1.

METHODS AND MAINTENACE OF SWEAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Treatment plant maintenance
The RAITA compact treatment plant is a bio-chemical wastewater treatment plant developed in
Finland. It makes use of the biological active sludge process for removal of organic material, the
biological nitrification and denitrification processes for removal of nitrogen, and biological treatment
and chemical precipitation for removal of phosphorus.
Inspection visit procedures
The property owner carries out general inspection:
inspecting the appearance and odour of water in the treatment plant basins.
inspecting the effluent monitoring container sample
checking the amount of chemical
Adding the following information to the log: number of loads treated, problem situations, procedures
carried out and other observations.
excess sludge is removed, chemical added, and the precipitation tank emptied as needed.
The time needed for the inspection is 530 minutes.
Effluent monitoring container
The treatment plant is equipped with an effluent monitoring container, which retains a monitoring
sample from each treated load. Treated water is pumped out of the treatment plant at the end of the
clarification period through a pipe that has a valve. Treated water is collected from this pipe into the
monitoring container. It is recommended that the sample in the container be inspected once a week
(at least once a month). The sample in the monitoring container should be clear (chemicals may
change the colour to a light gray), transparent, and should not contain any solids or visible particles.
Look at the sample against the light.
CLOUDINESS of the monitoring container sample is usually a result of:
non-activation of the treatment process
running out of chemical
faulty dosage pump
poisoning
SLUDGE PARTICLES in the monitoring container sample are usually a result of:
reaching of sludge capacity
low alkalinity of water (surface sludge), add approximately 0.5 dl
lime to process tank
exceeding of load capacity (water quantity)
Cleaning
The devices are to be cleaned as needed. A layer of sludge may form in the pipes over the years,
impeding flow. Sludge is emptied in connection with the annual service.
Sludge settlement test
Sludge settlement testing is carried out as needed (in connection with activation, problem situations).
The treatment plant has a minimum sludge capacity of 40 % of the third chamber volume. The sludge
settlement test is used to measure the amount of sludge and inspect the sludge settlement
properties. A sample of 1 l is taken from the third chamber during the aeration period. The sample is
allowed to settle in the sample container for half an hour. Settlement is monitored and the settlement
of sludge after 30 minutes is recorded (if needed, after 1 hour, 2 hours; the process settlement time is
2 hours).
Sludge removal
If a sludge treatment unit is used, the amount of excess sludge created by the biological process is
very small due to extended aeration, internal sludge collection and circulation. Sludge accumulates in
the process tank (excess sludge from the biological process) and in the precipitation tank (preprecipitation sludge). Excess sludge from the biological process can be removed to the sludge
treatment unit (ancillary equipment 4), in which it is separated from the water and dried. The drying
basket can be emptied into compost. A sludge treatment unit minimizes the need for sludge removal.
Solids collected from pre-precipitation (1) are decomposed and mineralized. The precipitation tank is
emptied once a year or less. If R-equipment is used, that is, a shredder pump instead of a preprecipitation tank, additional sludge removal is not needed.
Poisoning

The biological treatment process is susceptible to poisoning. Symptoms are a low (15) or high (8
15) pH, unpleasant odour, or active sludge rising to the surface. Do not conduct toxic substances into
the treatment plant that will destroy the microbial action (e.g. medicines, cigarette butts, milk, grease,
chemical pipe clog removers, chlorine, antibacterial detergents, solvents, oil, paint, or other
hazardous wastes). If poisoning occurs,
try to have the contaminated water removed immediately (by a vacuum lorry) from the treatment plant
precipitation tank and pre-treatment tank (storage and equalization tank). In this way you may be able
to save the active sludge. If contaminated water has already entered the process tank (the biological
process), however, that must also be emptied and the biological process restarted.
Shut-downs
The treatment plant is designed to operate during normal load interruptions (weekends, even fourweek vacations) without detriment to the treatment process. Activity shifts to a "resting" state
(intermediate aeration state) automatically. If the shut-down is for a longer period of time (more than 4
weeks), nutrients can be added to the process to keep the microbial activity going.
Pumps
Standard equipment includes two pumps:
1. pump pumps pre-treated wastewater to the process tank (R equipment uses a shredder pump).
2. pump pumps treated water out of the treatment plant after the filling period ends. 2. pump can be
used to remove excess sludge to the
sludge treatment unit if needed (manual operation).
In addition, the automatic sludge treatment unit equipment includes a third pump that removes
sludge from the process tank automatically.
Pumping and aeration control
The operating program regulates pump and aerator operation. Operation times change automatically
with load variation. Processing time varies from 1 to 2 loads per day depending on the amount of
inflow. Activities automatically shift to a resting state when wastewater is not entering the
treatment plant (vacation times, etc.). It is possible to override the operating program for manual
pump operation.
Estimating the amount of chemical needed
The amount of chemical needed depends on the quality of the wastewater. Since this concerns a
chemical reaction in which the precipitating chemical reacts with phosphate in the water, the amount
consumed is determined primarily by the phosphorus content of the wastewater inflow - the more
phosphorus there is in the wastewater, the more chemical is consumed. Chemical dosing is set to a
default value (calculated according to the 1.1.2004 Decree) for achieving effective dephosphorization
under the most common conditions. The operating program automatically adds the correct chemical
dosage to the wastewater being treated under varying load conditions. The operating program adjusts
chemical pump dosage. It is possible to change the dosage amount if needed, for instance if the
water for consumption has highly unusual properties.
Dosage chemical FE
The substance is delivered as a prepared solution in 5 l , 10 and 30 l containers. The solution is
poured into the treatment plant chemical tank (1).
The operating program gives reminders about chemical replenishment (light on top of mechanical
space). Always obey the warnings on the
container when handling the chemical. The chemical contains sulphuric acid, ferric sulphate, ferrous
sulphate, and manganese sulphate. The chemical is corrosive.
Chemical handling
If accident occurs, any chemical splashed on eyes must be flushed immediately with generous
amounts of water (for 15 minutes) and medical
attention sought. Any splash on skin must be rinsed immediately with generous amounts of water. If
nausea occurs, medical attention must be
sought immediately. When handling the chemical, appropriate protective clothing, gloves, and eye or
face protection are to be used.
Alkalinity and pH regulation
The chemical is acidic and reduces the alkalinity of the water (alkalinity is a measure of the capacity
of water to resist change in pH when acid is

added to it), as does nitrification. Reduced alkalinity is indicated by low pH (less than 6.5) and
impeded settlement during the settlement test as well as by surface sludge appearing in the process
tank.
Alkalinity decreases especially when a long sludge removal interval is being used. Alkalinity is
regulated by adding a substance such as lime to the process tank, 0.51 dl as needed.
Annual service
An authorized service company carries out annual service (according to the service agreement). The
condition of the fan is examined, condition of
aerators and aeration pipes, condition of submerged pumps and plumbing, condition of chemical
pump and plumbing, surface alarm functioning, usage log inspection, analysis of monitoring container
sample and active sludge, process evaluation and comments (in writing).
2. RESEARCH THE CONDUCT OF WASTE WATER STP EFFLUENT TEST PARAMETERS

1.3 Quality parameters of importance in agricultural use of wastewaters

1.3.1 Parameters of health significance
Organic chemicals usually exist in municipal wastewaters at very low concentrations and ingestion
over prolonged periods would be necessary to produce detrimental effects on human health. This is
not likely to occur with agricultural/aquacultural use of wastewater, unless cross-connections with
potable supplies occur or agricultural workers are not properly instructed, and can normally be
ignored. The principal health hazards associated with the chemical constituents of wastewaters,
therefore, arise from the contamination of crops or groundwaters. Hillman (1988) has drawn attention
to the particular concern attached to the cumulative poisons, principally heavy metals, and
carcinogens, mainly organic chemicals. World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water
quality (WHO 1984) include limit values for the organic and toxic substances given in Table 6, based
on acceptable daily intakes (ADI). These can be adopted directly for groundwater protection purposes
but, in view of the possible accumulation of certain toxic elements in plants (for example, cadmium
and selenium) the intake of toxic materials through eating the crops irrigated with contaminated
wastewater must be carefully assessed.
Table 6: ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF DRINKING WATER OF HEALTH
SIGNIFICANCE
Organic
Aldrin and dieldrin
Benzene
Benzo-a-pyrene
Carbon tetrachloride
Chlordane
Chloroform
2,4 D
DDT
1,2 Dichloroethane
1,1 Dichlorethylene
Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide
Hexachlorobenzene
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Pentachlorophenol
Tetrachlorethylene
2, 4, 6 Trichloroethylene
Trichlorophenol

Inorganic
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Cyanide
Fluoride
Lead
Mercury
Nitrate
Selenium

The following microbiological parameters are particularly important from the health point of
view:
i. Indicator Organisms
a. Coliforms and Faecal Coliforms. The Coliform group of bacteria comprises mainly species of the
genera Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia and Klebsiella and includes Faecal Coliforms, of

which Escherichia coli is the predominant species. Several of the Coliforms are able to grow outside
of the intestine, especially in hot climates, hence their enumeration is unsuitable as a parameter for
monitoring wastewater reuse systems. The Faecal Coliform test may also include some non-faecal
organisms which can grow at 44C, so the E. coli count is the most satisfactory indicator parameter
for wastewater use in agriculture.
b. Faecal Streptococci. This group of organisms includes species mainly associated with
animals (Streptococcus bovis and S. equinus), other species with a wider distribution
(e.g. S. faecalis and S. faecium, which occur both in man and in other animals) as well as two
biotypes (S. faecalis var liquefaciens and an a typical S. faecalis that hydrolyzes starch) which appear
to be ubiquitous, occurring in both polluted and non-polluted environments. The enumeration of
Faecal Streptococci in effluents is a simple routine procedure but has the following limitations: the
possible presence of the non-faecal biotypes as part of the natural microflora on crops may detract
from their utility in assessing the bacterial quality of wastewater irrigated crops; and the poorer
survival of Faecal Streptococci at high than at low temperatures. Further studies are still warranted on
the use of Faecal Streptococci as an indicator in tropical conditions and especially to compare
survival with that of Salmonellae.
c. Clostridium perfringens. This bacterium is an exclusively faecal spore-forming anaerobe normally
used to detect intermittent or previous pollution of water, due to the prolonged survival of its spores.
Although this extended survival is usually considered to be a disadvantage for normal purposes, it
may prove to be very useful in wastewater reuse studies, as Clostridium perfringens may be found to
have survival characteristics similar to those of viruses or even helminth eggs.
ii. Pathogens
The following pathogenic parameters can only be considered if suitable laboratory facilities and
suitably trained staff are available:
a. Salmonella spp. Several species of Salmonellae may be present in raw sewage from an urban
community in a tropical developing country, including S. typhi (causative agent for typhoid) and many
others. It is estimated (Doran et al. 1977) that a count of 7000 Salmonellae/litre is typical in a tropical
urban sewage with similar numbers of Shigellae, and perhaps 1000 Vibrio
cholera/litre. Both Shigella spp and V. cholera are more rapidly killed in the environment, so if removal
of Salmonellae can be achieved, then the majority of other bacterial pathogens will also have been
removed.
b. Enteroviruses. May give rise to severe diseases, such as Poliomyelitis and Meningitis, or to a
range of minor illnesses such as respiratory infections. Although there is no strong epidemiological
evidence for the spread of these diseases via sewage irrigation systems, there is some risk and it is
desirable to know to what extent viruses are removed by existing and new treatment processes,
especially under tropical conditions. Virus counts can only be undertaken in a dedicated laboratory, as
the cell culture techniques required are very susceptible to bacterial and fungal contamination.
c. Rotaviruses. These viruses are known to cause gastro-intestinal problems and, though usually
present in lower numbers than enteroviruses in sewage, they are known to be more persistent, so it is
necessary to establish their survival characteristics relative to enteroviruses and relative to the
indicator organisms in wastewaters. It has been claimed that the removal of viruses in wastewater
treatment occurs in parallel with the removal of suspended solids, as most virus particles are solidsassociated. Hence, the measurement of suspended solids in treated effluents should be carried out
as a matter of routine.
d. Intestinal Nematodes. It is known that nematode infections, in particular from the
roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, can be spread by effluent reuse practices. The eggs of A.
lumbricoides are fairly large (45-70 m x 35-50 m) and several techniques for enumeration of
nematodes have been developed.

1.3.2 Parameters of agricultural significance

The quality of irrigation water is of particular importance in arid zones where extremes of temperature
and low relative humidity result in high rates of evaporation, with consequent deposition of salt which
tends to accumulate in the soil profile. The physical and mechanical properties of the soil, such as
dispersion of particles, stability of aggregates, soil structure and permeability, are very sensitive to the
type of exchangeable ions present in irrigation water. Thus, when effluent use is being planned,
several factors related to soil properties must be taken into consideration. A thorough treatise on the

subject prepared by Ayers and Westcot is contained in the FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No 29
Rev. 1 (FAO 1985).
Another aspect of agricultural concern is the effect of dissolved solids (TDS) in the irrigation water on
the growth of plants. Dissolved salts increase the osmotic potential of soil water and an increase in
osmotic pressure of the soil solution increases the amount of energy which plants must expend to
take up water from the soil. As a result, respiration is increased and the growth and yield of most
plants decline progressively as osmotic pressure increases. Although most plants respond to salinity
as a function of the total osmotic potential of soil water, some plants are susceptible to specific ion
toxicity.
Many of the ions which are harmless or even beneficial at relatively low concentrations may become
toxic to plants at high concentration, either through direct interference with metabolic processes or
through indirect effects on other nutrients, which might be rendered inaccessible. Morishita (1985)
has reported that irrigation with nitrogen-enriched polluted water can supply a considerable excess of
nutrient nitrogen to growing rice plants and can result in a significant yield loss of rice through lodging,
failure to ripen and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases as a result of over-luxuriant growth.
He further reported that non-polluted soil, having around 0.4 and 0.5 ppm cadmium, may produce
about 0.08 ppm Cd in brown rice, while only a little increase up to 0.82, 1.25 or 2.1 ppm of soil Cd has
the potential to produce heavily polluted brown rice with 1.0 ppm Cd.
Important agricultural water quality parameters include a number of specific properties of water that
are relevant in relation to the yield and quality crops, maintenance of soil productivity and protection
of the environment. These parameters mainly consist of certain physical and chemical characteristics
of the water. Table 7 presents a list of some of the important physical and chemical characteristics
that are used in the evaluation of agricultural water quality. The primary wastewater quality
parameters of importance from an agricultural viewpoint are:
Table 7: PARAMETERS USED IN THE EVALUATION OF AGRICULTURAL WATER QUALITY
Parameters
Physical
Total dissolved solids
Electrical conductivity
Temperature
Colour/Turbidity
Hardness
Sediments
Chemical
Acidity/Basicity
Type and concentration of anions and cations:
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Sulphate
Sodium adsorption ratio
Boron
Trace metals
Heavy metals
Nitrate-Nitrogen
Phosphate Phosphorus
Potassium

Symbol

Unit

TDS
Ecw
T

mg/l
dS/m1
C
NTU/JTU2
mg equiv. CaCO3/l
g/l

pH
Ca++
Mg++
Na+
CO3-HCO3ClSO4-SAR
B
NO3-N
PO4-P
K

dS/m = deciSiemen/metre in SI Units (equivalent to 1 mmho/cm)

NTU/JTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Units/Jackson Turbidity Units
3
me/l = milliequivalent per litre
4
mg/l == milligrams per litre = parts per million (ppm); also,
mg/l ~ 640 x EC in dS/m
i. Total Salt Concentration
1
2

me/l3
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
mg/l4
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l

Total salt concentration (for all practical purposes, the total dissolved solids) is one of the most
important agricultural water quality parameters. This is because the salinity of the soil water is related
to, and often determined by, the salinity of the irrigation water. Accordingly, plant growth, crop yield
and quality of produce are affected by the total dissolved salts in the irrigation water. Equally, the rate
of accumulation of salts in the soil, or soil salinization, is also directly affected by the salinity of the
irrigation water. Total salt concentration is expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l) or parts per million
(ppm).
ii. Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity is widely used to indicate the total ionized constituents of water. It is directly
related to the sum of the cations (or anions), as determined chemically and is closely correlated, in
general, with the total salt concentration. Electrical conductivity is a rapid and reasonably precise
determination and values are always expressed at a standard temperature of 25C to enable
comparison of readings taken under varying climatic conditions. It should be noted that the electrical
conductivity of solutions increases approximately 2 percent per C increase in temperature. In this
publication, the symbol ECw, is used to represent the electrical conductivity of irrigation water and the
symbol ECe is used to designate the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract. The unit of
electrical conductivity is deciSiemen per metre (dS/m).
iii. Sodium Adsorption Ratio
Sodium is an unique cation because of its effect on soil. When present in the soil in exchangeable
form, it causes adverse physico-chemical changes in the soil, particularly to soil structure. It has the
ability to disperse soil, when present above a certain threshold value, relative to the concentration of
total dissolved salts. Dispersion of soils results in reduced infiltration rates of water and air into the
soil. When dried, dispersed soil forms crusts which are hard to till and interfere with germination and
seedling emergence. Irrigation water could be a source of excess sodium in the soil solution and
hence it should be evaluated for this hazard.
The most reliable index of the sodium hazard of irrigation water is the sodium adsorption ration, SAR.
The sodium adsorption ratio is defined by the formula:
(1)

where the ionic concentrations are expressed in me/l.

A nomogram for determining the SAR value of irrigation water is presented in Figure 3 (US Salinity
Laboratory 1954). An exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) scale is included in the nomogram to
estimate the ESP value of the soil that is at equilibrium with the irrigation water. Using the nomogram,
it is possible to estimate the ESP value of a soil that is at equilibrium with irrigation water of a known
SAR value. Under field conditions, the actual ESP may be slightly higher than the estimated
equilibrium value because the total salt concentration of the soil solution is increased by evaporation
and plant trans-piration, which results in a higher SAR and a corres-pondingly higher ESP value.
It should also be noted that the SAR from Eq 1 does not take into account changes in calcium ion
concentration in the soil water due to changes in solubility of calcium resulting from precipitation or
dissolution during or following an irrigation. However, the SAR calculated according to Eq 1 is
considered an acceptable evaluation procedure for most of the irrigation waters encountered in
agriculture. If significant precipitation or dissolution of calcium due to the effect of carbon dioxide
(CO2), bicarbonate (HCO3-) and total salinity (ECw) is suspected, an alternative procedure for
calculating an Adjusted Sodium Adsorption Ratio, SARadj. can be used. The details of this procedure
are reported by Ayers and Westcot (FAO (1985).
iv. Toxic Ions
Irrigation water that contains certain ions at concentrations above threshold values can cause plant
toxicity problems. Toxicity normally results in impaired growth, reduced yield, changes in the
morphology of the plant and even its death. The degree of damage depends on the crop, its stage of
growth, the concentration of the toxic ion, climate and soil conditions.
The most common phytotoxic ions that may be present in municipal sewage and treated effluents in
concentrations such as to cause toxicity are: boron (B), chloride (Cl) and sodium (Na). Hence, the
concentration of these ions will have to be determined to assess the suitability of waste-water quality
for use in agriculture.

v. Trace Elements and Heavy Metals

A number of elements are normally present in relatively low concentrations, usually less than a few
mg/l, in conventional irrigation waters and are called trace elements. They are not normally included
in routine analysis of regular irrigation water, but attention should be paid to them when using sewage
effluents, particularly if contamination with industrial wastewater discharges is suspected. These
include Aluminium (A1), Beryllium (Be), Cobalt (Co), Fluoride (F), Iron (Fe), Lithium (Li), Manganese
(Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium (Se), Tin (Sn), Titanium (Ti), Tungsten (W) and Vanadium (V).
Heavy metals are a special group of trace elements which have been shown to create definite health
hazards when taken up by plants. Under this group are included, Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd),
Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) and Zinc (Zn). These are called heavy metals
because in their metallic form, their densities are greater than 4g/cc.
vi. pH
pH is an indicator of the acidity or basicity of water but is seldom a problem by itself. The normal pH
range for irrigation water is from 6.5 to 8.4; pH values outside this range are a good warning that the
water is abnormal in quality. Normally, pH is a routine measurement in irrigation water quality
assessment.

3. DIFFERENT METHODS OF STP WASTE WATER TESTING

While the details of sampling, testing and analysis are beyond the scope of this handbook, what
follows is a general description of the significance of water quality tests usually made.
Testing procedures and parameters may be grouped into physical, chemical, bacteriological and
microscopic categories.
Physical tests indicate properties detectable by the senses.
Chemical tests determine the amounts of mineral and organic substances that affect water
quality.
Bacteriological tests show the presence of bacteria, characteristic of faecal pollution.
2.2.1 Physical tests
Colour, turbidity, total solids, dissolved solids, suspended solids, odour and taste are recorded.
Colour in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron and manganese or by
substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds. Colour tests indicate the efficacy of the
water treatment system.
Turbidity in water is because of suspended solids and colloidal matter. It may be due to eroded
soil caused by dredging or due to the growth of micro-organisms. High turbidity makes filtration
expensive. If sewage solids are present, pathogens may be encased in the particles and escape
the action of chlorine during disinfection.
Odour and taste are associated with the presence of living microscopic organisms; or decaying
organic matter including weeds, algae; or industrial wastes containing ammonia, phenols,
halogens, hydrocarbons. This taste is imparted to fish, rendering them unpalatable. While
chlorination dilutes odour and taste caused by some contaminants, it generates a foul odour itself
when added to waters polluted with detergents, algae and some other wastes.
2.2.2 Chemical tests
pH, hardness, presence of a selected group of chemical parameters, biocides, highly toxic
chemicals, and B.O.D are estimated.
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. It is an indicator of relative acidity or alkalinity of
water. Values of 9.5 and above indicate high alkalinity while values of 3 and below indicate acidity.
Low pH values help in effective chlorination but cause problems with corrosion. Values below 4
generally do not support living organisms in the marine environment. Drinking water should have
a pH between 6.5 and 8.5. Harbour basin water can vary between 6 and 9.
B.O.D.: It denotes the amount of oxygen needed by micro-organisms for stabilization of
decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. High B.O.D. means that there is less of
oxygen to support life and indicates organic pollution.
2.2.3 Bacteriological tests
For technical and economic reasons, analytical procedures for the detection of harmful organisms
are impractical for routine water quality surveillance. It must be appreciated that all that
bacteriological analysis can prove is that, at the time of examination, contamination or bacteria
indicative of faecal pollution, could or could not be demonstrated in a given sample of water using
specified culture methods. In addition, the results of routine bacteriological examination must
always be interpreted in the light of a thorough knowledge of the water supplies, including their
source, treatment, and distribution.
Whenever changes in conditions lead to deterioration in the quality of the water supplied, or even
if they should suggest an increased possibility of contamination, the frequency of bacteriological
examination should be increased, so that a series of samples from well chosen locations may
identify the hazard and allow remedial action to be taken. Whenever a sanitary survey, including
visual inspection, indicates that a water supply is obviously subject to pollution, remedial action
must be taken, irrespective of the results of bacteriological examination. For unpiped rural
supplies, sanitary surveys may often be the only form of examination that can be undertaken
regularly.