral fertilizers, processed with machines
Drugs and Cosmetics: mineral chemicals
Other Items: windows, screens, light bulbs, porcelain, china, utensils, jewellery: all made from mineral
products
2.9.2 Over Exploitation of Mineral Resources

Extraction processing and disposal of minerals have negative effects on environment. Mining not only disturbs
and damages the land, but also pollutes the soil, water and air. The land that has been destroyed due to mining is
known as derelict land or mine spoil. Such derelict land can be reclaimed or restored to a semi-natural condition by
re- vegetation to prevent further degradation, and to make the land productive for other purposes.
Environmental impacts can occur at each stage of mining as:
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environmental degradation associated with mining process and wastes

Impacts on Land
i. Construction, road development
ii. Stripping ground surface, vegetation cover
iii. Storage of waste-rocks tailings, and discarded materials
Impacts on Air
i. Pollutants emitted into the air from the smelting and refining processes in terms of (particulates,
nitrogen & sulphur oxides, and volatile compounds)
ii. Dust blown from the piles of wastes
Impacts on Water
i. Liquid effluent contains a wide range of hazardous metals (cadmium, arsenic, copper, iron, lead,
and nickel)
ii. Chemical reagents are also hazardous materials (cyanide, kerosene, organic compounds, and
sulphuric acid)
iii. Acid Mine Drainage contains sulphuric acid, salt, and radioactive materials
environmental degradation associated with mine site decommissioning

Mine site decommissioning is defined as cleaning up and rehabilitation of mining site after industrial use has ended.
Abundant sites are causing serious environmental problems as:
acid mine drainage
water pollution
underground fire

structural hazards and subsidence due to mining operation (subsurface mines & blasting, damage to buildings,
roads, etc)
pollution problems
2.9.3 Case Study: Watershed Mapping and Land-Cover Classification in Sedimentation Study

Indias Western Ghats is one of 25 biodiversity hot spots in the world and is home to the Kudremukh National
Park, an area characterized by rich evergreen forest and significant populations of endangered species, including
the lion-tailed macaque and tiger.
The Bhadra River, the reservoir and the catchment provide critically important resources for the wildlife in
Kudremukh as well as the Bhadra Tiger Reserve. It also supports the livelihoods of a large human population
in the region.
Since the 1980s, Kudremukh has also been home to Indias largest iron-ore mine. Open-cast mining is known
to have devastating effects on downstream ecosystems the world over, but the impacts of open-cast mining in
humid tropical areas are particularly severe.
The Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Limiteds mining operation in the hilly Western Ghats region of India
receives among the highest rainfall of any open-cast mining operation in the world. Over 400 mm of rain have
been recorded in a single day, and a few spells of extremely high erosive potential, particularly during the
monsoons, account for much of the annual rainfall in these hills. In the monsoon season, rivers in India carry
enormous sediment loads.
The Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, along with the Centre for Wildlife Studies,
Bangalore, India, jointly studied the impact of iron-ore mining in Kudremukh National Park on water quality of
the Bhadra River. This study was funded by the Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, as part of the efforts
to understand human impacts in critical tiger habitats.
The study was carried out during the monsoon of 2002 and was the first rigorous study done in the wet-season
to assess the impacts of mining and associated activities in Kudremukh on the sediment load in the Bhadra
River.
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Estimated sediment loading since the beginning of mining in the early 80s, based on analyses of previous data,
increased successively from 1,197 tons in 1984 to 49,429 tons in 1986 measured just downstream of the mine.
From this study in the 2002 monsoon alone, more than 68,000 tons of sediment load was estimated.
Since the open-cast mining had devastating effects on downstream ecosystems, the Wildlife First and others
have campaigned for over a decade to stop mining operations in Kudremukh.
The sedimentation study was used in a report that contributed to the Supreme Courts 2002 decision to stop
mining in Kudremukh by 2005.
2.10 Food Resources

Food is the first necessity of the people. Food is any substance or materials consumed to provide nutritional
support for the body. It usually consists of plant or animal origin that contains essential nutrients, such as
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an organism to produce
energy, stimulate growth, and maintain life.
Food safety and food security are monitored by agencies such as the International Association for Food Protection,
World Resources Institute, World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International Food
Information Council. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional
economics, population growth, water supply and access to food.
2.10.1 World Food Problems

Hunger
Chronic hunger and food security are common global issues. About 1 in 5 people in the developing world are
considered chronically undernourished. According to FAO, 55% of 12 million child deaths annually are related to
malnutrition.
Poverty
Poverty and lack of social status are the greatest threats to food security (the ability to obtain sufficient food on a
daily basis).
Famines
Famines are characterized by large-scale food shortages, massive starvation, social disruption, and economic chaos.
Mass migrations often occur because productive capacity has been sacrificed. Environmental conditions are immediate
trigger, but politics and economics are often underlying problems. The political boundaries block historic access
to refuge areas. Aid from rich countries often distributes surplus commodities and produces feeling of generosity.
Food camps have serious drawbacks:
i. Stress and crowding
ii. Lack of sanitation
iii. Close contact to epidemic diseases

Malnutrition
Malnutrition is the condition that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which certain nutrients are
lacking, in excess (too high an intake), or in the wrong proportions. A number of different nutrition disorders
may arise, depending on which nutrients are under or overabundant in the diet i.e. nutritional imbalance is
caused by lack of specific dietary components.
There are a number of causes of malnutrition. It may result from:
o inadequate or unbalanced diet
o problems with digestion or absorption
o certain medical conditions
The effects can be either mortality or illness. Malnutrition can occur if one does not eat enough food.
Starvation is a form of malnutrition. One may develop malnutrition if you lack of a single vitamin in the
diet.
Malnutrition continues to be a significant problem all over the world, especially among children.
Poverty, rising food prices, dietary practices, climate change, agricultural productivity, natural disasters,
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political problems, and war all contribute to conditions -- even epidemics -- of malnutrition and starvation,
and not just in developing countries.
For example: Iron deficiency is the most common dietary imbalance in the world.
leads to anaemia
increases risk of death from haemorrhage in childbirth and affects development
Malnutrition amongst women is one of the prime causes of low birth-weight babies and poor growth.
Low birth weight is a significant contributor to infant mortality.
Malnutrition in India continues to be at a high level with 42.5% children below the age being underweight and almost 70% being anaemic. 22% children are born with low birth weight.

Protein Deficiency Diseases

Kwashiorkor - Occurs mainly in children whose diet lacks high-quality protein.
Marasmus - Caused by a diet low in both protein and calories.
2.10.2 Impacts of Overgrazing

The impacts of land degradation are ecological ones, described as below:

Land degradation
Soil degradation caused by overgrazing is a worldwide problem. The degradation of an over-utilized area
occurs mainly where animals prefer to spend extra time because of the attractants that are around gateways,
water sources, along fences or farm buildings.
High grazing pressure decreases plant density which results in changes of the botanical composition of a
pasture. The effect that grazing has on a plant depends on the timing, frequency and intensity of grazing
and its opportunity to regrow.
Soil erosion
Overgrazing adversely effects soil properties, resulting in reduced infiltration, accelerated runoff and soil
erosion.
Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter and soil fertility impair the lands future natural and agricultural
productivity. Soil fertility can sometimes be mitigated by applying the appropriate lime and organic
fertilizers. However, the loss of soil depth and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical
in determining the soils water-holding capacity and how well pasture plants do during dry weather.
Management practices have been used successfully to improve grazing distribution. These practices include
water development, placement of salt and supplements, fertilizer application, fencing, burning, and the
planting of special forages which can be used to enhance grazing by livestock in underutilized areas.
Loss of useful species

Native plants grass species, both individual bunch grasses and in grasslands, are especially vulnerable. It results in
loss in biodiversity.
Others 8%
Overgrazing
35%
Mismangement
28%
Deforestation 29%
Fig. 2.5 World land degradation
(Source: http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/populationgrowth.htm)
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2.10.3 Modern agriculture: Impacts

Modern agriculture is a term used to describe the new method of production practices employed by the farmers.
The term depicts the push for innovation and advancements continually made by growers to sustainably produce
higher-quality products with a reduced environmental impact. Intensive scientific research and robust investment in
modern agriculture during the past 50 years has helped farmers double food production while essentially freezing
the footprint of total cultivated farmland.
Agriculture imposes external costs upon society through pesticides, nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and
assorted other problems. Studies reveal that more should be done to internalize external costs. The impacts of
modern agriculture are described below:

Livestock issues
Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to todays most serious environmental problems.
Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet.
It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the worlds greenhouse gas
emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents.
It also generates 64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosystems.
Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation. Through deforestation and land
degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity.
Land transformation and degradation

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter
the Earths ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity.
Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 3950%. Land degradation, the long-term
decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide,
with cropland overrepresented.
The UN-FAO report cites land management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5
billion people rely upon the degrading land.
Degradation can be deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, or chemical degradation
(acidification and salinisation).
Eutrophication
Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish
kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses.
Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause
nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are
major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.
Pesticides
Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has
remained relatively constant.
The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that 3 million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing
220,000 deaths. Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed
the pesticide treadmill in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.
Climate change
Climate change has the potential to affect agriculture through changes in temperature, rainfall (timing and
quantity), CO2, solar radiation and the interaction of these elements.
Agriculture can both mitigate and worsen global warming. Some of the increase in CO2 in the atmosphere
comes from the decomposition of organic matter in the soil, and much of the methane emitted into the
atmosphere is caused by the decomposition of organic matter in wet soils such as rice paddies.
Further, wet or anaerobic soils also lose nitrogen through denitrification, releasing the greenhouse gas nitric
oxide.
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2.10.4 Case Study: Adverse Effect of Waterlogging and Soil Salinity on Crop and Land Productivity in
Northwest Region of Haryana, India

In the irrigated areas of semi-arid regions, especially in northwest India, a considerable recharge to the
groundwater leads to waterlogging and secondary salinisation. In several sub-areas groundwater is mined, water
tables fall, and salts are added to the root zone because a high proportion of irrigation water is derived from
pumped groundwater of poor quality.
Out of 1 million hectares of irrigation induced waterlogged saline area in northwest India, approximately half a
million hectares are in the state of Haryana. The way and the extent to which farmers activities will affect the
salinity situation depend on farming and irrigation practices. In the past, soil salinity was mainly associated with
high groundwater tables, which bring salts into the root zone through capillary rise when water is pumped.
But nowadays, increasing exploitation of groundwater for irrigation purposes has led to declining groundwater
tables and a threat of salinisation due to use of poor quality groundwater.
Farmers in northwest India are facing a situation in which they have to deal with salt volumes that are harmful
for water uptake of crops. They are also facing the problem of sodicity, which has an adverse effect on the
physical structure of the soil, causing problems of water intake, transfer and aeration. To mitigate the adverse
effect of soil salinity on crop yield, the farmers irrigate frequently, either mixing canal water and groundwater,
or alternately using canal water and groundwater.
Due to differences in environmental parameters in the farming systems, such as groundwater quality, soil types
and uneven distribution of irrigation water, income losses to the farming community are not uniform.
Thus, there is economic loss due to environmental degradation through the twin problems of waterlogging and
soil salinity, which threaten the sustainability of agricultural production in Haryana state.
The analysis showed that the net present value of the damage due to waterlogging and salinity in Haryana is
about Rs. 23,900/ha (in 19981999 constant prices). The estimated potential annual loss is about Rs. 1669
million (about US$ 37 million) from the waterlogged saline area.
The major finding is that intensification is not the root cause of land degradation, but also excessive
irrigation.
2.11 Energy Resources

The availability and use of energy is necessary for survival and prosperity. It is basic to any societys development
and economic growth.
Energy is used for many purposes in daily life and in the process of social and economic development, and
the amount of energy consumed is an indicator of level of development and standard of living. Gross national
income per capita is higher where per capita energy consumption is also higher. This indicates the link between
prosperity and energy use in the present worldrich countries use a lot of energy.
2.11.1 Uses of Energy Resources

electricity generation
batteries
controllers, monitoring devices, inverters
water heating
cooking
refrigeration
2.11.2 Classification of Energy Resources
Energy resources are divided into:
Non-Renewable energy resources

A non-renewable resource is a natural resource which cannot be produced, grown, generated, or used on a scale
which can sustain its consumption rate. These resources often exist in a fixed amount, or are consumed much
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faster than nature can create them.

Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum and natural gas) and nuclear power (uranium) are examples.
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum, oil and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and
cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually natural resources will become too costly to
harvest and humanity will need to find other sources of energy. At present, the main energy sources used by
humans are non-renewable as they are cheap to produce.
Renewable energy resources

Natural resources, called renewable resources, are replaced by natural processes given a reasonable amount
of time. Soil, water, forests, plants, and animals are all renewable resources as long as they are properly
conserved.
A natural resource is a renewable resource if it is replaced by natural processes and if replenished with the
passage of time.
Mainstream forms of renewable energy are:

Wind power
Hydropower
Solar energy
Biomass
Biofuel
Geothermal energy
Natural Gas
23%
Coal 23%
Solar 1%
Biomass 48%
Renewable
Energy
8%
Geothermal 5%
Hydroelectric 42%
Petroleum 40%
Nuclear Energy
8%
Wind 4%
Fig. 2.6 Renewable energy consumption in the US energy supply 2006

(Source: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/prelim_trends/rea_prereport.html)

The alternative energy sources that are favourable substitutes for the fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas stated
as thermal sources of energy, used as fuel) are:
Solar energy
Sun is an abundant and free source of energy and of course, one of the major alternative forms of energy.
Ever since the concept of solar energy evolved, renewable energy sources are being researched upon
persistently.
The energy of the Sun is captured via a solar panel (made of silicon). Pertaining to the properties of silicon,
the solar panel absorbs the sunlight and converts it into electrical energy.
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This benefit however can be reaped only during the daytime. About 50% of solar energy captured by solar
panels is converted to electricity.

Wind
The huge wind farms contain wind mills, for driving up countryside. Windmills are huge fan like standing
structures which are used for generating electricity with wind as a source.
The kinetic energy of the wind spins the blades of the mill, which is used for generating electricity.
Wind is definitely a renewable source of energy. However, there is a lot of research and development on
this subject as the investment costs are high and the pace at which the wind energy is reaped needs to be
increased.
But considering the long term benefits, wind energy is quite a boon for rural economies.
In fact, countries like Norway are working on constructing massive floating wind turbines in the ocean
(considering the fact that the intensity of wind in oceans is quite high as compared to land. These turbines
can be installed as deep as 700 meters in the ocean and promise a good speed for the mills to rotate.
Water
One of the most abundant natural resources is water. About 70% of earth is constituted of water.
This resource serves as an indispensable source of energy, which at the same time is renewable too.
Many hydro power stations that generate electricity from water, contain a weir or a dam that stores huge
amount of water and turbines which are connected to generators.
The huge water reservoir serves as the source of potential energy which is converted to kinetic energy
through a supply pipe or pen stock, connected to the turbine. This is one of the best examples that states
conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy. Hydro power generation has been proved to be about
95% efficient.

Biomass
The wasted cornstalks, wheat, twigs, pine cones and dried up plants can be reused for generating fuel.
Such sources of fuel are also known as biomass (used for making biofuels). The use of biomass as fuel is
based on the fact that anything that decomposes or burns, is a palpable source for generating energy.
Biomass energy is an abundant source of energy as it can be found in various forms around the world.
Through biochemical processes, biomass yields useful fuels like alcohols and methane.
Even cooking oils which are discarded can be converted to biofuels (e.g.: biodiesel) through a series of
chemical reactions.
Biomass as an alternate form of energy in terms of a source of fuel for generating electricity.
Geothermal energy
Geothermal refers to heat within earth.
Some of the natural geothermal sources are natural hot water streams that can be pumped out with the help
of high tech drilling equipments.
This steam can be used for driving turbines to power electrical generators that produce electricity.
2.12 Land and Soil Resources

Soil is composed of both inorganic materials and living organisms. It provides the basis for life, giving nutrients
to plants, which allow animal life to exist. 43% of Indias land is plains, giving opportunity for crop farming.
30% of the land is mountainous; giving forests, wildlife and scenic beauty, 27% is plateaus, containing mineral
resources and arable lands.
2.12.1 Land Degradation

Land is the basic resource and as such its availability is linked to all the sectors either directly or indirectly.
Land degradation as such affects mainly agriculture & groundwater recharge (thereby affecting irrigation, water
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supply etc.)

Land degradation involves a number of physical, chemical and biological processes, which may act singly or
jointly.
The other forms of degradation seen in our state are salinization, alkalisation.
Land degradation may be due to natural factors like occurrence of Tsunami, floods etc. and consequent erosion,
tidal action leading to erosion in coastal areas.
Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. It may be due to human factors like:
land clearance, such as deforestation
improper disposal of municipal and industrial wastes
agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices, improper agricultural practices in
terms of excessive usage of water, fertiliser, pesticides, mono cropping (thereby altering the nutrient balance
in the soil),
livestock including overgrazing
inappropriate irrigation
urbanization and commercial development
land pollution including industrial waste
quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals, illegal and indiscriminate sand and red earth mining
inadequate treatment of sewage, industrial waste waters
The major stresses because of land degradation include:

Soil erosion by wind and water
removal of nutrients
acidity increase
salination
alkalinisation
destruction of soil structure
loss of organic matter
4%
12%
Water Erosion
28%
56%
Wind Erosion
Chemical Degradation
Physical Degradation
Fig. 2.7 Worldwide soil degradation mechanisms for all land-use types
(Source: http://www.gisdevelopment.net/proceedings/mapmiddleeast/2006/poster/mm06pos_89.htm)
2.12.2 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion by water due to storms and soils with poor surface structural stability is the most obvious form of
land degradation.
Soil erosion is the washing or blowing away (by the wind) of the top layer of soil.
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2.12.3 Desertification

Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and sub-humid areas. It turns productive desert into
non-productive desert. Desertification mainly occurs due to poor land management.
Desertification is caused by overgrazing, cultivation on bad farm land, destruction of vegetation, over-cutting
of wood, and incorrect irrigation practices. When drought occurs, the effects worsen.
Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life. Desertification reduces plant cover, which leads to
soil erosion. The reduced cover also causes more frequent and severe flooding, and sand storms. Loss of soil
nutrients and vegetation undermines food production, and can contribute to famine.
It can increase temperatures in the regions due to greenhouse gas emissions, reduces regional precipitation.
Less topsoil can lessen the availability of water and can cause a drought.
Once started, desertification is impossible to reverse 4.5 billion dollars will have to be spent every year for
20 years to prevent it. Desertification is relatively stabilized in the U.S., but it is spreading in other countries.
Unchecked, desertification can cause more farm land to become unusable, and leave people with very little
food and water.
It will also increase the number of arid regions in the world if it continues.
Worldwide desertification is making 12 million hectares useless for cultivation, 87% of cultivated lands in
the country and 61%+ of all productive dry lands are moderately to severely desertified. Global warming will
increase areas of desert climates by 17%.
2.12.4 Landslides

A landslide is the gravitational movement of a mass of rock, earth or debris down a slope. Landslides are usually
classified on the basis of the material involved (rock, debris, earth, mud) and the type of movement (fall, topple,
avalanche, slide, flow, spread).
Landslide also refers to mass movements such as rock falls, mudslides and debris flows.
Landslides can be triggered by both natural and man-induced changes in the environment.
They can be inherent, such as weaknesses in the composition or structure of the rock or soil; variable, such as
heavy rain, snowmelt, and changes in ground-water level; transient, such as seismic or volcanic activity; or due
to new environmental conditions, such as those imposed by construction activity.
Human induced landslides

Human activities triggering landslides are mainly associated with construction and involve changes in slope
and in surface-water and ground-water regimes.
Changes in slope result from terracing for agriculture, cut-and-fill construction for highways, the construction of
buildings and railroads, and mining operations. If these activities and facilities are ill-conceived, or improperly
designed or constructed, they can increase slope angle, and cause landslide.
Changes in irrigation or surface runoff can cause changes in surface drainage and can increase erosion or raising
the ground-water table. The ground-water table can also be raised by lawn watering, waste-water effluent from
leach fields or cesspools, leaking water pipes, swimming pools or ponds, and application or conveyance of
irrigation water.
A high ground-water level results in increased pore-water pressure and decreased shear strength, thus facilitating
slope failure. Conversely, the lowering of the ground-water table as a result of rapid drawdown by water supply
wells, or the lowering -of a lake or reservoir, can also cause slope failure as the buoyancy provided by the water
decreases and seepage gradients steepen.
Impacts of landslides

Landslides are a major hazard in most mountainous and hilly regions as well as in steep river banks and coastlines.
Their impact depends largely on their size and speed, the elements at risk in their path and the vulnerability of
these elements.
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Every year landslides cause fatalities and result in large damage to infrastructure (roads, railways, pipelines,
artificial reservoirs, etc.) and property (buildings, agricultural land, etc.).
Large landslides in mountainous areas can result in landslide dams blocking river courses. These natural dams
can be subsequently breached by lake water pressure, hence generating deadly flash floods or debris flows
downstream. Submarine and large coastal cliff landslides can trigger tsunami, as can landslides in lake and
reservoir shores.
Landslides can also affect mine waste tips and tailings dams and landfills, causing fatalities and contaminating
soils and surface and ground water
In areas affected by landslides, these are a major source of soil erosion and sediment yield to valleys and
rivers.
2.13 Natural Resources Conservation and Management

The rich resources on our planet are the outcome of over 3.5 billion years of evolutionary history. However,
there is rapid degradation of the natural resources due to human intervention. The causes are:
industrial revolution of the past three centuries lead to hacking down of trees
mining activities have lead to moving of mountains
old ways of harvesting are being replaced by more intensive technologies leading to environmental
degradation
increase in worlds population has led to depletion in natural resources
global changes like depletion of ozone layer and climatic changes have led to increase in global
temperature
loss of biodiversity has led to low productivity in natural ecosystems
due to ecosystem fragmentation, the species are on the verge of extinction
increase in the pollution
over exploitation of natural resources
Conservation of natural resources is its proper use, allocation, and protection.
Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the natural world: its, fisheries, habitats, and biological
diversity.
Secondary focus is on materials conservation and energy conservation, which are seen as important to protect
the natural world.
Conservation of natural resources refers to the wise use of the earths resources by humanity. The term conservation
came into use in the late 19th century and referred to the management, mainly for economic reasons, of such
valuable natural resources as timber, fish, game, topsoil, pastureland, and minerals, and also to the preservation
of forests (see forestry), wildlife (see wildlife refuge), parkland, wilderness, and watershed areas.
Conservation of natural resources is now usually embraced in the broader conception of conserving the earth itself
by protecting its capacity for self-renewal. Particularly complex are the problems of non-renewable resources
such as oil and coal and other minerals in great demand.
Examples of such conservation areas include the Great Barrier Reef off Australia and Adirondack State Park in
the United States. The importance of reconciling human use and conservation beyond the boundaries of parks
has become another important issue.
2.13.1 Water Conservation

Water conservation helps in managing water bills and also aids in using water for other purposes.
Water conservation act as a boon in times of drought, for places which have low access to water supply, such
as the desert regions.
Water conservation has its positive consequences as ecosystem and habitat protection.
Improved septic performance curbs the risk of ground water contamination and thus, lakes and streams are less
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polluted. This can be achieved through water conservation. Thus, it has a positive impact in protecting lakes,
streams and safety of drinking water supplies.
Water conservation helps in conserving the amount of electricity required to heat, pump and treat water.
2.13.2 Soil Conservation

Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the earths surface
or becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination.
Soil conservation is maintaining good soil health, by various practices. The aim of soil conservation methods
is to prevent soil erosion, prevent soils overuse and prevent soil contamination from chemicals. There are
various measures that are used to maintain soil health, and prevent the above harms to soil. Here are the soil
conservation methods which are practiced for soil management.
2.13.3 Biodiversity Conservation

Biological Diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species and of ecosystems.
Biological Resources include genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic
component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity. The biodiversity is important
because:
Biological resources are the pillars upon which we build civilizations.
Nature products support diverse industries as agriculture cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper,
horticulture, construction and waste treatment.
The loss of biodiversity threatens our food supplies, opportunities for recreation and tourism, and sources
of wood, medicines and energy.
It also interferes with essential ecological functions.
The techniques for biodiversity conservation include:

Habitat preservation
Biodiversity banking
Gene banks: collections of specimens and genetic material. Some banks intend to reintroduce banked species
to the ecosystem (e.g. via tree nurseries).
Reducing and better targeting of pesticides: allows more species to survive in agricultural and urbanized
areas.
Location-specific approaches are less useful for protecting migratory species. One approach is to create
wildlife corridors that correspond to the animals movements.
In 1992, meeting of world leaders took place at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil called the Earth Summit, and two agreements were signed:
The Convention on Climate Change, which targets industrial and other emissions of greenhouse gases
The Convention on Biological Diversity, the first global agreement on the conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity.
The Convention has three main goals or objectives:

the conservation of biodiversity
sustainable use of the components of biodiversity
sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources in a fair and
equitable way
2.13.4 Conservation at Individual Level

To protect natural resources from pollution, individuals, industries, and governments have many obligations.
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Failure to do so results in contamination of air, soil, rivers and ecosystem. These include:
prohibiting or limiting the use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals
limiting wastewater and airborne pollutants
preventing the production of radioactive materials
regulating drilling and transportation of petroleum products

In one way or the other, every person can protect the natural resources. The first thing that comes to mind is
coal and other fossil fuels.
To save coal, one can reduce the consumption of coal. For cooking, gas cylinders can be used.
Next is petrol. It causes great amount of air pollution. Again, it is also depleting out fast. To save it, we can use
alternate bio-fuels in our cars.
To enjoy electric current in the house, a slightly rich person can use solar photoelectric cells.
It has been made obligatory for all major hotels to utilize solar power in solar water heaters to replace geysers
and other electricity dependent articles.
Again, keeping the taps open not only wastes water, but also a grand amount of energy requisite to purify this
water.
Recently, some advertisements teach us to turn off the car engine while the vehicle is caught in a traffic snarl.
This saves little amount of fuel, but this little amount will be necessary in the future days to satisfy the demands
of power.
2.13.5 Conservation at Community Level

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring of waste
materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally undertaken to
reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to recover
resources from it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, with different
methods and fields of expertise for each. The methods of waste management may be:
incineration
land filling
biological reprocessing (composting)
recycling
sustainability
energy recovery (waste to energy)
waste minimization (avoidance and reduction methods)
Use of Alternative forms of energy: Biofuels

Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term covers solid biomass,
liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors
such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, and concern over greenhouse gas emissions from
fossil fuels. These include biodiesel, bioethanol etc.
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Summary

A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity existent in various ecosystems.
Natural resources are derived from the environment.
Exploitation of natural resources is an essential condition of the human existence. Throughout history,
humans have manipulated natural resources to produce the materials they needed to sustain growing human
populations.
The root causes associated with depletion of natural resources include overpopulation, inefficiency in resource
utilisation, overconsumption, poverty and socio-economic problems and ineffective structures (human institutions,
regulations and attitudes).
The pollution of coastal environments, destabilisation of coastal landforms and introduction of human landscapes
lead to exploitation of marine resources.
The problems with land resources exploitation include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, destruction
of wetlands anddeclining oil, gas and mineral supplies.
The ozone layer prevents most harmful ultraviolet waves from passing through the Earths atmosphere.
CFCs, carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane are ozone depleting substances, which cause skin cancer, cataracts,
damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the oceans photic zone.
Ecological services provided by forests include production of oxygen, reduction of global warming, wild life
habitat, regulation of hydrological cycle, soil conservation and pollution moderators.
The world is facing food problems due to changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, modern agriculture,
fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, etc.
The energy need of world is growing. A solution to this is the use of alternative forms of energy sources.
Human activities triggering landslides are mainly associated with construction and involve changes in slope
and in surface-water and ground-water regimes.
To protect natural resources from pollution, individuals, industries, and governments have many obligations.
An individual can play a great role in conservation of natural resources.
The use of resources for should be equitable for sustainable lifestyles.
References

David A. Anderson, (2010). Environmental Economics and Natural Resource Management, Routledge, 3rd
edition, 448 pages.
Natural Resources. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources. Last accessed

on February 5, 2011.
Surface water. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_water. Last accessed on February 7, 2011.
Biodiversity for High Schools. Available at http://www.jamaicachm.org.jm/BHS/exploit.asp. Last accessed on

February 7, 2011.
Natural Resources in India. Available at http://indiaonline.in/Profile/Geography/NaturalResources/index.aspx.

Last accessed on February 7, 2011.
Uses of forests. Available at http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/uses.htm. Last accessed on February 8,

2011.
A. K. Al-Saafin, Mineral Resources & Environment, Available at http://opencourseware.kfupm.edu.sa/colleges/

cs/es/geol446/files%5C5-_Handouts_05-Mineral_Resources___Env.pdf. Last accessed on February 5, 2011.
Natural Resource Management. Available at http://www.clarklabs.org/applications/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/

security/getfile.cfm&pageid=1088.Last accessed on February 5, 2011.
Malnutrition. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001441. Last accessed on February

8, 2011.
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Recommended Reading

Daniel D. Chiras, John P. Reganold, (2009). Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable
Future, Addison Wesley, 10th edition, 672 pages.
David A. Anderson, (2010). Environmental Economics and Natural Resource Management, Routledge, 3rd
edition, 448 pages.
Jerry L. Holechek, Richard A. Cole, James T. Fisher, Raul Valdez, (2002). Natural Resources: Ecology,
Economics, and Policy, Prentice Hall, 2nd edition, 761 pages.
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1 Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

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1 Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

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Chapter I

Infrastructure Development and Environment

define infrastructure and infrastructure management

enlist the characteristics of infrastructure

discuss the impact of infrastructure on environment

state the need for public awareness

enlist the importance of environmental studies

discuss the efforts in environmental protection

understand the need for public education and awareness

explain the benefits of infrastructure management

get an overview of sustainable development

Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

1.3 Characteristics of Infrastructure

Benefits from users to non-users

1.4 Benefits of Infrastructure Management

reduce duplication of effort

ensure adherence to standards

enhance the flow of information throughout an information system

promote adaptability necessary for a changeable environment

ensure interoperability among organisational and external entities

maintain effective change management policies and practices

1.5 Infrastructure and its Impact on Environment

Infrastructure development has the following impacts on the environment:

Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

Habitat fragmentation: Declining biodiversity

Fig. 1.1 Environmental dimensions of transportation

1.6 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

Economics, Sociology, Law, Education,

Fig. 1.2 Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

i Research & Development (R & D) in environment

to reduce the burden of toxic substances in the environment.

R&D thrust areas include:

Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

1.8 Importance of Environment Studies

to find practical solutions to the present environmental problems

to find ways and means to maintain the ecological balance

1.9 Public Awareness

These challenges force the need for public awareness.

Need to save humanity from extinction

Working with the media

Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

actively disseminate information.

1.9.4 Environment Protection: National and International Efforts

Environmental organisations or protection agencies

1.9.6 Sustainable Development

Sustainable design principles

Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

The environment, encompasses all living and non-living things.

Infrastructure management. Available at http://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/infrastructure-management.

define natural resources

enlist the different types of natural resources

introduce the different trends in exploitation of natural resources

describe the importance of natural resources

enlist the problems associated with over-exploitation of natural resources

discuss the efforts in environmental protection: individual and community level

define biodiversity and describe the need to conserve biodiversity

get an overview of natural resources and its management

Environmental Impact of Growing Energy Need

2.2 Natural Resources

Natural resources are naturally occurring features or characteristics of the environment.

2.3 Types of Natural Resources

On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:

With respect to renewability, natural resources can be categorised as follows: