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Th e F u n d a m e nt a l L a w s
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w i t h ap p l i ca t i o n s o f t h e f o rm er t o t h e nu m er a t i o n o f v ari o u s
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A s i s u s u al i n el e m e ntar y
t e x t b ook s t h e e l em e n t s o f b o t h w i ll b e tr ea te d i n t h i s w o r k

m ath e m at i cs z

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l g eb r a

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VOL I
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REP RE S EN T A T I VE G ROU P S

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btract e d

p er atio ns m ay e n d i n r e s u ts t h at h av e n o
di rect i nt er pre t at ion a s o r d i nar y a r i t h m e t i ca q u an ti ti e s n e e d n ot
He m u s t r em em b er th at a g ebra i s th e
d i s tu r b t h e s t u d e n t

Th e

fact th at

e
n
r
al
e
g

t h eo ry

h m eti ca l

ar i t

fr om

th e

Of th os e O p er atio n s w i th

u
a nt i t
q
y of

w h i ch o r di na ry

He m ay b e assur e d
p er at i o ns ar e p ar ti cu l ar cases
w ay i n w h i ch t h e g e nera l l a w s Of a l g ebr a ar e e s tabl i s h e d
o

Of ar i t h m e ti cal m ean ing s

t h es e r esu l t s w i ll be ar i t h m e ti call y r i g h t e v e n w h e n s o m e o f t h e
s te s by w h i ch t h ey h av e b een a r r i v e d a t m a
p
y n o t b e ar ith m eti c
a ll y i nt e r r e t abl e
O n t h e o th er h an d w h e n t h e e nd r esu l t s
p
a re n o t ar i th m e t i ca ll
y i n te ll ig i bl e i t i s m e re l y i n th e rs t i n s tan ce
a q u es ti o n o f th e co n s i s t e n cy o f al eb r a w i t h i t se l f
A
t
w
h
at
s
o
g
t h e a ppl i cat i on o f s u ch p ur e l y al g e b ra i cal r e su l t s m ay b e t h at
i s s i m pl y a q u es ti o n o f th e v ari ou s u s es o f al g eb ra ; s om e o f t h e s e
w i ll b e i n d i ca t e d i n t h e co u rs e Of t h i s t r e a ti s e a n d o th ers w i ll
be m e t w i t h i n abu n dan ce by t h e s tu d en t i n t h e co u r s e o f hi s
I t w i ll b e s u ffi ci e nt a t t h i s s t ag e t o g i v e
m at h e m at i ca l s tu di es
o ne e x a m pl e o f t h e a dv an ta g e th at t h e i n t r od u cti o n o f al g ebr a i c
a
a sk s t h e q u e s
b
i
v e s i n a r i t h m e ti c a l O p e r a t i o n s
r a l i ty
n
e
e
g
g
a
If a
b t o g i ve
3 an d b 2
t i o n w h at m u s t b e a dd ed t o
2 a nd b 3 t h e n ar ith m e t i ca ll y s peaking
th e an s w e r i s 1 5 i f a
Bu t i f
t h e r e i s no an s w e r be cau s e 3 i s al r e a d y g r eat er t h an 2
a
b a s aski ng w h at m u s t be add e d to o r s ubt ra cted
w e r eg ar d
th a t , w h e n

al g ebrai ca

resu

l ts

dm i t

'

REDU C T I ON

10

f ro m
by th e

ddi ti on

e x t e nt

f or

if

e x am p e,

f or
f or

d b

2 , th e

a d de d

le

fo r

+ a

b+

wi

lt

an

ll

is

ca s e

t o w h at

1 , w h i ch

3 , th e

y
i n d i ca t e

an d

d to ,

c o m m u t at i v e
a

ds

t
i
t
s sim
es t v a u e
o
p
g
o f a d di ti o n s a n d s ub tr acti on s

We h av e

b in

Si g n

r es u

ca n

r e su

lt

is

r ed u ci n

a ch a in

of

an

pp i cat i on Of th e
a dd i t i on an d s u bt ra ct i o n
Th e

a -

r es o rt e

2 an d b
; if a
t h at 1 m u s t b e s ubtra cte d

1 , w h i ch m ea n s

ru e

m u s t be

or s u b tr act i o n

m e an s t h a t 1 m u s t b e

aw s

SUM

b to g e t + a , t h en th e e val uati o n o f
l a w s o f al g ebr a w i ll g i v e a r e su l t w h o se

w h e t h er

AL G EBRAI C AL

O F AN

e x am
c+

l
e
p

a s s o ci at v e

an d

f l

us

to

an

e x p r e s s i on

u se u

ract i ca

co n s i s ti n g

g
b e

a)
i
e
s
r e at er t h an b
1
u m e r i call y
e
n
b
,
f
)
g
g
d g be nu m e r i ca ll y l e s s
c
m o s t co n v e n i e n t for m 3 if a

If
th e

t h an

g et
a

b+

e +

h er l ea d

d d i t i on s

an

i
2
s th e m o s t
( )

f o ll o w i ng

th e

to

co n v e n i e n t

ev a uati ng

for

ru e

Th e t w o t ak e n t o

the

the g rea ter

N u m er i c al

exam

pl

e ci a

p
de

s ym

s p e ci a

bo l ,

ni ti on Of

nam e

cas e

ly

u s ed

d es er ve s

w it

h th i s

ch i n
a

is

we

u s ua

ua t i on s

o f co u r s e,

lly pok n of
e

a s an

th e
a

lg

r es u

b rai ca

O p erat i o na l

Th e

hav e
s

c o s e a tt e n t o n

t o d e n o te i t

0 i s t h er e f o r e g i v en by th e

a cco r d an ce

S uch

0, is

+ a

In

i zc

s u ms and a

2 4

Th e

a so

+3

11

thos e

all

a ll

s ig n o

h ai n Of

su bt r acti o n s

the qu anti ti es affected w i th the si g n

w
o
t
ake the d if erence o
t
h
e
t
a ed ed wi th the si g n
f

A dd

lt
l

s,

su m

RO P ER TI E S

OF

11

b + 0 = b= bQ
an

O,

d e n t m ay pr ov e by appl yi ng t h e l a w s
i
ni t i o n o f 0
h

a n d a ss oci at i o n a l o n
w
t
t
h
e
d
e
g
the

as

of

s tu

co m m u ta ti o n

I t w i ll be

Ob se rv e d t h at 0 a s ope rat i o n all y d e n e d i s

t o th i s e x t e n t i n d e ni t e t h a t t h e a u s e d i n t h e ab o v e d e n i t i o n
m a y h av e a ny v al u e w h at e ve r
I t r e m ai ns t o j u s ti fy t h e u se o f t h e 0 o f t h e or d i na ry
nu m er i ca l n o t at i o n i n th e n e w m e an i n g
T h i s i s a t o n ce d on e
w h en w e n o t i ce t h a t i n a p u r e l y q u a n ti t a t i v e s e n s e 0 s ta nd s f o r
t h e l i m i t o f t h e d i ffe r e n ce o f t w o qu a n ti ti es t h a t h av e b e e n m a d e
,

t o d i ff e r by

Thu s

if

as

l i ttl e

as

we p

w e c o ns i d e r a

n o w cau s e

th e

a
; and a ,

If w e

l eas e
a =

+ a

t o be com e

a;

sma

ll e r t h an

an

a n asse r ti o n o f

q u a nt i ty, t h e abov e e q uati o n b e com e s

O f th e tw o m eani ng s of 0

a ss

i g n abl e

t h e i d e n t i ty

M U L TI P L I C A TI O N
13

Th e p r i m ary d e n i ti o n
Thu s a
o f ad d i t i o n

br e v i a t i o n
&c

ar e a bbre v i a t e

a cco r

a x
ca
Si

d a n ce w i t h t h i s

2 is

ll ed

ca

th e

g
b ig u i ty
t h i ng

d in to

pp

n o ta t i o n ,

3,

a x

d o t,

or

ca n ar i s e

m er e

pp o s i t i o n , i s o ft e n
2 , a nd a 2
a x 2, a

T hu s

u se
al

ab

an

4, & c 3

a,

a nd ,

a s o r e p re s e n t e

a,

is

as

d by

a x

in
1

i n t o 2 3 a i s al s o
I n s t e a d o f th e

w h er e n o

l d en o t e th e

am
s am e

os e d

r o ve

as

an

d I)

i n t e g ra

r e pr es e n t

i n t h e p r i m ar y d e n i t i o n

of

nu m b e r s , a s

m u ti p i cat i o n, i t i s

e as y

is
to

t h at
a

o r, a d o p t in

w i th

a,

2,

ll e d th e pro d ct o f a by 2 or Of a
m ul ti p l i can d a n d 2 th e m u l t ip l i er

SO l o ng
su

a x

m u t i p i ca t i o n i s

of

f ull

g t h e p r i n ci p

m
b
o ism
y

le

b= b x

h m e nt

o f a t t ac

see a
x

of

b o v e,
a x

b=

bx

O pera to r

an d

O p e ra nd

C OMMU T A T I ON

12

Th e

m ay be

s am e

es t ab

A S S O C I A TI ON

AN D

li s h e d

fo r

an

n u mber

C HA P

i n te g er s , for

of

e x a m p e,
x a x

In

ot

w ords ,

h er

The

or der o

bx

o era tions

in

&c

a,

mu l tip li ca ti on

cha in o

is i nd i er ent
'
hi s is t h e C O MM L TA TI V E LA W f or m u ti p i cati o n
We m ay in tr odu ce th e us e o f br ack e ts a nd t h e i d e a
.

a s s o ci a ti o n
of a

'

ddi ti o n

in

ex a ct

Th

ly

the

in

us

sam e

a x

w ay

bx

we

we

ar e

l ike

I n th e

h o l d s fo r

bx

brack e t

w h e re a ,

ca se

d ir e ct e d t o m ul ti p l y

b,

c,

&c

co n ta in i n
ar e

bx
an

i n t e g er s ,

n u m be r o f

f a c t o rs
t h e tru t h

p r oo f o f
d e n i ti o n

l aw mi g h t be g iv e n r es ti ng o n t h e
p l i ca ti o n an d o n t h e l a w s o f com m u ta ti o n
of

ca s e

T hu s

x a x

Th e

i n t he

of

AS S O C I AT I ON as s e rt s
an d t h e n m u l ti pl yi ng

t hi s p ro d u ct by

f o ll o w e d

as

Th e L AW OF
by t h e p ro d u ct o f b by c
t ha t t hi s i s t h e s am e as m u l ti p l yi ng a by b,

t is

an

of

mu l ti

as s oci a ti o n

fo r

a d di ti o n

ari t h m et i c

E v en i n
e x t e nd e d

to

ca s e s

th e

ca nn o t

O p erat i o n
by

an

m ul ti pl i ca ti o n i s

of

s tr et c

of

l an g u ag e

be

g i n a d e ni t i o n, a n d i t be co m e s i mp or ta n t
t o i n q ui r e w h a t i s co mm o n t o t h e d i ff ere nt o p er ati ons t h u s co m
Th e a ns w er t o t h is q u e s t i o n,
p r e h e n d ed u n der on e s ym bo
w h i ch h as at di ff e r en t t i m e s g r ea t y p er p e x e d i n q u i r er s i n t o th e

br ou g h t

un d er

w hi

th e

or i

r st

pr i nci p

l es

fo rm a l l a w s
t he

a ddi ti o n,

pear s
x
is

ap

ar it

l
l
s i m p l y t h a t w h at

al

g e br a, is
o f o pe rati on w h i c h w e

co mm ut at i v e a n

m e n t i o ne d

of

as so ci a t iv e

T h e s e a l on e

d e ne

a r e n o w es t ab

law s

th e

an d a n o t

co m m o n

is

li s h i ng

i s th e

na m e

ly

h er pre s e n tl y t o

fu n d a m e n t a l

be

er a t i on s

of

m u ti p li ca ti o n, an d d i vi s i o n, and a nyt h i ng fu r t h er t h a t
in a ny p arti cu a r case ( for e x am p e, t h e s t a tem ent t h a t

of

hm e t ica l

or

i s m er e y a m a t ter
ot h er , t h a t i s g i v e n t o a

i n ter pr e t ati o n,

s o me

ym bo ica r es u t d e m o n
o f s ym b o i ca o p e r a t i o n

s t ra bl

of
s

y in a ccor da n ce w i t h t h e a w s
Act i ng o n t h is pr i n cip e w e n ow l ay d o w n t h e a w s o f co m
m u t ati o n a nd as s o c i ati o n as h o d i n g fo r t h e O p er ati o n Of m u ti

p l i ca ti o n ,

d , i nd ee d,

an

as

i n pa rt d e

ni ng

it

C OMMU T A T I ON AND A S S O C I AT I ON

12

Th e

m ay be

s am e

e s t ab

l i sh e d

f or

an

i n te g er s , fo r

of

n u mb e r

CHAP

e x am p e,

bx

x a x

In

ot

h er

w o r s,

i s i ndi erent
T h i s i s th e

c=

The

b=

x a x c x

order o

bx

op era ti ons

in

&c

x a
,

cha i n o

mu l tip li ca ti o n

We

a sso c at i o n

in

a dd i ti o n

C OMMU T AT I VE

m ay i n t r o d u c e t h e
e x act

Thu s

L Aw f or m u l ti pl i cat i on

ly

th e

in

sam e

a x

w ay

u se o

Th e L Aw OF
by t h e p r o d u ct o f b by c
t h a t t h i s i s t h e s am e as m u l ti p l yi n g a by b,

t h i s p ro d uct by

l ike h ol d s

I n th e
of

fo r

h e re
m ig h t

ca se w

t h i s l aw

l
i
cat i o n
p

an

on

of

t h e id e a

i n the

cas e

d ir e ct e d t o m u l ti p ly

A SS O CI AT I ON a s s e rts
and t h en m u l ti p l yi ng

T hu s

x a x

Th e

and

f o ll o w e d

we

as

w e ar e

f br ack e ts

bra ck e t

a,

bx

b,

&c

c,

x a x

c o nt ai n i n

ar e

bx

a ny n u m b e r o f

i nte g er s ,

p r oo f o f
d e n i ti o n

b e g i v e n r e s t i ng o n t h e
t h e l aw s o f comm u ta ti o n

f a ct o r s
th e tr u t h
.

of

mu l ti

as s oci at i o n

an d

for

a ddi ti o n

Ev e n i n
e x te n d e d

br o u g h t

to

ca s e s

u n d er

h m et ic t h e o p erati o n o f m u l ti pl i ca ti o n i s
w h i ch c ann o t by a ny s t r e t ch o f l ang u ag e b e
a ri t

th e

t o i n q u i re w h at i s

or i g i n a
co m m o n

d e n i t i o n,

and

i t be com es i m p or tan t

t o t h e d i ff ere n t

p er at i ons th u s co m
n
u n d er o n e s m b o
i
n
r
h
e
d
e
d
T
h
e
a
n
s
w
e
r
t
t
h
i
s
u
e
s
t
o
e
o
,
p
y
q
w h i ch h as a t d i ff er en t t i m es g rea t y p er p e x e d i n q u i r ers i n t o th e

rst

r
i
n
c
i
es
p
p

form al l a w s
t he

of

l g ebra

o f o p e r a t i on w

is

l
l
s i m p l y t h at w h at

h i ch

we

co mm u t at iv e a n d as s oci at iv e

is

a r e n o w e s t ab

l aw s

an d a n o t

c om m o n

l i sh i ng

i s th e

nam e

ly

h e r p r e s e n tl y t o b e

T h e s e al on e d e ne th e fu nda m en t l op erat ion s o f

a ddi ti o n m u l t i l i cat i o n and d i vi s i o n a n d a n t h i n
p
y
g f u r th er t h at
a
r s i n an
ar ti cu l ar cas e
f
r
x am l e t h e s t at e m en t t h a t
ea
o
e
pp
y p
p
(
i s m er e l y a m at ter Of so m e i n ter pr e t at i o n
3 is 3 of
ar i th m e t ica l o r o t h e r t h a t i s
i
n t o a s ym bo l ica l r es u l t d e m o n
e
g
s trabl
i
n
a ccor da n ce w i t h t h e l aw s o f s m b o l i ca l o erat i o n
y
p
y
Act i ng o n th i s pr i n cip l e w e n ow l ay d o w n th e l a w s o f com
m u tati o n a nd a s s o ci ati o n a s h o l d ing fo r t h e O p erati o n Of m u l ti
p l i ca ti on a nd i nd e e d a s i n p ar t d e ni ng i t
m e n t i o ne d

FOR MULT I P L I C A T I ON
co n s id e ra t i o n

The

of a

ea sy

d e nit ion

Of

e n ou g

T h es e

su

co n

ne

b c)

co m

l aw s

d)

g g es t t h e

f oll ow i ng

b+

a x c,

+ a

><

a x e,

= + a

e a x

w h i ch i s

t h e p r i m ar y

+ a
:

to

o ur s e v e s

ca

db

ll ed

c+

th e D I S T

R I BU T I VE

two

w hi ch consi s ts of a cha i n

exp r essi ons, ea ch o

s u btr a cti ons,

i s equa l to the chai n of addi ti ons a nd

obta i ned by mu l tip lyi ng each consti tuent o the r st ex r es
f
p

su btr acti ons

by

addi ti ons a n d

si on

if w e

+ a

The p r oduct

m u t i p i ca ti o n , t o p r o v e t h a t

+ a x

LAW

m u t ip ier s o r
as t o f t h e t h r e e g r e at

co m

i
os
te
p

13

I t is

of

m u ti p i can d s i nt r o du ce s t h e
b
e
g ra

s i ta
o
p

OF D I S T R I BU T I ON

L AW

ea ch

the

cons ti tu ent o

second ,

s etti ng

dow

n all

the p ar ti al
cons ti tu ents

p rodu cts thus obta i ned, and p r e r i ng the si g n if the two

r evi ous ly ha d l i ke si g ns, the
i
i
e
t
s
n
h
cons ti tu ents p revi ously had
p
g f
u nli ke si g ns

Sym bo l i call y, t h u s

b)

a i

:h

w i th t h e

f oll ow i ng

l aw

Of

si

b)

d:

d) ,

g ns

ao,

a o,

T h ere are s i x te en di fferen t cas es i n cl u de d i n th e abo v e

s w i ll b e s e e n b
t
aki n
ev
co m b i n a ti o n o f o n e o
g
y
y
t h e d ou b l e s ig n s b e for e e ach l e tte r
Thu s
(+a

u
at io n ,
q

her

ot

co n s ti tu e nt s

in

er

of

bc bd 3

+ ao a d +

bc bd ;

+ a c + ad

and s o on

)(

c+ d
)

T h ere
br ack e t

as

m ay,
we

of

co u r se ,

ase
e
l
p

be

I f, fo r

as

m any

e x am p e ,

t h er e

be m i n

e ac

o ne

14

bra ck e t
an

d 2

and

i n th e

d iff ere nt

T hu s

ot

a rr an

RO P ER T Y

her

t h er e w i

g e m e nt s

p r i m ar y d e
of a
g eb r a

be
si

th e

ru n

ns

par ti a l pr o d u ct s

+ e

ae

be +

ce

g g e s te d , as w e h av e s ee n , by th e
ni t i o n o f m u ti p i cat i o n, i s n o w
ai d d o w n a s a l a w
I t f o r m s th e con necti ng i n k b et w ee n ad d i ti o n a n d
su

ll

Th e d i s tr i bu ti v e l aw ,

+ a

of

a d + bd cd +
an d s o on

or

m u ti p i cat i o n, an d, a o n g w i t h th e co mm u ta ti v e a n d ass o cia ti v e

aw s , co m p e t e s th e d e n i t i o n Of bo t h t h e s e O p e r a t i on s

B y m e an s

of

th e d i s tri bu ti v e l aw w e

pr ov e a n o th er
p r op e rty o f 0 F o r, if b b e any d e ni t e q u an ti ty, s ubj e ct w i t h ou t
r es t r i ct i on t o t h e l aw s Of a l g ebra , w e h av e
can

ba ba

(
(+

bx
bx

= +

)
a
)

+ a
a

w h e n ce
or

bx 0

b= 0

DIVIS IO N

D i v i s i o n for t h e p u rp os es Of al g ebr a i s b e s t d e n e d a s
i nv e r s e o pe ra ti o n t o m u l ti p l i ca ti o n : t h a t i s to s ay t h e
,

m u tu a

re ati o n o f

th e

ym bo

e
i

x a x

F ro m

t
i
ati v e
n
ua
t
q

In
t i m es

x an

of

nt
o
i
p

Of

th i s

- b as
,

ned

by

x a

v iew ,

i s de

x a

by b, t h at i s ,
m u l t ip l i ed by b, g iv e s a

t h e q u o t i en t
w h en

ls

b x b=
b
b
Z

a +

or

am ou n t s

b,

is

ca

is

ca

ll ed

ll e d

th e

th e d i v id e n d

a n t e ce d e n t

b th e d i v i s o r

an d

and

b the

Som e

of

co n s e q u e n t

th e

As t hi s i s t h e

m e an i n g

ar e

n i ng

t h a t q u a n t i t y w h i ch ,

An ot h e r n o ta ti o n f or a qu o ti en t I s v ery Ofte n u se d
b
/

to d e

q u o t ien t

b) ,
b
)3

br i e y

th e

a r e ad

i n te g e r s , i t i s

n o ta ti o n

h ed

a tta c

y
i ncu m b ent
See

se

of

fracti ons

t o i t i n th e

u po n u s

to

and

case

n am e

ly

t h e r e f or e

w h er e

j u s ti fy i ts

cond footnot p
e,

u se

in

or

h as

an d

an ot

her

Q UO T I EN T
m ea n i ng

To d o t h i s w e

th a t i s , b t i m e s
th at i s ,

u n i ty,

H en ce
th e

a s o,

w h er e

i ts m eani ng

a
Is o

i n teg ers

ei t

h er

ly

t h a t b t i me s ,

i s e v id entl y a t i m e s
a -
I b, b t i m e s a T b i s a

u n i ty,

Of

ll y

NO

b,

or

15

r e m ar k

to

ra ti o na
e
p

ar e

r i m ar i

as

of

a and

fo r w h e n

pl y

by th e d e n i ti o n

n e ce s s a ry,

to

sim

h av e

t h e bth par ts

w e co nc u d e t h a t

c as e

l os e s

a of

FRA C T I ON

AN D

a
: b

in

fu r th e r j u sti cati o n

is

e q u l v al e n t

bo th ,

or

d e ne d ,

a nd

t h er e i s

g ar di ng i t a s an al t er nati v e n o ta ti o n f or a + b
I n th e ab o v e d e ni ti o n w e h av e n ot w r i t te n th e

re

i n t eg e r s ,

no t

ar e

to

O bs tacl e

no

si g n s

or

l y for brev i ty a nd o ne
o r o th e r m u s t b e u n d ers t ood b e for e ea ch l e tt er
We s h all co nt inu e
t o o m i t t h e m u nti l th e q u e s ti o n a s t o t h e i r m ani p u l ati o n ar i s e s
Si n ce di v i s i on i s fu ll y d e n e d as th e i n v ers e o f m u l ti
l
i
c
at i o n w e o u h t t o b e ab l e t o d e d u ce a l l i t s l aw s f ro m t h e
p
g
d e ni ti o n nd t h e l aw s o f m u l ti p l i cat i o n
We h av e
o m i tt e d s i m p

b, bu t th ey w er e

a a nd

be f o r e

x a x

b
I- 0

by d e n i t i o n 3
a + c x b x c
c,
I

by l aw of c om m u t at i o n
m u l tip l i cati on 3
-c x

x a

fo r

(I)

b y d e ni t i o n

a I b
I c x cI- c
.

A g ai n

by d e ni ti o n 3
bx c
a
0
c,

by

ca se

1
( )3

by d e ni ti o n

I n t h i s w ay w e

am e

ly

me

as

sa

a x

a x

p ct i c
ra

e re

th e l a w

b)

c 3

as e o f

e u su a

ar

ea

ar

A s i n th e

in

l is h

g i n th m k m d
c p i m ily m n
b

ere a

e s tab

b x c t h e
Z

+ a, w

hn

ll y o mi tt d f
e

o f com m u ta t i o n

i n th e

s,

if w e

x a

or

br ev

com
i ty
.

for d i v i s i o n

th i d not t th foot f p 5 ppli

thi nk on l y O f th l t O p t i on th
r

e a

s am e as

-b x
Z
)
(

es

as

a nd s o on

t i n ch i n
rs

of

era

es ,

op t i on
era

s,

is

16

t he

fu ll

C O M MUTATI ON

T aki ng
s ym b o l

AN D

A S SO C I ATI ON

MUL T I P L I C ATI ON

IN

ca n

m u ti p i cati o n and di vi s i o n t og e t h er an d att ach i ng

O f o e r at i o n t o t h e O p e r a n d , w e m a y n o w g i v e t h e
p
s t at e m e n t o f t h i s l a w a s fo o w s

ll

Ih

a ny chai n

mu l tip li cati ons

or der

the

attached

to

ea ch

di vi si ons the

a nd

i s i ndi er en t, p rovid ed the p rop er

consti tu ent a nd move wi th i t

cons ti tu ents

si g n

be

O r , i n s ym bo l s , f o r t w o
x

t h ere be i ng 4

fb

b=

m u l t i pl i cat io n

an

b c)

e x am p e ,

b -Z a,

a x

x a x

A g ai n

f or

a n d so o n

m u t u al

r e ati on

be tw ee n

h av e

th e

of

d di v i s i o n w e

a x

b
a
Z
I

B y th e d e ni ti o n

5 bi

l u d ed

a x

21

in c

h er e

ca s e s

co n s t i t u e n ts ,

b+

b+

-c

s i n ce
x

th er e fo r e

-c
b
Z

a -z

cZb

b c)

b + b,

9,

b 3

x a

by

ca s e

x a x c+

-c

l
(

c)

b,

b,

by de ni ti o n
x a

I bx

b y th e

l aw

of

a re a dy e s tab

c o m m u ta t i o n

l i s h ed

T h es e ar e i n stan ce s o f t he law o f asso ciat i on f or di vi si o n an d

m u l t i p l i ca ti o n com bin ed w h i ch w e m ay n o w s tat e a s foll ow s
,

IVhen

bra cket

conta i ns a chai n o

mu l tip l i cati ons

a nd

di vi si ons,

the bracket may be r emoved, every si g n bei ng u nchang ed if x p r ecede

the br a cket, a n d every sig n bei ng reversed if
p recede the bracket
O r, i n s ym bo s , f o r t w o co n s t i tu e nts ,
.

i a i b)

i a a b)

fo ll o w i ng

w i t h th e

P RO P ER T I E S

D I V I SI ON

AND

l aw

OF 1

o f si ns :
g

Zd

a ,
I n th e

ua
t
i
n
i
o
e
q

a bov e e

an

so on

by

by

in

as

O p e r at i o n a l

o us

h
g t

-a

su

i n cl u d ed , fo r

cases ar e

b)

a +

h,

a x

b,

b tracti o n w e d en o t e t h e

a s e p ara te s ym bo

a s epa r a t e s ym b o

an a o

ex am p e ,

Ju s t
a

17

0,

Vi ew

i
o
n
t
of
p

pr ov e f or i t t h e
e s tab l i s h ed f o r 0 i n
11:

m eani ng ,

t o th o s e

and

we

x a

+ a

ec
i
a
p

i n d i vi s i o n w e d e n o t e

so

F r om t h i s

ca n

-a

a =

1 h as

ca s e

a
u re

ly

f o ll o wi ng l a w s

1,

bx
1

L ik e

q uan ti t ati ve an d a p ur e l y o p e r at i o n al
Qu anti tativ e ly w e m ay l ook on i t as th e l im i t o f th e
m e ani ng
q u oti e nt Of t w o q u an t i ti e s t h at di ffer f ro m e ach o t h er by a
0 , 1 has bot h

a nt i t
u
q
y

w h i ch

is

as s m a

ex am p e , cons i d er a

ll

fra cti on a s w e p l eas e

a t h e n t h e e u a ti o n
q

c
c an d

-a +

= a

an a s ser ti o n o f

It
l aw

of

h ou l d

i s m ad e

th e

be

co m pat i bi

n ot ed

x a

l i ty

t h a t,

h
t
i
s,
t
a
(

d i s tri bu t ion

al g eb ra

as s m a

fo rm a ti on ) , t h er e i s

fracti o n

h i ch

i s tr u e i n t h e

I f th e

ti on an d as s o ci a ti o n

fo r

wi

of

s i d e dn es s
o n e

t o t h e fa ct t h a t i n

ll

w e p e as e,

a as

o w i ng

(b

s tu d e nt

of

t o th e

is

n ot a

for 1 t o th e

Of

th e

o r di nar

l eg i ti mate tran s

e qu a ti o n

n o a na o g u e

ca s e o f

it

f t h e tw o m e an i ng s

bx 0
w

Fo r

-a

o w i ng

x (b

ll

a;

l
w h e n so

h er

a
be com e s ,

o f ei t

0,

n o w co m pa r e

dd i ti o n

l aw s o f

th e

an d s u btr a cti o n o n

co mm u ta

h an d
a nd f or m u l t i l i ca ti on an d d i v i s i o n o n t h e o t h er h e w i ll n d t h e m
p
t o be forma lly i denti ca l
I t foll ow s t h er e f or e t h at s o f ar as th e s e
VO L I
C
a

th e

on e

R N C IP LE

18

P I

l aw s
t io n

an d

d i v i si o n

s ub tr act i o n

si

h
t
g

d i s tri bu ti on i s

Of

an

as

and

ot

d u al i ty

h er

to

that

s ee

r e d u ce

or

cer t ai n

l ti m a t e

l e tt e r

3 th e

v a ue

m ay,

Si

e x p res s i o n s

a ccor

d i ng t o
2,

or

r t i cu ar s i n , s a
a
p
g
y

i n dica te s

no t

h i ng

to

as

i ts

m er e y i n di ca t e s w h at
i t e nt er s i nt o O p era t i o n

n
g

l ett e r w h e n

h as t o b e d o n e w i t h t h e

n
g s

co n c u s i on

t h at i s ,

si

w h er e v er th e

c eas e s

co n s id e r s u c

g i v e n t o a , b e m a d e t o s ta n d f o r
th a t i s ,
2
Th e m er e f a ct t h at

b e fo r e

th e

u se

va ue

s t an d s

b een l ed t o

and

t h at w e

i n th e

This

co n cer n e

acci d e n t

th e

l i ng

h av e al r ea dy

\ve
th e

s t ar t

"

o n e ca se an d

l i ttl e

ou

ll y n o dis tin cti o n betw e e n a ddi

o n e h a n d a nd m u l ti p l i cat i o n an d

th e

on

UB ST I T UT I ON

v i r t ua

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in the

rs t

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on

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at

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or S

I n w h at p r ece d e s as t o d i v i s i o n, an d i n fa ct i n a l l o u r g en e ral
f or m u l ae, w e m ay th e re fo r e s u ppos e th e l e tt ers i nv o l v e d t o s t an d
f or p o s i t iv e
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i t s i m m e n s e p ow er an d a l m os t e nd l e s s

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p l e a su re, w i t h ou t

l eas t

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D I S T R I BU T I ON
fu ll

Th e

h av in g

tw o

w i th t h e

s ym b o

l i ca l

is

d iv i d e nd

f o ll o w s :

as

o f si n s ,
g

l aw

c,

+ a

19

la w f o r

t h is

of

s ta t e m e n t

co n s ti t u e n t s

foll o w i ng

A QUO T I EN T

or

e,

-a

w o rd s

O r bri e y i n

I a di vi si on the dividend may be di s li ibi i ted, the si g ns

uoti ents fol l owi ng the sa me l aw a s i n mu l tip li ca tion
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be

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f ci e n t

l a w f or

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(
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i n cl u d e s

th em ,

+ a

cou r s e e i g

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of

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ht

b)

e + b e

= a

e
z

+ a

h ave

b,

by th e d e ni ti o n

+ a

th e

s ay

ri e + b c)

H e n ce

I t w i ll

c orrect n e s s o f

di s tr i bu ti o n f or m u l ti p l i cat i o n, w e

of

ca se s

a c + b -e
)
a + e + b e

c ;
)

by t h e d e n i ti o n
Th e l a w

26

l th ou g h

t o di vi s i o n, f o r

d i st r ibu te d , t h e

s am e

t r u e i n g e ne ra

or

tha t

as

th e

m ay

As w e

f un d am en ta l l a w s
o n ce

l aw s
s im p

l
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pp cati o n

p r ov e d , th e d iv i d e n d m ay be
o f th e d i v i s o r
h u s i t i s no t

tr u e

I (b

r e a di

h av e
of

ly

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s at i s

now

b
d
e,
I

fy h i m s e l f

co m p e te d

o rd i n ary a

all

t h e ir

l y l aid

dow n

in

j ust

as

no t

l y a l im i t e d

l g ebra

in
ou r

a v a r i et

y o f w ays
di scu s si on of t h e
.

i t m ay be w e ll to i ns i s t
w h i ch th e y h o l d i n t h e

p o n t h e e x act p os i ti o n
To s p ea k, as i s s o m e ti m es d on e ,

m or e

s ci e n ce

is

on

l t hat

s tu d e n t

27

d i s t ri bu t i on h as

of

of

th e p r o o f

of

t h es e

h ey
g en e ra i ty i s an a bu s e of t er m s
as t h e can o n s o f t h e s ci e n ce
Th e be s t

d e n ce th at t h i s i s th ei r

r ea

p o s i ti on i s t h e

fact t h at a l g ebras

are

ev i
ar e

20

in
a

O SI T I ON

In the

co m m u t at i on

e n er a

FUNDAMEN TAL L AWS

O F TH E

fu ndam en ta l l aw s

w hos e

use

l g ebra

of

d i ffer

C H AP

f rom t h ose

o r di n ary

Of

l g ebr a of qu at er ni ons f or e x am p l e
for m u l ti pl i cati o n an d d i vi s i o n d o e s
a

t h e l aw

h ol d

not

lly

been m ain l y

co n cer n e d

i n t h e p r es en t
ch ap t e r i s , 1 s t, t o s ee t h at t h e l aw s O f o r di nary a l g e br a s h all b e
s e l f-co n s i s te nt , a n d , 2 u d , t o t ak e car e t h at t h e o pe r at i on s t h e y l ea d

Wh at

to

h all
In

h ave

we

co nt ai n

so

far

as

th os e

th e

o f or d i n ar y ari t
s ci e n ce

ab s t r act

w i th

h m e ti c

p ar ti cu a r cas es
o f or d i n ar y a
g ebra i s co n
as

ni ti on s O f th e l etters a nd symbol s u se d ar e si m pl y
Wh en w e com e t o th e
t h e g e n er a l l a w s l ai d d ow n f o r t h e i r u se
at i o n o f th e f or m u l a O f ord i n ar
a l ebra t o a n
l
a
i
c
r ti cu l a r
a
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y p
pp
u r p o s e su ch a s th e cal cu l a ti on o f ar e as f o r ex am p l e w e h a v e
p
i n t h e rs t i n s t an ce t o s ee t h at th e m eani ng s w e atta ch to th e
l aw s abov e
s m b o l s ar e i n acco rd an ce w i t h t h e f u n d am en tal
y
Wh e n t h i s i s e s tabl i s h e d th e f or m u l ae O f al g eb ra be com e
s t at e d
m e r e m a ch i nes for t h e s av i ng o f m en t al l ab o u r
We n ow co ll e ct for th e r eader s co nv e ni ence th e
g e n eral l aw s O f o r di nar y al g ebr a
ce r n e d ,

th e d e

C O N N E CTI N G THE D I RE C T AN D I N V E R S E
O P E R ATI O N S
s u btr a ct i o n
M u l tipl i ca ti o n a nd d i v i s i o n

D EF I N I T I ON S

Addi ti o n

an d

+ a

+ a +

LA W

Fo r

ad

diti o n

a nd

Ib x b
a x b
Z-b

x a

x a
,

A S SO C IATI O N

OF

si on

t i on

m ma

w ith t h e

f o ll ow i n g

l aw

O f si

ns

l i k e s ig n s g iv e s th e d i e ct s ig n
o f u nl ik e s i ns t h e i n v er s e
ig n
g

Th e

co n cu r r e n ce O f

Th e

co n cu r r e n ce

F or m u l t i p l i cati o n

s u b tr a c

a nd

di v i

Y N O P T I C T AB L E

OF

L AW S

21

T hu s
a

- a

L AW

a ddi ti o n

F or

an

su

OF

a nd

di v i

C O M MU TAT I ON

F o r m u l tip l i ca ti o n

btr a c

s ion

ti o n

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a i

O p eran d al w ays

bi

a,

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n
i
i
t
s
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y

P r op er ti es

(b

o w n s ig n O f

a nd

b
z

__

b+ 0
+

= i

b O=

0 = 0

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L AW

it

a
i

w i th

O pera ti on

OF

D I STR I B U TI O N

F o r m u l ti p l i cati on

h e

w it h th e

mm

foll ow i ng

law

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M o nom ial s

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T HEORY

n
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ND IC E S

D eg r e e

Th e p r o d u ct O f a n u m b er o f l e t te rs , o r i t m ay b e n u m
e a ch b en
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26

RA I O N A

i n teg ra

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l
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T G R AL M ON O M I AL

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C o n ni ng

fo ll o w i ng

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fa ctor s

Th e p r o du ct o f any n u mber o f
po w e rs O f o ne an d t h e s am e l ett e r i s e q u a l to a p o w er o f th a t
l e t ter w h o s e e x p one nt i s t h e su m O f th e ex p one nts o f th ese
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a x o, x a

O F IN

DI CES

facto rs

27

m ay

n we

ar ra n

t h es e

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LAWS

28

DC

CH AP

OF I N I E S

TO pro v e I L ,

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a x a x

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,

n s e ts ,

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factor s

Ag ai n,

H ence th e mth p ow e r O f th e p rod u t o f any n u m ber f l e tter s

e q u l t o t h e p r o d u ct O f t h e mth p o w e r s o f t h e s e l e t t er s
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in
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Th e mth p o w e r O f t h e q uo ti ent
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ll y

l i ty

re a

d th e
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ar t

in

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th e

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w o rk i n g t h e e x e r ci s es

i n d i ce s

i n t h is w ay b eco m e i n
al g eb r a, a n d m i h t h av e
g

fra cti o na l

Of

as

reg ar d e d

to th e

meani ng

th e

q
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l ty

of

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cu

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t h ey

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i n di ces

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n o t co n

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ar e

concerne

ar e

i ndi ce s i s

g e n e r al l a w s
t h e Syno p ti c

th e

e nu m era te d

be en

Of

29

t h e d e n i t i on

f ro m

u se Of

ab o v e

l aw s

Th e

d e d u cti o n

Th e

D I C ES

i n teg ra l i ndi ce s

i
i
ve
o
s
t
p

as

O F IN

s tu

in

I n th i s
g iven
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27
Th e
.

an d

i nd i ce s

n eg ati v e

d e nt w i ll

i
v e n bel o w
g

A ll

h av e

is

d i f

no

h e h as to d o i s

l aw s w h en ever i t i s n eces sary w i th ou t r eg ard

t o a ny r e s tr i cti o n o n th e v al u e o f t h e i n di ce s
Th e foll o w i ng ex am p l e s ar e w or k e d to f am i l i ar i s e th e
s tu d e n t w i t h t h e m e a n i ng a nd u s e o f th e l aw s o f i n d i ce s
At
rst h e s h ou l d be car e fu l to r e fe r each step t o th e pro pe r l aw

to

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AL G E BRA I C AL I N T EGRALI T Y AND

30

THEORY

l etter s

ex c u d e

l)

lv e d

c o n t ai n

lt

si m

or

t o beco m e

e n ti r e

so

Of

th e

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as

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be

ll

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d i v i si o n by cer ta i n s p e ci e d
b e e x p l ai n e d p r e s e n t l y

n ot

o pe ra ti o n O f

is

as

so

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In

u s ua

l e t ters

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wi

d oe s

h er

re

to be

dr a w i ng t h i s d is ti n ct i on , di v i s i o n by m er e
d i sr e g ar d ed,

ei t

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r ee o f

ll

y d, i s ca e d a
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c

I f t h e m o n o m ia l

t o b e i nteg ral ; if i t

ly f

a x a x

functi on

ter m

p y

s a id

di vi s i on, i t i s

e x a m p e,
a lg ebr ai ca l

be

ca n

or

m u ti p yi ng o r di v idi ng a ny nu mb er o f
by a n ot h e r , a dd i ti o n a n d s u btr acti o n
one

d , f or

monomi al

Of

n u m b ers

or

r a ti o n a

i n vo

r e su

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DEG R EE

OF

CHAP

F RA C TI O NALI TY

ll y

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ti m es t h a t

an y

p ar ti cu ar ett er o ccu rs
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by w ay o f m u l ti pl i cati o n i n a n i n t eg r al
l
ll
deg r ee ( o r d i m en s i o n ) o f t h e m on om i al i n t h at p ar t i cu l a r l ette r ;
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l
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y p
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other

named

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i n to

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ll y
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by

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rs

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to

th at i s ,

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Th e

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d t h e d eg r ee i n a an d y i s 5 , a nd i n a , a, and y 7
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be i ng m ad e fo r

h o i ce

x a x a x

l etter s

th es e

an

a cc ou n t

of

e ac

co n s i d e r i n g

cons tants

is

no t

h e th e r a m o n o m i al

t ak e n i nt o

a cco u n t

i s i nt eg r a

l or n ot

d i v i s io n

l y i m p or tant one
t
t o nce m ak e h i m s e l f p er fe ctl y fa m i l i a r
a n d t h e s tu d e n t m
He w i ll n d a s h e g o e s o n t h at i t t ak es t o a l rg e
w ith i t
e t e n t i n al g e bra t h e s am e pl a ce a s n u m er i ca l m ag ni t u d e i n
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n o t i on o f
us

a n e x ce e d i n
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ari t

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hm etic

L AW S

N O I O N S AN D

foll ow i ng

Th e

t h e ore m s

p ar ti cu l ar

ar e

t o be p ro v e d by a n d by
The deg ree of the p roduct of two

o ne s

D EG REE

OF

31

ca s e s O f

m o re g e n er al

deg rees

resp ecti ve

more monomi a ls i s the

or

s um

their

If the quoti ent of two monomi a l s he i nteg ra l, i ts d eg ree i s the excess

the deg ree of the di vid end over that of the di vi sor

Fo r l et

oi

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l m

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i s,

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l
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th e

y,

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of

f acto rs
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N o w w e h ave by t h e d e ni t i o n o f di v i s i o n Q
by l ast p ro p o s i ti o n th e d eg re e s of A and A bei ng d an d d a s
8 d a n d t h en ce 8 d
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10
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Th e s tu den t w i ll pr obabl y co n v i n ce h i m s el f m os t eas i l y o f
th e tr u th o f t h e t w o p re p o s i ti o ns by co n s i d er i ng p ar ti cu l ar c as e s
f
s u ch a s t h e s e ; b u t h e s h ou l d s tu dy t h e g e n er al
r
o
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.

to

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on

E X E RC I S E S I I

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32

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F u n d a m e nt a l

F o r m u l ae

F r a ct i o n s , W i t h
F r a cti o n s

l aw s

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WI T H

A r i t h m e ti ca l

to
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N u m b er s

FRA C T I O N S

or

B e fo r e pr o cee d ing t o cas e s w h ere t h e f undam enta l

m ask ed by t h e com p l ex i ty Of th e O p erat io n s in v o l v e d,

l y-acqu i r e d p rinci pl es
s t u d en t i s al r ea d y p ar t l y
a f e w ca s e s w i th
fam i l iar
He Ii s no t Ii n t h i s ch ap ter t o l ook s o m u ch f or new
h s r eas oni n g facu l ty i n tr aci ng th e Op era
r e su l t s as t o ex er e
ci se hi
t i o n O f t h e f u nd am e nt al l aw s o f al g e bra
I t w i ll b e w e ll h ow
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f oll ow i n g form u l ae m ay d en o te any o p er an d s s u bj e ct to th e l aw s
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VOL

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L G E B R AI C AL ADD I TI O N

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35

m er e y p a r ti cu a r cas es o f th e aw s
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s i mp

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rm

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AR I THME T I C AL I N T EGRAL I T Y

I II

Si m

p l i tfy

Si m

pl i fy

AN D

37

Sim

D I VI S I BI LIT Y

p l i fy
c
c+

Si m

pli fy
a

(
S

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(x
3
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S im pli fy

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ap p

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1
'

TH E

THEO R Y OF NU M BE R S

at

t h e m e an i ng s

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n e ces s a r y

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at

2b

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A P P L I C A T I ON S T O

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th e t e rm s

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fa ctor di visible & c ar e u s e d i n a l g ebr a g en er all y

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f
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An i nteg er u nl e s s o th er w i s e s t at ed m ean s f or t h e p r e s en t a
s uc

as

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g

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n eg a tive

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38

i n t eg e r

an

an

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and c

RI ME AND C OM P O SI TE I NTE GERS

C HA P

b e pr o d u ced by m u l ti p l yi n g t og e t h er tw o o t h er s ,
a r e call ed f actor s O f a , a n d a i s s a id t o b e exa ctl
y

d ivisi ble by b a n d by c, a n d t o b e a mu ltip l e O f b or

t h e p r o d u ct O f t w o i n te g e r s , n e i th e r O f w h i ch i s

of

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u n i ty,

is

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i nt eg er g r e a t er t h a n e i th er O f th e t w o, i t i s cl ear t h a t n o i nteg er
i s exactly divisi ble by a nother g r eater than i tself
I t i s al s o Ob v i o u s t h at e v ery i n te g er ( o t h er t h an u n i ty) h as
.

l e as t t w o d i vi sors n am e l y u n ity a n d i ts el f ; if i t h as m or e i t
i call ed a comp osi te i nteg er i f i t h as n o m or e a p r i me i nteg er
ar e all
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d t o be p r i me

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su c

as

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o th e r , m e ani n g , i n th e
atter cas e, a s e t

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no

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if N b e al so d i v i s ibl e by a
t h en N
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w h e re N i s a n i n teg e r
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i
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s e i th er 1 o r n o l o ng e r di v i s i bl e by a
h
sa
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N ( i f n o t = 1 ) i s n o w e i th er p r i m e o r i s d iv i s ibl e by s o m e
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prim e
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b N g w h e e N 3 N
t h e l as t s upp o s i t io n h av e N
Th e pr o ces s cl ear l y m u s t e n d w i th u n i ty S O t h at w e g e t
wi

ll

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all t h e p r im e s t h a t ar e e s s t h a n i t, a n y o ne O f t h ese e i th e r

i nteg er s

o rd e r

tw o

ar e

t h an tw o i n t e g er s ,
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p r i me to each other n ee d n o t b e t h em se l v e s
\Ve m ay al so s p eak o f a co m m on m easu r e O f m or e

3 5 , w h i ch

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ar e co m

co u r s e

measu re

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e ac

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g t th n
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AR IT HME T I C AL

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39

p o w e r s o f p r i m e s , an d
r i m e t o e ach o th e r
It
re s e nt l y,
p
p
to r esol ve every comp os ite i nteg er i nto fa ctors

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a s w e s h all p ro v e

t h e re fore ,

i s to be

G C M

a nd

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in

a re

w e sha

ll

l y S h o w t h at t h i s

pr e s e nt

w ay on y

o ne

be divi s ibl e by c, then any i nteg ra l mu l tip le of a, say ma,

is di vis ible by c; and,
a a nd b be each di vi s i bl e by c, then the a lg ebrai c

If

a ny i nteg r a l

su m o

F o r by

h yp o th es i s
ma

h e nce

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ac

ma

i nt e g e r, t h a t i s , ma

is

+ n,8

s tu d en t s

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an

h o u l d O bs er v e

nb

t h a t,

by

ma

sa y

ma c

is
n

+ nb

v i r tu e

an

i s di vi si ble by c
a nd ,8 a r e i n

nb,

w
re
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h
c
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,
,

h ere m

i s d iv i s i bl e by

b,

i n t eg e r , t h a t i s , m a

m
a
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c2

n,8 c,

w h er e

i s d iv i s i bl e b y c
Th e
O f th e e x ten s i o n o f t h e
.

di v i s ibi l i ty by th e i n trod u c ti o n of n eg a ti v e i n teg ers ,

a n y O f th e n u mbe rs i n t h e a b o v e
ro o s i t i o n m a y be n e a ti v e
p p
g
Fr om th e l as t ar ti cl e w e ca n d ed u ce a pr o po s i ti o n w h i c h
notion

of

a t o n ce

th e m ea n s

us

If

Of

nding

th e g r e a t e s t

S i n ce

an

pb

d iv id e s

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by

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8,

a nd c

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e v ery

pb

d i vi s o r

c,

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b di vid e s b a n d

f u rn i s h e d

d i v iso r

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of

d b di vid e s

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a an

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pb
t h at i s ,
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t h e t w o p ar t s

di v i s or

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a an

h e n ce

d b

ai n

g
ev e ry d i v i so r
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,

no w a a n d

b b e tw o

th e y w i

ll

th e m

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an

f o ll ow s fr o m

it

th a t i s ,

s i n ce a

e v ery

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Let

a,

c,

TO pr o v e t h is i t i s n e cess ar y a nd i t i s
1 s t, t h a t e v er y d i v is o r o f b an d c d i v id e s a
d i v i s or

m e a s ur e

or Of

p b c,
and b i s the G U M

ev e r y

co m m o n

p r ov i ng t h at t h ey ar e p r i m e t o e a ch o th e r
where a , b, c, p ar e a ll i n teg er s, then the G UM of

tw o i n teg er s ,

of

i
g v es

no t

be

e qu a

n u m b e rs

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.

f o r t h en t h e G O M w ou l d b e
.

l ess

an

d d i vid e

qu i r e d
eith er o f

re

b y b, t h e q u o t i e n t
*
b
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c

be i n g p a n d t h e r e m a i nd er c, w h er e O f co u rs e
b by c, t h e q u o ti e nt b e i ng 9 t h e r e m a i n d er d ; t h e n d i v id e
d, t h e q u o t i e nt be i n g r t h e r e m ai n d er e a n d s o o n
.

F or

fo

l d n i t i on

rm a

Of

th e

re m a

i nd

e r s ee

11

by

AR I THME T I C AL

40

S i n ce

b, b >

a >

c,

d, d >

c>

s eri es of e qu ati o n s

&c

e,

m ai nd er s m u s t d im i n i s h do w n t o

f o ll ow ing

G O M

C HA P

it is

z er o

t h at t h e r e
l
We t hus h av e th e
c e ar

a =pb+ c

b = gc + d
c = rd + e

l
m

H en ce th e G
i s th e
an

OM
.

G OM
.

of

H e n ce

th e G O
.

If

If

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s am e a s

c,

w h i ch

Of

an

t h at

s i n ce

B u t,

an d n

b an d

It

G O M in
.

u ni ty,

t h at i s , t h ey
s

e,

i s th e g r eat e s t d i v i s or O f n i t s el f
a n d b i s t h e di vi s o r cor res o nd i n g t o t h e
p
f or

e
e qu al t o

e x cep t u n i ty,

wn, t h e

be

n,

d, t h at i s, th e
Of

t h at O f

s am e as

h ai n O f di v i s i on s abov e i n di cat ed
d i ff er e nt fr om u ni ty t h en a and b h av e a

ord i na r y s e n s

th e

is

0 i n th e

be

t h at

s am e a s

wn

b i s th e

O f c an d

an d n

r e m a i n d er

o f a an d

t h at

s am e a s

n all y th e

= vm + n

h ou l d

t h e n t h ey

h av e
t o e a ch

ri m e

p
n o t i c e d t h at t h e

be

ar e

no
ot

d i vi s o r

c om m o n

h er

e s s en ce o f

th e

for eg oing

p r o cess f or n d i n g th e G O M o f t w o i n teg er s i s t h e s u bs ti tu ti on
f or t h e o r i g i n al p a i r , O f s u ccess iv e p a ir s o f cont i nu a ll y d ecr eas i n g
i nt eg er s , e a ch p air h avi ng th e sam e G O M
A ll th at i s n e ce s s ary
.

i s t h a t p , g , r,
d ecrea s i ng or d er

be i n t eg e rs ,
Of

m a g ni t u d e

a nd

t ha t

b,

a,

c,

d,

be i n

e,

p rocess m ig h t t h e r e f or e b e v ar i ed i n s e v er a w ays
ak i n
a d v a n t a e O f t h e u s e o f n e at i v e i n t e e r s , w e m a
s om e
g
g
g
g
y
t i m es abbr e v i a t e i t by t aki n g a n eg a t iv e i n s t ea d O f a p o s i ti v e

Th e

d er, w h en th e

r em ai n

th e

l atter

we

t o be

nu

meri ca ll y

l es s t han

pl t k
m i ght t k
Fo r

f or m er h app e n s

ex am
a

e,

e a

= 4 3 2 3 , b = 1 5 95 ,

or

4 32 3 2 2

1 5 95

1 1 33

43 2 3 = 3

1 5 95 4 6 2 ;

46 2 i l
to b p f d b c
th n 1 1 33 I p t i c th
g t i i gn f 4 6 2 m y b gl ct d i n th t of t h op t i on w h i ch m y
b
g d foll o w f th k f co m p i on w i th th o d i n y p oc
d y f mil i to th t d nt
l

th e l a
ne

tt

ve s

e arr a n

a rea

is

er

re e rr e

as

ar

e s

e au s e

e ne

s,

'

e sa

or
u

c O

es s

e r es

ar s

era
e

ra c

ar

es s

PRIME DIVIS O RS

41

4 7 85

1 386

41 8

22 0

44

r o ces s f or ndi ng t h e G O M w e m ay p r ov e
th e f oll o w i ng p r o p o s i ti o n o f w h ose t r u t h t h e s tu d e n t i s i n all
r
ab ili t
a l rea d
co n vi n ce d by e x p e r i e n ce
o
b
y
p
y
If a and b be p r i me to each other and It a ny i nteg er then a ny
B y m ean s

of

th e p

factor of

common

F or , s i n ce

o h a nd I)

a a nd

a =pb + c

c
q

om

s i n ce

N ow ,

s u ch a co mm o n

it
e

H e n ce

q u at i o n s

l
<

co mm o n

+ 0 71,

Ch = Tdh

0h

bh

fa ct o r

r om

fact o r d i v i d e s ch

an

oh

It

an

st o

e x act l y, an d

co mm o n

of

dh

omit

t he

e x a ctl y, a n d s o o n

th a t

9,

p bh
qclt

l
l
t
L

an

d iv id e s dh

al s o

a li =

y
o f ti lt a n d bit, i t f o ll o w s f

fa cto r

exactly

b ar e p r i m e , w e h av e by

'

mu st di vi de h

and ,

f ac t o r

com m o n

e q u a ti o n s

oh

at
t
h
2
( )

s e co n d

by t h e

n al l y

of

is

th a t

b y th e l a s t

of

l) d iv id e s h

an d

e x actl y

I n p ar ti cu l a r , s i n ce 6 i s a fa cto r o f i ts elf, w e h av e
C or 1 If I) di mde alt exactly and be p ri me to a, i t must divide It
'

exactly

C or

If

be p r i me to

i
m
e to thei r p r odu ct a bc
r
p

F or , i f
w i th a

b
c
(

o
s i ti on
o
r
p p

and

to l)

a nd

to

c, et c ,

then i t i s

th at i s ,
y f act o i n com m o n w i th a bc
th e n , s i n ce a i s p i m e t o a, t ha t fa ct o , by th e
a b ov e , m u s t d i v id e be
e x actly ; h e n ce , s i n ce a

'

h ad

an

'

REMAINDER AN D RESIDUE

42

CR A P

i s p i m e t o b, th e s upp os e d f a ct o m u s t d i v id e c
so on
B u t i n thi s w a y w e ex h au s t a l l t h e facto

d u ct,

s i n ce a ll a r e
a

An

H e n ce

n o s u ch

t h e p ro

of

fa cto r

ca n e x s t ,

C o r 3 If
.

b,

to

rs

i s p r i m e t o a bc
ea s y e x t en s i o n o f th i s i s t h e f o ll o w i n g

th at i s,

a,

p r im e

'

e xa ctl y, a n d

a ll

the integ er s

then the p

c,

A p ar t i cu l ar

b,

'

be p ri me to

rodu ct a b c

cas e o f

w hi ch

i s p i me to the p

rodu ct a bc

is

i
t
h
b
m
es
r
r
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p
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then any i nteg r a l p owe of a i s p r i m e to any i nteg r al p ower of a
I t i s obv i ou s th at i f a an d b be tw o i n t eg e r s w e ca n
i n an i n ni te n u m be r o f w ays p u t a i n t o th e fo r m o f g b
w h er e
q an d r are i nt g e r s f o if w e t ak e g a ny i nt e g e r w h t e v e r nd
n d r s o t hat a
g b r th e n a g b r
Th e r e a re tw o i m p o r tant s p ecial ca se t h o s e nam el y w h e r e
w e r e s t r i ct r t o b e nu m e r i c l l y l s s t h n b a n d e i th e r ( 1 ) p o s iti v e
2
n e a ti v e
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be p ri me to

the i nteg er s

a ll

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r,

r,

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al w a

F o r, i n case 1 , if g b b e th e
ys p o s si bl e i n o n e w ay o nl y
g ea t es t m u l ti pl e o f b w h i ch d o es n o t e x ce ed a , t h e n a
g b r,
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b
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t
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l
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n
n
r
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m u l ti pl e

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l ess th an

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gb
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w he e

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th e r e w e r e t w o r e s o l u t i o n s a n o t h e r b e i n g a
xb p s y 3 t h en
f
b
h
n
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by b 3 b t r an d p be i ng e ach p o s i ti v e a n d each nu m e r i c lly b
r p i s nu m e ri cal ly l es s t han b a nd t he r e fo r e can not be di v i s ibl e
by b
H e n c e t h e r e c a n n o t b e m o r e t h a n o n e r e s o l u ti n o f t h e
fo r m 1
S im il ar r e as on i ng appl i e s t o cas e 2
r and r ar e o ften s p ok e n o f as th e l e s t p os i ti ve a nd neg a ti ve
remai nders o f a w ith r es p ect t o b W h en th e r e m i nd e r i s s po k en
If
o f w i th o u t
q u l i ca ti o n th e l eas t p os i ti v e r em a i nd e r i s m e an t
a m or e
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e
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q
p
o f t h e r es tr i ct io n r n u m e r i c l ly
b th e w o r d r esi due i s u s e d
6 t ha t a is
I t i o b v i o u s f r o m t h e d e n i t io n s l id d o w n i n
or i
n ot exactl y di i s i bl e b b ccordi ng as the l eas t r ema i nder of a
y
w i th r esp e t to b d es or does n ot va ni sh

Al s o th e

b
.

3,

<

ARI THME T I C AL

43

FRACTI O N ALI TY

h
t
e
e
r
v
o
e w i th o t d if u l ty t h t
p
a
m ai nders of a and f a wi th r esp ect to b be the sa me then a
is
di is i bl e by b ; a nd conversely
C o r If g be a ed i nteg er (someti mes sp oken of a s a modu l s )
then every other i n teg er ca n be erp ress ed i n one or other of the for ms

Th e

s tu d e n t

w i l l al s o

by, bg

1 , bg

re b i s a n i nteg er
F o r a s w e h a v e s ee n
t h e f o r m bg +
w h e re r j

w he

bg

2,

(g

r,

v al u e s
xa

T ke g = 5 the
a

>

ut

ca n

p
g, a n d h e

an

re r

i
e n i n t eg e
v
y g
m u s t h a v e o ne

i n to

th e

of

(g

0, 1 , 2 ,

E mple

ds

we

e e n.

It
bg

en

s h o u ld

2)

(g

be

b
(

o n e o r o th e

n o t i ce d

1 )g

2, &c

by

s i n ce

(g

(b

1)

1 )g

w e m i g h t p u t e v e y i nt eg e

i n to

t h e fo m s

of

by, bg
Fo r

t h a t,

&c

by :1: 2 ,

e mple
xa

-2

i
r
n
ci l e w h i h m
l
l
d
t
h
r
i
di
ci t
f
b
e
c
e
o
p
p
y
p
y
t h e i n t e g r l n u m b e r s w i th r e s p e c t t o a g i v e n m o d u l s i s o f g r e a t
i m p o r t an c e i n t h e t h e o r y o f n u m b e r s
\Vh e n t h e q u o ti e nt a /b can n t b e
s
n
pr e ed
i nt eg e r i t i s s id t o be fr a cti onal or es enti a l ly f
b
ti n l 3 i f a
a b i s c l l e d i n t hi s case a n i mp o er fr a cti on 3 i f a
b
p op er
p
/

Th e

ab ov e

rac

ss

ex

<

fr acti on

H e nce
i nteg er

no

ru e fra ction p rop er

or

i mp r op er,

ca n

e ua l

be

to

an

E very i mp rop er fr acti on a /b can be

w here g i s a n i nteg er a nd r b a p r op er
/

exp essed

fr a ction

r b,
i n the for m g
/
be t h e
F or , i f

l ea s t p o s i t i v e r e m a i n d e r w h e n a i s d i v i d e d b y b, a
gb
a b
b
r
a n d r a r e i nt e e r s an d r
r b, w h e r e
b
g
)/ g /
g
g
/ (

r, a n

b
.

If two i mp r op er fra cti ons a /b a nd a /b be equ a l, their i nteg r a l

r
a nd thei r
ro er fra cti o na l
a r ts mu s t be e ua l s e a r a tely
F
r
a
t
s
o
,
p
p p
p
q
p
'

T HE OREM RE G ARDIN G

44

i f th i s w e r e

n ot

a nd

q
b

Now

a ll y

bb

o th e

In

s h ou l d

we

s o,

b
/

factors

whi ch

F or,

m
r
i
e
p

are

r e s ol t i o ns
S i n ce a b c
u

al l

t h e fact o

th en

'

d iv i s ibl e by

bc

t h at

i nteg er

an

'

is

p ow e

E very

upp e

is

r
i
m
es
p

t h ey

p o w e r) m u s t o ccu r , f or , if i t did

w ou ld b e p r i m e t o a , a nd
bc

of

I t foll ow s, th en, t h at

bc

'

th e

'

r efor e

m u st be

e q u al

be

remai nde

'

i s d i v i s ibl e by a
each i s di v i s ibl e b y t h e

u s ed

bei ng

the

or

e ach

f ac to r i n t h e

rdi nary p rocess f or nding the

and b can be exp r essed i n the for m

i n the

a nd

i s div i s

two p osi ti ve i nteg ers

2 nd, 4 th, et a ,

of

of a

B b) , w her e A

s ig n

i nto

'

resolved

be

th e y m u st

G CM
i Aa
(

to

can

a
6 ) 3 h e n ce a
P o ce edi ng i n thi s w ay w e can s h ow t hat
es o l u ti o n o ccu s i n t h e o th e

one

ri c
a p r op e r

nu m e

is

i bl e by a , a n d i t f oll o w s a s b e fo r e t h at
B u t, i f t w o i nteg e r s b e s uch th at
,

e qu al

b
/

of a

'

fact o r

Ag ai n, si n ce

o th e

rb

ll th e fact or s

be

b
/

h
/

p r i m e , i t w ill b e pr i m e to
b, c ,
s a ve o n e, s a
a , w h i ch i s a po w e r o f
y
Mo r eov e r , s uch a f acto r as a ( th at i s , a p ow e r

co ul d n o t

"

bc

'

p r im e
pr im e of w h i ch

th e

n ot,
a

rs

s am e

the
of

'

'

L et, i f p ossi bl e, t h er e be t w o su ch

an d a b c
o f th e s a m e i n t e g e r N
th e r e f o r e a b c
i s ex a ctl y div i sibl e

s i n ce a

N ow ,

i
s
g

'

b
/,

'

r ov e

'

rs
o th e r

b
/

p r i mes i n one way only

i n q ues ti o n ar e p o w e r s

th e fa cto

by

n am e l y, a

s ay

'

ca n

'

w o d s , t h e i n t eg e

can n o w

t o e a ch

h av e ,

ar e p owers o

s i nce

n
b
w
h
e
ce g
3
q
g
/
'
b b an d r b bb , h en ce r b

f r acti on , w h i ch i s i m poss ibl e

We

G OM

The
p osi ti ve i nteg ral n umbers
l s t, 3 rd, 5 th,
a nd the l owe f or the

ar e

rema i nde s

F or, by th e

e q u at i o n s

in

9, w e h av e

s u cce ss i v el y

{a

6 =

=
c
q

b q<a p b>.

{ra

r d,

p b}

r- a
g

vi a

(1
(v

w on

3
( )

THE O REMS RE G ARDIN G

m
an

s o on

45

i n fact th at, i f th e th eo r em h old s f or

e v i de n t

I t is

G OM

r em ai nd ers i t m us t h old for th e n e t N o w

an d 3 )
r
o
v e i t f or th e r s t t h r e e r em ai nd e r s
e u ati o n s
3
( p
q
h ence i t h old s f or th e fou r th 3 h en c f or t h e fth 3 a n d s o o n
I n th e ch ap te r o n C o nti nu e d F r acti o n s a co nv e ni en t p r o ces s
s u cce s s i v e

w
t
o
y

an

ca l cu l a ti ng

w i l l be g i v e n f or

r e m ai n d e r

e a ch

f or

e s tab l i s h e d

th e

th e

s u ccess i v e v al u e s

e x i s t e n ce o f

n u m b e s , an d

ca n al ways exp ess

t o h av e
s ee n a

re A

a nd

whe

C or 2
.

If

p osi ti ve i nteg ers

b e p r i m e t o b, g

Aa

d b/g

an

ar e

cl ea

1 3 h en ce , If a a nd b be two
p osi ti ve i n teg e s, A and B , can

i nt e g e r s ,

Bb

th a t

A mus t be p ri me to B
l an d m s ay, w e h av e, f r om

Fo r ,

s i n ce a

Bm
A
l
(
)3
i f A an d B h ad any comm o n fa cto r i t w ou ld d i v i d e 1

h e n ce ,

ab o v e

Cor 3
.

/g

b
( y

F r om

C or 1

and

b mu s t be

a and

we

A
v Ba
)
(

i n teg ers p ri me to each other, two

a l ways be fou nd su ch tha t
N B It is

g i n the form

are
a

r ema inder

a nd

t o h av e

h
t
f
w
w
a
o
r
a
r
d
g
y o f n di ng th em

Ge r 1 Si nce 9, the G (1 M of a a nd b, i s the l as t

s t ai

su f ci e n t

t h es e

I n t h e m e a nt i m e i t i s

of

fa ctor

8 we

i n thei

tha t

s ee

G OM
.

ry common fa ctor

eve

r esu l t w hi ch m ay be pr ov ed o th er w i s e and w il l pr obably

b e co n s id e r ed obv i ou s
Ge r 4 H e n ce To find the G C M of more than two i nteg er s a b
we mus t rs t find g the G O M of a and b then g the
c d
A

G CM
.

f g and c then g the G O M of g and d and

O M found bei ng the G UM of a ll the g iven i n teg ers
For

ev e

ry

com m on

in g

in

a,

C or

co n cl u s i o n s

f a ct o r

so on,

the l as t

o f a,

b,

mu st be

fa cto r i n

a and

an d c 3 an d s o on

F r om

f act o r i n g 3 h e n ce , t o nd th e g re at e s t co m
b, c, w e m u s t n d th e g r eate s t com m o n f a cto r

b, th at i s , m u s t be
m o n fact o

2 we

can

i n t h e l at te

al s o

pa t

of

o b ta i n

10

an

l g an t p r oo f

e e

of

th e

E X AMPLES

46

C H AP

E mple 1 T e press the G O M f 5 6 5 nd 6 0 i the f rm A5 6 5

5
We h ve
60 = 2
He ce the G C M i 5 d w h ve success i vel y
xa

an

{2

E mple 2
xa

ow

-4

th t tw

in

{2

60

7=1

5 2

5:

5 + 2,

565 1 9

1 ;

an d

7B

60 }

teg ers A

5A

We h ve

60 } ;

60 + 2

565

10

9 x

56 5

565 1 9

E GO

9 x 60
3
9 x 60

fu d

be

ca n

so

th t
a

he ce

5
,

He ce A = 3 B 2
i teger s ti sfyi g the
equ ireme nts f the
quest i
E mple 3 I f b l
b
seri es f i tegers w h se G C M i 9
sh w th t i tegers ( p s i t i ve
eg t i ve ) A B C D
b f und
such th t
n

on

xa

a,

ar e

6, c

e a

or

can

( G a uss

A i th m ti w Th
s D i g i i ti
F i n d A B C D w he
36 b= 2 4
d = 3o
Th i s result m y b e si l y rri ved t by repe ted ppl i c ti
d 4 f th i s rt i cle
1
i pri me t
E mple 4 The p pe r fr ct i
p / b w her e
w y
c mp sed d th t i
ly i t the f rm

on es

s u s

an

xa

ro

an

n one

on

here

an d

ar e

bo

th t i t
Illustr te w i th
S i ce i pri m e t
a

th p s i ti ve
o

of

on

c r ll ri es
o o

y, 0

o sa

or

1,

b,

ca n

be

de

b
d

'

'

IC

a,

<

<

cc rdi g t
n

n o

on

n a

b,
o

the
ci rcumst ces
an

d k is

an

in

tegr l p rt
a

of

b, by Co r 2

abo

on

by

i L

t ke

h as t o b e

p A = lb

The

( 1 ) b ec o mes

al

es lve p A
( b p s i t i ve
( p s i t i ve
o

z m
_

ab

r
at

a,

n, r

ma

h ve

i 1 3

we

If the upper s ig

Eh

Aa

mult i plyi g th i s equ t i

ve

pB

an s

s a

en
:

on,

or

l-

11)

<

f ll w s

b) ,

s i ce p / b i pr per fr ct i the i tegr l p t

i h
h ce s i ce the i teg r l p r t f
f ( 2 ) must v
1 W must h ve l
m 0
l m
1

N ow,

as

a nd

ar

on

/a

the rig ht-h d s i de

b /b
t e cee d
an

c an no

PRIMES IN F INI T E

N UM B R o r

I f th l w e r s i g
res lut i s
e

t ke

h as t o be

on

in

the pr ceed b ef re w
the i g e u i t y f the re de r
I llustr t i
n

to

on

e rel y

<

t ke the

to

oo

on

u i que

is

<

x I

Now
w

as

h ve

we

p s i t i ve b)
p s i t i ve )
le ve the pr f th t the res lut i

p A = lb b (b

p B = m a + a (a

a nd

47

he ce
n

( see

'

x a

18

12

7+4

4
4

ve ) 3

5 3
9

ab o

xa

35

E mple 2
2 x

eg t i ve n umer t rs
ll w ed i t i bv i us t h t p / b
l w ys b dec mp sed ( s met i m es i n m re w ys th n ) i t n lgebr i c
d b /b w he re
umeri c ll y less th n
d b
m f t w fr ct i s
/
d b respect i vel y
F
e mple w h ve
b pri me t e ch the r the
E mple 5 I f the i tegers b c d
m y b res lved i
pr per fr ct i n p / b d
w y
l y i nt the f r m

ME

su

lf

a an

a,

a c

xa

a,

as , a

are

an

n on e

an

( G a uss

are n

on es

xa

a <

a,

one or o

co n cl u d e

thi s

of

<

b, y <
in
'

on

c,

6 < d,

a nd

I;

for

on

ch a

pt e

xa

w i th a p

the fr ct i
a

r o p os i ti o n

w h i ch

on

is

n am e l y

8
, , y,

nite
b e a n y s e r i es f p r i m e i n teg e r s w h at
s h o w t h at an i n n i ty o f p r i m s ca n b e
i s in

can

d e r i v e d f r o m th e s e

the tegr l v lues

xa

r of p ri me i nteg ers

a,

nu mbe

th e n w e

ou

E u cl i d (i x

F or l e t
s o ev e

caz,

an

\Ve
The

a s o ld as

s D i q i i ti
A i th m ti
Th
Th i s m y b est bl i shed by me s f E mple 3
f E mple
E mple 6 W rk t the res lut i
s u s

can

k,

n o a

l l p s i t i ve
here B 7 6
cc rd i g t c i rcumst ces
ther
h
w

one

an

or

xa

are

on

a o

r y
+ 1 i s o bv i u s l y n o t e actl y
M st f the f reg i g p r p s i t i s reg rd i g i tegr l um b ers w e re
k w
the l d Greek g
t
I n f act
o

no

n to

th e i n t eg e

o n

e o n i e e rs

on

E X ERCI S E S

48

C H AP

Iv

1n

di vi si bl e by an y o n e o f th e p ri m e s a , ,8 , y
K
I t mu st
t h e r e f o r e e i th e r be i ts e l f a p r i m e d i ff e r e n t f r o m an y o n e o f t h e
o w e r of a
K, o r i t m u s t be a
r
i
m
e
or
a
s er i es a , 8 ,
,
p
p
,
y
.

i n t eg e r d i v i s i bl e by s om e p r im e
e thu s d e r i v e f r o m a ,
K

com p o s i t e
a,

)8, y,

r e p ri m e s ay A
l i k e m ann e r d e r i v e at
one

mo

Th e n f r om

i nfini tum

n ot

l e ast

o ccu

8 y,
m o r e p r im e,

o ne

K,

A we

an

u.

am o n g

l e as t

at

, ,

rr i ng

in

can

on ad

so

E X E R C I SES

IV
equ l

n d the l tte r b
If the t w fr cti ns A/B /b b
t i t l w est
terms pr ve th t A z n B = nb w her e p i n i teger
di ffe re ce f t w
dd um b e s i
l w ys eve 3
P r e th t the sum
d
the sum di ffe e ce f
dd
eve n um b er l w ys d d 3 the pr duct
dd um b e r
f
y um b e r f dd um b e rs l w ys dd 3 the qu t i e n t f n
by n ther l w ys d d i f i t b i tegr l
If b pri me t b then
b) m h ve t m st the G O M 2 m 3
l t ( + b) m n d (
b h ve t m st the G C M 2 3
d
2 d
+b
b h ve t m st the G C M 3
+b
3 d
+ b nd
The d i fferen ce f the squ res f y t w dd n um b ers i e ctl y
d i v i si ble by 8
The m f the qu res f th ree c nsecut i ve dd n um bers i ncre sed
multi ple f 1 2
by 1 i
I f e ch f tw fr ct i s b t i t l w est terms n e i the r the i r sum
the i r d i ffere ce n b n i n tege less the de m i t rs b equ l
d 2 9 7 6 7 5 i t the i pri me f ct rs
R es lve 4 5 7 3 8
F i nd the G O M f 5 4 6 4 3 d 91 3 1 9 s i ng neg ti ve r em i ders
f dv t ge t d
w he ever i t i
P r ve th t the L C M f t w i n tegers i the qu t i e n t f the i r p r duct
by the G C M
l
l
l the
I f g g g b the
f b
d
d
d L the L C M
d b espect i vel y G the G C M
f the th ree
b
sh w th t
o

an

an

s a

e o

o o

e a

an

an

an o

s a

or

r n

or

a,

ov

an

xa

s a

ca

no

n o

o so

na o

an

n or

a n

an

c, c a n

an

a,

0,

r un

an a

s o

a , a an

e a

an

on

e a

su

l st

a bC G

91 9293
2 nd

Whe
i d i v i ded
sh w th t w hen
d y
the qu t i e ts d i ff er by u i ty
n :2:

On

x an

l l l o lg

91 9293

the qu t i e t i
v ded by the em

by y ,
ar e d i i

v,

ai n

the rem i der ;

de rs the s me nd
an d

a n

a re

th i s su bject see Sylvester

N a tu r e ,

v ol

xxx

v i ii

2 61

C H A P TE R

D i st ri b ut i o n

of

IV

P ro d uc t s M ul t i p l i c a t i o n

of

R a ti o na l

I n t e g r a l F un c t i o n s R e su l t i n g G e n e r a l P r i n c i p l e s

GENERALISED

We p r oce

OF DIS T RIBU T I O N

L AW

r e i mpo r tan t
Thi
s l a w h as a l r eady b ee n
co n s e u e n ce s o f th e l a w o f d i s tr i bu ti o n
q
s ta t ed i n t h e m o s t
e n e r al m ann e r f o r th e ca s e o f t w o f acto r s
g
each o f w hi ch i s t h e su m o f a s e r i es o f t e r m s
nam el y w e m u l ti pl y
ev e r y t e r m o f t h e o n e f a ct o r by e v e r y t e r m o f t h e o th e r a n d s e t
d o w n al l th e p ar t i al p r o d u cts t h u s o bt ai n ed ea ch w i th th e Sig n
b efo r e i t w h i ch r e s u l ts f r om a ce r ta i n l aw o f s ig n s
L e t u s n ow co n side r th e cas e of th r ee fa cto r s s ay
e

no w

t o d ev el o p

s om e o f

th e m o

F i r st

o f all,

w e m ay

j u s t d es cr ibe d
(

ou

ab

r epl ace

nam el

y, w e

ba

ac

Th en w e m ay

r ep eat

th e p
I

aa a

bb

'

r oces s
au

'

ab b

ac b

ba b

ac a

ba

'

fa ct or s by t h e p r o ce s s

) (a

be

ab a

r s t tw o
m ay w ri te
th e

an d

ri te

aa c

ab c
ac c

ba

&c ,
.

u ct i s n al l
d
o
r
p
y r epl ace d by a su m o f
a r ti al
o d u ct s e ach o f t h r e e l et ter s
r
\Ve h v e s i m p l i ed th e
p
p
m at te r b y w r i t i ng
b ef o r e ev e r y t er m i n th e o ri g i n al facto r s bu t
t h e p r op e r a ppl i ca ti o n o f th e l aw o f s i g n s a t e a ch s t e p w i l l p r e
e n t n o d i f cu l t
y t o t h e s tu d e n t

w he e

th e

r ig i nal
,

VO L

GENERALISED

50

DIS T RIBU T I O N

L AW O F

Th e i m p o r t an t thi ng t o

C H AP

r e m ark

i s t h at w e m i g h t e v i d e n t l y
h av e a i v e d a t th e nal e s u l t by t h e f o ll o w i n g p o ce s s, w h i ch
i s e al ly an e x te ns i o n o f th e o i g i n a l u l e f o r t w o f act o s

rr

a ll

fa ctor ( never
of s i g ns tha t
(
p

i s , if ther e be

take the s i g n

rodu ct of
x

r of

The

p
l

Set down
n u mbe

the p a ti a l p

l, m,

conta i n

r od

u cts

from

r es ul ti ng

F or , t ak ing t h e

r of

a ll

te ms i n the

s u ch or n one,

thus

obta i ned

the di str i bu ti on

ter ms

n,

r s t

neg a ti ve

a n even nu m be

ter ms

brackets w hi ch

r
nu mber of

a n odd

take the s i g n

rodu ct,

Co r

p ossi bl e p ar ti a l p r odu cts by taki ng a te m f om ea ch

mo e tha n one fr om each)
dete m ine the s i g n by the l aw

F orm

a r ti a l

two b

r esp ecti vely

is

rack e ts

a l o n e , s i nce

r t g o e s w i th e ach t e r m of th e s eco nd th e
w h o l e n um b e r o f t e r m s a r i s i ng f r o m t h e d is t r ibu t i o n o f th e s e i s
l
N ex t m u l ti plyi ng by t h e t h ir d br a ck e t e a ch o f t h e l m
m
t e r m s al r e a d y o b t ai n e d m s t b e t a k e n w i th e ach o f t h e n t e r m s
We th s g e t ( l m) x n t h at i s l x m n ter m s
o f th e thi rd
B y p r o ceedi ng i n th i s w ay w e e s t abl i sh t h e g en e ral r e s u l t
I t S h o ul d b e n o t e d h o w e v e r t h t al l th e t e r m s ar e s u pposed
to b e u n li k e a n d t h a t n o co n d en sa ti o n or r e d u ct i o n o w i n g t o l i k e
te r m s o ccu rri n g m o re t h an o n ce o r t o t er m s d e s t r o yi n g e ach
C as es o ccu r i n 2 bel ow i n
o th e r i s s u pp ose d t o be m a d e
w h i ch t h e n u m b e r o f t e r m s i s r e d u ce d i n t hi s w ay
I f th e s tu d e nt h a v t h e l e as t d if cu l ty i n f l l o w i ng t h e abov e
h e w i ll qu i ck l y g et o v e r i t by w o rk i n g ou t f o r h i m s l f t h e r e su l t s
t t e d b el o w r s t by su cce s si v e d i s tr i bu ti o n a nd t h e n by a ppl y
i ng t h l aw j u s t g i ve n
e ach

te m

th e

of

s a

+ h)

"

HZ
) ( 0 +f

)
ad

f + a de

(2

b)

b)

bdf

bcf + bd e

terms )

f)

ac

a cc

(a

C -

+ bcc

aq

a ce

bee

( a le

d
f

a eg

ai lc

bdf 3

bcf + bd e

(c

ac

a ce

ad

a dy

12

bcf

bee

terms )

bcg

bi le

bdf + bd g

I t w as p r o v e d a bo v e th at i n th e m o s t g e ne r al cas e o f
d i s tr ib u ti o n t h e n u mb e r o f r e s u l ti ng t e r m s i s t h e p r od uct o f t h e

nu m be s

of

e x a m i na ti o n

t e m s i n t h e d iff e
of

t h e p a ti cu l a

r e nt

fa ct o r s

cas e s

of

t he p

r o d u ct

r r ed u ctio n s

w he e

An

m ay be

ENUMERA T I O N

Iv

af te

r w ar ds

d w il l

e s u l t s, a n

w i ll

e ffe ct e d
al s o

l e ad

brin g t o

Co n s i d e r th e p r od u ct

d i s tribu ti on w ill g i v e 2
t h a t o n l y t w o l e tt e r s , a
o nl y

a x

th

n o t i ce ce

b)

b)

b, b x b, th at i s ,

r ta i n

an d

b,

i n t h e p r o d u ct , and t h at
o f t w o f a cto r s , n am e l y, a x a ,

o ccu

a b,

b,

can

r t e r m s on e
b ( or b a) o ccu r s
I n fact th e t e r m a
th e d i s tri bu t i o n i s af te r coll e c ti o n
,

t w i ce ,

and

th e

r es u l t

of

be w r i tten

o f co u s e

Thi s m ay

b e f o r m e d w i t h t h e s e ; h e n ce
a t l ea s t m u s t o ccu r m o r e t h an o n ce
e

th e f ou

am o n g

i m p o r t an t

r
p acti cal
pr i n ci pl es

B y t h e g e n e r al r u l e t h e
e ob s e r v e , h ow e v e r ,

2 = 4 t e ms

51

i m p o r ta n t

some

to

us

r ee r eally d is ti nct pr odu cts

2

PR O D U C T S

or

2 ab + b

S i m il a r l y
I n t he

th e t e m
Si

g n, s o

r esu l t

b)

(
b) ( a
a

cas e

a b o ccu

rs

tw i ce ,

b)

o n ce

t h a t t h e s e tw o t e m s

2 ab

w i th t h e

g a i n w i th t h e
d e s t oy ea ch o th e w h e n th e nal
and a

r e du ce d
B e fo r e p r o ce e di ng to anoth er ex am pl e l e t u s w r i te d ow n all
th e p o s s ibl e p r o d u ct s of th r e e f act o r s t h a t can be m ad e w i t h t w o
Th ese ar e a a b a b b f o u r i n all
l e t t e r s a an d b
H en ce i n th e di s tr i bu ti on o f (a b) that i s of (a b) (a b)
a
w
hi
ch by t h e g en e r al r u l e w ou l d g i v e 2
2
2
b
8 te r m s
)
(
o n l y f o u r r eal l y d i s ti n ct t e r m s can o ccu r
L e t u s s ee w h at t e r m s
r ecu r an d h o w o fte n th ey d o s o a a n d b e vi den tly o ccu r e ach
o n l y o n ce
beca u se t o g e t t h r e e a s o r th r e e b s on e m u s t b e
t ak en f r o m e ach b r a ck et a nd th i s can b e d o n e i n o n e w ay o n l y
a b ma
y b e g ot by t ak i ng b fr om t h e r s t b r ack e t and a f r o m
e ach o f th e o t h e r s or b
t
i
n
f
k
r o m t h e s e co n d o r f r o m
a
t
h
e
b
y
g
t h th i r d i n all t h r ee w ays 3 an d t h e s am e h ol d s f or a b
Th u s
t h e r esul t i s
is

(a
In

a s im il a

b)

w a y th e

a
s tu

( a b)
( a i b)

3a b

d e n t m ay

(t

3 ab

e s t ab l i s h

3a b

4
:

4a b

for hi m s e l f th a t

b
g

Ga b

I :

4 ab

C OU N T IN G

52

r e m e m b e r i ng

a n d,

l ett e r s ,

a,

b,

b,

ca , a b, S i x

bc,

r o du cts o f
n u m b e r th a t

in

th

ree

2 bc 2 ca + 2 a b

a +

C H AP

t h at th e p o s s i bl e b i n a y p

c, a r e a

RE C URREN C E S

OF

&c

Th e t e r nar y p r od u cts o f th r e e l e tt e r s , a, b, c, ar e a , a b, a e,
3
g
3
e
s
g
Th e e nu m e r ati o n i s m ad e m o r e ce r tai n
a b , a c , a bc, b , b e, be , c
3

th

r st

by

s ys t e m a ti c

an d

k
o ccu r s

th en t h o s e i n w h i ch i t
o n ce , an d,

l a s tly, t h o s e i n w hi ch i t d oes

i l l u s tr ati ng , w ill

ar e

s tu d e n t,

ea s i l y Sh o w

2 4)
on

for

t h at

30

3 ab

3 ca

6 a bc

rify t h ese r esu l ts

&c

2 a bc

be

bc

ca

2 ca

s ucce ss i ve

2a b

2c

2 a bc

2c

2 ab

2 a bc

2c a

m ean s t h at h e m u s t

s u ch

by

r
es
ses
o
c
p

i
e
b
a
ca
l
g

ch o i ce o f

th e

ve

ae

k il l i n

to

ab

al

n o t n eg l ect

di s t r ibu ti o n s, t h u s

a t all

h e m ay d e r i v e, by s u bs ti tu ti ng ( se e ch ap i ,
3
b o th s id e s , t h e e x p an si on of ( a b c) , a nd s o

c on

I t i s by
c oh e e n cy o f

r i ce
o c cu r s

ai n

He s h ou ld

o ccu s

by f oll ow i ng th e m e th o d

3a b
a

n o t o ccu

3c

3b c

f r om w h ich

t w i ce, th e n th os e i n w hi ch i t

B e a r i n g th i s i n m i nd , th e
we

th o s e i n w h i ch

t a ing

h i s m e th o d s

h i m s el f

th e

of

for h im sel f t as te

i
n
a
g

an d

co n v i n ce

an

Ther e i n ther w y f cl ss i fyi ng the pr ducts f gi ve degree w h ich

t d w h i ch the stude t sh uld n t i ce n mely cc rd i g
i eve n m re i mp rt
A ll the terms th t n b de i ved fr m
ther by i terch g es
t typ
m g the v ri bles
s i d t b f the s me type F e mple c s ider
the ter ry pr ducts f b c Fr m w deri ve by i terch ge f b d b ;
b g t i th i w y
fr m th i s g i by i terch ge f b d c
n m re
b b f rm
ther
th t b c f r m n ter ry t ype 3 b b
ter ry type
th ird Thus the tern ry pr duc ts f th ree v ri bles
d b
f ll i t th ree t ypes
s a

na

na

an

an

n o

ar e

a n,

"

an

on

so

e.

ca

a,

e o

an

an

3
c

c a

na
.

c,

ca n

xa

c a , ca
o

on

an

an

an

or

on e an o

an o
a

a,

AND

IV

L et

co ns id e

us

m or e

one

N OT A T I O NS

11

53

) (c

(b

c as e , n a m el y,

b)

) (a

H er e e v e n all th e t en p e r m i s s i bl e t e r na ry p r o d uc ts o f a b 0 can no t
b o ar e e x cl u d e d by t h e n at u r e o f th e cas e s i n ce
o ccu r f or a
a o ccu r s i n o nl y t w o o f t h e b r ack e t s a nd t h e s a m e i s t r u e o f b
a nd c
I n fact by th e p r oce ss o f e nu m e r at i o n a n d cou n ti ng o f
r ecu rr en ces w e g et
,

)(

b
(

)(

b)

be

be

ca

ab

ca

2 abc

I n t h e p r o d u ct ( b c) ( c a) ( a b) th e t er m a bc o ccu r s t w i ce
w i th o pp os i t e s i g n s , a n d th e r e i s a f u r t h e r r e d u ct i o n , n a m el y,

) (

b
(

) (

b)

bc

be

on

ab

ca

le gth the sum f ll the terms f

the s me type y b + + b th bbrev i t i n E b i ften used 3 th t i t
ly
f the ter ms i quest i n n d p re the Gr eek lette r
y w w ri te
ds f
sum
m re full y sum f ll terms f the s me
w h i ch st
t ype
The e ct me i g f 2 depe n ds the n um ber f v i bles th t
d b the
e mple i f there b nl y t w v ri b les
i n quest i
F
2 b me n s s i mpl y b ; i f ther e b f u r v r i b les
b c d the n 2 b me
s
A g i i f there b t w v ri bles b E b me ns
b
Z b me
s
b + b 3 i f ther e b th r ee
U su lly the c n te t sh w s h w m y v ri bles
u nderst d 3 b t i f th i s
i t m y b i nd i c ted e i the r by w ri t i g the v ri bles u der the 23
i
t
thus 2 b
therw i se
Th i s t t i i much used i the h i gher m them t i cs d w i ll b f u d
very useful i s v i g l b ur eve i eleme t ry w rk F e mple the
n d ( 1 0)
b ve m y b w ri tte n
results
I ste d

E N ota ti on
a

sa

on

e a

no

s o,

c,

an

a an

an

a,

an

oo

are

or o

a,

a,

ar a

e o

on

s o

a n,

xa

or

or,

an n

xa

or

ar e

ou t at

o ne o

an

as

w i in

ca

on

of

sa

rt g

a bcd

on

no a

n a

an

xa

or

b)

(a

Ea

3
Z
a
b3
3

= Za3

32 ( c

6 a bc 3

b) E b 2 b
)(
( b c) (
the prese t rt i cle the re der sh uld
B y me s f the i de s e pl i ned i
d
d if culty i est b l i sh i g the f ll wi g w hi ch
ge er l i s t i ns f
c

an

(1)

no

a nd

ar e

( 9)
2

+ 22

ab

the umb er f v ri b les be i ng y w h tever

II N t ti n Ther e i
the r bbrev i ti ve n t t i cl sel y ll i ed t the
w h ve just b ee
e pl i i ng w h i ch i s met i mes useful nd w h i ch fte n
ppe rs i C t i e t l w rks I f w h ve pr duct f terms fu ct i s f
l l d i ffe re n t b t f the s me t ype ( th t i
gi ve set f v ri bles w h i ch
deri v ble fr m e ch ther by i n terch g es see p
th i s i c ntr cted by
w ri t i g
f the ter ms
ly
fu ct i s nd p i g the G reek letter II

w h i ch st
ds f pr duct f l l f the s me t ype
Thus i the c se f
three v ri bles b c
n

o a

one
a
a

on

an

or

on

or

re

an

or

a,

on ,

o a

are a

one o

a n

n n a

on

s a no

an

on

s,

x n

as

I I E

54

P R NC P L

SUBS T I T U T I O N

or

me
b
b
c) me s ( b c ) (
me s

an s a

II ( b

x a

'

3
x a e x ac x

an

ca n

bee x be2 3
b) ;

) (a

an

an d s o o n

We m ig ht

e mple wri te ( 1 0)

for

xa

ab o

H i th er to w e

ve

h av e

co n s i d e e d

an d
l e tt e r s p r e cede d by th e s i g ns
n u m e r i cal co e f ci e n ts i s
a ff e cte d b
y

me

r el y f acto r s

The

a t o n ce

co u s e

u p of

w h e e t h ey

ca s e

of

m ad e

ar e

r o v ided

fo r by th e p ri nci pl e o f a s soci a t i o n
O r, w h at co m e s t o th e sam e
t h i ng , ca ses i n w h i ch n u m e r i cal co e f ci e n t s o ccu r ca n b e d e r i v e d
.

by

from

s u b s ti t u ti o n

su ch a s

w e h av e

al e a

dy

co n s i

d e r ed

F or

e x am p l e

2 b)

( 3a

{( 3 a )
3
a
( )

( 2 b) }

w h e n ce ,

by

r u l es al r eady
2 7a

5 c)

2b

( )
a

Th e

2 b)

4b

s t u d en t

( 5 c)

8b

5
( c) }

2 b) ( 5 0 )

2(

2 0 bc + 1 0 ca

2 5c
w il l

3 6 ab

2 b)
2

f o r m o n o m i al s ,

5 4a b

{( )
2

e s tabl i s h e d

2 (a) (

2 b)

4 ab

bs e r v e th at i n th e

nal r es ul t th e

g ene

ral

fo r m by m ea ns o f w hi ch thi s r e s ul t w as o b tai ne d h as be e n l os t,
s o f a r a t l e a s t as t h e n u m e r i cal coe f ci en ts a r e c on ce r n e d
.

It is
s ub s t i tu t i o n

ve

m ay

ry

al s o

i m p o r ta n t t o

be

u s ed

n o t i ce

th at t h e p i n ci pl e

r es ul ts

t o d e d u ce

r om r esul ts al re ady obtai ne d for bi n om ial s

b r epl acing b thr ou g h o ut
d
3 e b 3 ab
f

b
(

3a (b

3 a( b
w h e n ce

2 bc

3c

r
p ts
e a r li e r p ar ts

a s s o ci a ti o n o f

b u ti o n i n t h e

b
(

w e h av e

30

3 ca

Ga be

t he facto

of

b)

)
3c

3b c

of

s av e d a nd e l eg an ce a ttai ne d

3 ab

3a b

3c
2

By

c,

3a

3a b
3

by b

3 a(b

for tr i n om i al s

Th u s fr om

of

rs

r e du cti o n

d by p ar ti a l di s t ri
l a b o u r m ay o f t e n b e

an

SUMS

1v

Fo r

e mple

C O E FFI C IENTS

OF

55

xa

+ b+

)(

(a

b2

f r mul

by

c)

vw
(

'

(b

2ao

Ag

ne

(H

b+ c+ d)

2
b
(

( 3 ) a bo ve
3
d ) 3

2 bd

d2 + 2 a o

e} ;

2 bd

a i n,

)
a
a ( b c) } {a
}l
a

} {a

by
l
{b
9
2
b
b
c
(
{

( 2 bc)

-2
4b o

(b

'

3 3

2o

f rmul

on of

(3 )

2 2

}3

f rmul

by

- l
2b c

'

3 2

2
c

d u ble ppl i c t i

(b

2b

(6

} {a b + 2 bc c } 3
2
2
2
2
b
0
a )
b
c
(
}{

2 bc --c2

+ ( b c)

2a b

2c a

b4

i
c

2a

b3 ) 3

result w h i ch the stude t w i ll meet w i th g i

Th e r e i s an i mp o r t an t g e ne r al t h e o r m w h ich f oll o w s
l and 2 t h t w e m y
so r e adily f r o m t h e r es u l ts e s ta bli s h e d i n
a ll the ter ms i n a l l the f actors o
I
a p r odu ct be
i
v e i t h er e
f
f
g
s i mp le l etters u na ccomp a ni ed by nu me i ca l coc i ci en ts a nd a l l a ected
n

a n

wi th the p osi tive

valu e o

the

the p r od uct w i ll be t

r f

Thi s f ol l ow s
be l o st

e f ci e n t o f

the

su m o

at

s i n ce
an

r
t e rm

w he e
v

ne

a ti v e s i

m d o es

are

tha t

no

o ccu s

( 1 0) in

a nd

1
1
( )

not

h o ld

ns a n d n u m e
g

r ic

a lg eb a ic

su m

of

2,

bo v e w e h ave

of

2,

an

d i n t h e f o r m u l ae

acco u n t

on

co e f

c i e n ts

of

the

pp e a

of

3,

ran ce

of

Th e f ol l ow i ng m o r e g e n e r a l t h e o r e m , w h i c h i n cl u d e s t h e
j u s t s tate d as a p ar ti cu l ar cas e , w il l, h o w e ve r, a l w a ys a pp ly :
The

co

an

te m s

&c
th e o

n,

th e

l, m,

p o s i ti v e , a n d th at t h e n u m e i cal
t h e d i s t i bu t i o n i s s i m p l y th e nu m b e

Th u s i n fo r m u l ae

I n fo r m u l ae ( 8 )

i n the di s tri bu ted

ar e

y te m i n

ti m es th at t h a t

cients

r esp ecti e f actors

f r om t h e con s i d e r at i o n

o n ce

all

coc

the te ms i n the

n umbe s o

ca n

then the

s ig n,

the

f cients

coe

i n the

ea

a ns i o n

one

a ny

E X ER C ISES

56

C H AP

p oduct may be obta i ned fr om the p oduct i ts elf by

the va i a bl es by 1 throu g hou t a l l the factors

rep l a ci ng ea ch o

Th u s , i n th e

(
we

cas e o

f
2 bc

a +

h av e

2 ca

2 a b,

Th e g e n e r al p r oo f o f th e th eo r em con s is t s m er el y i n t h i s
t h a t a n y al g eb r ai cal i de n t i ty i s e s t abl is h e d fo r all v a l u e s o f i ts

r i bl e s so th at w e m ay g i e e ach
Wh e n th is i s d on e th e e x p and e d
al g eb r ai c s u m o f i ts co e f ci e n ts

va

of

th e

r i abl e s

r edu ces

s id e

va

th e

si m

v al u e

pl y t o t h e

E X E R C I SE S

Ho w

an

terms

D i stribute c de se
on

(
2
(x

v)

there

ar e

(4 )
o

in

an

o wi n

( a,

rr ge the f ll

an d a

(
v) (
v) (
?
?
2
4
x
x
y )(
v) (
r)
"
v)

V
the d i stributed pr duct

a2

9 2

v)

(6

C ) (C - d ) ( a

b)

( 3a + 2 b
o.

a nd

b c

4
.

Wri te d w l l the qu ter ry pr ducts f the th ree letters

z3
p i t t h w m y d i ffere t types they f ll i t
d h w m y p r ducts
f e ch t ype
there
D the s me th i g f the te rn ry pr ducts f the f u lette rs
b
d
F i nd the sum f the c ef ci e ts i the e p s i f ( 2 + 3 b + 4 )
D i strib ute d c de se the f ll w i g rr ngi g terms f the s me type
t gether
n a

o n

ou

an

a re o

na

x, i

n o, a n

an

on

an

or

an

on o

a,

c,

T a
c
x

u
C

x z + x z (x + z )
z
+
(y
) y(
y)
y

(b

Ea ( b + c

Wherever i th i s set f e erci ses the bb

ed i t i u n derst d th t th ee letters nl y
ds di fculty w i th th l tter p r t f th i s set
them u nt i l he h re d the rest f th i s ch pte r
n

us

oo

as

a re

s ym b ls 2 d II
i n v lved
The stude t w h
f e e rc i ses sh uld p stp e

rev i a t i v c

an

are

on

E X E RC I S E S

Sh
a

(2L
(

b)

th t

ow

(1 9

w
t

4a b( x
g
av

2
v

By

57

xx

)(

t2
a

)(
9
x
(

)(

b)

v)

'

9 2

6a b

(x

b)

4a b

'

4a h

-2

6a b

4a h

av

'

)
(x
Cz3 B C a ) ( x 2 E g
9
B yg i C (zz
l
n
C {xz B y a : ( : x
ay

a
g

9 ?

(m

) (

b4 ( x - a ) i

b)

ay

'

B{

BCu )

x y i C( u z

xy

( 3x

B C {y

xu

(u x

L a g r a ng e

f gre t i mp rt n ce i n the the ry f um b e rs 3 the y

The the rems
sh w th t the pr ducts d p w ers f um b e rs h v i g cert i f rm
um bers f the s me f rm They ge er li s t i ns f the f r mul e n umb ered
V i the t ble t the d f th i s ch pte r
D i stri b ute c de se d rr ge
E Eb
II ( b c )
(2
o

are o

an

on

an

are

c)
D i stri bute

a n

ar e

b)x 2

2 (b

3
.

b)

a bx y

b) x"J

b) y9 } {( a

rr ge the result i the f rm

an

a bx y

b) y9 } 3

Ax

Sh

an

Za E a 2

(b

an d a

2 bc)

en

Cx 3y2

Bx y

Ey

th t

ow

x3

{y

31 +
2 7x y ( x

Ea

(b

b)

(a
3

25

( 30

2 a bc2

c)
a

Ea 2

d)

y)

3
x

xy

f )

Zbc }2

2 bc }
? 3

4(a c

( 3d cb

20

4 (d b

GENERAL T H E O RY OF IN T EGRAL F UN C T I O NS
As w e h a v e

n ow

m ad e

b eg i n n i ng

of

t h e i n v e s t ig a t i o n

rop e r tie s o f r ati onal i n teg ral alg e br ai cal fun ct io n s i t w ill
b e w el l t o d e n e p r eci s el y w h at i s m e an t by th i s t e r m
We h av e al r eady ( ch ap ii
5 ) d e ne d a r ati o n l i nt eg r l
al eb r ai cal t e r m as t h e
g
p r o d u c t o f a n u m b e r o f p o s i ti v e i n t e g r l
o w e r s o f v a r i ou s l e t te r s x
l
t
i
ca
ll
d
t
h
v
r
i
a
bl
s
m
u
z
e
e
e
p
y
p li e d by a co ef ci e nt w hi ch m y b e a p o i ti v e o r n eg tiv e n u m b e r
o r a m r e l e t te r o r f u n ctio n o f a l e tt e r o r l e t te r s bu t m u s t n o t
co nt i n or d e e nd u o n th e v a r i abl e s
p
p
of

th e p

GENER AL N O T I O NS REGARDIN G

58

r a tional

fu nction

i nteg ra l

a lg eb a i ca l

C HAP

i s the

al

g ebr ai ca l
if x, y, z,

s um o

ri es of ra tional i nteg r a l alg ebrai cal terms Th us

be
I
I
II
t h e v a r i abl e s l m n
l m n
l m n
os t v e n
p
t eg ral n m b e r s a nd C C C
co e f ci e n t s a s ab o v e d e n e d
th e n t h e typ e o f s uch a f u n cti o n s w e h av e d e n e d i s
a se

I,

II

&c

r tnes s w e s h a ll w hen n o am bi g u i ty i s t o be fe ar ed sp ea k

o f i t m e r el
i n teg r al f u n ct i o n
y as a n
T the
t i w gi ve f w spec i l e mples Thus
3 y + 2y i
i te g r l fu ct i
f
d y 3
( ) 3
m + b y+ y
b
b e i g i depe de t f
i tegr l
d y i
fu cti f
d y 3
2 5 +3 +1 i
i tegr l fu ct i
l e3
f
(7 ) 3
1 i
6
i tegr l fu ct i
the
if
( )
y z b r eg r ded
v ri ble ; b t i
t
i tg
l fu ct i
i f the v ri bles b
t ke t b y
b
b
l e

Ea ch te r m h as a
d eg r e e
a cco r d i n

t
o
t
h
e
d
e
ni t i o n o f
g
ch ap ii
6 w h i ch i s i n fa ct t h e s u m o f t h e i nd i ce s o f t h e v a r i
a bl
Th e d eg r ee s o f t h e v a r i o us t e r m s w il l n o t i n g e n er al b e
ali k e ; b u t the de
o
t
ee
a
n
i
n
eg r al fu ncti on i s dened to be the
g
f
deg r ee of the term of hi g hes t d eg r ee tha t occu rs i n i t
F
e mple th degree f ( ) b ve i
d y i the 3 d
f ( B) the
2 di
dy
d the 1 t i
b
f (y ) i
the 3 d f ( 5) i y z the l t
F r o m w h a t h a s l r ea dy be e n sh o w n i n t his ch p te r i t
a pp ea r s th a t i n th e r e s u l t o f t h e d i s t r i bu t i on o f a
pr o d u ct o f a n y
r i s es a s th e p ro du ct of
n u m b e r o f i nt e g r a l f u n ct i o n s e ach t e r m
i n t e g r a l t e r m s a n d i s t h e r e f o r e i t s e l f i n t e g r al
a nu m b e r o f
7 th e d eg r ee o f each s u ch t r m i s th e
M o r e ov e r by ch ap i i
H en ce
s u m o f th e d eg r e e s o f t h e t e r m s f r o m w hi ch i t a r i s es
th e foll o w i n g g e n e r al p r op o s i ti o n s
The p r odu ct of a ny number of i n teg ra l f nctions i s a n i nteg ra l

Fo r

Sh o

o n,

no

s an

a,

on o

xa

on o

x an

x an

s an

x an

s an

on o

x a on

an

e x,

no

an

z, a ,

on ,

n e ra

c, o r a ,

x,

on

c a on

as

es

or

xa

n x an

an

n a,

c, o

an

n x

n x

'

n x,

fu ncti on

r odu ct i s th p rodu ct of the

B y h i ghest ter m i me t te rm f h ighest degree by l w est te rm
term f l w est deg ee I f there b ter m w h i ch d es t c t i the v ri
d i t f c urse w uld b the l w est
er
b les t l l i t de g ree i s i d t b
f
term i
e mple 1 i (7 ) b ve
i tegr l f ct i
The hi g hest

6
*

ter m i n the di s t i bu ted p

n an

un

an

e z

on,

or

xa

no

o , an
,

on a n
e

I N TE G R A L F UN C T I ON S

i v

highest terms

the

s evera l

59

the lowes t ter m i s the p rodu ct

actors , a nd

thei r l owest terms

The deg r ee of the p roduct of a number

s um of the deg r ees of the s everal fa ctors

i nteg ra l

functi ons

i s the

E v e ry i d e n t i t y

a n d al l t h o s e
r
v e n i n thi s ch ap t e r
i
g
th a t f o ll o w w i ll a ffo r d t h e s tu d e n t t h e m e a n s o f v e ri f yi ng t h e se
r
I
t
i
s t h e r e fo r e n e e dl e ss t o d o
i
i
n
i
n
a r ti cu l a r ca s e s
o
os
t
o
s
p
p p
T h e y f o rm i t
m o re t h an call h i s a tt e n ti o n t o t h ei r i m p o r tan ce
m ay be s ai d t h e co r ne r-s ton e s o f th e th eo r y o f al g ebr ai c f o rm s
al e a d
y

I N TE G RA L F U N CT I ON S
Th e
there i s
we

ll

sh a

o nl

sim

pl es t

cas e o f

y o ne v a ri abl e cc

con s i

d er i t
p

na

th e

ar e

n u m be

a m ou n t s

s om e

co u s e

t o th e

m ay h av e

h av e t o

of

s am e

t hi n g ,

z e o v al u e

va

ri ou s

c oef ci e n ts a n

b e i ng t h e i n d e x

w hi ch ,

i s t h e d eg r e e of t h e f u n ct i o n
t er m s , bu t

g r e a t i m p o r t a n ce
g ene ral t yp e i s

Th e

of

is

+ 10 1 9: + 190 ,

t iv e

cas e

w h e e 190 ,

pl,
i n t e g r al

l en g th

at s om e

i nt eg r al f u nct i on i s th at w h e r e

an

A s t h is

V A RI A B L E

ONE

OF

of

th e

is

po s i
h i g h e s t te r m ,
a

Th e f uncti o n h as i n g e n e ral a
1
o f t h e s e m a y b e w a n ti n g , o r, w hi ch

o n e or

m o r e of t h e l e tte r s

pl ,

\Vh en p r o du cts o f i nt eg ral f u n cti on s o f

be d i s t rib ut e d, i t i s u s u al l y r equ i r e d at t h e

o ne
s am e

va

ri abl e

ti m e to

rra ng e th e r e s u l t acco r di ng t o p o w e r s of co as i n th e typ i cal

\Ve p r o ce ed t o g i v e v a r i ou s i ns ta n ce s o f
f o r m ab o v e i nd i cat e d
t h i s p r o ces s u s i n g i n th e rs t p l ace t h e m eth od d e s cr i be d i n
Th e s tu den t s h ou l d e x e r ci s e
t h e e ar li er p ar t o f thi s ch ap te r
h im sel f by obt ai n ing th e s am e r e s ul ts by su cce ss iv e d is t r i bu t i o n
o r o t h e r w i se
I n th e ca s e o f t w o fa cto r s ( cc a)
h) w e s e e a t o n c e th a t
t h e h i gh e s t t e r m i s w a n d t h e l o w e s t a b
A t e r m i n a; w ill be
a

b ta i n e d i n t w o w a y s ,

)
(
T h i s vi r tu ll y i n cl u de s
ge t

na m e ly , a re a n d

be) ; h e nce

93 + a

we

33 +

al l

p ss i b le
o

ca

ses

))
x

- a

fo r

e xamp le putt i ng
,

a h
) ,

+ b) r

ab

a for

60

I S T RI B UT I ON

S i m il arl y

(x

or

as

a1

b)

) (x

)(

ca n

a b,

b) x

(a +
a

x
-

C as e s i n

a2

a
~

ac

)(

9
re

2 am

&c

d b
i w hi h
h i h numb er s u r i n p l e f
i s ff e t ed
e f ie nts i n t h e tw f t r s m y b e ded u ed by sp e i l i s t i n
t h er
w i th
f
m di t i n f f r mu l
e mp le
co

ac o

a
c 2

or

c a

9c

xa

or

a an

ac

o cc

ca

or o

)
= x2 + ac 6

pr

q
a +
'

03

{
?

q-

+E

I?
2
oe

1)

w + 1 rr

(r q +p s ) x

p r ev

98
,

g s,

h i h m ig h t f u rs e b e bt i n ed m re qu i kl y b y dire tl y di st r i b ut i ng t h e
p r d u t d lle ti ng t h e p w er s f

an

co

I n th e

( a;

a,

co

9c

t h r ee f a ct o r s

of

ca se

of

t h e h i gh e s t t e r m i s

t h e r s t d e g ree ,
a

s ay

?
t e m s i n a a re o

bt ai ne d

by tak i ng fo r th e p ar ti al p r od u cts a: fr o m two o f t h e t h r ee bra ck ets

o nl y, t h en a n a m u s t b e t ak e n fr o m t h e r e m a i n i n
g br acke t ; w e
thu s g et

s
al a

d,

a aas

a 2a

; t h a t i s,

a1

a,

a, a:

i s th e ter m i n

93

To g e t t h e t e r m i n a, a: m us t b e tak e n from o n e br a ck e t, a n d a s
fr o m th e t w o r em ai n i ng i n e v er y p o s s i bl e w a y 3 t hi s g i v e s

a , az

a l a3

T hu s ( cc

a 2 a3 o;

) (a
d
a
(

a,

a,

) ( a;

By

a3

ll

o th e

t er m i s

o f cou s e a , a , a3

a2

s u b s t i tu ti on

o r ab sol u t e

Th e l ast

a , a2

c ase s

a 1 a3

a 2 a3 :c

d , a ., a3

m ay b e d er i v e d f ro m

for

e x a m pl e ,

a
;

a,

a,

) (so

(a a
1 ) ( 93 +
1

(
A ft e r
t r ibu t i o n

33 +

w h at
of a

( a:

a2

P 1 23

sa id

of 7%

it is

fact or s

)
1

a ,a2

3) =

h as b ee n

(a

a, o:

p r o d u ct

a3

an

P 2 33

6,

e a sy

of

a , a , a,

a , a3

an d s o o n

t o nd th e f o r m

th e r s t d e g re e

)
P n l x

of

Th e

th e d i s

r esu l t i s

BIN

Iv

O M I AL T H E O RE M

6l

th e al g e
,
g ebr ai c su m o f all th e a s ,
b rai e s u m of all th e p r o d u ct s t h at can be f o r m ed by t ak i n g t w o
u m o f a ll t h e
o f th e m at a t i m e ,
, th e s
p r o d u cts t h r e e at a t i m e,

w h ere

si

g n ifi es

al

the

P ,, be i ng t h e p r od u ct o f th e m al l
9 o f cou r s e i n cl u d es
Th e fo r mu l a ( 4 ) o f

a nd s o o n ,

1
( )

an d

2
( )

g i v e n , and t h e r e i s n o d i f cu l ty i n a dap ti ng i t t o s peci al

Th e f oll ow i ng i s p ar
w h e r e n e g a t i v e s i g n s , & c , o ccu r

al ead y
cases

ti cul ar l y i m p o rt an t

a2

Ra

as

Her e

m- 1

h av e

t h r ee

at

s i n ce

th e

gn

As

at

H e re

co n cu

P2

a,

a,

t h r ee

of

( 1)

3 a ) (a

4 a)

2a

4a

1 0 a,

1 X 2a

'

3a

l X 3a

of

let

is

th e

n ot

su m

t ak e n t h r e e

a, ,

gn s

i
e
v
s
g

ne

t ak e n

i s t h e r e fo r e

su

si

an,

at

P3 ,

g ati ve

t ak e

us

P g:

93

1 X 4a

a2
n -3

n e g ati v e

2 a) (ac

e x am pl e ,

coeffi ci e n t o f

a s p e ci al ca s e o f

= a +

th e

rr e n ce

d i ffe r en t m eani ng fr o m t h at

P 3 , f or

t h e p r o d u ct s

an d

ti m e 3

g h tl y

9
of

su m of

sl i

to th em i n

t i m e, bu t t h e

si

P 2912

t h e p r o du ct s

a ll

P, ,

at t ach e d

of

a:

P 29;

2 X 3a

P ce

2 X 4d

P,

3 X 4 66

3 5 a2
,
5 0 a3
,

P4

I X 2

So t h a t

c
c

3 X

)(

2 a)

o
i

1 0 aaz3

Ano t h e r i m p or tan t
m aki ng

a,

a0

P , , b e co m e
s ide

of

an

o th e

d iff e r en t

T hi s

nu m b e

t h i ng s

s ay

th e

of

i s,

of

an

l a t i n g i t, w e m a y

case

us s e e

o bv i o u s l

s e ts

h os e n

Le t

35a

each

a3

t h e n b e co m e s

d,

a l th o u

g i ve

it

5 Oa

'

of

9
.

w h at th e

b e com es

rse

a say

n u m be

h a, a n d

of

t h i n g s t h at w e
cou

4 a)

3 a ) (cc

4
i
s
)
(

Th e

2 4a

o b tai n ed

by
l ef t-h an d s i de

v al u es o f

P , , P, ,

P 7 , be co m es

can ch oose o u t o f

h
w
e h av e
g
.

x +

t e r m s i n i t i s th e

i nd ep e nd e n t

a n am e

no

Th e

of

n u m be

ii

th e n a t u r e

m e an s

as

ye t

Con

of

t h i ng s
of

th e

cal cu

y m b ol g e n e r a l l y i n

u se

62

for i t i s

0 t h e fi r s t

s e co n d

te r m

e a ch

of

t h e p r ese nt

d e n o ti n g t h e

su f x

fr o m , t h e

I N O M I A L C O E FF ICI E N T S

th e

n um b e

co n s i s t s o f

e a ch

case

of

t h e p r ese n t

a
s

(a:

as

nd a

n0

C,

,,

0,

2 n
c
2a c

'

n, n 0 7 ,

Al l

"
.

bi nomi al theorem

1 , w e m ay w r i te

c
c

Thi s i s the

t h e m , w e h av e i n

of

3 n
a
x
7, 0 3

l e tt e r s ,

ch o s e n

Ag ai n,
a n d , s i n ce i n

ch o s e n

t e r m w i l l be

a, e a ch
n

t h ings

of

He n ce

m1

ch o o se , s i n ce

if w e

o r,

Cr a

of r

th e r e b e i n g

"

n u mb e

t hi ngs t o be

th ese i s

e q u al , a n d
,

of

th e p r o d u c t

th e t e r m s b e i n g
cas e

ca n

0n

,a

'

Cn a

f or p osi ti ve i nteg ra l exp onents a nd

a r e ca l l ed the bi nomi a l coei ci en ts of
the nu mbers
T h e y pl a y an i m p or tant p a r t i n al g ebra 3 i n f act
the nth order
th e s t u d e n t h as al r e ad y s e e n t h at b e si d e s t h e ir fun cti on i n t h e
bi nom i al e x p ans i on th ey an s w e r a s e r i es o f q u e s ti ons i n th e
Wh e n w e com e t o t reat th at su bj e ct
th e o r y o f co m bi n a t i o n s
m o r e p ar ti cu l arl y w e s h al l i nv e s ti g ate a d i r ect e x p re ss i o n for
i n t erm s o f n a n d r
L at e r i n this ch ap te r w e sh all gi v e a pr o
ces s fo r ca l cu l a ti n g th e co e f ci e n t s o f th e d i ff e r e n t o r d e r s b
y
,

su cce s s i v e addi t i o n s

By
we

su cce s s i v el y

a,

2 n
x
2a

1 fo r

a nd

1,

in

1
( )

g et

(
(
d

a:

0 ,x

7,

i n ni ty

s u b s ti t u t i n

va

In
fu n cti o n s
th e l ong

7,

of

o th e

r i ou s

or

i n ta ki n g

2
n

cn a

C3 a

3
( )

Ca

r r esu l ts

v al u es

for

of

can

re an

cou se

be

o bta i n e d

by

rra ng i ng p rod u cts o f t w o i nteg ra l

r
ces s w h i ch i s s o m e t i m e s ca l l e d
o
p

and a

r iabl e

th e

mu l tip l i cati on i s
on e

'

e x p an d i ng

of o ne v a
ru le

0 ,23

'

7L

a
s

an

s i m p ly

c
c

a:

(
an

su bs ti tu ti n

of

o f ten

th e fu nct i on s

co nv e ni e n t

rra ng e d

It
acco

co n s i s ts

rdi ng

to

d e s cend i ng p o w e r s o f th e v a r i abl e an d m u l ti pl yi ng i t s ucce s s i v ely

by e ach o f t h e t er m s o f th e o th e r , b e g i nni n g w i t h th e h i g h e s t
an d
o ne

p r o ce ed i ng t o t h e l o w es t, a rr an g i ng th e l ik e t e r m s
h u s w e a rra n g e t h e di s t ri bu ti o n of
a n o th e r
.

u nd e

LO NG M UL T I P L IC A T I O N

1v

(a
as

2 3c

c
e +

fol l o w s

93

3;

2 232

117

2r

a5 +
5

513 +

or a

c
c
p
(

ai n

go;

1)

2 5c

63

e
)(

x
+

x +

2r

p)

go;

a:

q
a
r
p

"

r ce

g r a;

+ 10 9 5

9n

g rx
o:

pg
4

?
g )

(p g

"

pr
(p g
Th e a d v anta g e o f t hi s s ch em e con s i s t s m e r el y i n th e fa ct
l i k e p o w e r s o f a; a r e p l ace d i n t h e sam e v e r ti cal col u m n an d
th e r e i s a n o r d e rl y e x h au s t i on o f t h e p ar t i al p r o d u ct s s o
p

ra

(p

t h at
t h at

th a t

I t p os s e sses n o n e o f th e f u nda
m e ntal i m p o r t an ce w h i ch m i g h t b e s u g g es te d by i t s p r om i ne n t
o s i ti o n i n E ng l i s h el e m e n ta r
t
x t-b ook s
e
p
y
M ethod of D etached Coe ci ents \Vh en all th e p ow e r s
a re
p res e nt a g ood d e al o f l ab o ur m ay b e s av e d by m e re l y
n o n e ar e

lik el y t o b e m i s s ed

w ri t i n g t h e co e f ci e n t s

i n th e

m u l ti pli ed t og e th e r i n th e

s ch em e o f

1 2 , w h i ch

ar e

to b e

r di nary w ay Th e pow e r s o f a can

b e i ns e r te d at th e e nd o f th e O p e rati o n fo r w e k n o w t h at th e
h i gh e s t p o w e r i n th e p r od u ct i s t h e p r o du ct o f th e h i g h e s t p o w e r s
T h u s w e m ay
i n t h e t w o f act o r s a nd t h e r es t f ol l ow i n o r d e r
a rr an e th e t w o m u l t i pl i ca t i o ns g i v e n ab o v e as fo l l o w s
g
o

1 2 2

64

E TA C H ED

C OEF E K HE N TS

C H AR

w h e n ce

Ag ai n ,
p

pr

2
2

+ 199

9
+ 19

(W

+ 29 9

29

97

+ 199 + 2

"

W)

0
1
( 9

w h e n ce
a:
p
(

go:

) (e

gas + p )

(p g

m
p

s h ou ld

s tu

de nt

l as t l i n e

of

th e

r
e s e rv e
p

th e i d e nti ty

Th e

I t has b ee n
w h e n all

s ai

(p

r a:

ob s e v e

i n th e

sch em e

of

th e

t h at t h e

s eco nd

s ev e a

a re

(d

(p g

9c

u se o f

coef ci e n ts

g r) 5c

is

n e ce s s a

c ar e w a n t i n
of c

ze o

coe ffi ci e n t s

Z+ O + 1

a3 +

+
7

0x

O+ 1

O+ O
+

0x

0a

1 ;

w h e n ce

f
o

to

2 93

ry

ppl i cabl e d i r e c tl y o nl
bo th f act o r s, bu t i t can b e

r
ese
n
t
i
n
p
w h e r e a ny p o w e r s

b r ack e t s i n th e

r
p

p pl i cabl e to cas e s
i n t r odu ci ng th e se p ow er s m u l ti pl i e d by
e x am p l e

m ade

e x a m pl e

d t h a t t h i s m e th o d i s

th e p o w e r s

2r

1)

= a

22

by

Fo r

D ETAC HE D

iv

Th e p r o ce s s m i g h t,
f
li n es m arked , w h i ch

co n tai n

pl ace th e

co mme n ce m e n t

col u m n s

an

e m i t t e d a t on ce

c
c

1)

2x

o m i t ti n

the

bei ng t ak en t o

ca e

Wi th

is

case

f oll o w i ng , w hi ch d e pe nds
B = A2 B 2 a n d
,
)

to the

by

th e f oll o w i n g li ne s i n th e p r o p e r
o u t t h e r e s u l t , th e t e r m s w i th z e r o

t i o n s , t h e p r o ce s s i n th e p r es e nt

be

of

d, i n w r i t i n g

m i g h t be

co e f ci e n ts

abb e v i a te d

r
o nl y z e r o s

o f cou s e ,

65

E N TS
C O E EFH H

(513

t h e i d e nti ti e s

of

use

2 AB

1)

1)

s i m p l i ca

t h e se

i n f e r i o r i n br ev i ty

s t il l

th e

on

all

2a

4 ;c4

93

Th e m e th o d
v a nt ag e

i n th e

h o m og e n e o u s

d etach e d

of

ca s e o

( s ee

co e f cl e n ts can

f i nt eg r a l f u ncti o n s

be l o w ,

as

of

be

tw o

w ill be

s ee n

ppl ie d w i th
l e tt e r s w h i ch
a

are

by th e f ollo w i n g

e x ampl e :
"

(5
0

f)(
i

7
2 96 1
1

93

2w

o),

I f th e

h i s w o rk
h e w i ll
e s s en t i al

3x g

5x g

w ill w o rk

t h e patt e rn

o n ce

d etail

sc

s tu d e n t

af t e

at

"'

th at th e

s ee

r eq ui r e d

f or

3 xg g

ab ov e

th e

ou t

of

t h e l o ng

cal cu at n

r ul e
t he

d i s t ri bu ti o n,
a nd

s ch e m e

ab o v e

rr ang e
co m p a r e

t h en

r epr es ents

coef ci e n t s

al

l th e

Th e

r eas o n o f t h e appli cabi l ity o f th e p r o ce s s i s s i m ply t h at

t h e p o w e r s o f :c d i m i ni sh by u n i t y fr om l e f t t o r i g h t a nd t he
t
w
o
e
r
s
o
f
i
n
lik
n
r
f
r
r
i
g
h
o l ef t
e
m
a
n
e
o
m
t
g
p
We s h all g iv e s om e fu rth er e x am pl es of th e m eth o d of
d etach ed coef cie nts by u s i ng i t to e s tab lis h sev e r al i m p o r tan t
r e s ul t s
,

VOL

66

We
p r o cee d

A S C A L S A RI T H M ETI CAL T RI A N G L E

A ddi ti on Ru l e f or
h av e t o

by

e x p an d

1
I

Th e

Let
u s ing

d e ta ch ed

T
h
( e

c
co e f cie n t s o f c

Th
e
(

co e f ci e n t s o f

h
T
e
(

co e f ci e n t s o f

w hi ch h e re b e co m e s

ru l e

the B i nomia l Coe i ci ents

a:

di s tr ib u t i o n,

su cce s s i v e

ca lcu l a ti ng

C H AP

pp ar e nt i s

coe f ci e nt s

us

c
c

as

f ol l o w s

lci en ts of a ny order from those of the

i
r evi ous ord er l s t l Vr i te down the rs t coe
ci en t of the p r eci ous order ;

p
2 nd A dd the s econd of the p reci ou s or der to the rs t of the same
3 r d A dd the thir d of the p revi ous or der to the s econd of the same ;
a nd so on taki ng zeros when the coe i ei ents of the p r evi ou s order r u n
out
lVe thu s g et i n s uccessi on the rs t second thi r d ( be coe ci ents
F or e x a m pl e t h os e o f th e fou rt h o r d e r ar e
of the new order
To obta i n the bi nomi a l

eoe

abo v e ,

g ree s

1,
o bt ai ne d

r esu l t

th e

w i th

o nl y

s h ow

to

h ad o b ta i n ed th e

t io n of

by

d i ff e r e n t m e t h o d

Ive h av e
we

th at i s,
w h i ch

t h a t t h i s p ro ce s s i s

e x p an s i o n o f

g e n e r al

n a m e ly , u s i n
g

a
c

9c

C,

2
c
c

C,

3
c
c

He nce

(9

'

(
J
(

c
c

c
c+

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Cg L
/

2
n

cl b
'

:
la

n
'

p po s e

t h e n o ta

1 1,

Cn )

P AS C AL S TR I AN G L E G E N E RAL I SE D

67

Iv

co e f ci e n t s ,

d e tach e d

u s i ng

01

71

02

71

03

1
1

'

0 1)

71

CI

)L

h av e t h e

we

C n I

71

0 71

s ch e m e

0 2)

on 1

Cn)

ew
.

H e n ce

(1
i n w hi ch th e
nth o

rd e r

af t e

th e l a w

n+i

This

k n o w t h e bi n o m i a l
t abl e

of

or

of

t ho s e

a g ai n

t h e s e n u m be r s

s t at e d ab o v e , n a m e l

g e n e r al

co e f ci e n ts

fr o m t h e s e

d e r ab l e

O
f
t
en
(

co e f ci e n t s

or -

an

any
of

cal l e d

of

the

y,

e n abl e s

r a nk

to

us

w h e n e ve r w e

cal cu l a t e

t h e n e x t,

a nd

on

so

Pas cal s T ri an gl e )

th ose

ca

e x t e nt

of

rri e d

i s g i v en a t th e e n d o f th i s ch ap t e r ,
r esu l ts an d fo r m u l ae col l ecte d f or r e fe re nce th e r e

a co n s i

th e

Cr

l a w i s t h e r e fo r e

t h e n e x t,

fo r m e d f r o m t h e

co e f ci e n t s ar e

pr e ci s el y

C, ) a

-2

"

to

am on

We

m ay

m eans

of

Of

co n s t a n tl y- ecu

the

t h e f o l l o w i ng

f o r br ev i t

Pow er

o m i tt e

th e

ca l cu l a te
s ch e m e ,

in

p ow e r s o f a + x
w h i ch th e li n e s o f

m u l t i pl i e r ,

rri n g

n am e l y,

+ cc +

+- 3 +

1
3

6
3

an

so on.

1
+

by

co e f ci e n t s

1,

a re

"

68

i ng

P R O DU C T

As A

on

i s To g et fr om the coei ci ents of a ny ord er

the su cceedi ng , a dd to the r th of tha t order the thr ee p r eced

ru l e

Th e
the

a3

rih o

i ci ents

coe

c ea

rly

taki ng

when the

z eros

by the

ici ents r egu i r ed

coe

r ul e

do

not ec
ci st

r ul e

Th e
"

c
c

c
c

cal cu l a t i n

fo r

c
c

pu tti ng i t i n pl ace o f 3
Th es e r esu l ts m ay b e

g th e co e f ci en t s o f th e p ow e r s of
1 i s o b tain ed fr om t h e ab o v e by

ce s s

t he

t ab u l at i n g t h e

of

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of

r e g a r de d

g e n e rali s ati on o f th e p r o
bi n om i a l co e f ci e n t s
Th e y ar e u s e f ul i n
.

P r obabili ty

As t h e

s tu

as a

d en t w ill

e as il y v e

r ify

v
(=

J)

Th e f o l l o w i ng i s
If

be

an

( o;

g en e al is a ti o n o f

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w e h av e
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t he rs t

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an o
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-l

being

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it

t h es e

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n t e e r,
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t -3

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X ERC I SE S

Iv

A n d,

im i l a rl y,

-1

(x

a n e v e n n u m be

be i ng
{t

n-2

it -3

g)

g) ( c

a:

:c

foll ow i ng

an

c
c,

2,

2
( )

of

g en e r alis ati on s

as

r e s pecti v el y

-1

id e r ed

v ri b le s b ei ng y
d st t e t h eir de gree

it

an

of

E X E RC I SE S V I

The

fu
co n s

Th e l as t t w o m ay be

69

VI

p i nt

t h e i nt eg r l fun t i ns m ng t h e

out

( )
a

3 x 9 + 2 ccy + 3 1
2
3
3

t
3
(l ) g
'

aJ

E/ g
i

(7 )
2 2
meg
/ 2

( 6)
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an

3
-

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rrang e

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x yz

c
cy z

st ri b ut e t h e f ll w i ng
o

'

a cc o

rdi ng t o p ow er s

+ 20

of a
c

-w

2 l (x

3 l (x

1 ) (fl3

aH
a

sum

of

r ) (a

( as

ac

a bc

2y

)(

s
a

3y

) (x

4e

2
5f

i (x

t h e e f ie nts
c

of

a nd i

i s zero

+ (b

co

)y }

an d

ow

th t
a

th e

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c

3 )
a

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watt:

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st ri but e

an d a

rra ng e

u)

a c co r

(q

d i ng t p
o

(p

) (r

ow

ers

b
{( c) x

o f :c,

t h e f ll w i ng
o

ng s m e f t h e e e er i s e s t h e stu de nt w ill n d i t nv e n ie nt t
t h e t b le f ide nt i t ie s gi ve n t t h e e n d f t h i s h pt er

I n w o rk i

re fer to

a)

co

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{ 5x

X E RC I SES

VI , VI I

ca n

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2
2
a
;
(

3x y + 2 3
f

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x2 + x
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( er

3
x

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x

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em s)

2
m
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+

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)(

ac
e

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ax

c
z
:

i
sc

( 2 4-l
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+x +x

)l

C l u l t e t h e e f ie nt
C l u l t e t h e e f i e nt
Sh w th t
a c

co

a c

co

i n t h e e x pa ns i o n o f ( 1 + cc + 93 )8
s
of a i n ( 1
2x
3x
4 x3 x 8

4
of n

b)

5 a b( a

3 3

3 5a b

S h ow t h at
71 0 1

b)

b)

'

7 0 a b4

n Cn

110 3

b) (

1 5 a 9b9( a

2n

b) 8

1 + n C 2 + n C4 +
n

T h ere

Cr

Q i zQ C r l

Zcr

Q C r -2

v e b ox e s e a c h co nt ai n i ng v e co unt er s m rk ed w i t h t h e
numb er s 0 1 2 3 4 ; a co unt er i s dr w n fr om e c h of t h e b ox e s nd t h e
numb ers dr w n re added t oge t h er I n h ow m an y di ffere nt w ay s can t h e
draw i ng b e m ade s o t h a t t h e sum o f t h e num b er s s h all b e 8
S h ow t h a t
'

y)

a:

are

n-2

wy

2!

3
1

71

E X E R C I SE S V I I

Di
o

st ri b ut e t h e f ll w i ng
o

an

rr ng e
a

33

ii

my l
n

a c co

rdi ng

to

de s ce n di ng p o w er s

6 ) ( 6x +

c
c

)(

29 ) ( r x + 10
a)
3 a ) (x 4 a ) (ac

r -

2 a ) ( ac

c
c

1)

ew

(7 )

{(
(

a:

?
a
o

y) (

n
o

1 ) 4 (x +

3 11/

)(

c
.

2a )

3a )

3 339 + 3a:

(6 )

8
.

c
c

c
l
.

%x +
l

J3

( aw +

:c + d
rn
l

m
+
cc

4a )

In

(c

t h e pr du t

e qu l

to

t h e f ll w i ng ide n ti t i e s
o

c cc
b
(
)(

u
)

2 ( 2a

(m

b ) (h

) (h

)(

- c

= 2 (b

) (h

(s

h ere

23 :

(
2 (s

h ere

b) 4 +

b)

'

(s

wh

)(

ere

) (s

2 (s

2 (s

'

h ere

(b

) (s

b) (

s=

an ( t

I f U ( b
Un+g ( a 2
Ifp1 a

(21

= (b

3n

sh

th t

ow

d b) ( s c

2s = a
1 6 (s

0,

+ 2 (2
a

be

p2

2 bc) 3

ca

ere

=P 13 n - 1

2 + P 3s a 3

)(
c) ( c
a ) (a

C)
a
c
(
)

217 2 ,

)(

b)

82

36

211 2 ,
217 2 3

3c :

(b

2 3

'

) (c

) (a

"

sh

"

ow

th t
a

b) ( b -

(a

32ts ,

317 3 9 ,

A n i nteg ra l

Homog eneous

to be

s u ch

37

35

2 1 3 52

7 123312

3 ,

fun cti on of

a ny n u mber

when the deg ree

va

ry ter m

eve

f u n ct i o n t h e d eg ree O f t h e f u n ct io n
as t h e d e r e e o f e v e r y t e r m , a n d th e
g

( in

t h e m o s t g e n e r al

d i ffe r e nt p r o du c ts
t h e g iv e n n u m b e r

of

th e

of v a

it

ca n

r iabl es

I f t h e re be

see n

nu m b e

t h a t th e

ca n

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t h e co e f cie nt o f i n t h e l att er S h ow t h at a i s ei t h er 0 o r 1

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FUN

CTI O N S

C HA P

e x amp le t h e m ost ge n era l h om oge n e o us i nt e g ral fun ct i o ns

o f t h e l s t 2 n d a n d 3 rd de g ree s ar e
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ti g t
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5
m v ari able s w e s h o u ld h a v e t o de al w i t h m o re an d m o re co mp li ca t ed
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w i ll b e g i v e n i n t h e s e con d p a r t o f t h i s w o r k

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lled b i n ry t er n ry &
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HO M O G E N E O US F UN C TI ON S

xv

f u nd am e n tal p r op e r ty of h om og e n eou s
the va r ia bl es i n a homog eneous fu nction of the

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ea ch o

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nth

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th e

case

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p r p er ty m i g h t b e m de th de n i t i n f h m ge ne us fun t i n
T h us w m i g h t de n e
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f i t v ri b le s i s mu l t i p lied b y p i ts v l u e i mu l t i p lied b y p
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n t i n f de gree i n
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is
h m ge n e us fun t i n f t h e 2 d degree f ( (p )
l /(
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y) S i m il rl y
w h s e de gree s
2 re sp e t i v el y ( s ee h p
d
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) A l t h ug h t h e s e
t e ns i ns f t h e n t i ns f h m ge n ei t y d de g ree h v e t t h e i mp rt n e f
t h e s i mp ler s e s di s uss ed i n t h e t e t t h e y
s i n ll y us e ful T h e
di st i n t i n f h m g e n e us fun t i ns
s e p r t e l ss i s m de by E u ler i n
h i s I t d ti i A l y i I i t m
i
t h e u rs e
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f
ele m e nt ry l ss i t i n f t h e v ri u k i n d s f an l y t i l fun ti ns
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f h m g e n e us i nt e g r l fun t i ns but l
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h m ge n e us fr t i n l fun t i ns d f h m ge n e us fun t i ns f fr t i n l
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OF HO M O G E N E I T Y

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75

h as fu lly g ra sp e d th e i d e a o f a h o m o
t h e m o s t g e n e ral o f i t s ki n d , h e w i ll

r i si ng t o a s o m e w h a t w i d e r g e n e r al i ty
m o s t g e n e ral i n teg r al fu n ct io n o f t h e nth d eg ree i n
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F U N CTI ON S

SYM MEI RI CA L
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th e

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Th e s tu d e nt
17

a bo v e ,

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b e e n d e a l i ng w i t h i n t hi s ch ap t e r t h at cal l s for s p e ci al no t ic e

T h i s p ecu li ar i ty i s d en o t e d by th e w o r d S ym m etry an d
20

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SYMM E T R Y

] T h er e

d e g r ee i n t w o

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%(

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va lu e u na l ter ed

m tt er f f t t h e s e de n i ti ns d mu h f w h t f ll w s
ppl i b le t fun t i ns f y k i n d
t h e stu de nt w il l ft erw rd s le rn
A
rd i ng t B l t er L r i ( 1 7 9 7 ) w t h e rst t us e t h e t er m S ym m t i
F
ti
t h e lder n m e h v i ng b ee n I
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V ARI O U S

76

e x amp le
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Fo r

D S OF SYMM ET R Y

KI N

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l t h oug h t h e s e a re l l e qu al t o e ac h o t h er n o on e o f t h e m i s e qu al t o t h e
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sus ce pt i ble o f t w o di ffere nt val u e s un der t h i s t reatm e nt a nd i s t h ere fore a
T h e stu d y o f fun ct i o ns fro m t h i s p oi nt o f v ie w h a s
t wo -v a l u ed fun ct i o n
de v el o p ed i nt o a g re a t b ran c h o f m o der n al ge b ra called t h e t h e o r y O f s u bsti tu
t i o ns w h i c h i s i nt i m a t el y rel ated w i t h m an y o t h er b ran c h e s of m at h e m at i cs
a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r fo r ms t h e b a s i s o f th e t h e o r y o f t h e al g e b r a i c l s o l ut i o n o f
e qu at i on s ( S ee Jo rd an Tr a i t cl es S ub ti tu ti ons and S erre t Cou rs d A lg ebr e
a nd , a

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t h t w requ ire h ere i s t h e de n i t i n

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the

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77
the

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b)

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e vi de ntl y s y mm e t ri ca l i n t h i s s e ns e
O th e r v a r i et ie s of s ym m e try m i gh t be de n e d bu t i t i s
I f he
n e e d l e s s to p e r pl e x t h e s tu d e n t w i th f u r th e r d e n i ti o n s
f u l l y m as t e r t h e l s t a nd 2 n d h e w ill h av e n o d i f cu l ty w i th t h e
At r s t h e s h ou l d a dh e r e s o m e w h a t
3 rd o r any o t h e r cas e
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s t r i ct l y to t h e fo r mal u s e o f s ay t h e 2 n d d e n i t i o n
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F r o m t h e a b o v e d e n i t i o n s a n d fr o m t h e m e a n i n g o f

i n t h e cal cula t ion o f al g e br a i cal i d en t i t i es w e

e qu al
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Rul e o f Sym m et r y The a lg ebr ai c su m p rodu ct or quoti en t of
two symmetr i ca l fu ncti ons i s a symmetr i ca l fu n cti on
Ob s er v e h ow ev e r th a t th e p r o d u ct fo r e x am pl e o f t w o
asymmetri ca l f u ncti o n s i s n o t n e ce s s a r il y as ymm e t r i ca l
T h us a b c an d be ca a b b ei ng b o t h s y mm e t ri ca l t h e i r p r o d u ct

a re

i s sy mm e t ri cal
A g ai n afzbc a n d
p rod u ct

( be

ab

ca

bc

be

ca

6 a

2
ab

3 a bc,

ab

a re

b t h s ymm e t ri l fun t i ns
a

ca

ye t

t h eir

a l t e at i o n s

the

of a ,

c,

i s a s y mm e t ri ca l fun ct i o n
It

r es t ri cti on
o f i n t e g r al

of

w il l
s

t he

d eg r e e, i t

ca n

be i n t e r e s t i n g t o

y mm etry

f u n ct i on s

S in ce

( a bc )

3 3 3
a b c ,

w il l

m ak e

r i t te n

ab o v e

se e

w h at

o n s om e o f

t h e g e n e r al f o r m s

q u es t i on o f s ym m e t ry h as
o nl y aff e ct t h e co e f ci e n t s
.

t o d o w i th

no th i n

g
L o ok i ng

th e n

T h ere

at

the

i s a cl ass o f fun ct i o ns o f g reat i mp o rt a n ce cl o s el y llied to s y m

m e tri c l fun ctio ns w h i c h t h e stu de nt s h o u ld n ot e a t t h i s stage n am el y t h o s e
t h t c h ange t h eir S ign m erel y w h e n any p air of t h e v aria b le s are i nt erc h nged
S u c h fun ct i o ns are ca lled al t er n a t i ng
A n e x a mp le i s ( y
) ( z cc ) ( x y )
O b v i o us l y t h e p r o d u ct or qu o t ie nt o f t w o a l t er n a t i ng fun ct i o ns o f t h e s am e
s e t o f v a riab le s i s a s vm m et ri c fun ct i o n T h e t erm A l t n a ti ng F u ncti on i s
du e to Cau h y
a

"

er

78

PP LI C ATI ON OF

h o m o g e neo u s i nt eg r al fu n cti o n s
s ee

of

tw o

va

t h a t, i n o r d e r t h a t t h e i n t e r ch a n g e

n o ch an

A
He

o f v al u e ,

ge

n e th e
c

2 nd , 3 r d ,

an

d B

in

p ag e 7 2 , w e
r
an d y m a y
o du ce
p
17
A C in
on

C in

h m ge n e us i nt e gr l fun t i ns

s ym metr i ca l

deg ree s

C H AP

ri abl e s

c
of c

h av e A

w e m u st

U LE

THE R

o f ac a n d

of

1 st

ar e

Ac + A y
'

Acc2

A2 ?

E asy

B x2 y

Ay

B u y2

A y3

&c

The

co

rre sp o n di ng fun ct i o ns

c,
of c

y,
Ay

Ac
Acc3

The

And

Acc2 + A y2 + Az2 + B yz + B zx + B a y
2
A 23
P yz2 P s
}) s
c c P an
/

Ay

a c

so on

P oc2 y

Secyz

ca

the

of

deg ree
t oge t h er

3r d

an d

as

of c
c,

3
oc

c
c

93

Dy3

Ba y

3}

I f th e

nd

s tu d e n t

g h t t o h av e t h e
al l d er i v a bl e fr om
ou

Th u s

As

m st ge n er l s ymm e t r i l i nt e gr l f n t i n
t h e l ge b r i sum f t h ree fun t i ns su h
nst nt t erm n m el y
F A Ay B C y B y D E

i ll b e
w i t h a co
w

ar e

d i f cul ty i n d et e ctin g w h at t e rm s

any

sam e

coe f ci e n t,

e a ch

o th e

l et hi m

r em a rk

by i nte r ch a n g e s

of

t h a t t h ey

th e

va

t o g e t al l t h e t e r m s t h a t h av e th e s am e co e f ci e nt
3
3
u tti n g
f
r c
c
e
t
w
u t t i n g y f or x, w e g e t y
o
e
2
,
p
p
g
,

ca nn o t

o pe ati n

by

i n th e

m
o r e t e r m s o f th e
y
r
h
av i n g th e s am e
o
u
,
p
g

an

ch an

ge s

c
c a nd

c
c an d

z,

t h ese i nt e r ch an g es t o th e
e

ter m s
a n o th e

s am e

ri abl e s

as a

an d

in
we

p r o d uce
fo r m o n e

w a y u p o n a ny o f t h e s e

t yp e

H e n ce

y,

N e x t t ak e ye
t h e i n t er
g
2
f
a
l
y
i
ng
y a nd z p r o d u ce ree , yac , y:
pp
n e w t e rm s , w e
nl y t w o m o r e n e w
e
t
o
g

coe f ci e nt

; h e nce t h e

si x

t e rm s yz

y s , er , z c , ccy , ce y f o r m
r
oc z i s ev id en tl
u n i u e , b e i n g i ts e l f s m m e t r i cal
u
o
y
q
y
p
g
Th e r u l e o f s ymm e t r i s e x ce e di ngly u se f u l i n abb re
ry

sa m e

are

g
e b r ai cal w o r k
g
L e t i t b e re qu ired for e xampl e t o di st ri but e t h e p ro d u ct
2
The
bc ca a b) e ac h o f w h o s e facto r s i s s y mm e t ri cal i n a b c
a
b +c
(
d i st r i b ut ed p r o d u ct w i ll b e sy mm e t ri cal i n a b c N ow w e s ee a t on ce t h at
t h e t er m a 3 occu r s w i t h t h e co e ffi cie nt un i t y h e n c e t h e s am e must b e t r u e o f
A gai n t h e t er m M h as t h e co e f ci e nt 0 s o a l s o by t h e p ri n ci p le s
b3 a n d c3
g
a
a
b
b
c
s
y
mm
e
t
r
y
must
e
h
t
h
e

v
e
t
h
er
t
er
ms
e
c
a
a
b b el o n g i ng
a
o
f
o
c
of
a bc i s o bt ai n ed by t ak i ng a fro m t h e
L a stl y t h e t er m
t o th e s a m e t y p e
r s t b r ack e t h e n ce i t must occu r by t ak i ng b an d by t aki ng c t h at i s t h e
al

V i ati n

IN

xv

t erm

must h v e t h e

a bc

(a

D ET E RM IN ATE C OE FFI C I E N T S
co

) (a

bc

e f cie nt
ab

ca

3
c

b3

o a

RI N CI P L E

o-

I N D ETE R M I N A TE C O E FF ICI E N T S

OF

an

a c

symm e t ry h v e e n bl ed us t bb re v i t e t h e w
a

h v e t h ere f re s h w n t h t
3 b
d t h e p ri n i ple s f
r k by b ut t w t h i rd s

I ve

79

r ik i ng u se o f t h e g e n e ral p r i n cipl e s o f
h o m og e n e i ty an d s ym m e t ry can b e b es t ill u s t ra t e d i n co n j u n cti o n
w i t h th e appl i cat i o n o f a n o th e r p r i n cipl e w hi ch i s a n i m m e d ia te
c o n s e u e n ce O f t h e t h e o r y o f i n t eg r al f u n cti o n s
q
Ive h a v e l ai d d o w n t h at t h e co e f ci e n ts o f a n i n t eg r al fu n cti o n
a r e i n d e p en d e n t o f t h e v a r i abl e s a n d t h e r e fo r e a r e n o t al te r e d b y
g i v ing an y s peci al v al u es to t h e v a r iabl e s If therefor e on ei ther
i
u ncti ons w e d eter m i ne
s i de o a ny a lg ebr ai c i denti t
i
n
vo
l
v
n
i
n
t
e
r
a
l
f
g
g
f
y
the coei ci ents ei ther by g ener a l consi dera ti ons reg ar di ng the for ms of
A s ti l l m ore

st

the

functi ons

then these

i nvol ved,

i ci ents

coe

ar e

h ap pil y , i t m u s t be

i ci ents

by consider i ng p ar ti cu la r
deter mi ned once f or a ll

or

d) b e e n

co n fe s s e

Thi s

th e

the identi ty,

( n ot
p r i ncip le of
h as

ve

ry

i nde

fro m t h e

ppli e d t o i nte g ra l fu n cti on s i t r e s u l t s

m o s t e l e m en ta ry p r in ci pl e s , as w e h av e s ee n ; w h e n

in ni t e

ri es

termi na te

see

coe

se

th e

As

call e d

cases o

r
S e ri es

ar e co n ce n e d,

ch a

p te r o n
fo ll o w i ng are

Th e

y)
y)
(
s ym m e t r i ca l f u nct i o n s

h om og e n eo u s

W h
S i nc
e

(
av e

i
b
e
ng t h e p r o du ct o f t w o h o m o g e n e o u s
y)
O f cc an d y o f t h e l s t d e g re e , w i ll be a
,

y)

c
c

i nt eg r al f un cti o n
?

r
.

and

B uy

h av e

a
;

y)

2
"

r e fo re

y
B 1 (

th at i s ,

w h en ce

Thu s n al l y

(a

y)

and

1 1

B ccy

c
c

c
c

2 ccy

v al u e s

t h e 2 md d e g r e e

Ay

co e f ci e n t s
all

of
2

0 , th e r e fo r e

t hi s m u s t h ol d w h e n
th e

Ac

t o d e t e rm i n e t h e

1
now

t h e i d e n t i t y h old s f or

h old w h e n

I Ve

r e qu i res f u rth e r e x am i nat io n

s e co n d
a r t o f thi s w o r k
p
)

u se

i n th e

y mm e tr i cal

t he r e f o r e

i ts

ex a m pl es

c
c

an d

o f re a n d

i
t
m
u
st
y
,

I N DE TE RM I N A TE C OE FFICI EN T S

80

T h is

C HAP

m e t h d f w rk i ng m y s ee m t rst s ig h t s m e w h t t r tli ng but

li tt le re e t i n w ill nv i n e t h e le r n er f i ts s un d n e ss W k n w b y
t h e p ri n i p le s f h m g e n ei ty d s y mm e tr y t h t ge n er l ide nt i t y f t h e
f r m ( 1 ) e i sts d w de t er m i n e t h e ef ie nts by t h e ns ider t i n t h t
t h e ide nt i t y mu t h ld i n y p r t i u l r s e T h e stu de nt w ill n tu r ll y k
s e i n qu e st i n d
h w h e i s t b e gu ided i n s ele t i ng t h e p r t i u l r
s e s h e s ele ts T h e nsw er t t h e l tt er p r t f
w h e t h er i t i s m t eri l w h t
t h i s qu e st i n i s t h t e e pt t t h e l b u r i nv l v ed i t h e l u l t i n t h e
h i e f s e s i s i mm t eri l p r vided e n ugh
t k e n t de term i n e l l t h e
e f ie nts T h i s de t er m i n t i n w ill i n g e n er l de p e n d up n t h e s l ut i n f
s y st e m f s i mu l t n e us e qu t i ns f t h e l t degree w h s e numb er i s t h e
num b er f t h e e f ie nts t b e de t er mi n ed ( S ee b el w h p i ) S f
p ss i b le t h e p r t i u l r s e s h u ld b e h s e n
t g i v e e qu t i ns e
h
f the
n t i ns n l y
e f ie nts
th t w
de t er m i n e t h e m
f whi h
t
ti m e w d n e b v e
T h e stu de nt w h i s lre d y f m ili r w i t h t h e s l ut i n f s i mu l t n e us
e qu t i ns f t h e 1 t deg ree m y w r k t t h e v l u e s f t h e e f ie nts b y
f p rti ul r
s e s t k e n t r n d m T h us f e mp le putt i ng = 2
me n
=
=
=
3
d
1
4 su e ss i v el y i n ( 1 ) b v e w ge t t h e e qu t i ns
n
y
y
o

an

co

co

co

o ne a

s o

as

ca

xv

ar

ac

e c an

ou

cc

so

an

s o as

as

ca c

co

are

ca

on e o

as

ca

as

co

as

ca

ca

xc

ca

o c

s a

co

an

an

co

co

xa

c
c

or

2 5 = 1 3A + 6 B ,
Q 5 = I 7 A + 4B ,
w

hi h
c

h e n s l v ed i n t h e usu l w
a

gi v e A = 1

a y,

an d

B 2 2,

as

e fo re

We g i v e on e m or e e x am pl e o f t h i s i m po r tant p r oce s s
B y t h e p ri n i ple s f h m ge n ei ty d sy mm e t ry w must h v e
c

an

(
A(

P utt i ng a
Us i ng t h i s

1, y

3
r:
:

v lue
a

y
0,
of

B ( yz

an

t h t is
th ere f re
d t h ere f re
Us i g t h e s e v l u e s
a

+y +
2

y z
1 =A

ge t
d putt i ng

0, we

z:

- zw c
z
ry
y

2
z
?

an

my

r
c

Cyccz

y)

1,

1, y

as

1 =2 + B

z:

0, w e

ge t

2,

23

an

of

a nd

t h t is
t h ere f re
d w g e t n ll y

a
3

1, y

1,

we

ge t

0 = 3 + C,

yz

in

putti ng

an

and

3
a

0,

as

23

ry
c

= x 3 + y3 + z3

3 ccyz

Refer ence Ta bl e

I denti ties M os t

by th e
o f al g e b ra i cal i d e n t i ti e s

b e l o w w i l l b e fo u nd

l at i o n s

cx

u s e fu l

s t u d en t

S om e

Of

i n h is
exam

th e

r es u l ts g i v en

o ccas i o n al cal cu

ple s

of

t hei r

u se

TA B LE

xv

Ex e r ci s es
a

in

h i m se l f

(
an d

81

l r e ady bee n d e m on s tra te d

s t u d e nt

D EN TI T IE S

b ee n g i v e n, a n d o th e r s w il l be f ou n d am o ng th e
S u ch O f th e r e s u l ts as h a v e n o t
th i s ch a p t e r

a l e a dy

h av e

OF I

a s a n ex e ci s e

b)

bo v e m ay be

bl i s h ed by th e

e s ta

(a
b
e
(

c a;

ab c

ca

a bc

al l
n
e
e
y
g
'

( be

'

-2

Pw

b -l

Pla

R (s ee
,

r i

30

56

2 xy + y
g 3
i 3e
3l

iJ
7
;
3

&c ;
.

th e

nu m e

t ab l e

co e f ci e n t s

b i no m i a l

of

P o w er

ri cal

be i n g t ak e n f ro m th e f ol l o w i ng

co e f ci e n t s

C o e f cie nts

5 10

10

6 15

20

15

7 21

35

35

56

70

56

9 36

84 1 26 1 2 6

45

10

I
L
( )

10

1 10 45 1 20 2 1 0

11

1 1 1 55 1 65 330 462

165

12

1 1 2 6 6 2 2 0 4 95 7 92

495 2 2 0 6 6 1 2

T h is

55 1 1

b le rst u r s i n t h e A i thm ti I t g f S t ifel

in
nn e t i n w i t h t h e e t r t i n f r ts I t d e s t pp e r t h t h e w
w re f t h e pp li
t i n t t h e e p ns i n f b i n m i l T h e t b le w d i s
h us ed by P s l
f P s l s
uss ed d
w g e s by t h e n m e
d
A ri t h m et i l T ri ngle T h e f t ri l f rmu l e f t h e b i n m i l e f i e nts ( s ee
t h e s e n d p r t f t h i s w rk ) w ere di s v ered b y N e w t n
VO L I
G

co
a

ta

occ

ca

an

co

ac

n xuc

ca

a ca

ac o

oo

an

co

n e ra o

ca

no

no

as

or

as

co

a ca

T AB L E OF I D EN T ITI ES

82

i y)

a;

(
i v) ( w

21

pp

(v

31)

"

"

v ;

"

w i v ;

v)

: w
a
e

g e ne r al ly
1

4 ccy

4:

v)

an d

ca n

+ 33

{E

Si

gn

c
f)

"

(05

v)
3 )

12

is

n -l

iy

o dd o r e ve n

'

F y

( in

xy 3:

'

ga ) ;
)
(
(

i
i
W
c
at ?
a
r
v
W
) (
(
)
x
yy
y zy
(
2 93
563
(
( 1
t
9M
uu
vv
f
(
c
c
ac
ug
eu
y
y
)
(
T2
u
9
3
u
2
y
y)
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wcs

(9

n-2

Fa

r di ng as

"

a cco

y)

+ ay

m
(

n -

y+

n -

l ow e r

or

:l/

n -2

'

'

'

'

(V

y
"

5
(
9

a nd

a,

(f

y)

c
c

"

c
c

c
2

"

I
V
(

VI
L
)
(
su m of

a,

3c

3 bc( b

3 a h( a
-

) (

)(

3c

30

a ,,

a , , a, ,

a nd

3 ca

tw o

3a b

6 a bc

3ah
3

squ a e s of

p ar ti al p r o d uc ts t w o

s u m o f al l

5
(

y)

c
c

g e n e ral ly
t w i ce

b)

3 ca ( c

(VIII )

6 a bc

3 a bc

bc ca

I
X
(

b)
c
'

bc( b
2

'

be
T h ese

)
3
0
c af +
3
c
ca ( c
a
)
)

be

cu

c a

b) ,

ab a
a

b
.

ide nt i t i e s fu r n i s h i nter a l i a p r o o fs o f a s erie s o f p r o po s i t i o ns i n

l - I f e ac h o f t w
t h e t h e o ry o f num b er s o f w h i c h t h e foll o w i ng i s t y p i
i nt e g er s b e t h e sum o f t w o squ a re s t h eir p ro d u ct ca n b e e x h i b i t ed i n t w w ay s
t h e u m o f t w o i nt e g ral S q u a re s
,

ca

as

E X E RCI S E S

IV

)(

(b

)(

b)

be

)(

be

ca

t
( o

ab

ca

2 a bc,

2 a bc

b)

ab a

b
(

ab

a
9

2 a bc,

b)

ca c

b)

ab a

ca

bc( b

ca c

83

)
a
)

b (e

bc( b

)
c)

(b

V III

b)

X
I
( I

( XII I )

3 a bc

(b +

c
g

b+

b)

)(

2a b

be

26

XI
( V

2 a bc

:2

b
(
a

b
(

i
E X E RCI SE S V I I I

Wri t e d ow n t h e m o st g e n er a l ra ti o n al i nte g r al s y mm e t ri cal fun ct i o n

o f w y z u o f t h e 3 rd de gree
S h ow t h a t
D i st ri but e t h e p r o d u ct
( acy +
i t i s sy mm e t ri cal co unt t h e numb er o f t y p e s i nt o w h i c h i ts t er ms fall a n d
stat e h ow m an y of t h e ty p e s co rre sp on di ng to i ts degree are m i ss i ng
C o nst ru ct a h o m og e n e o us i nt e g ra l fu nct i o n o f cc a n d y o f t h e I st
deg ree w h i c h s h all v a n i s h w h e n m y a nd b e co m e 1 w h e n cc 5 a n d y = 2
C o nst r u ct a n i nt e g ral fun c t i o n o f a a n d y o f th e l s t de g ree w h i c h
=
i
c
s h all van i s h w h e n
l
s
h
e
n
w
w
a
n
d
a
o
y y
y y
C o nst r u ct a h om og e n e o us i nt e g ra l fun c t i o n o f ac and y o f t h e 2 n d
de g ree w h i c h s h a ll v an i s h w h e n
y y a n d al s o w h e n x w y y a n d
h all b e co m e 1 w h e n m l y = 1
5 ) ( cc 7 ) + C ( c 7 ) ( cc 3 ) = 89c 1 2 0 fo r al l
I f A (ac 3 ) ( cc
val u e s o f c de t erm i n e t h e co e fcie nts A B C
S h ow t h a t 5 cc + 1 9cc + 1 8 can b e put i nt o th fo r m
,

"

"

'

"

'

2
) (x

l , m,

1)

th t (
a

I mp o r t ant i n

c
c

1)

( o;

(n + 2 )

2)
2)

de t er m i n e t h e num b ers

t ri ngle

3)

1)

( cc

( :c

A ssum i ng

l (x

nd

an d

"

co

I, m ,

( cc

3)

ca n

( n + 3 ) (c

b e put i nt t h e f r m

3)

(n + 1 )

nn e t i n w i t h H er s f r mu l
c

fo r

t h e re
a

of

pl n el
a

E X E RCI S E S

84

C HAP

1v

i n d a r a t io n a l i nt eg r l fun ct i o n o f c o f t h e 3 rd deg ree w h i c h s h all

b w c w d re sp e ct i v el y
v al u e s P Q R S w h e n c a
F i n d t h e co e f cie nts o f y z a n d yz i n t h e e p ns i o n o f

h v e th

V III

E p nd
x

P rov e

cz

)(

si mp l ify 2 ( y
f ll w i ng ide nt i t ie s
o

27 ( b

93

)(

a%

b3y

) (y

cc

(
2

c z

by

a o:

an d

th e

by

ac

+ b+

be

d ) (a

ab

b)

2
c

2
b
(

d)

l
c

) (
) (
)(
2
?
g
2
a
b
2
b
S
2 ( ea
b ) ( b c ) ( c) ( c a )

Q
Zu a Za a
2 ( bc
b c) ( bc
b c) Za Ea a
6 E yz = 2 cc( 2 9c 1 ) ( 2 a: 2 )
Ead e
1 ) (cc
i
3 H( y + z )
3

2 ( b3 e2
4
6p 3 ) /2p 3 w ere p ,
( p 1p g p 1
c

ca

b9 )

'

"

"

'

(17
pg

'

a bc

(1 8

Il ( y

+v

22 c( y

2 953 3;n

II ( a : i: bi

e zt

d)

Ea

2 ( E ys ) 3

)(

v) :
6 2 a 4 b4

a:

6 2

4 Za b

96

3 ecu

42

S h ow t h a t
(
a

2 bc,

Ea , p g

3
z

3acye

Y3

X3

Z3

3 2

h ere X

3 XY Z, w

4 0 05 5 c
3

2
c
c

2 y: , & c ;
.

l s o t h at
(2

(T

'

3
90

Sx yz ) ( Ecc

( xcc

yz

y z)

3 l1 ( xcc

h e s e ide nt i tie s h v e i mp r t nt m e n i ng i n t h e t h e ry
S h w t h t i f b e p s i t i v e i nt e g er t h e n
an

y z)

num b ers )
.

1
'

1 3

of

yz

n+

2n

1
1

7 L+

o f

2 71

( B l i s sa r d )
In

t h i s e mpl e d i n t h er s f s i m il r k i n d 2 i s t us ed i i ts
st ri t s e ns e but re fers n ly t y li l i t er h nge s f b ; t h t i s t
i nt er h nge s i n w h i h
b p ss i nt b
re sp e t i vel y
i nt
b

re sp e t i v el y T h us 2
) i s st r i tl y sp e k i ng = 0 ; but i f 2 b e us ed i n
t h e p re s e nt s e ns e i t i s ( b ) + b
b)
)+ (
c

xa

an

a,

ca

c,

no

a,

or

c, a ,

CHA PTE R

Q u o ti en t s
r

o p e a ti o n s

Th e

i nv e r s e to th o s e
of

f u n cti o n s

one

t h e di vi den d

ti o n A

an

A/D ,

s tu

th e t i t l e

of

an d

fu n ct i o n

t hi s

Thus

r i abl e

an

A as

e x p l ai n e d

of

ndi ng

ch a

p i

A is
by th e

ca

ll e d

n o ta

di vi si on, bu t w e p r e fe r
o p e r a t i o n s o f t h i s ch ap t e r u n d e r

gu oti ents
b o t h i n t e g r al f u n c t i o n s ,

bu t w i l l

su c

call ed

is

a ti on o

bei ng

in

th a t

fu n cti on

ca

form

o f a,

fo r th e m os t p art
b e i n g a n y i n t e g r al

ar e

or

tr a ns

h a pte r

an d

d en t s h o u l d cl a s s th e

o p e at i o n

th a t t h e

of

of

l l e d t h e qu oti ent o f A by
t h e di vi sor
We s ym boli se

is

l as t

va

Th e

of

A, t h e n

I n t eg r a l F u n cti o n s Tr a n s f o r m a t i o n

of

Di v is i on

n o t n e ces s a

ri l y

be

an

w ill be

r atio n al

in teg r al f un cti o n

l Vhen the qu oti ent can be tr ansfor m ed so as to become i nteg r a l, A

i s sai d to be e x a c tl y d i v i s ibl e by D
h en the quoti en t ca nnot be so tra nsfor med, the quoti ent i s s a id

to be f r a ct io n a l

I t is

or e s se n t i all

cou se obviou s

be egua l, i n the i dentical

t
deg ree

en

y fr

that

s ens e,

a ct o na

fu ncti on ca nnot
essenti a lly fr a cti ona l function

a n ess enti a l l
y

to

an

i nteg ra l

the gu oti en t i s i nteg ra l , i ts deg ree i s the

the di vi den d

ove

the deg ree

the divi sor

ccess o
ec

the

F or , d e n o t i n g

re as o ns p a r tl y e x p l a i n ed b el o w t h e stu de nt must b e caut i o us i n

a pp l y i ng m n y o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o ns o f t h i s c h a pt er t o fun c t i o ns o f m o re v a ri
a b le s t h a n o n e
or
t le st i n su c h ca s e s h e must s ele c t o n e o f t h e v a ri ab le s
a t a t i m e a n d t h i n k o f i t as t h e v a ri a b le fo r t h e pu r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a pt er
F or

T HE O R EM

86

G R D I N G D I V I SI B I L IT Y

RE A

d e g r e s o f t h e fu n c t i on s r ep r es e nted
s u f e s w e h a v e

th e

by

r ef o r e

the

Qp D n

ch ap

by

iv

7, m

p
di vi en

d
If the deg ree of the
g uoti ent i s es senti a l ly fr actiona l

p os s

ibl e

v a r i ou s

by th e

l e tt e r s

Am
t he

ca n

t h at t h e q u o t

i en t

th at i s , p

n,

d be less

in

d eg re e p

of

72

tha n tha t

F o r , m b e i ng

i nteg r al

is

the di vi so

n , s u pp o s e ,

<

if

th e n

s ay,

QmD n

Am

r e for e m }? n ; bu t go c ann o t be l ess t ha n 0 by o u r hyp o

t he s i s a n d i n i s al r ead y l e s s t h an n h e n c e t h e q u o ti e n t c an n o t
be i nt eg r al th a t i s i t m u s t be fr a c t i o n al
If A D Q R be a ll integ r al fu ncti ons a nd
A
Q D R then R wil l be exa ctly di vi si bl e by D or not a ccording as A
i s exa ctly di vi si bl e by D or not
F or s i n c e
A QD R
th e

QD

A
D
th e

r e fo r e

c tl y d iv i s i ble by D A /D w i ll be i nteg r l and

A /D
Q w i l l b e i n teg ral th at i s R /D w i ll be i nteg r al t ha t i s R
w i ll be ex a c t l y d i v i i bl e by D
A g a i n i f A be n o t e x a c tl y d ivi s i bl e b y D A /D w i ll b e
H e n c e R/D m u s t be f r a c t i o n l fo r i f i t w e r e
f rac t i o n al
i n te g ral Q R/D w oul d be i n t eg ral th at i s A/D w o u l d b e i n
t e g ral w h i c h i s c o nt r a ry t o h yp ot h e s i s
N o w , i f A be

exa

I N TE

a n s fo

Th e

r m at i o n

\m
i re!y, we

a nd

G R AL QU O TI E N T

f o l l o w i ng
of

is

q u o t i e n ts

R E M AI N D E R

am e n ta

fu nctio ns of

the deg

the

fu n

th eo

ree

tra nsfo m the qu ot ent Am /D n

Am

rem

in

t he

D u bei ng i nteg r al

ca n a lways

A ND

Pm -n

s i n an

as

n r esp ect

follows :

T G R A L QU O T I E NT

A ND RE

IN E

M AI ND E R

fu ncti on of

87

deg r ee i n n a nd R ( if i t do
n ot va n i sh a n i nte r al fu ncti on w hos e d e r ee i s a t m os t n
1
g
g
)
Th i s t ran s for ma ti o n i s effe c t e d by a s e r i es o f st eps \ Ve s hall
r s t w o rk o u t a p ar ti c u la r ca se an d th en g iv e the g e ne r l p r o o f
L et
A = 8 + 8w
20 +
10
5 0 + 30
w he e

is

i nteg ra l

an

D4

11 ):

G
4

33

'

'

8,

ultiply the divi or D by the quotient f the highe t term

by the highe t ter m f the divi or ( th t i m ultipl y D b y
u btr ct the re ult fro m the d i n d nd A \V h v e

s,

of

d i vidend

th e

an d

A6

M D;
A5

there fore
Repe t the
a

895

8a 6

A5

ss

4x 3 D4

1 8x 2 + 309:

6 934 +

1 2 x 2 + 1 6a

A4

A6 ,

a nd

we

h ve
a

10

8x3
2

of

4 m4 + 1 6 x3

'

pl ce

in

2 a D4

there fore
And g in w ith A

A5

'

ith the re i due A

4 335

2 7; D 4 :

1 8932 + 30a3 1 0

s ay

A6

A5

4 x5

e proce

10

303
32 9

- 4 1 32 D
4

s am

4
a
:
20

A5 :

+ 1 4 3:

s ay

As

2 1; D4
.

10

4,
2

10

4x2 +

69

D4 = 2 x 4 + 3a 3

2 1 32 -l

A4 D4
A3

833

sa

y
D4

there fore
A
A
H ere t h proce
m u t top unle
w
gree to d m i t fr ctio l m ulti
plier f D f the quotient f the highe t term f A by th highe t ter m f
D i 5 /2
w hich i
th t i
f r ction l functio
con
f
S uch
tin
ti
f the proce
doe not concern n w b t w ill b con idered belo w
Me nt i m e fro m ( 1 ) w h ve
:

s o

3
L

ua

ss

or

on o

ss

s,

ss

and

u ing ( 2 ) to repl ce A
s

n ll y u ing
a

A 5 2 4 L2 D 4
5

A;

4Jj D4

A5

2 93D,

4& 2 D4

D 4 i L} ,

'

'

Q JJ -l 1 ) D4 + Ag

Ab
D4

D4
4 7f - 2 J l-1
J

A3

Hence

na

us

d,

an

I N TE G RA

88

L QU OTI EN T AN D R E M AIN D E R

repl cing th c pit l letter

or,

by th e f

2 056

6
9
c
8

unc tion the y repre ent

s

5 0x 9

4 0x3

HA P

10

3 0a:

ince 6
it w ill b een th t w h ve e t bli hed the bove theorem
f thi peci l c e
It
h ppen th t the degree f the re idue A A
A di m ini h t e ch oper tion b y unit y onl y b t the tudent w ill e il y
th t the dim inut i on m ight h ppen to b m ore r pid
d in p rticul r th t
the degree f the r t re idue w ho e degree f ll under th t f the divi or
m i ght h ppen t b le
th n the degree f the d ivi or by m ore th n unity
B ut none f the e po ibil i tie w ill ffect th proo f in y w y
\V h ll return to the pre ent c e i mm edi tel y b t in the r t pl ce w
l f m t the proo f f the i m port nt propo ition w hich w
m y give g n
illu tr ting
S

e s

or

s s

as

so

or

as

m
r

Am

pe

+ p ,w

D,,

g ,a

go

"

e
e

&c 3
.

'

gg a
m

r c t i ng

s ub t a

Am

M ul ti p ly i ng D by th e q u o t i e n t p er
d

s ee

an

4,

L et

an

ss

er a

an

as

a re

e s

s o

ss

s a

10 0
_

r esul t f r om

th e

&c

v
o
g
/

"
,

t h at i s , by

A m, w e g e t
l

31

in

{L

AWL 1

c d e no t i ng y

w h en e ,

ol

/go by

A-m

Tr eat i ng

Am

An d

s o o n, s o

t h an n, t h e l a s t

su

r R
e q u at i o n s

w he e

is

in

Am

l x

s am e
gn

sa

l o ng

ch

A,,

m n

i n th e

fo r

w ay , w e

the

e qu at o n

wD , ,

ri g ht

e,

w e g et

g et

d eg r e e o f t h e r e s i d u e
o b t a i n e d b e i ng

th e

u tm os t

U s i ng

w D ,,

d i vi d i ng

bo th

is

not

l e ss

'

w hen

d e g r e e n l at
s u cc e ss i o n w e
g et
o

r tn es s

Am l

Dn

as

sho

i d es

by

w D ,,
and

all

d i tr i bu t i ng
s

t h es e

on

the

TH E O

R D I N A R Y D I V I SI O N TR AN S FO R M AT I O N U N I QU E
A ?"

D,

20

'

if

we

b e a r i n m i nd t h e

f
'

E
D

c h a r a c te r o f R g iv e s a g e n e r al
r
o o f o f t h e p r o po i ti o n i n q u e t i o n
p
IVe h av e s h o w n t h a t th e t r a ns fo r m a ti o n o f
5 c n
b e e ffe c t e d i n a pa r t i c u la r w ay bu t t h i s g i v es n o as u r
al w a y
n c e th at t h e n a l r e s u l t w i ll a l w ays b e t h e s am e
Th e p r oo f
th at th i s r eally i s s o i s fu r n i s h e d by th e fo ll o w i ng p r op o s i t i o n
Th q uotien t A/D of two i nteg ral fun c ti ons can be p ut i nto the
for m P R/D w her e P and R a r e i nteg ra l functions a nd the deg r ee
wh

i ch

m - It

89

R i s l ess than that

D, in

one

I f p o s s ibl e l e t
A

A
D
w he

re

P,

R bo th

'

su

btr a c t i ng

rom

bo t h

w h en e

s n e

th e

d eg r e es

ides

d eg r

bov e

r e q u i r e m e nt s

w e h av e

an d

i c

N ow,

y th e

sa t s f

t 11 e n

"

only

way

I
.

bo th l e s s th an t h e

a re

d eg r ee

R R i s l e s s t h an t h a t o f D
i s e ss e n t i l ly
T h e r efor e by 3 th e l eft h n d s i d e ( R
f ra c t i on al a nd c a nn o t b e eq u al t o t h e r i g h t w h i c h i s i n t eg r l
u nl e ss R
R O i n w h i c h c a s e w e m u s t al s o h a v e P P 0
th a t i s R
R an d P P
Th e tw o p r op o si ti on s o f
5 7 g i v e a p e cu l i ar i mpor t
anc
t o t h e f u n c t i o n s P a n d R o f w h i c h t h e f ol l o w i ng d e n i t i o n
of

D , i t fo llo w s th at th e
,

ee o

- a

m ay

l eg i t i m at e l y b e g i v e n
the quoti ent A/D be tr an sfor med

no w

If

i nto P

R/D , P

a nd

R bei ng

C O N D IT I ON S

90

i nteg ral

a nd

FO R E

XA CT

I I I I I

D V S B L TY

d eg r ee l ess than D , P is

ca lled

cn a r .

the i nteg

ral

quoti ent,

d ivided by D
\Ve can n o w e x p r es s t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t o ne i n te g r al
fu n c t i on A m y b e e ac tl y d iv i s i bl e by an o th e r D
F or i f R be
th e r e m ai nd e r as abo v e d e n e d w e h ave P b e i ng a n i n t eg r a l
fu n c t i on
a nd

the

remai nder of
a

A w hen

r ci

w h e n e , s u bt a t n
g

P
13

P f r om b o t h
A
D

id e s

c tly d iv i s i bl e by D A/D w i ll be i nteg r al a nd

t h e r f o r e A /D
P w i l l b e i n te g r al
He n c e R/D m u s t b e i n teg r al ;
bu t s i n c th e d eg r e e o f R i s l es s t h an th at o f D th i s c a nno t b e
t h e c as e u nl e s s R v a n i s h i d e nt i c al l y
The necess a ry a nd s u i ci ent cond i tion f or eaact di vi s i bi li ty i s ther e
fore that the r ema in der sha ll vani sh
Wh e n t h e d i v i s o r i s o f th e nth d eg ree th e r em a i n d e r w i ll i n
1 ) th d eg r e e an d w i l l c o n t a i n i c o e ffi c i e n t s
g en e r a l be o f th e ( n
e ver
In
y o ne o f w h i c h m u s t v a n i s h i f t h e r e m i n d e r v an i s h
g enera l therefor e when the divi sor i s of the n th deg r ee n condi tion
ar e necess a r
y to secu r e exa ct d ivis i bility
Ha vi ng e am i n e d th e ex a c t m ea n i ng and u s o f t h e
i nte g ral q u o ti en t and r em ai nd e r w e p r o c e e d t o ex pl ai n a co n
r e n i e n t m e t h o d f o r c l c u l at i n
h
l
i
t
h
m
T
e p ro c e s s i s
m
e
p
y
g
s u cc i n c t a rr a n e m e n t o f th e c a l c u l a t i o n o f
5 6
I t w i l l be
g
s u f c i e n t t o t ak e t h e
5
p a r t i c u l a r c as e o f
Th e w o rk m ay b
rran g e d as f ol l o w s
N o w , i f A be

ex a

e a

10

3 2 95

4a

10
4s

1 6 9;
8a

"

3
l

4r

3
(

1 4v

10

6 93

D ET AC HE D

9l

d t i l l t h e l as t
pe r a ti o n a nd t h e r e f o r e n e e d n o t b e ta k e n d o w n f r om t h e u pp r
l i ne u n ti l th a t s tag e i r e c h e d a nd o bs e r vi ng fu r th e r t h a t th
m e th o d o f d e tac h e d c oe f c i ents i s c l e arl y appl i c abl e h e r e j u s t
i n m u l ti pl i c a ti o n w e m ay arr an g e t h w h o l e th u s
O r,

o bs e

r vi ng

C O EFFI C I EN S

1 0 is

t h a t t h e te m

no t

w an t e

10

32

4 2 41

T h e r e fo r e

10

I n t eg r a l q u o t i e n t

'

4 5c

R e m a i nd e r
Th e p r o c es s m a y b e

5r

2 25

I 3

v e r bally d es cr i be d

as

f oll o w s

A rr ang e both

d ivi dend and di vi sor accord ing to descendi ng p we s

f as l l ing i n m iss ing p owers wi th zer o coei ci cnts F in d the quotient
f the hig hes t term of the di vi dend by the hi g hest term of the d ivisor

the r esu l t is the h ig hest ter m of the

i nteg r al guotient
Il l l tip ly the di vis or by the ter m thu s obta i ned an d su btr a ct the
result from the dividend taki ng dow n only one term to the rig ht beyond
those a ecte l by the su btra cti on ; th r es ul t thu s obt ined w ill be l es s in
deg r ee than the d ividend by one a t leas t Di vide the hig hes t ter m y
this r esult by the hi g hest of the d ivi sor ; the resu l t i s the second ter m

o the
i nt g r al quotient
f
M u ltip ly the di vi sor by the new ter m j ust obta i ned and s btra ct
CC as before
The p r ocess nti nues unti l the r esu l t after the last su btra cti on i s
less i n deg r ee tha n the d ivisor
this las t r esu lt i s the r emai ler as
a bo e de ned
i

'

co

iu

The f ol l ow i ng

l o ng

r u le

for

d i vi i

s on

are s o m e

e x am pl es

of

th e

us e

of

the

92

ple 1

Ex am

X AMP LE S

e n AP

36

36

36

2
l i l

if l
ir + i:

'

a
Te

s3

'

"

T "!

s a+s

i s +e
0

T he re m a inder v ni s he s there fore the divi s ion

a

l a3 +

m2

+9

the re m inder i
a

2
92

s
3

ple

gene n
m erel y
e

s,

L et
we

p + aq + i z

u se o f

r cket throughout t pre erve the

a

(a
.

tudent hould o b erve the

identity f the coe f cient
s

l st

is

E xa m

the quotient

at ?

ence the integr l quotie t i

Th e

xa

(x - a )

( a +w+ e
2
(0
(a

and

e ct

1 + 1)
1 a

is

ple 2

E xa m

us

3a b

6a

3 3

3
b )
2 (a

3a b
.

h m
con ider
the v ri ble S i nce the e pre ion
f b in the coe f cient
d
the nu m ber
y o m it the po w er
s

a as

ma

s , an

s o

1
1

'

3
3
2 -2
3

2ab

1
a

2b

+1

2 -

2 a b + 3 b2

ss

u se

a re

B I N O M IA L D I V I S O R
w

hence
a

3a

b Ga

3 a b3 + b4

- b3

j b + bf
0

93

g a b + 3 b2 +

2 b4
.

ab+

L et con ider b the v ri b le W e m u t then rr nge ccording

to de cending po w er f b thu
2 ud

as

us

s o

3a h

3a h

(b

I (b

ab

be f ore
I t h ppen in th i p rticul r
d proceed
Det ch the coefcient
c e th t the m ere nu m er i c l p rt f the w ork i e ctly the m e be fore
the onl y d i ff erence i in the in ertion f the po w er f
d b t the end
d the re m inder i 2 b
T hu the integr l quotient i b 2 h + 3
2
w hence
g l
S b -G b
Q
2 b + b +
j
5
as

as

s , an

2 2

a)

xa

sa

an

as

an

"

Th e p r o c e s s o f l ong d ivi s i o n m ay b e s t i ll fu r th e r
abbr e v i a t e d ( af t e r e x p e r t n e s s a n d a cc u r a c y h a v e b ee n a c q u i r e d )

c om b i n i ng th e o p e rat i o n s o f m u l ti plyi ng th e d ivi s o r an d s ub

t r a ct i ng
T h e n o n ly th e su cc e ss i v e r es i d u es nee d be w r i tte n
T h u s c o nt r a c t e d t h e n u m e r i c a l p r t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f E x a m p l e
3 i n l as t pa r ag r aph w ou l d ru n th u s

by

l -l-I

1
3

2 2

'

B I N O M IA L D I V I SO R R E M AI N D E R

c a se
i m p o r ta n c e

e
p

c i al

of

Th e

13

L et t h e

d iv i s o r o f
d iv i s o r be cc

b i nom i al

TH E O

REM

d eg r e e i s o f
th e d iv i d e nd

th e l s t
a,

an d

i3
o

T h en i f w e
c al c ul ati o n r u ns
,

e m p l oy

as

t h e m e th o

of

d et ac h e d c o e fc i e nt s

f oll o w s
1 u

p0

p0

(P
(p

ea

+ 17 1
+

p,

)
)

(P
(p

+ 192

(p

00

Pla

+ 33 1 0

)
+ 19 )

+ 10 2

oa

'

( p or
o

o
o
p
(

pl0

PI)

P3
2

'

; + 93
}
p
1

p ,a

+p,

th e

R U L ES

94

i n t eg r a l

Th e

FO R

q u ot i e n t i s t h e

(p

C O E FFI C IENT S

Or

mm

r e fo r e
(p

o.

7 0
1

a
n

p Qw

'

f
r
m
a
i
o
n
e i ci ents i s evi dentl y
o
t
o
t
h
co
e
f
f
The rs t i s the r s t coe lci ent of the di vi dend

The l aw

is

as

follows

by mu ltip lyi ng i ts p r edecessor by

coei ci ent of the d i vi dend
obtai ned

a nd

c d
The thi rd by mu ltip lyi ng the s econd j us t obtai ned by and addi ng
the thi r d coei ci ent of the di vi dend
and so on
I t i s also obvious that the rema inder whi ch i n the p r esent case is
a t i s does not c onta i n
t
h
o zer o deg r ee i n a:
i s obta i ned from the
f
(
l ast coei ci ent of the i n teg ra l qu oti en t by mu l tip lyi ng tha t coei i ent by

ddi ng

se ond

The

the

s e on

a an

the las t

a ddi ng

r i
a rra n e d
g

Th e

in

op e at on s

v e n i e ntl y

E x am

i ci ent of

ple

the di vi dend

coe

nu m e

an y

r i c al i n stan c e

m ay b e

co n

f ol l o w s

as

3 x2 + 6 w

4)

(x

3 + 6

nteg l quotient
4
5
16
R e m inder
28
T he gure in the r t line
the coe fc i ent f the div i den d
T he r t coe fcient i n the econd line i 0
T he r t coe fcient in the th i rd l i ne re ult fro m the dd i t i on f the t w
b ove it
T he econd g re in the econd line i o bt ined by m ultipl yi ng the r t
coe fcient in th th i d l i ne by 2
T he econd gure in the third l i ne by dd i ng the t w over i t
I

ra

ar e

s o

'

A nd

so on

If

ple 2
the divi or

E x am

be

+ 2, we

h ve only to

O bs

erve th t thi
a

is

the

s am

as

erve th t th i rr ngem ent f the c lcul t i on f

the re m inder i virtu lly h ndy m ethod f c lcul ting the v lue f n
p rticul r v lue f f 2 8 i 2 2 3 2
f
i t g l f unction f
4 w hen
2 (
3 5 +6
2
4 th t i to
6
y the v lue f 2
T hi m ethod i o ften u ed d l w y ve rith m et i c w hen o m e f the
coe fcient
neg t i ve d other po i tive I t w e m ployed by N ew ton ;
l i p 2 70
Hor le y edit i on
T he s tudent s hould

O bs

s a

'

n e

ra

9;

a re

or

any

an

an

vo

7c

sa

or

sa

see

r
e,

7c

or

as

se e

oe z

DI
an d

throughout

as

V ISO R

R E M AI N D E R

AN D FO R

th t the proper re ult w ill b o bt ined

our m ult i pl i er in te d f 2
b e fore u ing
2 f
we

s ee

or

( 21

by

per t i ng
a

35c2 + 6 i13 4 )

2 x 3 a:
(

3 + 6 4
0
2

ntegr l q
a

u o ti e n t

= 2 rc3

4 m9 + 5 r

4 ;

{ e m a i nd e r
.

ple 3
T he follo w i ng e m ple w i ll ho w the tudent h w to b ring the c e
bino m i l divi or f the l t degree under the c e f
E xa m

xa

as

3 a: 2 a 3 + 3 a39 2 5 + 3

393

as

an v

2x + 3

3w + 2

3f

2 a23 + 39c2
-

Iv

T r an for m i ng n o w the quotient in s ide the b ra cket

2+ 3

we

h ve
a

2+

ntegr l quotient
R em inder

a)

43c2

3x 3

Pi

'

\Vh e n ce
3a 4
.

2 + 3a 2

1 s

T 7

3513 + 2

5
.

ac
1 8 5

i u i
l

Hence for
,

'

the divi ion or i gin ll y propo ed

I ntegr l quotien t
R em inder
5
s

we

{n
*

a3

h ve
a

3 7%
9

3%

1 3 51

Th e p r o c e s s e mpl oye d i n E x am pl es 2 and 3 abo v e i s c l ea rl y

a
ppl i c abl e i n g e n e r a l, a nd t h e s tu d e nt s h o u l d s t u d y i t a tt e n t i ve ly
a s an

c as e s

i ns ta n c e
a

of

th e

u se

of

l it tl e t r ans fo r m at i o n i n br i ng i ng

r e n tl y d i s ti nc t u nd e r a c o mm on tr e tm e nt
R e v e r t i ng t o th e g en e ral r es u l t O f l s t c ti o n
r e m i nd er w h e n w r i t t e n o u t i n f ll i s

pp a

t h at

th e

p ea

se

we

s ee

R E M AI N D E R T HEO R EM

96

C om pa r i ng t h i s w i t h t h e

cu s p .

d i v i d en d

p 093

r ema inder theor em

IVhen a n i nteg ra l f ncti on of as i s divi ded by :c
the r emai nder
i s obtai ned by s ubs ti tu ti ng
or a: i n the fu ncti on i n
es tion
u
f
q
I n o th e r w o rd s th e r e ma i nd e r i s th e s am e f u n c t i o n o f
as
t h e d iv i d e n d i s o f v
P ar tl y o n acc ou nt o f t h e g r eat i m po r ta n c e of t h i s t h eo r e m
r
l
a
s an e e rc i s e i n
n
e r a l a l g e b r a i c a l r eas o n i n
t
a
e
y
g
g w e g i ve
p
a n o th e r p r oo f o f i t
L et u s f o r s h o r t n e s s d e n o t e
h av e t h e foll ow i ng

we

a,

a.

f( )
a

:c

il l

0 33

t h e n,

d eno t e

n a t u al l y,

p n by

r es ul t

th e

of

s ub s t

i tu t i ng

f or

t hat i s,

in f

p oo

d eno te th e i n teg r al q u ot i ent an d R th e r em a i nd e r

d iv i d e d by v
T h en X(a) i s an i nteg r al f n c t i o n
1 a n d R i s a c o ns tan t ( t h at i
i s i n d e p e n d e nt
o f o; o f d e g r e e n
of a
) a nd w e h a v e
R
f(93)
L et X(5c)
w h en f
is

"

a.

s,

w h en

ce

m u l t i p l yi n g b y

n
;

a,

S i n c e th i s h o l d s f or
th

r ou g h o u t

ll

Of

w e g e t, pu tt ng

o
c= a

1 (a )

) x( )

R,

r R r em a i ns th e s m e a s befo r e s i nc e i t d o e s n o t d ep e nd o n
a n d t h e r e f o r e i s n o t a l te r e d by g i v i ng any p a r ti c ul ar v al u e

w he e
a
c,

R
0x0 )
6

v al u e s

i d ent i ty

w e g e t th e

to

n i te

S i n c e X( a ) i s
an

d w e g et

a ll

if

i ch

if w e

m a i nd e r th eo

n i te (
,

) X( )
a

X( a )

0 ;

f( )
wh

be

r em embe r

rem

R,

t h e m e an

i ng

of

f( )
a

r
o ves
p

th e

re

FACT O RI S AT I ON
C or 1
.

l (

F or e
x

a;

r ema inder

The
a3 + a ,

Si nc e

x am

ple

+ 1 0, i s

a
s

when

R E M AIN D E R T HE O REM

BY

i nteg

an

97

i t f oll o w s th at

r a l fu ncti on

is

d i vi ded

by

divided

by

re m inder

th e
,
3

hen
5

5 a3 + 6 i s

4
:c

r when an i nteg r al fu nc tion of o ) i s

di vi ded by as: b i s
b/a)
T h i s i s s i mpl y th e g ene r al i s at i on of E am pl e 3 1 3 abov e
By s u bs t i tu t i o n w e m ay c o ns i d e r abl y ex te n d t h e a ppl i c a t i on
o f t h e r e m a i n d e r th e o r e m a s t h e f oll o w i n
e am p l e w i l l s h o w :
g
C on ider
d e
Writing
m o m ent 5 in pl ce f
in pl ce f w h ve t de l w i th
d
f

d
N w the re m inder w hen the
+
+
g
1 ?
2 5 1
+p
for m er f t he e i divided b y the l tter i p
+p
+p
Hence the re m inder w hen
+p
+ 1 i divided
Cor 2
.

The

r emai nde

an
,

re

"

a
c

"

a,

fu nc tion of

1a

"

90

+p o

R E M AI N D E R THE OR E M TO THE D E C OM P O S I TI O N
I N TE G R A L F U N C TI O N I N TO L I N E A R FA C TO R S
OF

a ,,

be

a,,

deg r ee

n th

the

di lfer ent

va lu es o

va ni shes ,

"

a,

f or

the

c
c o

i c

th e

th e

r ef or e

(n

th deg

r em a i nd er
is

r r

<

an

n,

then

i nteg r a l

r ee

w hen

ex a

w hi ch the

w he e

bei ng

s n e

m -1 a

"

1x

fu nc ti o n of

( a;

m
a

+ pl a

If

v an s h es ,

is

OF AN

Fo r,

PPL I CATI O N

i nteg r al

an

90

31

by

zn

an

or a

9m

d i vi d e d

is

c tl y d iv i s i bl e

by

a:

a ,, an

by

a:

we

a ,,

h av e

re
Si n c e t h i s

is

w he

an

e qu at o n

i nte g r al f u n c t i on o f a: O f th e (n 1 ) th d eg r ee
s ub s i s ts f or a ll v al u e s O f v w e h av e
.

f <a l
z

th at i s , by h yp o th e s

i c

N O W,
th e

s n e

r ef o r e
He n c e

t h at IS,

and

(1 2

0
ar e

a2

dh

a2

d i ff er en t
d iv i s ibl e

33
hn K
)

(a:
I

f )
( )
ae
org

by h yp o th e s i s ,

(1 )

is

w h en e
V OL

a,

is

(
(

by

Myth

a,

(a:

a2

) (a:
H

FA C T OR I SAT I ON B Y M EAN S

98

F rom

th

is

C H AP

a n,

0
wh

OF

i ch g iv e s s i nc e

f< )

a n

a,,

a ,,

)(

aa

a r e a ll u n e

a3

< >n

so
a,

P r o c ee d i ng i n th i s w ay
t h eo r e m f o r an y n u m b e r

igh d h

a3

as

u al ,

w h en e

t h at

a2

a3

nally e stabl i s h th e
e x c e e d i ng n
C o r I If a n i nteg ra l fu nc ti on be d i vi si bl e by the factors a:
93
(If
a ll of the I s t d eg r ee a nd a l l d iff er ent i t i s
d i vi s ibl e by thei r p r odu c t ; a nd conversely
i t i s di visi bl e by the
u ct o a n
u mber o su ch fa c tor s a l l o the l st deg r ee a n d a l l
r
o
d
n
f
y
f
p
f
d i erent i t i s di vis i bl e by ea ch of them sep ar a tely
Th e p r o o f of
t h i s w i l l f o r m a g o o d e e rc i s e i n al g e b ra i c al l o g i c
C o r 2 Th e p a r t i c u la r c a s e o f t h abo v e t h e or em w h e r e th e
n u m be r o f f a c t o r s i s e q u al t o t h e d e g r e e o f th e f u n c t i o n i s o f
We h a v e then
s p e c i al i nt e r e s t
.

t
b
s
e p,
p y
o f fa c to r s n ot
s te

we

a ,,

a 2,

:c

He r e P i s

a2

a
c

r d eg r e e t h t i s i s a c o n tant To d et e r m i n e i t

w e h v e o nl y t o c o m p a r e t h e c o e fc i e n t s o f a o n t h e l e f t a n d
24
r i g h t h n d s i d e s w h i c h m u st b e e q u al by ch ap i v
N ow

s t an d s f o r
r
c +p
He n c e P
pa
p t
p
a nd w e h a v e
of ze o

n -

a,

a2

r w o rd s If n di er ent va lu es of to can be found f or whi ch

the i n teg r a l fu n cti on
can be r esol ved i nto n
vanis hes th en
factor s of the 1 s t deg r ee a ll di er ent

Th e s tu d en t m u s t obs e r v e th e
if
h ere
\Ve h a v e n o t
s h ow n t h at n s u c h
p a r t i c ul a r v al u e s o f a; can al w ays b e fo u n d
f ou n d bu t o nl y t h a t if they can be found th e
o r h o w t h e y ca n b
fa c to r i s at i o n m ay b e e ff e c te d
Th e q es t i n a s t o t h e nd i ng o f
& c b e l ng s t o t h e Th e o ry o f Eq u t i o n i nto w h i c h
w e a e n o t ye t p r e p r e d t o e n te r
Th e s t d e n t w h o h a f ol l o w e d t h e ab o v e t h eo ry w i l l
n at u r l l
C n m re th n n v lu e
y p u t t o h i m s e l f t h e q u e ti o n
In

oth e

a ,,

a 2,

s,

R E M AIN D E R T HE O REM

THE

be fou nd f o r

o f a;

a nd ,

van s h es,
an s w e

ion

far

so

s o,

va l u es o

in

ab o

the

a
s o

deg r ee vani sh f or more tha n

i denti cally that is each of i ts

n th

van sh

be

ve

v al u e s f or w h i c h
v an i s h e s
c o e fc i ent o f th e h i g h e s t p ow e r

th e

u of

i f p 0 be th e

h a ve

we

a:

an o t h e

N o w l e t ,8 be

i ch

wh

vanish

an

15

nth

f oll o w i t

i t must

a,

a , a,
,
,

th e n by

th e

a: o f

w e can n ow

as

must

i ci ents

coe

L et

d eg r ee

w h at t h e n ?
Th e f o ll o w i ng t h e o r e m w i ll
e n er al t h e o r y o f f a c t o r i s
a n d c o m pl e t e t h e
g

i nteg r a l fu ncti on

an

dierent

o f a:

if

i c h a n i n t e g r al f u n c t i o n o f

r th i s qu es ti o n

If
n

wh

99

v a n sh es ,

a2

a
:

( s i n c e th e r e ar e m or e th an n )
si nce
I
i
s tr ue fo r a ll v a l u e s o f c
c
)
(

v al u e

th e n ,

for
we

h ave
=

S i n c e, by h ypoth es i s , a , ,
n o n e of th e d i ffe r en c e s ,8
an

) (c

<e

a.

We

h av e

now ,

th e

r efor e

f or m o r e t h a n

ar e a

ll

of

'

+ p 2 as

f u n c t i on

( 2)

d th er e fo r e th e i r p r o d u c t c ann o t v a ni s h
n
1
T h i s b e i n g s o,
r e du c es t o p l a

pn
w h i ch

d i ffe r ent
can v an i s h
)8
Hen c e ( 2 ) g iv e s p
O

a2,

an

an d

a ,,

a,,

a ,,

(e

a.

th e

(n

1 ) th

d eg r e e

r e f o r e f o r m o r e th a n ( n
v a l u e s o f i t s v ar i abl e
We can by a r epet i t i o n of th e abo v e
r ea son i ng p r ov e th at th e h i g h es t c oe fc i en t p of th i s f n c ti o n
P r o c ee d i ng i n th i s w ay w e can s h o w s t ep by s te p
v an i s h e s
th a t all th e c o efc i e nt s o f
v an i sh
A
e m ple f thi c e the tudent m y t ke the follo w ing
T he integr l function
(B e
H )
BH
rH W ) (
7 ) (w
B) ( w
i

v a n sh es

n,

th e

s an

xa

as

x -

- u

n at

(5

T h t th i s
a

x -

so

le ft h nd i de
- a

an

{c

an s

)(

is

a,

sa

BH

the re der m
a

is

onl y

fo r

the
ll v lue
of

2 nd

s of a ,
'

Hv
+ (B
x

l3)

= 7 ; b t it
w hen
v n i he w hen
hen
d
w

IV there fore in fer th t the f unct i on v

degree i
i he
th t i to y th t w h ve i dentic lly
a

v) ( w

)(

B)

x a -

i3 )

x - a

B)
0

re d i l y ver i fy by e p nd i ng
a

)(

x -

an d a

rr nging the
a

1 00

IN

C or

If two i nteg r al

cti vely

resp e

m bei ng

valu es o

D E TE R M I NATE C O EFFI C IE N T S

a3, a

f uncti ons of

fo r t i o r i , if

i denti cally equa l , then the

two mu s t be equa l

deg rees are m and n

va lu e f or more than m differ ent
f

a ll

f or

va l u es o

coe

tha t i s to

x,

l ike p ower s

i ci ents of

say,

whos e

a
t,

be equ al i n
they be e qu a l

n,

e mu

i n the

a;

We may w i th o t
b ea c h o f d eg r e

to
s

i m pl y

of

l os s

r i ty

of

g en e al

c o effi c i nts o f a
W h a v e th e r e f o r e

m ean s th a t th e

ar e z e o

n o t e u al
q

c ions
d eg r e e th i s

t h e t w o fu n t

su pp os e

m, f or, i f t h ey b e

th e m

in

th e

on e

by h yp o th e s i s ,
+

an d

in

qm ,

r e fo r e
(P

f o r m o r e th a n m

H en c e

v
go

v al u e s

0.

o f 93

m u st h av e

we

po

(r

m "

90

0:

17 1

QI

"

0>

pm

9m

0 3

th at i s ,
'

Th i s

is

of

i ndeter mi nate

i m p o r t an t

c ou r se

m er el y

i ci ents

coe

f or m

of

th e p

r i n c i pl e

of

Th e p e s e n t v i e w o f i t i s , h o w e v e ,
an
t i v e , f o r w e can n o w s ay t h a t,
y

i n s tr u c

an d

an o t h e

functi on of re can be tr ansformed

thi s tr ansfor ma ti on i s u ni qu e

i nto

an

fu ncti on of

i n teg ra l

a,

then

ry w e h av e j u s t b ee n ex
o un d in
i
n
t
s o m u c h t h a t t h e s tu d e n t m a
i
s as s e nt
r
s
o
f
us
e
h
e
p
g
y
t o t h e d em o n s t ra t i o n s g i v en a s t h a t h e m ay fa i l t o a pp r e h e n d
f u l l y t h e s c o p e an d g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s
We p r o c e ed
th e r e f o r e b e f r e l e a v i n g t h e s u bj e c t to i l l u s t r a te v e r y fu l ly t h e
u s e o f t h e r e m a i n d r th e o r e m i n v r i o u s
a r t i cu l ar c as es
p
To h el p t h e s tu d e n t w
s h a ll d i s t i n g u i s h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
ex m le
b e tw e e n i d en t i c al an d c o n d it i o nal e qu at i o n s by u s i ng
p

f o r t h e fo r m e r a n d t h e s i g n
th e s i g n
f o r t h e l at t e r
E m ple 1 T o deter m ine th v lue f the con t nt I i n order th t
Th e

d ang e r

w t h th e t h e o

s,

xa

6 wg

e ctl y divi i ble by + 2

T he re m i nder fter d i viding

m ay b e

xa

oc

s a

4x

by

+ 2,

th t
a

is ,

by

is

X A MP L ES

th t i 8 + l T he condition
k
8
o th t i
T o determ ine w hether

2 ) + k,

+ 6(

there fore 8 + l
E m ple 2

ez

xa

s,

s,

d i vi i ble by (
I f w put
s

+ 1)

a
s:

Tac

in the f unction

(I)

we

96

is

( 1)

get

2 = Q

3
s

xa

( a:

hence it i divi ible by + 1

2 w get
I f w put

e ct divi ibilit y

fo r

3x 3

is

101

8 1 4 2 2 0,

24

hence it i divi ible b y w 2

T he quotient i thi c e
H ence b y 1 5 it i divi i ble by ( + 1 ) (
ince the degree f ( 1 ) i the 3 d w m u t h ve
i e il y o bt ined f
s

as

o r, s

3x

2 9c2

as

7a3

nu mb er t b determ ined
on the le ft m u t b equ l to the
I f w o b erve th t the h i g he t ter m
f the f ctor
product
f the three h i ghe t ter m
the right w
th t 3
hence
3
A d
i nce the product f the three lo w e t
term f the f ctor
the right m u t b equ l to 2 the lo w e t term the
le ft w g t 2 b 2 th t i b= l H ence fi n ll y

here

a an d
e

are

ac x a: x a n o

s ee

3
3
x E aa
c ,

s o

"

"

be

"

a
c

c
e

r em

"

"v

on

( a2

2)

th t i

is

"

lw

ys

a"

0 if

"

2an

al w a

0 if

+ an

even

be

ys

be

2 a" if

ence

o
c

"

"

is

cc

xa

xa

as

an

a
c

xa

so

odd

or a

2a " i f

as

even

s of n , a nd

be

odd,
a

by

bu t i s

gree w ith

(b
a

O dd

F ir t f l l reg rd P
integr l function f
s

is

xa

be

f
e ctly divi ib le by
ll i ntegr l v lue

i f n b even
e ctly divi i ble by + i f b
+ i
+
never e ctl y div i ible by
long
T he e re ult
# 0)
(
tho e given bove ch p iv 1 6
E m ple 4 T o prove th t

po it i ve integer

on

7 cc

2
2 3c

divided by the

nu

ac

is

s,

If

hen

a
c

at

ple 3

3x3

Exam

s on

c) + b ( ) +
f the 3 d degree
3

(b

a o

c
b
(
)

3
=
P b (b

0 ;

3
+ b (c

3
c a

a nd,

b)

as

c- a
a

b)

f unct i on

i f w e pu t

b)

) (a
a

= b,

of a

C O N T INUED DIVISI O N

102

i il l

put

d s m ar y , i f w e
b an d b a c

an

as

e ctl y divi i ble b oth

is

xa

by

g i n reg rd P
n d v ni h e
w hen
there fore
A

there fore P

= c, P = O

ca n

b = c,

unction f b lone I t i
integr l f unction f b
hence it i e ctly divi ible by b I V h ve
a

s an

xa

b)

c) (b

(a

ince P reg rded

f unct i on f
b
d
i
f the 4 th degree it
n integr l f unction
follo w t h t Q m u t b
f
b
f the l t degree
Hence l m n b eing m ere nu m b er w hich w h ve till to deter mine w
h ve
S

e a

s
,

as

an

c,

a,

c o

a,

c
b
(
)

(b

)(

c) ( c ) ( b)
T o deter m ine l w h ve m erel y t co m p re the coe ffi cient f b n b oth
ide I t thu re ult by in pect i on th t l 1 ; nd im il rl y m 1
1 ;
the l t t w in ference b e i ng l o ob viou by th l w f ymm etry W h ve
there fore n lly
( la

as

ni b

) (6

no

a s

s o

E xa m

(b

b) 2

ple 5

To

( 3)

2 c3a 2

F ir t reg rding 1
th t i b y
b
s,

2 2

2b

2 c3

b c

as a n

we

+ 2b

5 2

2b c

2 b3 c2

)(

+ b c)

divid i ng it by

+ b+

b
c

4 bc3

4 b3c

b
4

Hence

b+

a , an d

or

4
c

integr l function f
h ve f the re m inder

b c

b4

(
a

bl

P E 2b c

l(

a -

ho w th t
e 2

C - d

2 04

4 b3c

2 b4

6 b3 c2

4 bc3

4
c

2c

b4

P i e ctl y divi ible by + b +

f b into b or
into
i nto
f
O b erving th t the ch nge f
doe not lter P l l the po w er f the e letter therein occurring b eing even
b+
th t P m u t l o b divi ible by + b +
d + b c We
w
h ve thu f ound fo r f ctor f the l t degree in b
n d there
b no
f the 4 th degree i
the e letter T hi be i ng e t b
m ore ince P i t el f i
in E m ple 4 th t the con t nt m ultipl i er i
l i h d it i e y to prove
1
d thu the re ult i e t bli hed
s

e s ee

an

a s

as

X PA N S I O N

a , or o

s a

c, a n

c, a
a,

xa

as

s o

OF

s o

xa

ca n

c, a

s a

s a

R ATI O N A L F R A C TI O N S

IN

S ER I E S

BY

M EA N S O F

C O N TI N U E D D I V I S I O N
I f w r e fe r b a ck t o
5 an d 6 a n d c o n i d e r t h e anal ys i s
3
th e r e g i v e n w e s h l l s ee t h a t e v e ry s te p i n t h p r o c e s s o f l o ng
d ivi s i on g iv e s u s an al g ebr a i c l i d en ti ty o f th e f o r m
R
Am
I
.

'

D ES C EN D I N G C ON TI N U E D D I V I SI ON

r Q i s t h e p a r t o f th e q u o t i e n t
r e s i d u e a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e w e s u pp s e
w he

r dy

th e

e x am p e ,

F or

2 0v
2s

if w e

th e

s t op a t

en

of

f ou n d ,

R th e
o p e r a t i n a rr es t e d
t h e s e c o n d O p e ra t i on

al e a

1 03
an

10

3d

6x

4x

8
4

2x

2a

6 56

Sec

10

4 222 + 6 56

Ag a i n, i n s t ea d o i c o n n i ng o u r s el ve s t o i n t eg r a l t e r m s i n or, an d
th e r efo r e a rr e s t i n g th e p r o c es s w h e n th e r em a i n d e r, s tr i ctly so

call ed

r eac h e d

is

c as e

I n th i s

if w e

conti nu e t he O p era ti on t o an y e x ten t

a f te r any s t e p w e s t i l l
g e t an i d ent i ty o f

w e m ay

s to p

th e f o m

A
w he

re
Q

AM

an d

(r)

Bap

D.

M /JI

w3

4
t

03

let conduct the d i vi ion in the contr cted

the p ow er f f gre ter cle rne
c
c

"3
o
o

n er
n

of

1 2 , bu t

in ert
s

+ 03 + 1

w+ 1 +

ss

or

ma

us

s o

ll e d Des cendi ng Conti nu ed D i vis ion

an d

T/l

xa

K 2;

T h i s p r o c e s s m y be c
F or e m ple con ider

1
f

+
+
4
j:1 3
a:

a3

a:

3
.

+2

9;

?
as

2
}

hence

an
x

il

2
l -2 L
.

3
a

x +

a:

)
d

a,

a,

i de tit y w hich the tudent hould veri fy

n

+ az+ 1

Va

"

m4

by m

ulti p l ying both ide

s

by

1 04

AS EN

D I N G C ON T INUED DIVISI O N

W h en w e p rol o n g

ca n

r i

d ivi s i on i nd e ni tely
i n t h i s w ay w e m ay o f c ou rs e a rr ng e e i th e r d iv i d e n d o r d iv i s o r
T a k i ng t h e l a t t e r
o r b o th a cc o rd i ng t o as c e n d i ng p ow e r s o f x
a rr a n e m e n t w e
t
n d o f r es u l t w h i c h m ay b e i l lu s
w
k
i
e
a
n
e
g
g
t r at e d w i th th e f r a c t i o n u s e d ab ov e
We n w h ve
th e

o p e at on o f
a

4 + 3x + 2 x 2 +

2 x2 +

1 + x + x2

4 x x 2 + 3 x3 2 x 4

x5

+ 2 x3

+ 3 x3 +

4
x

2 x 4 3x "

6
2
x
+
6
7
+ 3x + x ,

hence

2
2
x
+ 3x + 4
+

4 a x 2 + 3 x3
'

+x+ 1

( 3 + 9: l

2 x4

5
H

An d, i n g e n e r al , p r o c ee d i ng i n a s i m i l a r w ay w i th
i nte g r al f u n c t i on s, An, a nd D , w e g e t

Am

II

x9 +

an

w he e

Th i s p r o c e s s

m ay b e

The

Bx

c a ll e d
f

r esu l ts

A scending Conti nu ed D i vi s i on

1 8, 1 9

y tw o

sh ow

tha t we

us

can ,

by the

rdi nary p rocess of conti nued long di visi on exp and any r a ti onal fr action

as a
ser i es
ei ther of descendi ng or ascendi ng p ower s of x contai n

i ng as ma ny ter ms a s we p l ease p l us a r es i du e w hi ch i s i ts elf a

r ati ona l fr acti on
A nd ther e i s no d ii cul ty i n s how i ng that when the i n teg er q i s
1 8 and 1 9 i s u ni qu e
g iven each of the exp ansi ons ( 2 ) and ( 6 ) of
Th e pr o o f d ep e n d s o n t h e t h e ry o f d eg r e e a n d m ay b e l e ft
a s an e x e rc i s e f o
t h e r e ad e r
Th e s e s er i e s ( the Q o Q p ar t s abo ve ) b e l o ng a s w e s h al l

f t e r t o th e g e n e r al c l s s o f R e cu rr i n g Se r i es
s ee h e r
T he follow ing
i m ple e m ple f the proce e w h e b een d ib
i ng
o

ea

ar e s

xa

2
.

"2

ss

s o

1
x

+x

ar

"

av

escr

1
x

l x

9
H

E
1

1 +x

X PAN SI ON T HE O R EM S

(1 1 l

12

1 +x+

1 05

+1

n +2

71 7

+ 96

'

2 n +2

mty +u ( n +1 )

nr

X P RE SS I ON

OF

G R AL F U N CTI O N
A N OTHE R

ONE

1 +x

"

I N TE

2 ) x "+ 1

IN

"

1 ) x " +2

P O WE R S

OF

cc as i o n i n a l a te r ch ap t e r t o u s e tw o
p r t i c u l ar ca s e s o f t h e f oll o w i n g t h e o r em
If P a nd Q be i nteg r a l functi ons of the mth and nth deg r ees
r esp ecti vely m
n) then P may a l ways be p u t i nto the form
(
I ve

s h all

h av e

re R R
w h i ch i s n
exceed m n
/
whe

0,

R, Q

R0
R10

,,

at

i nteg r al

are

a nd

most,

Rg Q

p is

RP QP

fu nc ti ons
a

p osi ti ve

ree of each of
i nteg er whi ch cannot
the deg
,

P r oq f

r e m a i nd e r
I f t he

an

D i v i d e P b
y
R0

an

d l et t h e q u o t i e n t b e

d eg r e e
d i vi d e

a nd

th e

Q by
o

Q by
l

l e t t h e q u o ti en t b e
u nt i l
a q u o t i en t

a nd

2 ,

b e g r e at e r t h an t h a t o f Q d iv i d e
q u o t i e n t b e Q 1 a n d th e r e m a i n d e r R ,
of

r e m a i nd e r R a n d s o o n
w h o s e d e g r ee i s l e s s t h an t h e d e r e e o f Q
g
v ni e nce w e c al l al s o R
W
e th u s h a v e
p
e

d l e t th e

N ex t

Qp

is

an d

th e

r ea ch e d
for

co n

QQ+
Q Q+
Q
=
+
e
a
n
P

Qp Qp -

Ro

Rl

Qp Q
i

R.

(g
Rp

-i

E X PANSI O N

106

N ow ,

c d

se on

r s t

g i n th e

us n

of

THE O

RE M S

v al u e

th es e t h e

g iv e n by t h e

R0 )

R0

U s i ng

th e

v al u e

of

s o on

QQ

RI Q

R0

by t h e t h i rd , w e

n
iv
e
g

We

of

w e O bt a n

An
d

ca n

R2 Q

RI Q

QQ

o bt a n

i nally th e r e qu i r e d r e su l t f or R R
RP b e i ng r e m a i n d e r s a ft e r d ivi s i o n s by Q ( w h o s e d eg r ee i s n)
n o n e o f th e s e ca n b e o f h i g h e r d e g r e e t h an n
l ; mo r eov e r

e OS
of Q
ar
s i n c e th e d e Ir O
es
e
m
n
m
2n
Q Q
g
m np p c a nn o t e x c ee d m/a
3n
m
T he t w m o tt i m port nt p rticul r c e
tho e in w hich s
nd
W e then h ve
t h u s Ob t a n

0 ,

1 ,

0,

2 ,

1,

a s s are

a. a

P = a 0 + a 1 (x
w

here

a o, a1

here

a o, a 1

E x am

L et

ple 1

a ,, a r e

con t nt
s a

b0 , b1 ,

bp

are

con t nt
s a

s , a nd

p i> m/2

P = 5 a3 1 1 x 3 + 1 0x 2 ,

l
s
.

T he c alcul ation

of

the ucce ive rem i nder

ss

roceed

as

ollo w

1 3)
0

+ 4
+2

an d

we

nd
5 x3

E x am p

le 2

1 1 x + 1 0x

1 )2 + 5 (x

2 = 2 + 3 (x

1 ) + 4 (x

9
4
x
+ 3x
+

x8

31

+ 4x

x+ 1

1,

T he s tudent w ill nd
Ro z l l x ,

RI :

2 2x +

7,

R2 2 1 9x 2 2 ,

R3 = 7 x + 1 5 ,

B4 2 1 ;

( s ee

E X PANSI O N

REM S

THE O

th t

so

107

us

2 2 -1 If

whi h may be

1)

cons tants any two or more of

then any i nteg r a l fu ncti on of x of the nth d eg r ee

an

be

( in

equ a l,

may be p u t i nto the for m

AO

A , (x

re A

whe

may be

a,

A, ( x

a,

i n t e g r al

f u n c t i o n, t h e n ,
a,

so o n

P ,, by

AO

wh

i ch

we

ha v e

A,

c ou r s e

of

m ay

in

any

(n

P1

th e s e

AO

A , (x

A0

A , (x

e q u a t o ns ,

)
a
)

a,

w e g et

a,

)(

A, (x

A , (x

a,

cc e s s i v e ly

)(

x A a,

x
(
)

su

a,
a,

AO

d iv i d i ng

F i nall y

U s i ng

a,

P ,,

ch excep t A

P ,,

as

whi

ar e con s ta nts, a ny one o

r A i s th e c o n s tan t r e m i n d e r
p a r t i c u l a r c as e b e e r o
N e x t d ivi d i n g P
by ( x
w he e

an

)
x
(

a2

a,

zero

L et P , , b e t h e g iv e n
a , , w e h av e
P ,,

A3 (x

A ,,

A , , A2 ,

0,

a,

a,

a,

) (x

) (x

) A (x
a
) (a;

a,

a,

a,

) (c

a,

Th i s k i n d o f
u sef ul i n
p r c ti c e
a

fo r

e x p e s s on

i n te g r a l

an

fu n c t i o n i s

o ing p i i th t the e p n ion i po i ble w n i f w choo e

determ i ne the coe f cien t by giving p rticul r v lue to
B ut the m o t
r pid proce in gener l i im pl y to c rry out the divi ion indic ted in the
proo f e ctl y in E m ple 1 f l t p r gr ph
1 i
T hu to e p re
the form A + A ( 1 ) A ( 1 ) ( 2 )
1) (
2) (
+A (
w c lcul te
f ollo w
Kn w

r or

ss

xa

as

s,

3 x

s s

ss

as

a a

as

ca

x
s

1 x

ss

xa

2 x

E X ER C ISES

108

IX

ca n

1 1 + O + O 1

ence

0 +3

"
x

)(

l ) ( x

-2

) (x

E X E RC E I X
T r n for m th follo w ing quotient nd i ng b oth integ l quo tien t
re m inder w here the quot i ent i fr ction l
IS

ra

s,

5 x3 +
x
(
5

5x

1 9x 4 + 3 1 x3

5
6
x
2
x
+
(

and

3 7 x 2 + 2 7x

3x

5
4
3
4
x
2
x
x
3
+
(

{(

(8

)(

a
c-

9x + 2 3x

it

(x
( 90

2)

)(

(x
2 3 513

)(

1 5)
93

7 6 0 (x - 6 )

5)

6)

8x +

t l/(

1l

5 x

Jc

(x
l
(x s

5
x

VW

- xs l
y

2 x4y + 4 oc3 y2

8x 3;

a bx

ac

bd

(f
a

'

z 2

8y3 )

2 a bc

1
b
( + + c bc b c

ax

2a b 0
bc

2 a be

)
3
- br 3
a
a
x
b
(
( y
)
y)

+ by )

bc

a c

{(

1 6 x y4

ba

2 a 3 b2

xy a

2 a 2 b3

b9 )

{ (

{a
bx )

(a y

x 6
2
b
{ a (x

(a

b) ( a

c)

x7

(29

g 2

(2 2

ab u

2ah

)
2
b)

} (

b)

E
3x 2

1 09

IX

2 23 +

3
x
4
x
(
n

X E RC I SES

3 42 + 7 6x +

F ind the re m inder w hen

9 i div i ded b y 2 + 3
F ind the rem inder w hen p + q + q p i s d i vided by 1
nd the condition th t the funct i on in que t i on b e ctly d i v i i ble by
F ind the condition th t A - + m y + Cy b e ctl y d i vi i ble
6 x 2 + 8x

3
a

3
x

xa

2n

xa

an d

by

Qy

F ind the condi ti on th t

a

m +p x

g
If

a b e

divi ible by (
s

q,

1)

A
a +

If
,

ax

+ bx +

then

e ctl y d i vi ible

be

xa

by

c or

fa t

D eter m i ne

nd p

A, a,

of x

3 bl ,

+ 2ax

in order th t

(x +

2
+ 3x3 + h x + pwc +

4
x

u,

:t

e ctl y divi i ble

4x3 + 6p x 2 + 4qx + r b e

xa

by

xa

e ctl y

be

ho w th t
nd p
+
+ (p
q)
b oth
not e ctl y divi i ble by +p + q
+
q + either both
F ind the condition th t
1)
b integr l
in e rie f cending d l o in erie f
E p nd
n d nd in e ch c
de cending po w er f
e th re i due fter + 1 term
1 /(
R w here A
E pre
+
) in the for m A E + C + D
B C D
con t nt nd R cert in r tion l function f
by l
D ivide l + + E
3
Sho w th t i f y 1 t hen ppro i m tel y
+ y) = 1
y
y)
per cent
1 + y the error in e ch c e b eing
d
F ind i m il r ppro im tion f
w here
i
po itive integer
1 + n(
n b eing
ho w th t
po it i ve integer
If
1
i incre ed w ithout li m i t
b eco m e inni t el y
H ence ho w th t w hen
1
g e t innitel y m ll cco rding
integ r l function f ( ) i divided by (
Sho w th t w hen
)
G ener l i e
)
) the re m inder i {f ( ) (
)
(
thi theorem
if
Sho w th t f ( ) f ( ) i e ctl y divi i bl e by
n d th t

then the quot i ent i

+p
+p
+p
+
S

rx

3
x
p

a re , or

a re

xa

'

s o

<

as

x3

s o

a s

a s

2
x

ax

an

as

s a

s a

are

as

ss

an

or

a >

r a

or

or

as a >

<

a2

a1

d l

a,

1x

Hence
x( a )
w

as

an

a2

>

(x

here

2x

ho w th t

+P 1 a

hen

f (x )
+p

1a

divided

is
n

by

(x

If

+ p 1x

1 -

+p n

an d

a,

ns

n s o

+ Pn i

is

w h i ch i
e l i ne r f ctor w i th the e cept i on f
f
onl y d the rel t io connecting the coe fficie t f the tw
I f w hen y +
i
ub t i tuted f
in x + x

s am

-1

the re m inder

+p n_ l
"

n ,

+P 1 a

) m a ).

xa

or

ac

"

h ve the
ctor in the r t
function
the

+ qn _

a1

1 10

c z ar

zes nB
t

by

1
i s r + Irf
+
i e o g l zml f uncti on i s
.

z - c.

=
z

'

H em e ob ta i n
=
llz
z + z

by

t h e r es ul :

z -

a
md

b1 m th e r em ai ndm

th e s u

3 fm

q
z

in

uoti ent
5

13a

'

E xp res

z -

'

W
W

2-3 2

3 Xz
i -5

'

'
i n ne f orm A r B z

+ A4

an d

-1
z1

3
5
z
1
Y

b C

m d

di v i de

b y D,

: h e 1 m ai n dm

m B m d B

'

P i s di de i by D e m mD d i s R ; amd w h en t b e i nt eg a]
i n ds di t m i s drd ded b y D i e m ndm i s S m d th e
'

'

i n g d q na em g
m ai i i ng by D m d
'

ien

by D

W
m mt
r

g f uncti om
Q, md M
'

o btz f n e d

by
m h i s th e

E X ER C ISES

110

IX

C H AP

re ult i y + b y
ho w th t b b
the re m inder
b
b
d i v i ded by
w hen the origin l f unction i
d the ucce i ve quotient
15
by
in
Hence o b t in the re ult f u b t i tuting 31 + 3 f
s

"

"

n ,

2
3
l
2
0
x
x
x +3
+
7

1 a re

c, a n

6.

ud

ss

or x

C(x +

ss

s
s

a s

ss

pre ( + 3 + in the form A E ( + 2 )

l o in the form A + B ( C + D ) ( + + 1 ) ( E + F ) (
x +
1 in the f or m A + A (
E pre
+
+
Ex

3
x

&c

+ ac+

1)

1 x

&c

an d

Ag ( x + 1 )

(x + 3 )

hen P d P
di ided by D the re m inder
R nd R
ho w th t w hen PP d RR
divided b y D the re m inder
identic l
When P i divided by D the rem inder i R
d w hen the integr l
quotient ob t ined i n thi divi ion i divided by D the rem inder i S d the
integr l quotient Q R S Q
th corre ponding function o b t i ned by
r t divid i ng by D d then by D S ho w th t Q = Q d th t e ch i th
integr l quot i ent w hen P i d i v i ded by DD ; l o th t
d th t e ch f the e i th re m i n der w hen P i divided by DD
I f, w

an

ar e

an

ar e

ar e

a s
s

an

s ar e

an

an

an

s a re

'

an

CHA P TER

VI

G r ea t es t C o m m o n M e a s u r e

a nd

M u l ti p l e

L eas t C om m on

i
v e n i n t eg r al
g
fu n c t i o n i s e x a c tl y d i v i s i bl e by a noth e r an d s e e n h o w i n c e r t a i n
c as es t o nd t h e d i v i s o r s o f a g i v e n i n teg ral fu n c t i o n w e a r e
n atu r al ly l e d t o
c o n s i d e r th e p robl em G i v en t w o i nt eg r al
f u n c t i on s t o nd w h e th e r th ey h av e any c o m m o n d i v i s o r o r n o t
We are th us l e d t o l ay d o w n t h e fol l ow i ng d e n i ti o ns
A ny integ r a l fu ncti on of x w hi ch d i vi des exa ctly two or mor e g i ven
Hav i ng

h o w t o t e s t w h et h e

s een

on e

ral fu ncti ons of x i s called a common measur e of these func ti ons

The i nteg r al fu nc ti on of h i g hes t deg r ee i n x wh i ch d i vi des exactly
ea ch of two or mor e g i en i nteg r a l functi ons of x i s ca ll ed the g r ea tes t
commo n measure
of these fu n cti ons
A m o r e g e n e r a l d e n i t i o n m i g h t b e g i v e n b y s u pp o s
i ng t h at th er e ar e any n u m be r o f v ar i abl e s x y z u & c ; i n
t h at c ase th e fu n c t i on s m s t al l b e i n t eg r al i n x y z u & c a n d
t h e d e g r ee m u s t b e r e ck o n e d by t a k i n g all t h e s e v ar i abl e s i n t o
Th i s d e n i ti o n i s h ow ev e r o f c o m pa r a t i v ely l i ttl e
a cc ou nt
i m p or tan c e a s i t h as be en appl i e d i n p r ac ti c e o nly t o t h e case o f
m on o m i al f un ct i o n a nd e v en t h e r e i t i s n o t i nd i s pe n s abl e
As
i t h as b ee n m e nt i o ne d h o w e v e r w e m ay as w ell e x e m pl i fy i ts
u s e b e fo r e d i s m i ss i n
g i t al t og e th e r
L e t th e m on o m i al s b e 4 3 2 a b x y z 2 7 0 a b x y
9 0 a bx y 2

th e v a r i abl es be i ng as y s t h e n th
G O M is x y z or n y
w h e r e C i s a c o n s t a n t c o e fc i e n t ( th at i d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n t h e
v ar i abl e s x y
Th e g e n e r al r l e o f w h i c h th e ab o v e i s a p a r t i c u l a r c s e i s

i nteg

s,

z,

s,

as

f oll o w s

112

G OM
.

The G C M
.

ca n

r of

monomi als i s the p r od uct of the

l owes t p ower
i n w hi ch i t occu rs i n any

nu m be

an

ch rai sed to the

one of the g iven fu nc ti ons
T h i s p r o d u ct m ay o f c ou r s e be m u l tipl i e d by any c o n stant
c o efc i en t
G C M
O B TA I N E D B Y I N S P E C TI O N
Retu rn i ng t o th e p r a c ti c ally i m p o r tant c ase of i n t eg r al
f u n c t i on s o f on e v ar i abl e x l e t u s c on s i d e r th e c a se o f a n u m be r
P P
e a ch o f w h i c h h as b e e n r e
o f i n t e r al f u n c t i o n s P
g
u c t of
os i t i v e i nt e r al
s o l v e d i n to a
r
o
d
o
w
r
s o f c e r ta i n f a c t o r s
e
p
p
g
p
s
x
s o th a t
8 x y &c
o f t h e 1 s t d e g r ee s ay a
va

r ia bles

INSPE C T I O N

BY

ea

yr

P
P

P =p
,

"

of

15

k no w

"

re o f P
a n c ont a i n o nl y p o w e r s o f t h o se f a c t o r s o f th e 1 s t d e g r e e t h at
o cc u r i n P a n d can c o n ta i n n o n e o f t h os e fa c t o r s i n a h i h e r
g
r
w
h
an t h at i n w h i c h i t o cc u r s i n P a n d th e s m e i s t r u e f or
o
e
t
p
P P &c
He n c e ev e r y c omm on m e as u r e o f P P P & c can
c o n tai n onl y su ch f ac tor s as are c om m on t o P P P 85 0 Hence
t a conta ins s i mp ly a l l the
the g r ea test common measu r e of P P P
t c each r a ised to the l ow es t
fa ctors tha t ar e common to P P P
r
h
i
c
h
t
occu rs i n a ny on e of these fu ncti ons
i
n
w
i
e
w
o
p
S i n c e m e r e n u m b er s or c o n s tan t l ett er s h a v e n o th i ng t o d o
w i th q u e s t i o n s r el at i n g t o t h e i nt e g r al i ty o r d e g re e o f a l g e b r a i c a l
f u n c t i on s th e G C M g i v e n by t h e ab o v e r u l e m ay o f c o u r s e b e
m u l t i pl i e d by any nu m e r i c al o r c o n s tan t c oefc i ent
E m ple 1
By

c h ap

(x
b

x
x
8
) (
l ) (
y)
we

t h at

ev e

ry

m easu

xa

9
=
x
2
6x +
P

P = 6 x 6x

2 (x 1 )

(x

Hence the G C M f P d P i
E m ple 2
P = 5x + 7 +
P = 7 + 1 7 1 3 1 0
.

xa

an

3
x

5 -

5
x

3
x

2 =
4 3
5
=
x
4
x + 7
3x
x
P

T he

s x

+ 2 0x 8 =

(x

(x

th t i x 4 + 3 + 4 4
G C M i (
m ore f the g i ven f unc
t occur t l l i n
I f ny v ri ble doe
tion i t m u t f cour e b o m itted ltogether in the G O M
.

s,

no

s,

3
x

o n e or

C ONT R AST B ET W EEN AL G EB R AI C AL

VI

I t w i ll b e w ell

th

at

is

R T HM ETI C AL

G C M

A I

s tag e

to

c au t i on

th e

1 13

s tu

d en t

be i n g m i s l e d by th e a n al og y b e tw e e n th e al g ebr ai c al an d
H e s h o ul d n o t i c e t h a t n o m e n t i o n i s
a r i t h m e t i c al G O M

ag a ns t

th e

d e o f ar i thm et i c al m ag ni tu d e i n th e d e ni t ion of th e alg ebr ai ca l

u s e d i n t h at d e n i t i o n r e f e r s
r
e at es t
Th e w o r d
G CM
g
I t i s n o t e v e n t r u e t h t th e a r i th m e ti c al
m er el y t o d eg r e e
G C M o f th tw o n u m e r i c al v al u es of t w o g i ven f un c t i o ns o f x
i s th e a r i t hm e ti c al
o b ta i n e d b y g ivi ng x any p ar t i c u l a r v al u e
v al u e o f t h e al g e br a i c al C C M w h e n t h a t p ar ti c u l a r v al u e o f x
i s s u bs ti tu te d th e r e i n n or i s i t p os s i bl e t o f r am e any d e n i t i o n

o f th e al g ebr a i c al G C M s o t h at t h i s s h al l b e t r u e ?
T he tudent w il l be t ti fy hi m e l f f the truth f thi re m rk by tudy
ing th follo w ing e m ple
T he lgeb r i c l G C M f 3 + 2 d 2 i 2 N w put
d 9 2 8 re pect i vel y
T he num eric l v l e f the t w function
87 0
31
the n m eric l v lue f 2 i 2 9 b t the rith m et i c l G O M f 87 0 d 92 8
i not 2 9 b t 5 8
L ON G R ULE F OR G C M
I n c h ap v w e h av e s e en t h at i n c e r ta i n c as e s i n
t eg r al f u n c t i o ns can be r e s ol v e d i n to f a c t o r s 3 b u t n o g e n e r al
m e th o d f o r a cc o m pl i s h i ng th i s r e sol u t i o n e i t s ap a r t f r o m t h e
3
A cc o rd i ng l y th e m e th o d g i v e n i n
th e o r y o f e qu a t i o n s
f or n d i ng t h e G O M o f t w o i n t eg r al fu n c t i o n s i s n o t o n e o f
p e rfe c tl y g en e r al appl i c at i on
Th e p r obl em a d m i ts h ow e v e r of an el em e n tar y S ol ut i o n by
a m eth o d w h i c h i s fu n d a m e n tal i n m a n
r
a n c h e s o f a l eb r a
b
y
g
T h i s sol u t i on r e s ts o n th e fo ll ow i ng pr op os i ti o n
If A = B Q + R A B Q R bei ng a ll i nteg ral functions of x

ma

xa

sa

an

s a re

an

a u s o

an

x s

then the G C M
.

To p r o v e th i s

a nd

B i s the

sa me a s

the G C

M of B
.

d R

an

v e r y c om m o n
T void thi con fu ion o m e w riter
lgeb r h ve u ed i n te d f the
w ord
gre te t com m on m e ure the term h ig h t comm on f ct
We
h ve dhered t the tim e honoured no m encl ture bec u e the innov tion in
th i c e w ould onl y b p rti l re form T he very w ord f ct it el f i u ed
in tot lly d i fferent en e i n lgeb r d in rith m etic
d the
m e i true
f the w ord f
cti l d i t g l w ith reg rd t w h i ch con fu ion i no le
com m on A n
eriou l y propo e t lter the w hole f the term inology
f t h four pecie in lge b r
i t ee m c rcel y w orth the w hile t di turb n
l d f iend l i ke the G C M
O a

e a

ra

on a

an

a,

s s

s s

or

or

an

a an

n e ra

o on e s

VO L

es

s s

as

1 s t, t h a t

s on a

sh ow

as

h a v e to

we

sa

ss

o a

L ON G R U L E

114

F OR G C M
.

C H AP

d i v i sor o f B a nd R d i vi d es A an d B and 2 n d t h t e v e ry c omm on

d i v i s o r of A an d B d iv i d e s B and R
N ow
i n c e A B Q R it f o llo w s by 4 o f chap v t h at
e ve r y c o m m on d ivi s o r o f B a n d R d iv i d e s A h e n c e ev e ry c o m m o n
d ivi s o r o f B and R d iv i d es A an d B
Ag ai n R A B Q h e n c e e v e ry c om m o n d i v i s or o f A a nd B
d ivi d es R h en ce e v e ry c o m m on d iv i so r of A and B d iv i d e s B and R
L et now A a nd B be two i nteg ra l fu ncti ons whose G C llt i s r equ i r ed ;
ter than tha t of the other
a nd l et B be the one w hose d eg r ee i s not g r ea
Di vi de A by B a nd let the quoti ent be Q and the r emai nder R
D i vi de B by R a nd l et the quoti ent be Q and the r emai nder R
D i id e R by R and l et the quoti ent be Q a nd the r ema i nder R
a

, ,

,.

,,

2 ,

2 ,

3 ,

a nd so on

S i nce the

deg ree of each rema ind er i s l ess by uni ty a t l east than the
deg ree of the corresp ondi ng di visor R R R fee g o on d i m inishi ng i n
deg r ee a nd the p rocess mu st come to an end i n one or other of two ways
1 E i ther the di vi s ion a t a cer ta in s tag e becomes exact and the
rema inder vani shes
1 1 Or a s tag e i s r ea ched a t w hi ch the r em ai nder i s r edu ced to a
,,

2 ,

3 ,

cons ta nt

N o w w e h a v e , b y th e p r o c e s s

A
B

d e r iv a t i o n

of

EQ I

R,

Ri

R2

R2 4) ,

R,

R i v2

B IR

a nd

d ivi d es
d ivi de

th a t i s ,

b o th ,

He n c e

of

an

c o n s t an t

I n th i s

for th e i r G C M i s t h e C C M
th e

ir

C C M d i vj d e s
.

th e

sam e

G CM
.

c o n s ta n t

Rn

d eg re e
.

of

c as e
of

Rn

B ut

th a n

an

A
_

no

d B

and
an

of

fo r t h i s

i s R7,

hig h er

of

f u n ti o ns

of

i s th e G C M

h a v e th e

a ll

Rn

rs

He n c e th e G C M

f u n c ti o n

a nd no

I n C as e 1 1

p ai

th e

an d

Rn l

I n C a s e I R,,
Ru

R
1 n

Rey 2

Rn

Ri vi Q n

Hen c e by th e f u nd am en tal p r op o s i t i on
R2
R2 JR3

d e s cr i be d

ab ov e

i ts el f

can

B hav e

no

d R, t h a t i s

i nt e g r a l

f un t i on

M O DI F I C AT I ON S

v:

c o ns tant)

L ON G RULE

115

d
i
v i d e a c o n s ta n t e x a c tl
H
nce
e
y
(
A a nd B h a v e n o G C M ( o th e r t h an a c o ns ta n t)
If therefor e the p rocess ends wi th a zer o r ema inder the l as t d i vi sor
i t ends w i th a constant ther e i s no G C M
i s the 0 (1 M
I t i s i m p or tan t t o r em ark th at i t fo l l o w s f r o m th e
w h i c h co n
n a tu r e o f th e abo v e p r o c es s f or n d i ng th e
s i s ts ess e nt i al ly i n s ub s t i t u t i n g f or th e o r i g i nal p a i r o f fu n c t i o n s
i
r
o f o th e r s w h i c h h a v e th e s am e
t
h
at we
a i r aft e r
a
p
p
may a t any s tag e of the p rocess mu l tip ly ei ther the d i vi sor or the
r ema ind er by a n i n teg r a l fu nc tion p r ovi d ed we ar e su r e tha t thi s
fu ncti on a nd the r ema i nder or d i visor as the cas e may be have no
e
m
a
s
i
m
i
a
l
r
e
m
o
e
r
l r y
common factor W y
f om ei ther the di visor or
717 e may r emove
the r ema i nder a fac tor whi ch i s not common to both
a f actor w hi ch i s common to both p r ovi ded w e i ntr odu ce i t i nto the G G M
t
ollows o
ou r se a f o r t i o r i tha t a nu mer i ca l
I
f
c
a s u l tima tel fou nd
f
y
factor may be i ntrodu ced i nto or r emoved from di vis or or r emai nder a t any
T h i s l as t r e m a rk is of g r eat u s e i n e nabl i ng u s
s tag e of the p r ocess
t o av o i d f ra c t i o ns a nd o th e r w i s e s i mp l i fy th e a r i th m et i c of th e p r o
c e ss I n ord er t o obtai n th e f ull a d v an tag e o f i t th e stu d ent

r em i nd er m ay m ean
s h ou l d n o t i c e t h at i n w h at h a s b e e n s a i d
n o t o nl y th e r e m ai n d e r p r op e r l y s o c al l e d a t t h e e nd o f e a c h s e a
p
r ate d i vi s i on bu t al s o if w e pl eas e t h e r ema i nder i n the mi ddle of

or
r e s i d u e a s w e c al l e d i t i n 1 8 ch ap
a ny s u ch d i vi si on
S om e of th es e r em ark s ar e i l l us tr at e d i n t h e f ol l o w i n g
o t he

OF

t h an a

ca n

e x am pl e s :

ple 1
T o nd the G

Ex a m

O M
.

5
of x

2 xA

2 x4

2 x3 i

8x2
7x + 2
456 2 + 3x

5
{13

- 2
)

2 x3 + 8x2

2 aA 2 x + l 2 x 2

l 0x + 2

5x 1
4x + 3

x +

x
x

3)

6x +

4
l

4x + 3

f
6 x3

'

'

9932
9x 2

41 3
+ 3

9x 3
x

{3

3
a
a;

2 x3
+ 1
2 i 3 1 2 x 9 + 1 8x 8
9)

7x + 2

2x + 1

a nd

4x + 3

4x + 3
+ 1

1 16

X AM P L E S

E
3
x
3
x

6x 2 + 9x 4
2 x2 + x

2 -

4 x 9 + 8x

- 4
)

C H AP

2x + l

+1

2x + l
2
x 2x + l

Hence

the C C M
.

is

2x + 1

r d th at w ha t w e h av e w r i tten i n th e pl ac e
of
u
o t i e n ts ar e n o t r ea ll
u o t i e n t s i n t h e o rd i na r
s e n se o w i ng
q
yq
y
t o t h e r ej e c t i o n o f th e n u m e r i c al fa c to r s h e r e a nd t h e r e
In
p o i n t o f fa c t t h e q u ot i e n ts a r e o f n o i m p o r tan c e i n t h e p r o c e ss
a nd n e e d n o t be w r i t ten d o w n ; n e l e c t i n
g
g th e m c arr y i n g o u t th e
s u bt r a c t i o n s m en t all
y an d u s i ng d et a c h e d c o efc i e n t s w e m ay
w r i t e t h e w h l e c al c u l at i o n i n t h e fol l ow i n c o m a c t f o r m
g
p
I t m u st b e

o b se v e

'

1 2 2 + 8
2
2
6+
1
6+

5 1
9 4

8 4

4+
1

6 9 +
2 3+
9
1

+ 3
+ 9

ple 2
R equ i red the G C M

E xa m
32

2x + 1

8x

of

4x 4

4 1 x9

2 6 x53

2x

an d

24

2
2
x
3

2 0x3

3x 4

B e aring i n m i nd the genera l pr i nc i ple n w h i ch the rule f r nd i ng the

G C M i s founded w e m y proceed a follo w i n order to a vo i d l a rge nu m
o

er

s as

uch

s,

po ss i bl

as

2 1 +

6+

9+

2
6+

24
8

12 +
68 +

16

6+

2+

s
26

32
56

51 3 3 1 8 4 2 4
1 +
6 +
8

16

53

23
1 +

T he

G C M is
.

'

6x + 8

ere the econd line on the le ft i o bt ined fro m the r t by u btr c ting
the fi r t on t h ri ght By the gene l princ i ple re ferred to the funct i on
20 + 32
8
d 3
3 2 h ve the
6
9 + 6 + 8 thu o b t i ned
ori gi n l p ir Si m il rl y th fi fth l i
t h le ft i the
me G C M
th
re ult f u b tr cti ng fro m the l i ne bove three t i m e the econd l i ne the
ri ght
H

sa

as

ra

an

3
x

n e 0 11

on

S E ON

VI

D RU LE

FOR G O M
.

117

d e n t be c ar e f l t p y m o r e t t n t i o n t o t h e p r i n
n d e r l yi ng t h e r u l e t h an t o t h e m e r e m e c h n i c l
c ipl e
pp l i c ti o n
o f i t h e w i l l h a v e l i tt l e d i fc u l ty i n d e v i s i ng o th e r m o d i c at i o n s
o f i t t o s u i t p a r t i c u l a r c as e s
I f th e

s tu

M E TH O

OF

L R N ATE D E S TR U C TI O N
L O W E ST TE RM S

OF

A TE

H I G H E S T AN D

consta nt qu a nti ti es ( such

If l , m, p , q be

r)

ze o

not

an

d B,

a nd

mB

lA

mp i s

a nd

whe e

that l q

B
q

pA

refor e P

the

an

i nteg

ar e

ra l fu ncti ons

then

Q i s the G C M of A a nd B
F o r i t i s c l e a r f r o m t h e e q u at i o n s a s t h e y s t a n d t h a t e v e r y
A g ai n w e h a v e
d i v i s o r o f A a n d B d i v i d e s b o t h P an d

the

a nd

qP
P
p

mQ

g ( lA

lQ

m (p A
mB ) l (p A

mB )

l
A
p(

9B )
B
q )

(lg
( lq

h en c e

mp ) A
mp ) B

m
s ince l
972
a nd
r
v
i
d
d
d
o
e
l
o es n o t v a n i s h )
p
p
q
p
q
(
t h e r e fo r e l q
mp a re al l c o n s t n t i t fo ll o w s th at e v e ry d iv i s o r o f
P a n d Q d iv i d e s A a n d B
T hu s th e p r o p o s i t i o n i s p r o v e d
I n p r ac ti c e l a n d m and p a n d q ar e s o ch os e n th a t t h e
h i g h es t t e r m s h a ll d i s app e r i n l A mB a n d th e l o w e s t i n
A
B
Th e p r o c e s s w i ll b e e a s i l y u n d e r s t oo d f r o m t h e f oll o w
p
q
,

i ng

e x am

Ex am

pl e

ple

L et A = 4

then

2
3
2
x
1
x
6
4
+
+

2x

2 4,

B = 3x f + 2 0 x 3 + 3 2 x 2

8x

32 ;

2 6x

7x

3B

4A

R ejecting w the f ctor

h ve to nd the G C M f
no

x,

44x

6 8x

56

1 6x

hich cle rl y for m no p rt

a

A = 7x 3 4 4x 2 6 8x 1 6 ,

B = 2 x3 + 5x2 2 6x 5 6

R epe ting the b ove proce

a

2A

7A

ss

7B

2 13

3x 2 + 3 1 8x + 4 2 4
2
1
3 8x

of

th e C C
.

we

T EN TA T I VE

1 18

h i ch i
f
th p
nt q
g i ve f ct i ns
th e G C
.

so

of

ar

as

un

3 1 8x + 4 2 4

r ese

PR

u es

t i con n d
s

cer

O C E SS ES

ou

H n th i
e

ce

s , or ,

at

m9 + 6x + 8 , i s th e G C
.

is

l nt

uiva e

of

th e two

t h e f un cti o n s d iff e r i n d eg r ee , w e

Wh en

l o w e s t t er m
resu l t by x an d

rs t

may

d e s troy

h i g h e r d eg r e e d i v i d e t h e
r e l a ce t h e f u n ct i on o f h i h e r d e r ee b
p
g
g
y th e
n e w f u n c ti o n t h u s o b t a i n e d
We can pr oceed i n th i s w ay u n til
w e a rr i v e a t t w o ff u n cti o n s o f t h e s a m e d eg ree w h i ch can i n
g e n era l be d eal t w i t h by d e s tr oyi ng a l t er n ate l y th e h ig h es t and
th e

i n th e f un cti on

of

l o w es t

t er m s

D e tach e d
e x am

c oe

u s ed

m ay b e

as

in

th e

f oll ow i ng

l
e
p

E xa m p l e

To nd th G O M
foll o wi ng c l c l ti on
e

th e

f ci e n ts

of x

39 9 + 2 332 + a3

an

2 x + 2,

av e

u a

'

A
'
B

//

A
I!
B

III

A :

+ 3B

3A + 2 B

/l

I
m
)/

"

s a

se

Th e

ea r

e a

er e

ess ,

ea v e

t
okd

0 , m ay b e
to b e w r e

72212 2

td

rea e

ou t as

er .

fo ll o w i n g

t h e d es i r e d

E x am pl e

e ex a c

er ,

as e o

ar

r o ce s s ,

a s

a n e x er

4A

II

1
H nc th G C M i
lq
wh
f th o i g i n l p oc
Th f i l i ng c
th
t d t i l f w hi h w l
i m il
m nn
c i by th l n
e

in

e x am p e S

r esu

h o w , by a s em i -t en tati v e
o bt ai n e d v e ry q uick l y :

hows

l t m ay o ft en

be

f
3 3x 2
=
3x
A 2x
+ 4,

B = 2 93 *x 3
co m m o n

E ver y
2

that

6x

3x

93 rc

to

s e e ct

di vi s o r
i s,

tha t i s ,
th ose

factor s

of

B th a t i s
th e n u m e ri cal f acto r
2
r e j e cti ng
\Ve h a v e t h e r e f or e m er e l y
1 ) (x
w
i
x
2
ch d i v i d e b ot h A
h
:c a;
1
)
)(
(
of

an

di vid es A

vi

an

a; c ea r

ly

is

3x

s t u de n t s

M has
bu t

E x am pl e

1 19

we

95

1)

a;

at

s ee

th a t bo th

p
th e G C M i s

H e n ce

ho u l d

o n ce,

an

(a;

t h a t t h e p r o ce s s for fi nd i n g

o bs e r v e

th e

th e

Th e
th e G O

1 3,

G O M

d iv i s o r, bu t

co m m o n

d iv i s or s

a r e co m m o n

or

no t

t h e or e m

r em ai nd er

by t h e
a;

RO P O S I T I ON S R E GAR DIN G

bl e p ecu l i ar i ty n o t o nl y o f
o f i n d i cat i ng w h e n t h e r e i s n o n e

f u r n i s h i ng

va ua

a so

A = 56

A ng i ng th c l c l t i on i
r ra

u a

the

0
l

a;

ab r i

dg d fo
e

rm,

we

ave

11

Th e

l t
as

re

m ai

G O M
.

nd

(t

d i visor

be i

ng 1 1

f o ll o w s

at

T h is

it

fo ll o w th t th
s

thei r G O M
.

o n ce ,

ere

no G

is

by th e m e th o d

d i visor

e very common

C M
.

OF ANY N UMBE R OF I N T EG R AL FUN C T I O N S

It
5 , t hat

er

two

of

p ro o f g i v e n i n
i n teg ra l functi ons A a nd B i s

i
i
e e na bl e s u s a t o n ce t o n d th e G O M o f a n
l
p
p
y
n um b e r o f i nt eg ra l f un cti o n s b y s u cc e s s i v e a
l
i
c at i o n o f t h e
pp
C o n s id er, for e x a m pl e, f ou r f u n cti o n s , A , B , C , D
pr o ces s f or t w o
r nc

B t h e n G i s d iv i s i bl e by e v e r y
co m m o n d i vi s or of A a n d B
F i nd n o w th e G O M o f G a n d
T h en G i s t h e di vis o r of h ig h e s t d e g r e e th a t w i l l
C G s ay
d i v id e A B a n d C
F i na ll y n d th e G O M o f G an d D
Th en G i s th e G C M o f A B C and D
G s ay

L e t Grl be th e G O M
.

of

an d

GENERAL

O O S I T I ON S RE GARD I NG A L G E B RAI C A L
no w

pr o cee d to

i n t eg ra l

e s t ab

l is h

fu n ct io n s a n al o g ou s t o
a a i n w a r ni n
n u m b er s i n ch ap i i i
g
g
n ot co n f ou nd t h e a l g eb rai ca l w i t h
.

a num

h o se

the
the

PR P

\Ve
f or

be r

of

g iv e n

s t u d e nt

PR

I MENE S S

p r op o s i t i o n s
f o r i n t eg ra

th at

h m e ti cal

ar i t

he must
resu

l ts

1 20

al t

he

h ou g h

h ou l d all o w

th e

a na og o u s

t h em

RO P O SI TI ON S R E GAR D IN G

r
p o

th e

CHAI

hi m i n

f or

s e e ki n g

i n d e v i s i ng m e t h o d s f o r p r o v i ng

o s i ti o n s , a n d

D e ni t ion Two i nteg ral functi ons

other

l e ad

to

a na o g y

G OM

when they have no

P rop os i ti on
exi s t a lw ays

tha t,

common

a nd

di visor

being

an

d B have

a nd

fu n ctions

two i nteg r a l

M , p r i me

a nd

there

ea ch other, su ch

to

G , then

LA + MB
a nd,

ea ch

a ny

two i nteg r a l fu ncti ons, L

to be p r i me to

a r e sai d

G ;

each other

be p ri me to

MB

LA

To pr o v e t h i s , w e Sh o w th at any o ne o f th e r e m a in d e r s i n
t h e p r o ces s f o r n di ng t h e G O M o f A a n d B m a y b e p u t i n t o
th e f orm P A
Q B, w h ere P an d Q are i n teg ral f u n ct ions o f a
.

\Ve

th e

h a v e f r om
,

l it i e s

R1
Rn e

Qa

A
B

R2
R3
Rn

1)

1
( )

u sin

R2
e s tab

g th e

( MA

l is h es

th e

e s t ab

th e

u s in g

R3

res u

l t f or

B,

ere
l
h
( y
on

l t fo K
r e s u l t s al r e a d y
r

l is h es

e s ta b

t eg r al

fu nct i on s

o bt ai n e d ,

w e g et

w h i ch

Q Q )B

1
(

g i v e n by

Q DA

B)

re s u

th e

va ue of

lish es

F r om

&e

Fro m
w h i ch

a t o n ce

5,

QB
QR
QR

E q ua t i o n

of

e qu a

th e

r e su

lt

f o r R3 ,

Si m i l ar l y w e

Q Q Q )B
1

s i n ce

e s tab

lis h

1 ,

th e

Q
r es ul t
3 ,

a re

all

in

f or R4 , R5 ,

N ow, if
w h i ch

d o es

A
no t

B h av e a
v a ni s h a n d t h er e f or e

and

LA

t hi s i s t h e
we

MB

m ust

l as t

r e m a i nd e r

h a ve

an

A L G E B RA I C P R I MENE S S

v1

an d

h ere

h er

ot

t o ea c

d B /G

an

f o r,

a re

di v idi ng b o th

i nt e g r a l

i nt e g ra

ar e

s i des o f

a ny co m m o n

th a t

l f uncti o n s 3

La

d iv i s o r

of

an

fu nct io ns

we

b o th

f or

su c

ai n

i t is

Th e pr op os it io n
a l e b ra ica l a n al s i s
g
y

th e

g o us to
t h e l e ar n e r

an a o

to
u se

t h at

is

der ,

h er e

by th e

u ni t

co n s t an t

d M

an

an d

B ,
s ti

ar e

ll

t h at

e x i s te d ,
us t

MB

LA

a nd

w ou

ro v e d

ld

is

We

M h av e
d i v id e

di v i s o r ,

n o co mm o n

u ni t

y
o f co n s i d e ra b e i m p o r t an ce i n
.

p r o ceed t o d e du ce f r o m i t s e v er a l con
i n d e p en d e n t p roo f o f w hi ch , by m e th od s m o r e
t h o s e o f ch a p i i i ,
1 0 , w e l eav e as a n ex er cis e
.

e u s io n s ,

h av e

o b v i ou s

d i v i s or , if i t

S id es

so

H er e

ME

LA

r e m ai n
'

'

d p u t ti n g

l as t

th e

i n t eg r al

d M w o u l d d i vi d e

an d

an

h av e t h er e f o re

we

Mb3

B h av e no
co n s t ant 3 a n d w e h av e
sa
R
n
y
a re i nt e r a l f u n cti o n s
Di vidi ng
g
If

d th e s e m u s t be p r i m e
a s ay
and B , A G
)
/

by G ,
1

so

an

G d i v i d es b o t h

s i n ce

s ay

f u n cti ons

121

Un l es s

d d en o te i nt eg r al

th e

co ntr a ry

fu ncti ons
B

If A be p r ime to
B mu st d i vi de H

s t a te

d,

al l

l e tter s

th e

of

then

is

a ny com mon

di vi sor

AH

a nd

F or ,

s i nce

i s pr i m e t o

we

h av e

MB

LA
w h e nce

M BH

L AH

1,

h i ch s h o w s th a t a ny co mm o n di v i s o r o f A H an d B d iv i de s H
I f A a nd B h a v e a G O M a s o m ew h a t di ff er e n t p r o p o s i ti o n
Th e
m ay b e e s tabl is h e d b y th e h el p o f e qu at i o n
11
of
dis co v e r y a n d p ro o f o f t h i s m ay b e l e ft t o th e r e ad e r

C or 1
.

If B di vide AH

and

If A be p ri me to
i s p ri me to their p r odu ct ABC

Cor 2
.

be p r ime to A , i t must di vid e

each o

the

fu ncti ons

A,

C , di e , i t

AL G E B RA I C PR IME N ESS

I 22

C or 3
.

If

the

ea ch o

the functi ons

'

fu ncti ons

A,

then

C HA I

be p ri me to each
i s p ri me
the p rod uct A B C

C,

to the p rod uct

Cor 4
.

bei ng

be p ri me to

p osi ti ve i nteg ers

5 If a g iven set

a ny

Co r

d uct

ers
o
w
p

ro

then A

a a nd a

i s p ri me to

If

i nteg ral fu nctions be

the i nteg r a l

fa ctors

ea ch r esol ved

A, B, C ,

i nto

whi ch

ar e

o the s et i s fou n d by wr i ti ng
p ri me to each other , then the G
f
down the p r odu ct of a ll the fa ctors that are common to al l the g iven
functi ons, each raised to the l owest p ower i n whi ch i t occu rs i n a ny of

these fu ncti ons

T h i s i s a g en er al i sat io n of 3
A f ter w h at h as bee n d o n e i t
ta i l ed p ro o fs o f t h e s e cor o ll ar i e s

a bo v e

s e em s

u n n ecess a r y

ad d

to

de

L E AS T C O M MON MU L T I P L E
C l o s el y
i nt eg ral

of

a s et

fu nction of
f unction i s
14
the L

CM

be i ng

'

a,

Thi s

them

r eck o n e d

be

l east d eg r ee whi ch i s di vi si bl e by each

call e d t h e i r l ea st comm on mu l tip le L
(

t o th e pr ob e m o f nd i ng th e G O M o f
f un ct i on s i s th e p rob em of n di ng the i nteg ra l
a

As i n t h e

p l ease

ll i ed

of

of

cas e

th e

i n t er m s

of

ls

t h e m o n om i a

z, u ,

is

th e d e g r e e

m o re
3

3a ge

z
,

v ar i ab e s
2

6a y 2

e u , o r a ny co n s tan t

t h an

m ay, i f w e
one

Sayzu, t h e

; thu s

v ar i ab e s

m u l t ipl e th er eo f

Th e g e ner a l r u l e cl ear l y i s to wr i te down all the var i ables, each

r ai sed to the hi g hest p ower i n whi ch i t occurs i n a ny of the mono
mi a ls
.

15
o

sin

C o n n i ng

l
e
g

to th e

o u rs e ve s

v ar i ab e c
c,

l et

cas e

of

i n v e s t i g a t e w h at

us

i n t eg r al
ar e

th e

fu ncti o ns
e s s e n ti a

factors o f e v e ry co m m o n m u l ti p l e o f t w o g i v e n i nt e g ra l fu nct i o ns
A a nd B L e t G b e th e G O M o f A a nd B ( i f th e y be p r i m e
1 ) 3 the n
t o e ach o t h e r w e m ay p u t G
.

A
w h e re

a a nd

G,

b a re t w o i nt eg ra l

bG ,

fu ncti o ns

w h i ch ar e

pr i me to

e ac

L E A S T C OMMON MU L T I P L E

VI

h er

ot

L e t M be

i s di vi s ib

y co m m o n m u ti p
by A , w e m u s t h a v e

le

an

M
w h er e P i s

i nteg ra l

an

of

P aG

i nt e g ra

di v id e

by bG , t h e r e f ore

Q a bG

i s t h e g e ne ra l f o r m o f al l com m o n m u l tipl e s
N o w a , b, G ar e g i v e n, an d th e p ar t w h i ch i s

i n teg ral

G)

fu ncti ons

Th e
o

Th e L C M

s ay

t h a t i s , AB

two i nteg ra l

mu l tip l e

ar

an d

bi tra ry i s t h e

of

co n s ta n t, u ni t

a bG , o r
o

H en ce w e g et th e l east co m m on m u l tip l e
th e d e g ree o f Q as s m all a s p o s s ibl e t h at i s by m aki ng

f u ncti on Q

by m ak i ng
y

T hi s

an

l f u n ct i on
P th at is

Si n ce M

Ag ai n s i nce M i s d iv is ibl e by B t h at i s
M/bG th a t i s P a G /bG t h a t i s P a/b m u st be an
N o w b i s p r i m e t o a 3 h e n ce by
1 2 b m u st
P
H e n ce nall y
Q b w h e r e Q i s i n t e g ra l
,

d B

of

an

P A,

f u n c t i on

T h er e fo re

le

1 23

/G

In

A and B i s th er e for e
o th er w o r d s the L C M

of

i s thei r p r odu ct di vi ded by thei r 0 C M

r e a s o ni n
a s o S h o w s t h at every comm on
g

bo v e

fu ncti ons

two i nteg ra l

is

mul tip le

thei r l ea s t

common

mu ltip l e

Th e
is

co nv e r s e

a co mm on

mu

Thes e
n u m ber

th e

C 3 th e n
fu n cti on s

o bt ai n e d

e n ab e u s

l f un ct i

LI

s ay, o f

the
a re e x
.

an d

h au s te d

of

t o n d th e L C
.

A,

o ns

L3

i s th e L C M

B 3

B C
th e n

s a y, o f

it

th e

L2

G OM
.

of

an d

ca ses

of a s et o f

L2
D,

an

F o r, i f w e n d

s ay, o f

LI

al l

a n d s o o n , u n ti

th e

L C M thu s

as t

Th e p r o ce s s o f fi nd i ng th e L C M h as
n o r t h e p ract i ca l im p o r t a n ce o f t h a t f o r

I n th e fe w

th e L C

cou rs e o bv i ou s

th e

fo ll ow s t h at

se t

D, & c

t h eo r e ti ca

le

p r i n ci p es
o f i n teg ra

th e
an

p ro p o s i ti o n , t h at ev e ry m u ti p
ti p e o f t h e t w o fu n cti o n s , i s o f

w h er e t h e

s tu d e n t

h er

th e

n di ng
t o s ol v e

th e

h as

nei t

th e

probl e m h e w i ll p r obabl y be ab l e t o u s e t h e fo ll o w i ng m ore d i r e ct

p r oce s s , t h e f ou nd a ti on o f w h i ch w ill be o bv i o u s a f te r w h a t h as
be e n

a r ea d

If

a s et o

s a id

i nteg r a l

fu ncti ons ca n

al

l be

exhi bi ted a s

p owers

set o

i nteg ra l

d eg ree

a nd a l l

L CM

For

exam

pl

by th e

ab

ri m e

) (

( a:
2 ) 3( x

LC

v e ru e,

th e

1 ) 5 ( a:

2 ) 3 ( a:

G C M

we

1 ,

6
x

w)
x

+ 1,

azg

3
a

3 ) 4 ( oc2

3)

(x

8w2 + 1 2 ,

1 9 59c
3
w
56

18

(a:

so

ho w th t th
a

ey

no C M

av e

8x 3

70
225
2 x 8w2

4
2
x
+

3 a8

3 a:2

7x - 2

+ 1 6x + 7 x + 1

3 8x + 6 5

M ai3

1 6 x4

1 1 x 4 + 1 5a:3

1 6a 4

1 0 5,

6 96 + 1 ,

18

4963

2 7 836

4
6
4
a
+
,

7a l o

6 0 0,

g
8
iv
8

8963

4
w
7 +

3222

1 6 x3

1 2 x + 1 3x + 6 x + 1 ,

1 6a:4

1)

4 809c2

4
4
x
+

5w3

r a i sed

93

1 4x3

8x 4 + 1 ,

being

+x

or e s e s

3
4
o
e
3w
+

2 x4 2 zc3 + 4 x 3 + 9e 2 ,

6
6
x
+

'

4
x

2 86x + 2 2 5 ,
5

each

the g i ven functi ons

a ny o

2 ) 3 (a 2

1 39x + 1 0 5,

factor s

+L

2 2 w2

4
G
v
e o
c

then the

8x + l 2

as

each other,

w+

wn + 1

the l s t

2 x3 + 3 x 2 2 x + 1

all o

M is

foll o w i ng

th e

of

w+

E X E RC I S E S X

Fi nd th

to

be

3)

ei ther

ar e

p
a ll thes e

f nct i on

l et th e

a
c

d o , which

el s e ar e a l l

or

(rc
( ao
(93
e

the p rodu ct of
i n whi ch i t occu rs i n

s et is

e,

B C

A,

di erent,

the

fa ctors

to the hig hest p ower

th n

C HA

EXER C I S E S X

1 24

2 a: 2

5 23 + 1

2 3 2x + 7 0

9x4 + 4 x 2 + 1 ,

2
3
x
+ p
3
(c
3(a

7
a3

(1
b) x

(
ne

3p ) , p er"
2
3 a b) :e
( 4a

3a
1 )xn + 1 ,

ho w th t w
nl i th p
m
S ho w th t i f
l t d g
th n t b
F i nd th l
f
23
7 } d mi t
f nct i on of l o w d g
S

ea s ure , u

ree ,

es s e

er

ax

er

4 bd ) 3

3
ac
e

2
h
r
3

2 7 (ad2

2
:c

n ot

1,

3
a

( 5a

2a 3(a

3 b) x

b)

(n
g

ga +p x
O

av e a

co m m o

bx

c,

c nnot h

av e a

co m m on m

ea s u r e o f

th e

of a

be i

h ch
p
d

"2
an

for w i

ng

ex

re s s e

as

th e

1 9x

q ot i nt
u

4}
of

t wo

(a

i nt g l
e

ra

d,

b2e) 2

2 a b)

g o:
be

r ee

or

va ue

If
ae

3
a
3
+p

"

5a

3p ) :c + ( 3 8p )
3
2a (2 a
3 b) ,

ba3

3 dx + e

av e

co m m on

m e a s u re ,

th n
e

EXER CI S E S X

VI

Ax

m eas u re

nl

es s

t h e fi rs

bat2

dg

if

e r ee

3
,

tb

a bc

bd

ho w th t th
a

q u a re

bee

ac

bd

ond i ti on

a re

av e

o m m on

"2
ca,

a cd

c nnot h

B y2

ill h

bed

ab

ed

ad

co m m on

av e a

i t( a e

l nt to on l y

u iv a e

of

m e a s u re

bd )

on e ,

ly

am e

bd

ac

es e

C ):cy

2 (A

3
( l a;

ac
s

e a s

d,

e
on

B a"2

C7

Ba y

m3

t h e 2 nd

1 25

l3

F i nd tw i nt g l f nct i on
o

ra

an d

an d

su

ch th t

su

ch th t

P (w2 3x +

Fi nd tw i nt g l f nct i on
e

P(

i
2 oc

5
3

a b4
,

w2

'

F i nd th L C M

ra

of

foll ow i ng
3
a

1 4w + 2 4 ,
4
re

1 2w + 1 6 ,

b,

3w3 + w9
3

1 ) = 2 a:

7x

th e

2w

"V

5 93 + 6 ,

4x + 3

3w2 + 7 w2 4 ,
w3 + 2 w2 93 2 ,
A
3
4 a3 oe2 + 20a2 2 0 ,
a + 3w
2
3
w + a w a oc9 a 3

3 a 3 + 2 cc2

1 1 w3

3x

3x + 1 0

dg
e

ree ,

th n th
e

(34
ex

ei r

3
a

be

I f w2 + a w + b,
.

a ve

m e asu re

re ss e

th e

1 st

b b

bb

ho w th t th L C M f tw i nt g l f bti A
i nt g
d i th fo m PA Q B w h P d Q
a

of

C M is

ab

co mm on

e re

e ra

an

un

o ns

ar e

a
_

an

ra l

B
lw
f nct i on

ca n a

s.

a ys

C H A P TE R
of

O n t h e R e s o l u ti o n

s ee n

h ow

I n t e g ra l F u n ct i o n s i n t o

F a ct o r s

H avi n g

VI I

to

d e t er m i n e

i nteg ra l

h e th er

g i v en
d e te r

a ny

fu n ct i o n i s a f actor i n an oth e r o r n ot a nd h o w t o
m i n e t h e f a ct or o f h i g h e s t d e g r ee w h i ch i s co mm on t o t w o i n
t e g ra l fu n cti o n s i t i s na tu r al t h at w e Sh ou l d p u t t o o u rs e l v es
t h e q u e s ti o n Ho w ca n a n y g i v e n i n t eg ra l f u n cti on be r e s o l v e d
i nt o i nteg ral f actor s ?
,

T EN T A T I V E
2

C o n n in g

o u rse v e s

ME TH O D S
at

r e s e nt

p
co e f ci e n t s

fact o rs o f th e l s t d eg re e w h o s e
fu ncti o n s o f t h e coe f ci e nt s o f t h e
,

to
are

th e

r a t io n a

i
v en
g

w h er e

c as e

i nt eg ra

fu n cti o n are s u sp ec te d
o r k n o w n t o e x i s t w e m ay arr i v e a t t h e s e fact o r s i n v ar i ou s w a s
y
Fo r ex am p l e ev e ry k n o w n i d e nti ty r e su l ti ng f ro m th e di s tr i
bu t i on o f a pro d u ct o f su ch f actor s w h e n r e ad back w ar d s g iv es
a f act o r i s at i o n

T h u s (a: y) (a: y) a y te ll s u s th at a y m ay be re
In a
s ol v e d i nt o t h e p r o d uct o f t w o fact ors x + y an d a y
2
3 ayz
s i m i l ar w ay w e l e a r n t h at a
y z i s a factor i n a
y
Th e s tu d e n t s h o ul d ag ai n re fe r t o t h e t abl e s o f i d e nti ti e s g i v e n
8 3 and s tu dy i t fr om t h i s p o in t o f v i ew
o n pp 8 1
Wh en fact ors o f the l s t d e g re e w i th ra ti o n al i nt eg ral
c o e f ci e n t s a re k n o w n t o e x i s t i t i s u s u all y n o t d i f cu l t t o n d
t h e m by a t e n t ati v e p r o ce ss b e cau s e t h e n u m be r o f p o ss i bl e
f a ct o rs i s l i m ited by t h e n atu re o f th e case
,

'

cu s p

T E N TA T I V E F A C T O R IS A T ION

vn

E xam pl e 1
C on s id er a
b)

127

th t

u s ass u m e

l et

an d

32 ,

1 2 0:

i t is

r es

ol

l i nto (

va b e

rc

ave

d we

to f nd

ave

an d

32

1 2 cc

b) a

a b,

'

th t

so

ab:

+ 32 ,

+ 12

+ bz

m
k t th t
th
i gn i nc th i p
d b m t h
i nc th i m i po i t i
d ct i po i t i 3 d th t th t i gn m t b
F th th d i ff nt w y o f o l i ng 3 2 i t p od ct o f i nt g
m t choo
w
th
w h i ch g i
1
16 4
d of th
32 2
83
4 b= 8
m l y t h l t th t i
+ 12
+b
S th t
1 2w +
4) (
E m pl
re m ar

\Ve
s

ur

e r,

na

us

as

s,

ro

ve

ers

ar e

o ne

se

e r

ves

a;

e 2

xa

(c

60

N ow th e

di i o of 60

h
th fo t t y t ]
1 4 ) t onc
ho w th t
( ch p
O n t h oth h nd f
3 we h
e re

av e

re

er

e s

( a:

say

th o

a:

1,

av e

(s ee

o r a:

60

b)

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 2 0 , 3 0 , 6 0 3 an d w e
x i
3,
Th e
e re m o f re m a i
e rs

are

rs

v s

a bc

e re

us

e r su

:r

e s

n o

es e

us

res

an

e sa

av e

e re

a an

an

rs

ve

Th n w h
an

E X A M P L ES

1,

o;

ch p
a

+ 2 , cc
v

2,

nd

are al l

n d m i i bl
ss

1 3)

1 2 2 3 + 6O

6O

20 +

th t i
3 i
by i n p ct i on
H nc
E m pl 3
a

s, a
o

an

o ne

l g n
ar

3)

w2 +

20

ac

h i ch w

e re s

ol

ve

r
e

( 513 +

4)

f cto
A gl nc

f th e 32

th

ese , a n d

6x

we

av e

co d:

rs ,

e at

b)

1 9w +
and

+ 15

u m b er o f

In

a:

2 x2

6 5eg

2 9: ziz 5 , 2 3: : t: 1 5 , & c
a

xa

er

+ 6 , bd

oth f cto i
3
E m pl 1 i nto ( 4 )
th e

an d

in

3
91

er e a c :

av e

o r as

xa

H
h

f cto

s a

1,

th e m

w e nd ,

}: 3

at

to con i d
s

mi

er a
-

of

as es

i ddl co f c i nt
ft f w t i l

l i ke th ose

re

l ast

er

We

1 5 , 2 22 2f: 1 ,

1 9,

at

onc

ght

mi
2w i 3,

e ex

cl d
u

es

r a s,

3 ) ( 3w
s e cti on ,

f ten d etect
a fa c to r b
y s ui ta bl y g r o u p i ng t h e t er m s o f t h e g i v e n f u n cti on
F or i t f oll o w s fro m th e g e n era l th e o r y o f i nt eg r a l f u n cti o n s
al rea d
y e s tabl i s h ed t h at if P ca n b e a rran g e d as t h e s u m o f a
s e ri e s o f
r o u s i n e ach o f w h i ch Q i s a f a ct o r t h e n Q i s a f a ct or
g
p
ca s e s

we

can o

i n P 3 a nd , if P c a n b e
i n e ach o f w h ich
is

fa cto r th e n Q

fact o r

is

no t a

ar r an g e d a s

th e

l
p us
in P

fact o r

s u m o f a s e r i es o f

ro u p

i n w h i ch

g r o up s

is

no t a

F A C T O R IS A T ION

I 28

E x am pl e

2x2
x

2 is

s , a:

2 323 + 6 0
2)

(x

f cto

n ot a

2 a: 2

th t i
a

3 is

s, a

E x am pl e

w2 ( w

3 ) + $c( w

3)

w9( oe

3 ) + az(m

3)

2 3 2c + 6 0
2 0w + 6 0

p x + y is

E x am pl e 3

( 1 +vqlx v

av

my + 27q

mm
f to

s,

3 ) + a2

=r w2
a

2 333 + 6 O

f cto

2 3(x

w2 ( w

?
m
2

th t i

ac

m
oth

v) 9
r , th e

91v
m v)
b ei

er

ng

+ qy

3
x

(m
a

1 )xa

(m

3
cc

oc a
x

{e

)(

mn aa

n
2

oc a

pa
a

m na

m n (x a

na

m n a 2 (x

( w m a ) } (x
a)
na ) ( a
c

ma )

m n a g } (ac

n a2a

m a ) (x

(cc

(m

(m

(m

{x (x

a
a

G ENE RA L SO L U T ION FOR A Q U AD RA T I C F UN C T ION

i ng ,

no

F or t e nta ti v e p r o ce s se s , s u ch
i
v e n 3 and
e n e r al r u l e can b e
g
g

of

th o s e

cu

l ti v a t e

l g ebrai cal

h av e b ee n i llu s trat
s k ill i n t h i s m at t e r i s o n e
w h i ch t h e s tu d en t m u s t
ca s e o f

o ne

f or

rs t

of

al l,

t h at

e v e ry

f u ncti o n

p x + Q can be m ad e a co m p l et e s q u ar e , s o fa r
L e t th e
c e r ne d , by t h e a ddi ti o n o f a co n s t an t
2

a3 +

q u e s t i on b e

a,

so

t at w e

h ypot h e s i s

)8 b e i ng by

rs t

( go/2 )
th e

of

t h e se
.

co n s ta n t

h er

c on s t a n t

8:

p r ob

em

is

T h en

t h e for m

as

a:

is

co n

co n s t a n t

in

w e mu st

h av e

i
v es 8
,
g

e q u at i o n s

Thu s ou r

of

hav e

a no t

29
Th e

im

r ea t

g
o f th e i nt e r a l fu n c ti o n o f t h e 2 n d d e r e e
g
g
w h ich a s ys t e m a ti c s o l u ti o n can b e g i v e n
.

r e m a rk ,

by p ra c ti ce
n am e l y, t h a t

le

we

as

p i s h m e n ts
h ere i s , h o w e v er ,

acco m

p ortan ce ,
i n o n e v ar i ab

3
x

th t i

CH A P

OF

t
2
he
,
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129

A Q UA D RATH3 F UNC TKnt

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REAL A L G E B RA I C A L QUAN T I T Y

1 30

We g e t th er efo re
,

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ca n

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th e

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ess .

lt

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r
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e

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nt g l f nct i on
ra

g d th i
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ar

ree

3
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3)

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th t

5 ( az3 ) + 6 ,

as

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s ee

i s to

6,

3
x

IN T R O D U C T ION INTO A L G E B RA OF SU RD AND

IM A G IN AR Y NUM B E R S
6 ] Th e n ece s s i ti e s o f al g ebra i c g e ner al i ty h a v e al read y l e d
u s t o i n tro du c e e s s e nt i a ll
So far a l g e brai c
y n e g ati v e qu an ti ty
q u an ti ty co ns i s ts o f al l co n ce i v ab l e m u l t ip l e s p o si ti v e o r n eg ati ve
of 1
To g i v e th i s s ca l e o f q u an ti ty o r der a n d co h er en ce w e
int ro d u ce an e x te n d e d d e n i ti o n o f t h e w ord s g r eater than a n d
l ess than as f oll o w s a i s said to be g r eater or l e s than b accordi ng
.

b i s p os i ti ve

as a

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it

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fo
+ 8 th

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g
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al
b
r ai ca l q u an t i ty s o fa r a s w e h av e ye t h ad o cc s i o n t o co n
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R A T ION A L

vu

SU R D QUAN TI T Y

AN D

1 31

Th e m os t i m p or tant p art o f th e op er a ti o n s i n t h e l as t p ar a
g rap h i s th e nd i ng o f th e q u an ti ty m , w h ose s q uare s h a ll be e q u al
e sa
t o a g i v e n a l g ebr ai ca l q u a n t i ty
y alg ebra i cal, f o r w e m u s t

p l ate th e p o s s i bi l i ty o f
an
v a l u e be t w e en
a ss u m i n
g
y

We
th e

k, then m i s

of

ro o t

q u ar e

l o ok

to

t h u s br o u g h t

are
s

ca l l ed

the

e x te n s i o n

of

s om e w

u s su

sa

t h e s am e t

i n th e
i n th e

pp

os e

i nt e g e r

a s q uar e

i n t eg e r s

h that

uc

Mk

we wr i te m

a nd

th e pr ob

l em

a nd

n d i ng

of

it b eh o ve s

l eads

to

us

us

a new

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h o rt n e s s

When m i s s

q u an ti ty 3
o s el y, as i t

h at cl

p l ace w h e n
i n tr o du ce d n eg ati v e q u ant i ty

t h us

1 st

k,

It f o r

l g e braical Op er ations s i m il ar to t h at
w e g e n er al i s e d a dd i t i o n an d s u b tracti o n

of

w h i ch t o ok
a nd

fa ce

to

s ay

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f
w i th

an y a l g e br ai ca

el d

th e

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co

s quar e root o

fa ce

t h i s q u es t i o n

at

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(b

c o n t em

re
w
h
e
y

t h at k i s
sa

h i ng [s i n ce ( K /A)
T h en o u r p r o b l e m

it
i

the

or

an d

y,

o
s i t i ve n u m be r , a n d e i t
p

h er

s qu ar e o f

A
/ ],

s o ve

nu m b e r

d i f w e t ak e

= K

+ K, o r

b o th i n teg er s , o r , w h i ch i s
th e q u o ti e n t o f t w o s q u ar e

ar e
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is

r at i o n a

o n e case, o r

ot

h er

or

for
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m
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of

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s o e co n d it i o n r e q u i re

i s i nt eres ti ng t o

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m or e

in

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M ore
i s,

l y ca s e
i

an d

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: :

of

5 is

n o ti ce

t h es e w i

ll

f or

so
al

f ar

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w
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ere
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pr o b
re

ar e

l em

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of

is

r oot

c an

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th e

as

l t h at i s t h e r e

t o t h e p r es e n t p u rp o se i s i t t o

i n w h i ch m

s o u ti on s

fterw a rd s s h o w n t h a t t h e r e
d o,

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d )t

be

r a ti o n a

ar e

L e t It b e po s i ti v e

l3

r e m ar

but

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not

k t h a t t h i s i s th e

f or i f m b e

i n te g e r s , t h e n m

t h a t i s , I: m u s t be t h e

2 nd

t h at w e t h u s o b tai n t w o

i t w i ll be

the squ ar e

r a t i o n al ,

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th e

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t hat

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ra t i o na

D E F INI T ION

I 32
nu m ber

h m e ti ca l
a ri t h m e ti ca l

of

C HA

yt h i ng i s as b e for e , e x cept t h at n o e x act

ex p re ss i o n c a n b e fo u n d f o r m
\Ve can, by t h e

3 then

arit

v a ue

I M AG I N AR Y UNI T

O F THE

e v er

p r o ce s s f o r

m,

n di n g

m =

h th at

s ay v,

the

suc

nd

r o ot ,

s q u are

h a ll

d i ffer

r a t on a

h by

f ro m

l es s t h an any as sig ne d q ua ntity h ow e v er s m all 3 but n o su ch

r a t i o n al e
I n t h i s case m
p r e ss i on can b e ab s ol u t el y e x act
i s call e d a s u rd nu mber
Wh e n It i s p osi ti v e a nd n ot a s quar e
n u m be r as i n th e pr e s e nt cas e i t i s u s ua l t o u s e Mk t o d e n ot e
t h e m e e ( s i g n l es s) ar i th m e ti ca l v al u e o f th e s q u ar e r oo t w h i ch
h as a n a ct ua l e x i s ten ce a l th ou g h i t i s n o t cap ab l e o f e x act ar i t h
m eti cal ex p re ss i o n 3 a n d t o d en o t e t h e t w o al g e br ai cal v al ue s of
T h u s if h
i J2
m by i Mk
2 w e w i te i n
I n an y
racti ca l
app l i ca t i o n w e
use
s om e
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r o i m ati o n
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t o t h e 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 th , w e m a y

u se i n

1 4 1 42

h apt er w i ll be d ev o te d t o t h e d i s cu ssi o n of s u r d
n t h e m e an t i m e t o s a
n u m b e r s 3 a ll t h at i t i s n e ce s s ar
i
f
rth e r
u
y
y
co n ce rn i n g t h e m i s t h a t t h ey or t h e s m b o l s r ep res e n t i ng t h e m
y
s p e ci a l c

ar e o f c o u r s e

3rd

m eti ca
s

t o be

n u m b er

uar e o f

to

all

ev e r y a

sa y ,

d i f cu l ty

n ew

l g ebr ai cal

l aw s

th e

n eg a t i v e

L e t It b e

s u b ect

o f o r din ary al g ebr a

w h er e h i s

ar i s es

h er e

m er e

3 f or ,

b e t w e en

an t i ty
u
q

00

ar i t

s i n ce

and

th e

(
= 0
)
00

ex

i n q u e s t i on u nl e s s k
is
o s i t i v e , t h e r e e x is t s n o q u a n ti ty m i n th e ra n g e o f al g e br ai cal
p
2
k
q uan ti ty, as at pr e s en t co n s ti tu t ed , w h i ch i s s u ch t h at m
If w e are a s hi ther to to ma in ta i n the g ener ali ty of a l l a lg ebr ai cal
0 , w h i ch ,

ce p t

of

cou rse ,

is

'

n ot

'

op er a tions,
s ti l l

on ly resour ce

the

ur ther

Thi s i s done by i ntroducing

u n i t commonly

s uch

i s to wi den the f ield

a lg ebra i ca l

qu a nti ty
idea l, so-ca l led i mag i nary,

d enoted by the l etter i f whose deni ti on i s , tha t i t i s

tha t

It

i s,

e x i s t e n ce

of

cou r se,

at

w h at s oe v e r ,

o n ce

an d

e x p r e s s i o n , appr ox i m at e

an

m u ti p

l es

of

thi s

Occ i on ll y
as

u ni t ,

a s

o by

or

t h at i h a s

o b v i ou s

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ot

h er

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' ~

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a ny

m u ti p es a nd s u b
by co m bi ni ng i t w i th

or m

o
s i t i v e o r n e g at iv e,
p
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of

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n ot

h m e ti ca l
ari t h m e t i ca l

n o ar i t

v ol

ii

ch p
a

xxv.

2 8 -4 1

C OM P LEX NU M BER S

vu

rea l, s e r i es , n am e

We t hu
T h es e

l g ebrai cal

o r d in a r y a

th e

u an t i t i es o f

s o

ly

1 33

no w

f or d i s ti n cti o n

ca

ll e d

a n e w s er i es o f

b ta i n

u rely

i mag inary q u an ti ty :

i m ag i n ar y q u an ti ti es m u s t o f cour s e , l i ke ev er y o t h e r
t
i
i
n
t
h
s ci e n ce , b e s u bj e ct t o a ll th e o r d i n ar y l a w s o f
n
u
a
t
e
q
y
u a nt i t i e s o r w i t h o n e
a l e bra w h en co m bi n e d e i t h er w i t h r e a l
q
g
n ew

A ll t h at th e s tu d en t r e qu i re s to k n ow so far a t l eas t as
o p e ra ti o n s w i t h t h e m ar e co n ce r n e d b e y o n d th e l aw s a l r e a dy l a id
1
d ow n i s th e d e ni ng pr op er ty Of t h e n ew u n i t i nam e l y i
Wh e n p u re l y r eal a n d p u r e l y i m ag i n ar y nu m b ers are com
i
re
w
h
e
bi n e d by w ay o f a l g ebr ai cal a ddi ti o n f or m s ar i s e l ik e p
g
and
ar e r ea l n um be r s p o s i ti v e or n eg a ti v e
S
u ch f o rm s a r e
g
p
ca ll e d comp l ex nu mbers 3 an d i t w i ll a p ea r l a t er t h a t e v e ry al e
p
g
br ai cal f u n ct i on o f a co m p l e x n u m be r ca n i t s e l f b e r e d u ced t o
a com l ex n u m b er
I n o th er w or d s i t co m e s o u t i n th e e nd
p
th at th e e l d o f o r di n ar y al g e bra i ca l q u a n t i ty i s r e n d e r e d co m
pl e te by t h i s l as t e x te ns i on
Th e fu rth er c on s e q u e n ce s o f t h e i nt r o d u cti o n o f com pl ex
n u m bers w i ll b e d ev e l o e d i n a s u b se u e n t ch a t e r
I n th e
p
q
p
m ean ti m e w e h a v e t o S h o w th at t h e s e i d e a l n u m ber s s u ffi ce f or
o u r p res e n t
T h at t h i s i s s o i s at on ce e v i d en t ; f or i f
pu r p o s e
w e d e n o t e by / h t h e s q u a re r o o t Of th e a r i th m e t i cal n u m b er
h s o t h at Jh m ay b e e i t h er r at i o n a l o r s ur d a s h er et of or e bu t
/
ce r t a i n l
r
a
l
t
h
i
e
e
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m
k g i ve s t w o so l u t io n s o f th e p r obl em
i
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i i d id )
m
=
i i Jh
i i
x
(
) (
u
pp er s ig n s g oi n g t og e th er o r l o w er t o g e t h er
a n ot

h er

( )
73

V7 0

> (l o
x

We h a

ve

s i on s o f
2

ax

bx

l as t
c

ara

no w

ph

ra

to
on

e x am i n e

t h e p r ob

th e b e ar i n g

l em

of

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of

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d i s cu s

fa ctor i s ati o n

of

O F Q UA D R A T I C

FA C T O R IS A T I O N

134

It

wi

ll

p re v e n t

s om e co n u s i on

i n th e m i n d

cn x r

of

th e

stu

d en t i f

n e ou r sel v e s i n th e r st p l ace to t h e su pp o s i ti on t h at a b 0
d e no te p o s it iv e or n eg ati v e r a tiona l nu m be r s T h e n l b 2 a i s i n all
cas e s a re a l ra t i o na l n u m be r a n d w e h a v e t h e fo ll o w i n
cases
g
4 a o i s t h e p osi ti v e s q u are o f a ra ti ona l nu m b er
1 st I f b
th en m h as a r ea l r a t i on al v a l u e an d
we

co n

i s th e p r o d uct of t w o l in e ar fact or s w h o se
n u m b er s

2 nd

E x am p l e 1 ,

If b

n u m b er ,

5, wi

coeffici e n t s ar e r ea

ll s erv e as an i ll u s trati on o f t h i s ca se

4 a c i s p os iti v e, bu t n ot th e s qu ar e o f a r ati o n a
m i s r e a , bu t no t r a ti ona 3 an d t h e co e f ci e nt s i n

t h en

l r a t i on a l

i rrati on al

th e

factors ar e
E x am pl e 1

1 = x 2 + 2x + 1

+ 2x

2,

2
1
+ )

V2 )
3r d
co e

If b

4 ao i s

f ci en t s i n t h e

E x am pl e 2

t h e n m i s i m ag i nary,

n eg a ti v e ,

factors

a r e co m

l ex

n u m b er s

a nd

th e

+ 4,

E xam pl e 3

(96 +
(x + l

(2

W
,

2i )

(x + 1 l
4 th

T h er e

b e tw e en t h e
an

d th e
If b

an

d we

in

ot

r ea

We

h av e
c

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2

ax

bx

4a o i s

is
4

i n th e

th e

fa ctors

ar e r e a

is

l) 3

a x
co m

l et e

n ow

ar e

far

s q uar e , s o

x +

and

x +

is

as x

l , th at i s ,

ll

a comp l ete squ ar e

in

if b

4 ao

re s u

lt

tha t

3x +

3 ( x2

c ll d th D c
a

t h e r e f o r e , i n ci d e n t a y t h e i m po r t an t

t ra n s i t i o n

factor s

bu t i d en ti cal

3x

i m ag i n ar y

bx

ax

Th e t w o

co e ffi ci e n t s

f o rm s

0,

w or d s ,

bx

ax

0 , t h en m

h av e

h er

ar e

w h i ch

case ,

w h e r e th e

w h er e t h e y

4 ao

c o n cer n e d

bo t h

h er

an o t

cas e s

cas e

is

i s ri m i

i)

n nt
a

3 (x
of

th e

?
J
Z)

q d t c f nct on
ua

ra

ax

+ bx + c

F U NC T IONS R ESUME D

VI I

T h ere
of

le

ss

h ap p e n

su

l e tters

f ci ent

wi

ll

be

un

b,

a,

l et t e r s

d er

hat

bu t

c,

h er

ce r tai n o t

h i ch

g ar d i n g
t h e y m ay

re

ci rcu m s ta n ce s

a lg ebr a i ca l ly ra ti ona l

th at t h i s m ay be t h e
g

th at

v a u es o f

w e m a y i nq u i r e

factors

t he

t o th e

th e

f u n cti on s

of

or d er

q u e s ti o n ,

co n t ai n ,

to

f u ncti on s Of

as

coe f ci en t s o f

In

ano t

at t en t io n

no

t h e m m er e y

t h os e

h e r p oi nt o f V i e w w h i ch al th o u g h u s u a ll y
t h a n t h a t o f l as t s e ct i on i s s o m e t im e s t ak e n

is

i m p or ta n ce

P ayi ng

1 35

4 ao be

s ay

c as e

it i s

co m p e t e

l y n e cess ary a n d
i n t h e l e t ter s i n

c l e ar

u ar e

T h en
b

bx

ax

2a

w h i ch

is

r a ti o n a

If b

P is

s i n ce

4 ac

2a

2a

P is

h er e

2a

22
72

so

b
+

r at i o n a

i n t h e p re s e nt

s e n s e,

th e n
2

ax

bx

+ c= a

x +

2a

P
9}

at

c i e nt s

w h e r e t h e co e f

E x am p l e

v +1 v +

a r e r a ti o n a

bu t

P
2a

n ot r ea

w+ q

P
2v
_

1)

a re su

l t w h i ch

n+ 9

t e n t a t i v e pr o ce s s e s

2p

w ou

2p

9
p

ld

of

of

2p

v q
2p

co u r s e ,

2, 3

a l

r +q

b e m o re

e as i

l y O btai n ed

by th e

It
e

bx

ax

h oul d

Ex
we

v ar i ab es

3 f or

of

b 4 ao
2

2a

4a

4M
x

s i m i ar

2a

y h o m o g e n e ou s
f actor i s ed, p r ov id e d a cer tai n
w ay

an

l h av i ng

v ar i ab e ,

o ne

th e

s am e

f un ct i o n
no n
co e

of

ho m o

f ci en ts

F om
r

E xam p l e

+ 2x y +

32

{90 + ( 1

F om

{x + ( 1

dd c
e

in

factor i s ed

pl

of

4a

m ay be

we

fu n ct i on

2a

o p e r a t i ng

dd c
e

2a

be

Ii 4 a c

e n eo u s

factor i sati on f or
t h e h o m o g e ne o u s

d eg r e e i n t w o

f p+

fa cto r i sa ti o n

th e 2 n d

v ar i ab e s

ca n

of

cL

By
t wo

og

th e

HAP

cy

ay

t o th e

t h at

mI

o bs er v e d

be

a t o n ce

bxy

ax

bxy

ax

l e ad s

f u ncti on

Q U ADR ATI C FUN C T I O N S

H OMO G E NEO U S

1 36

2 x2 2 3x + 6 0 = x
(

3)

(x

u e
x

2x2 y

2 3x y2

6 0 y3 :

3 y) ( x

(x

(x

5 y)

g t h e p r in ci p e o f s u b s ti t u t i o n a g re at m an y
ar e n t y co m p i ca t e d ca se s m a y be b r o u g h t u nd e r t h e cas e o f
a
pp
t h e q u ad r a t i c f u n c t i o n , o r u n d e r o t h e r e q u a y s i m p e f o r m s

By

u si n

ll

Th e

foll ow ing

E xam pl e

ar e s o m e e x a m
p es

2
e

w e) ,

n ew }a arm
nea r ( a n{M r (r es
v
e

sew

{ (
x

es t u r i e s }
a

E XAM PLE S

v1 1

1 37

t d nt ho l d o b
th t i f ol t i on i nto q d ti f to on l y
l co ffi c i nt 3 b t i f t h
o l t i on b
q i d it
ff ct d w i th
b
i
c i d t li
f cto o m p l o ffi i nt h to b i nt od d
E m pl 2
H

th e

e re

u re

s re

nea r

xa

ca n

ar r e

s u

e e

res

r ea

rs , c

s erv e

ex c e

pl

e res

u ce

rs

ac

yw

- r

"

}{

av e

c e

y
xa

ra

g
m
(

ua

? 2

(
"
0
5
(
2
x
(

2
2 x2 3
]

( x/ e )
/ Er y v? ) (x2
x

Ag i n

V2 x v

3
+3
y

w+

x/ Z
7 7 74/

x/ Q

fl

i ly

be

obt i n d

Th e
si

gn

4
x

s imi ar

ol ti on f
H nc n lly

r es

of

e,

2
2
x
y + y wi
\/

2
or x

ll

th e

an

+y

E x am p l e 4
12

31

i ly

(1

12 :

a
m
( y
x

(y p

6
x
v)(
v)
2 3
g 3
w
( v ) } {( )

(v ) }
2 3

(e
(

v) ( w

l t tw f cto
E m pl 5

e re

th e

as

xa

2 b%

(x

v)

i v)

m a y be

rs

2 a b2
2

4e

(a

( 2 bc

'

td

r ea e

a
2

4
2

b
2

o f x an

+ b c)

rs

in

31

E xam pl e

)(

)
?
c ) ( 2 bc
c

b + c

an

3
a
b
c
+
(
)

s er ve

r se x

d y

as

? 2

as

( 90

a 2

b4

t d nt ho l d o b
( + y + n ) ( + y n ) w h i ch i
k d to f cto i
l tho
+y + y
ol t i on f th p obl m f f cto i
t h t w f cto
cont i n \ / y d
s u

(e

i v)

e +r>

Th e

ch gi ng

V
x +

by

r sa

th t th d com po i t io n + y + y
oft n gi n by b g i nn w h n th y
gh i t i t
lg b i c l i d nt i t y i no
t i on i n t h o d i n y n i n m ch
th fo not ti on l i nt g l f nct i on

ar e

ve

s a

er e

re

r ue a

ar

ra

er s

ra

se

as

s e,

ra

ar e

as

1 38

R ESU L T S

It

m ay b e w ell t o
u se o f

m or e t o t h e

F or

every va l ue

fu nction
It i s

A P P L I C A T ION

O F TH E

to

we have

vanis h

ca

that w e

ll

th e

s tu d e nt s

r e m ai n d e rs

Of

can

find whi ch

factor

R EM A IN D E R TH EO R EM

O F TH E

t h e t h e o r em

C HA P

REMA I ND E R THEO REM

US E OF

at t e n t i o n

o n ce
.

the i nteg ra l

cau ses

f f (x )
s h o w n i n ch a
p

f a ct o r i s a t io n

in

h a t h as b ee n
v
13 16
t o i ll u s t r a te t hi s p o i n t fu r t h er
It m ay h o w e v er be u s e fu l al th ou g h at t h i s s t ag e w e cann o t
r ov e a l l t h at w e ar e t o a ss e r t t o s ta t e w h a t t h e u l ti m at e r e s u l t
p
o f t h e ru l e j u s t g i v e n i s as r e ar d s t h e f act or i s at i o n o f i n t e r a l
g
g
fu n cti o n s o f o n e v ariabl e I f
b e of th e nth d eg re e i ts c o ef
n e e d es s , a

ft er

b e i ng

ci e n ts

i rr at i o n a

an

y g iv e n

it is

nu m b ers , r ea

i n th e

h ow n

i m a g i n ar y ,

or

h apt e r

or

C om p l ex N u m b e r s

on

r a ti o n a

ll
e d t h e r o o t s o f t h e e q u at i o n
(
T h es e v al u s w i ll i n g e n er al
0 ) f or w h i ch
v a ni s h e s
b e al l di ff e r en t bu t t w o o r m o r e o f t h em m ay b e e q ua l
nd o n e
o r all o f t h e m m ay be co m p l e
nu m b er s
If h ow eve r th e coe ffi ci e nts o f f (x) b e all r eal t h e n t h er e
w i ll b e a n e v en n u m b er o f co m p l e x r o o t s a n d i t w i ll b e p os s i bl e
t h a t t h e re

e x i s t n v a u es o f x

ca

to

a rr an

It

is

t e rm s

of

t h e m i n p a i rs

n o t s ai d

t he

c oe

t h at

co e

can a

l w ay s

be

F rom thi s i t

factors

lg ebrai cal

f ci e n ts

ffi ci en ts

t es e

be

pp

t h e fo r m ) t i

of

of

ca n

ll y g iv en
i m a te l y cal cu l at d
tha t

in

ca n

f or t h es e
be

f ou n d 3

th e

of

va u es

in

r o o ts

l w ays
,

foll ows

e x pr e s s i o n s

n u m e ri ca

rox

bu t, i f

th e

r oo t s

a ll

cas es

be

r esolved

i n to

i ci ents of w hi ch may or may not be a l l r ea l

If the coe i ci ents of f (x) be al l rea l then i t can be resol ved i nto a
r od uct of p l i near a nd g qu a dr a ti c fa ctor s the coei ci ents i n a ll o
f
p
l inear

the

coe

w hi ch

ar e r eal

We

ma tely

nu mbers whi ch

have,

cours e,

ll

nd , i n

may i n

a ll

2g =

cas es

n, a nd

be

c al cu l ated app r oxi

ei ther

g m ay be

or

z er o

Th e

s tu d e n t

s ta t em e n t s

wi

i n pa r ti cu

L i n e ar

is

u se

dh

l ar

1 -1 0

cas e s

er e, a s

it

b o v e , i ll u s trat i o n s

3 but h e m u s t

oft n i to m n
e

s,

ea

of

o b s erv e

th e l s t

of

th e s e
t he

h at

eg re e

Q U A D RA T I C F U N C T ION WI T H

VII

g e n era l

AR I A BL ES

1 39

f
a ct or i s i n
a n i n t e r a l f u n cti o n o f t h e nt h
p
g
g
d eg r e e i s co e x t e n s i v e w i th t h at o f co m p l e te l y s o l v i ng a n e q u a t i o n
Wh e n e i th er p r obl em i s s o l v ed t h e s ol u t io n
o f t h e s am e d eg r ee
o f th e o th er f o ll o w s
ro

bl e m

TWO V

of

FA C T O R IS A T ION
t

F UN C T IONS OF

OF

the

en

MO R E THA N

var a bl es exceeds u nity,

nu m ber o

factor i sati on of an i nteg r a l fu nction (excep ting

homog eneou s functions of two varia bles) is not
or di nary a lg ebra

l east i n

To

e s t ab

l i sh this

it is

ar e

s u ffi c i e n t

l e m i n a par ti cu l a ca s e
L t
ppo th t + y + 1 i
ol
i nt g l i
th t
d y th t i
r

u s su

se

n x an

ra

th n
e

s r es

s,

to S

ce

i s , by

h ypoth

pp

e si s , a n

rr

Fl rs t,

=1

we

ob

th t

s e rv e

q nti ti p q p g
l ogi c l con q nc
ua

es

as

se

ue

'

rr

qq

+ v q) wv

d nt i ty

f cto

of

rs

( 277

+r

we

'

e e

an

e z er

es o f o u r

g in
a

av e

ua

ur

es s ,

if we m u
17

( 4)
(5 )

non of th i
H nc

er ,

zz

ave

e s x

p +
2

f om
r

(1 1 )

a nd

( 1 2 ) by

(7)

(m
,

an d

gr

re s

p ct i l y
e

ve

we g et

[1 0 )

=0

(1 1 )

t ct i on w d
P

rp

q
r

su b ra
2

e,

a nd

l t i p l y by p g

N ow

c o nt f th q ti on ( 1 ) ( 2 )
o 3 d f th
b
;
hy poth i w h f om ( 4 )

es e

hi h

n
x

2+I
r

)w

r + g r =0
q

f o m th

of

f j

an d ,

solu bl e, a t

=
+
rq
vq 0
r + 19 i = 0

on a c u
ca n

as

i ns o l ub i l i ty

the

l i nto p od ct

v ab e

(1 )
(2)
(3

I=1

qr

ca ses , su ch

i n g eneral

h ow

(W

i n thi

( 199
S

the p robl em

sp eci a l

t h e p r ob
e

V AR I AB L E

O NE

er i v e

( 1 3)

Q U A D R A T I C FU N C T ION

I 4O
an d

f om

( 1 0)

( 1 3 ) by

an d

HA P

ddi t i on

f om thi i t foll o w th t p 0 w h i ch i i n cont d i ct i on w i th th q t i on

H n th
o l t i on i th i c i i m po ibl
N ev er th el ess i t m ay h appen i n p ar ti cu lar cases t h at
r

ce

e re s

as e

ss

ua

e e

ra

the

r eso u t i o n s p ok e n o f

is

fu ncti on
of

i nteg ra l

O ne

i s p o ss ibl e, e v e n w h en th e
i s o bv i ou s fr o m th e tr ut h

m u l ti p l y t og e th er t w o
o f h o w m an y v a r i ab l e s , t h e r e s u l t
,

f un cti on s

i s i nt eg ral

ar ti c e

h om og en eou s T hi s
s ta t em e n t t h at
if w e

n ot

i nv ers e

th e

l as t

in

m a t ter

no

is

ca s e

i m p or tan t i n th e

so

l
i
ca ti o n s
pp

g eo m e try, t h a t w e g i v e a n i nv e s t i g a ti o n
s u f ci en t co n di t i o n f o r t h e res o l v abi l i t
y

of

of

l g eb r

to

t h e n e ce s s a ry

an

it

Con i d
s

li n

We o bserv e

f cto

ea r

gn

th e

er

rs ,

era

i n th e

th n w
e

l f ct i on
un

o f x an d

t pl c th t
m t h
rs

a e,

us

av e

dg

t h e 2 nd

l to

po

i f i t be

( Vax + l y + m ) ( Va x +
l ) f (l
[x/ a x
y
x N am
at
{3 1 +
{Max at l ) y Mm

of

ss i b e

res

ol

F i nto tw

ve

% ( m + m ) i on
som e ) am
2
{at l ) y $( m

w ri

ree, a n d

m a] ,
2

ol bl i nto t w l i n f cto i t m t b p i bl i
d y
d M
L i
l i n f ncti on f
li n
th fo m L M w h
l y w h n F i p ibl i th i fo m i t
f nct i on f 3; l on ; d con
i
o l bl n m l y i n t o ( L + M ) ( L M )
w
k f th l t i on m ong th co ffi c i nt f F w h i ch i
L t
nc
d
fc i nt to c th t F b p ibl i th fo m L M
y
l t L t =
t=0 th n
F [ 2 ( hy g ) / ( by 2f y
Hn
e

ce , w

h nFi
a

va

e,

an

an

no

us

e es sa r
s

er e

Hn

ce

L2

F or

th t i
a

s,

ab

e a

7, i t is

0,

If

a c r

g)
2
ai /

{W

re ss

)}
2
(a

2f y

f)

e ex

e cessar

a bc

2f g h

th i cond i t i on
s

of

we

2f g h

= 0 , bu t b + 0 , w e m ay
w ers
y , an d r

F c o d i ng to po

a bc

2 nd

m 2 (oh y
f ci nt condi t i on th t F b p ibl
com pl t q
2 (g h
)b
f ) y (g
f c i nt th t
n
d
y

i nc

e ex

{( h y

}
2
g ) /a }
a

)y

s,
s

ear

ov

(hv

4 (oh

N ow ,

ress

x a

[ {w ( h r

an

e es s ar y a n d su

ex

x an

s e u re

nc
i th t ( h
th i by

th e

re a

= a[ w
{

ea r

r e ss

e ex

us

rs ,

or

a x

ea r

v e rs e

s ee

su

va

s r es

s res

an

su

ab

bg

)}

fo m
g d

i n th e

u ar e a s re

ar

0 ;
0

ac
ch

c to
es

bg 2

ar r i v e a t

p oc d i ng
ee

e e s

) (9

re du
a

e a

ac

r e ss

a6

ch

th e

as

(1

o
'

s a m e resu

be

fo

re

l t by t
rs

arr a

ngi ng

If
d c to

31%
now r e

b = 0,

ev i

l i n f cto
th fo h
a

ear

d nt
e

th e

rs

nc
t th i

o r, s i

nc

re s u

t
th i d

2g x

u r,

a se

of th

two

rs

be

th i

if

r es

ol

is

re

se

gi

es e

re

s s

re

v e r,

e,

l i nto
W m t

va b e
e

fg

ve

hn

th t

i s , 2 hp q z

2 l

eas

es

e sa

c:

0 , b = 0,

th t i n th i th i d

so

va

e,

u es

no

as e a s

R t n i ng t th m o t g n l
th t w h n th cond i t i on ( 1 ) i ti d
V {( h

th t th
a

so

)?

ab

e re

er a

cas e ,

s sa

e ur

ui re

2 ( ch

re s

is

sa

ti d
s

th e

f lu ( 9

o l t i on i
u

re s

o l t i on
u

To

co ffi c i nt

se

h
h

as e

ear

s sa

er e a

av e ,

va

9h

)}

dc

h,

It is

do not n i h w o b
p o id d i
b ?0
es

m av

s er v e

Z
;

y+

y+

a
h
g
f

- ab

(
0

g
a

( /t

ab

2
\/h ab

f cto
fo m m y b g i n by i ng
io
l t i on ( 1 ) 3 b t th y w i l l not b t i on l f nct i on n l h b b
h
b i po i t i
q
d th y w i l l b i m gi n y n l
pl t
=0
i
th
t
h
d
I f h b z o th n ( 1 ) g i
h
(g
3
g
f
q i d ol t i on i
th e

u ar e,

e e s

u re

re

i n th e
e

an

re s

re a

ar

es s

or

an

e res

va

ve

es s

us

s,

e a co m

ve

th e

an

th e

u rv e s o

es e

f nd

s of

as es

ree

am e

ac

ee

2
V
g

d i t i ncti on b t w n th c
i
f th 2 d d g
n l yt i c l th o y f c
h
Th f nct i on b
2f g h
bg
f
f
ol b ili ty f th f ncti on o f th
th
n
t f th t f n t i on
a

ves

us

e ra

rs v ar

Th e

is

{b

we

ab

re

serv e

eres

(2 )

s r es

s ee

an

us

h nc

h i ch i o b i o l y
s

us ;

3 w

d nt i ty i f 2f g /h
4 th I f
0 b= 0 h = O F
d c to 2 g + 2f y + I th i c w
ho l d th t F i
ol bl i t b i ng w i n f ct i t l f l i n f cto
ti ng to ob
th t i n th i c
l o t h cond i t i on ( 1 ) i t i fi d
in t
w

bu t

e r,

ss

l tog th

h + 0,

c,

p c i l y w h t ( 1 ) d c to w h n
c th cond i ti on i t i ll th m
Mo o
it i
th t w h n ( 2 )
y to
po ibl b i ng i f ct

bu

thod f il

me

do not occ th t
t b of th fo m
y

mus

nt

2f y

and

lt

re s e

141

2 g = 2 hg ,

N ow th e

ng th

si

2 hxy

ave

re

ere

F
e x

h + 0 , th e

an d

u es

i t is

an d

u si

VAR I ABLE S

O F TWO

vi 1

nt l
a

im

po t nc i n
r a

th e

2n

ho
n i h i ng i th cond i t i on
i c ll d t h D i
i mi
d d g
se va
e

re e ,

s cr

EXER CI S E S

I 42
It

ho l d b not i c d th t
u

FE

th

ax

C HA

XI

if

by2 + 2 g x

+ 2 hx y

2f y + c

en

ax

2 h xy

by

m y) ( l

( lx

m y) ,
th e a

dg i
f cto f F
i m p l y th f cto
\v h
th fo m l y t nd if p i bl
f
l f
d n w h i ch w i ll m k th i d nt i ty ( 6 ) co m p l t
n
E m pl T f cto i 3
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84

C H A P TE R V I I I

R a t i o n a l F r a ct i o n s
1

By

qu oti ent o

r a ti ona l

any

i nteg r al

Un l es s i t i s

ot

fr acti on

a lg ebr a i ca l

fu nction

h erw i se

by

a ny other

s ta te d

i s meant

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the

i nteg r a l fu ncti on

i t i s to b e

u nd e r s t o o d

d e al i n g w i t h

ar e

s i mp ly

f u n cti o n s o f a s i ng l e v ar ia bl e x
ra ti o n al f r a cti o n A B t h e d e r e e Of
g
/

th at w e

i s g r e ate r t h an or e q ua l t o th e d eg ree
fr act i o n is ca ll e d a n i mp rop er fracti on, i f

of

th e

n um e r at o r

th e d en o m i nat or , t h e

l es s

p r op er

fr acti on

G ENE RA L PR O P OSI T IONS R E GARD IN G PR O P E R AND

IM PR O P E R F RA C T IONS
.

an

E very i mp rop er fra cti on can be exp ressed a s the su m of

i nteg ra l f uncti on a nd a p r op er fr action , a nd, conversely, the su m
3

an

functi on

i nteg ra l

i mp rop er

fracti on

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rop er

fra cti on

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of

b e g r eate r t h an

exhi bi ted a s an

d eg r ee m

th e

Fo r i f i n

th e

1 1.

d eg

ree

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t h e n , by t h e di v i s i o n -tra n s fo r m a t i o n

of

w e o b ta i n

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Q mn
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w h ich

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p
,

p ar t o f
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is <

i n te g r a

<

ou r

E;
s t at e m e nt,

s i n ce

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l f u n c t io n w h a t e v e
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d Am /B n

C HA

PR O P E R

II I

Pp
w

h i ch

is

i m pro pe r

an

ly

IM PR O P E R F RA C T IONS

AN D

Am

Am

Pp Eu
Eu

fra cti o n

s i n ce

t h e d eg r e e

p , is n
Ex am pl e s o f t h e s e tr an s f or m ati o n s

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a b ov e

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ly

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p p
t h er e f o r e h a v e
er

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B n"
i

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a

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to t h fo m f ct i on N w t n fo m
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t

2 , m u s be e q u a l
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then the

th e n u m er a t or ,

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d e r d i v is i on

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1 45

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C HA

D I RE CT O P ERA T I ON S

1 46

nt g l p t
n t ct i on )

Th e i

( see

ex

se

e s e ar e e

9
5
x
+
+ 7x + 3

q l3

an d

ua

f ct i on l p t

th e

ra

lo q l

a r s ar e a s

ua

The

th

of

ar s

ra

sum o

fr actions

a lg ebr a i cal

two p rop er

is

a lg ebr a i ca l

p r op er

fracti on

Aft w h t h b n gi n b o th p oof f th i p opo i t i on w i ll p nt

no d i fc l ty Th p opo i t i on i i nt t i ng
i n t nc i f ny w
n dd
th t f ti n i th l g b i c l n i tot ll y d i ff nt conc pt i on f o m
f ct i on i n th i th m ti c l n ; f i t i n t t i
i th m t i c th t th
m f t w p op
f ct i on i l w y p op f ct i on 3 f
m pl
w h i ch i
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er

ee

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ra

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se

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ve

ra c

as

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s a

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e re

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r es e

e,

r ue

ra

ee

ar

or e x a

e,

Si nce by ch ap i ii ,
2 , w e m ay di v i d e bot h n u m e r at or
an d d e n o m i n at o r o f a fract i o n by th e s a m e d i vi s o r, if t h e n u
.

m er a tor

factors

d d en om i na tor

ed

r i me

r e m ov e

w e ca n

each other

to

o f a r at i o n a

t h em

i ts l owes t ter ms

lf

r act i o n

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tha t i ts numera tor

so s i mp li

be

an

denomi na tor

and

an

ca n

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y

the fr acti on i s

s imp l i

co mm o n

fr action

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ed

when thu s

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at

m ay b e d et erm i n ed by
i ns p ecti o n ( fo r ex am p e, by co m p et e y factor i s i ng bo t h n u m er at or
a n d d e n o m i n a to r by a n y o f t h e p r o ces s e s d e s cr i b e d i n ch ap v ii ) 3
nd i n g t h e
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w h i ch

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wi

ll

g ive

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us

comm o n

th e

r e q u i r e d, o r

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3
x

er o

es

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era

s o

er

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r an

ra

ve

th e

wi

be

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on

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x
e re

e ra

r a nd

r x

+1

4x

g et, fo r t h e

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ng th t b oth

r,

us

s ee

th t
a

+ 1 is a

co m

2 xl

d no m i n to b oth n i h w h n
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e

ee

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co mm on f cto

2x + 1

ac

i m pli fi c t i on m i ght h b n ff ct d th
l w
n m to d d no m i n to n i h wh n
f cto R m o i ng th i f to w g t
m
s

be x 2

to

Th e

p r o v e t h at

th f th p oc
i
G C M ll fo nd
f h p
Di i d i ng b oth n m to d d no mi n to by th i f cto w
l o w t t m f th gi n f ct i on
B y ei

va

1,

h nc th
e

ere

i s th e

WI TH RA T IO N A L F RA C T I O N S

vm

147

'

+x+ 1

ob i o th t n m to d d no m i n to
p
oth 3 f th on ly po i bl co m m on f cto i + 3 d th i do
3
not n i h wh n
w h i ch do
t h d no m i n to
It is

no w

or

er

ss

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th e

ar t

ar i t

es

s t u d e nt

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t h e o r y, p ar t y

ly

acco u n t

on

s x

th e

n ote

an a o

a cco u n t

on

i ts

of

an

an

to ch
t di i d

ri m e

es

ea

no

f o ll o w in g

of

are

fr o m

co n c u s i on

i ts p ract i ca u s e f u n es s ,
a s i m i ar p r o p o s i ti o n i n

i
t
w
h
y
g

h m et i c

fra cti ons P /Q P /Q be equa l and P /Q be a t i ts

AP Q
AQ wher e A i s a n i n teg ra l fu ncti on
then P
wi ll r edu ce to a co ns ta nt if P /Q be a lso a t i ts low est

ter ms

w hi ch

x,

r a ti ona l

l owes t terms,

va

abov e

If two
o

r,

era

us

TO p r o v e t h i s , w e

o bs er ve

t hat

w h e n ce

'

'

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Q P /Q

m u s t be i n t eg r a

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l t h at

i s,

Q 3 b u t P i s p r i m e t o Q , t h er e f o r e by
\Ve
w h e r e A i s a n i n te g r a l fu n ct i on o f x
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AQ P

P
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AP ,

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at

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1 2,

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i ts

m u s t b e di v i s i bl e

QP
ch a p

t o be

D I RE C T O P E RA T IONS

t er m s , P
ca s e

u n i ty

and

A m u s t be

ca n

h av e

n o co m

co n s ta n t,

w h i ch

I TH RA T ION A L F RA C T IONS
Th e g e n era l p ri n ci pl e s o f o p e r at i o n w i th f ra cti ons
h av e a l r ea dy b e en l a i d d o w n ; all t h at t h e s tu d e n t h as no w t o
l ea n i s th e app l i cati o n o f h i s k n o w l e dg e o f th e pro p e ti e s o f
i nt eg ra l fu n cti o n s t o fa ci l i tat e
Of
ch o erat i o n i n t h e ca se
p
a ti on a l f a ct i o ns
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\V

su

th e

u se

of

th e G

fu nct i o n s

by

CM
.

an d

fa ct or i s ati on

th e

an

of

t h e d i ssecti o n

of

C HA

E X A M P L ES OF D I RE C T O P ERAT IONS

1 48

gn l l
ch t n fo m t i on w p oc d
n b l i d do w n f
to m pli fy i n th i p g ph B t th foll o w i ng p i c f g n l d i c
w ill b fo nd
fl
m k
N
t p th t y c nnot j t i fy by f nc to th f nd m nt l
f yo
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j dg
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m nt
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T k th
l i t O ppo t n i ty O f g tti ng i d f d nd nt m mb
f
f n t i on n l y
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f k p i ng co m po i t p t
C l t i t th
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d do not
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th t om
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d nd nt m m b i n w h i ch c th l b o f p ndi ng
w ho l b ck t i
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ch th th o m f m i nd s I oth w o d
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s ea

ra

ra

s im

E x am pl e 2 E x pres s as

( 2x + 4 )

+ 1

ex

ea

x + 2
)

on th n

era

as

3
+ 4x - 3 x

use

u r es

'

ar s o

v s

an

+ 1

ch f ct i on by d i

e as , s u

ra

2 x + 4x + 3 x + 4

an

s, use

ar ra

ngl f ct i on i

or

an

rs

ve

res u

ou

rs

r s s er

an

re e

er s

ur o

as

era

r es s

ss

er

as

ea

as a s i

an

rs o

err r

ur

e,

ra

e ex

o r ex a

as

u ra

o u can

so on

ou s e e

as

e r s

ca

E x am p l e 1 E x p r ess

T n fo

ee

ur

as e

u se a ru e

s e

u se

av

er a

e s u

er e r u e s , s u c

er

e rs

e e v er

u se o

ee

uc

s s ec

re

rar

ra c

as

r e e, a n

as

re

ea

ar

su c

s o

er,

ar

u r a e , an

r ees

su

r ea ses

ea

u se o

e re

e r

s e

s r uc

r eas

as

ere

e s

e u

as

su

re

ea

or

er e

e s s es

ex

e a

ce v e

ra

s a re

rea

ur

s as

r e ere

us

r u

o u s ee s

ra

ar ra n

er , an

e es

s res r

e use

va e

ra

ou

es

es s

er an

e e ar

ra

ra

or s u

e a s e

ar a

ca

rm

an

WI TH

vm

We h ave

3
93

3932 + 3rc l

3 2 a
x
x

4
x -

= ar3 + 1

+1

x + 1 ou
),

= :c4 1 2 x (x 9
2 33

(
( z):
4
93

149

(w

+ 2 x 1

2 x3

R ATI ONAL FR A CTI ON S

1)

2 3c

2 x3 + 2 x2

Wlxenee
F

(m u m

c
c

x
(

c
c-

(93 + 1 )

2 w5 + x 4 x 2 + 2 w 1

w5

ple 3

) (x + 1 )

1 )

( ac

E xam

a
c 1

3
ac

+y

w y

+y

3
a

2
03

513

Ex am

ple

c d

)(

ca

b ( b c
)
)

b
)

(b

02
&c

0
.

it being

c
b
(
)
of

+7

+ wy + 2r

b c

2
bc

7
xJ

b)

(c

+
a

2
b

c
b
(
)

c ( c
)

(b
-

b)

Oi

cour e uppo ed th t the deno m in tor doe not v ni h

s

D I R EC T OP E R ATI ON S W I TH

150
E x am

ple 5

RAT I O NA

L FR AC TI ON S

ca n

(a

b)

- ag

l) "

(a

) (b

b c

a c3 ( a

)(

C b

b)

ob erve th t w hen b = the nu m er tor f F beco m e 0 hence 5

H ence th
d
I m u t l o b f ctor
i
f ctor ; b y ym m etr y
nu m er tor i d i vi ible by ( b c) ( ) (
S ince the degree f the n u m er
tor i the 4 th the rem i n i ng f ctor o w ing t the ym m etry f the e pre ion
m u t b P + Pb P
C o m p r i ng the coe fcient f W in
(b c

b)
b
(
(
)
)
N ow w e

an

a s

P:

xa

b ,

E = m+ b + c

+pa

b9 + p b + q

+q

c
I
)
)
(

+1

ss

- c3 a

c c a
)(
) (a

th t
H ence n ll y
E m ple 6
F

s o

an d

w e s ee

( 93

(T

+ 82 0

cl
1
)
(

+pc+ q

+ 85 0 + & c
.

collec t the coe ffi c i en t f

d the b olute ter m in the nu m er tor
d b
d
o b erving th t the tw &
t nd f the re ult f e ch ging
d re pectivel y in the r t ter m
We h ve in the coe fcient f
p rt
indep endent f 1 d 9 n m el y
b)
b)
(b c)
)
(
)(
( b c) (c
T he p rt cont ining 1 d q re pect i vel y
N ow ,

s o

an

0 an

x t,

0 an

as

(b

) + c( a

F in ll y in th

e abs

olute term

m(

{a c
x

are

b( c

0,

c
b
(
)

s,

C a

a an
o

o f 93

ab

an

there fore reduce t

in the coe f cient f w h ve the three p rt

T he coe fc i ent

an

or

a nd

{a ( b
{( b

an

s s a

c a

69 ) }p
cc 6

)(

2
c

a)
c(d
{ ( b c)
a bc {( b
c) (c a ) (a b) }p
{bc( b c) ca (c a ) a b( a

a bc a

0,
:

O,

<b - c) <c n > ( a b)

q

an

vm

IN

V ER S E M ET HO D S

15 1

ence re m oving the co m m on f c tor ( b c ) ( c ) ( b) w h i ch n w ppe r

b oth i de w
d ch nging the i gn
d deno m i n tor
b oth i nu m er tor
h ve
H

an

an

on

a s

s,

"
95

F:

a
w
(
)

+p a

( as

T he s tudent s hould o bs erve here the con s t a nt

the identitie n pp
d the bbrevi tion f the w ork by t w -third e ffected by t king
8 1 83
dv nt ge f the princip le f ym m etry I ctu l pr ctice the gre te p rt
f the re oning b ove w ritten w ou l d f cour e b conduc ted m ent l l y
-

an

IN

VE R SE

M E TH O

S i n c e w e h av e

OF

s een

s,

PA RTI A L F RAC TI O N S

th a t

r t i on
f r a c t i on

a su m of

l f r a c ti o ns

ca n

i t i s n a tu r ally
r a ti o n l
h o w f ar w e ca n d e c o m p ose a g i ve n r at i o n al
s u g g es t e d t o
h a v i ng
f r a c ti o n i nt o o th e r s (u s u all y c al l e d
p ar ti a l frac ti ons
d eno m i nato r s o f l o w e r d eg r ees
n
l w ay s by o rd i n ar y d iv i s i o n r ep r e s e n t ( n d t h a t
Sin c e w e
i n o n e w a y o n l y ) n i m p r o p e r f r a c t i o n a s t h e s m o f a n i n t e g r al
f u n c t i o n a n d a p r e p e r f r a c t i on w e n e e d o nl y c o n s i d e r t h e l a t t e r
k i nd o f fr a c t i o n
Th e f n d am ent al t h e o r em o n w h i c h th e op e r a t i o n o f d i s se c
d ep e nd s i s t he foll o w i ng
t i o n i nt o
p a r ti l f r a c t i o n s
If A/P Q be r a ti onal p rop er fra cti on whose d enomi na tor con tai ns
two i nteg ra l f actors P a nd Q w h i ch are a lg ebr a ica l ly p ri me to each
other then we ca n a l ways decomp ose A P Q i n to the su m of two p rop er
/
fra cti ons P /P Q /Q
P roof S i n c e P and Q re p r i m e to e a c h o th e r w
can s e
(
1 1 ) al w ays nd t w o i n teg r al f u n c t i o n s L an d M
c h ap
s u c h th a t
LP M Q
1
M ul ti ply t h i s i d en t i ty by A /P Q and w e o bta i n
al w ays

i bi te d
i n qu i r e

n a
s

as

s o

u s e of

ex h

be

g le

as a s n

ca

'

I n g en e r al ,
t h an t h o s e
AL/Q

an

AL

AM

PQ

t)

c ou r s e t h e d eg r e e s o f A L n d AM w i ll be h i g h e r
o f Q a nd P r e s p e c t i v e l y
I f t h i s b e s t r an s for m
AM /P b y d iv i s i o n i n t o S Q /Q a n d T P /P s o th a t
of

o,

'

PA R T I A L FR AC T I ON S

1 52

S,

T Q

a nd

t h an t h o s e

of

ar e

i nte g r al

a nd

Q r e sp e c t iv e ly

PQ

re

an

d th e
.

T+

C HA P

d eg r ee s
We n ow

of

a nd

Q l es s
'

h av e

Q
Q

'

T i s i nteg r al and P /P Q /Q a p r op e r f r a c ti on B u t
t h e l eft h a n d s i d e o f ( 3 ) i a p r p e r f ra c ti on
He n ce S T m u s t
v a n i sh i d en t i c al ly a n d th e r es u l t o f o u r o pe r a t i on s w i l l b e s i m pl y
whe

wh

i ch

i s t h e t r a n s f o r m at i o n

r e q u i r ed
b e t t e r h ol d
.

d nt a
o f t h e ab o v e r e as on i ng
w o rk ou t a p a r t i c u l ar c s e
C on ider the fr ction
+1
F
( +3
H ere
C rrying t th proce f nding the G C M f P d Q
To g i v e t h e

s tu

we

3
x

ou

ss

or

an

1 +O

+1

hence de oting the re m i nder

n

by R1

an d

F ro m the e ucce i vel y w get

s

ss

R2 ,

93 R1

+ R2

R1 = P
1

In

th i

s ca s e ,

Multi pl ying
ctu l v lue

there fore
n ow

s of

P
(

33

3 ac

ao2

o ide
the pre ent
on

aeg

1)
+

in

b th

2x + 1 )

+ 2x + 1
2

g out the tw di i ion

v s

s,

of

case

+
x

1
o

x 6 2 x 5 + 934

o r , ca r ry i n

a; 2

a nd

Q+l
+ a: P
Q
:

b y A/ P Q
4F

R2

+c + 1

L2

23

we

o bt in ( putting in the

III

P C L C AS ES

153

S E IA

:c

o;

1 +
a

or eeing th t t h integ l p r t v ni he
s

ra

of

Q R

If P ,

other
r
c
h
m
i
e
t
o
e
a
p
ca n be decomp osed

R /R

F into p rti l fr ction

a

func ti ons of a: wh ich are

a ny p r op er r a ti on a l fr a cti on A P Q R S
/
+
a su m of p r op er fr acti ons P P
Q
Q
/
/
be i nteg r al

S,

then

+2

hich i the required decom po ition

C or

it ought to do

s , as

+ oc + l

'

i nto

S /S

T hi s
th e o r em

b e p r o v e d by

ca n

r e p e at e d

a ppl

i c a t i o ns

of

th e m a n

Hav i ng

s h ow n a

r ri

d e c o m p os i t i on
n o w t o e x a m i n e t h e s p c i a l c as e s
b r i e f e r m e th o d s of obta i n i ng r e s u l t s

p io
ha v e

i ii

th e p o s s b l ty

of

r
t
i
al f r ac t i o n s w e
p
th at o cc u r an d t o i n d i c at e
w h i c h w e k no w m u t e i s t
\Ve h av e al r ea d y s t t e d th a t i t m ay be s h o w n t h t ev e r y
i nteg r al f un ct i o n B m ay be r e ol v e d i nto p r i m e f c to r s w i th r e al
c oe ffi c i ents w h i c h b el o ng t o o ne or o th e r o f th e typ es (a

i n to

'

y)

[i t
l st

fa c t o r ,

8
.

Tak e

(I

th e

ca

T he n

r
re i
n o t r ep ea te d
s i ng l
fr a c t i o n F
A/R m ay b e w r i tt e n

w h e e th e

se

th e

F
sa

h
w
e
e
y

th e o

rem

g e ne

r al

an
,

we

ar e

P
'

ch

ea

ch

o th e

H e n c e by

o ur

r b e i n g a p ro p e r f r a c t i o n
t h i s c a e t h e d eg r ee o f P m us t

m e mbe

In

)Q

to

F
ea

e,

ri me
m ay w r i t e
Q

be

z e o,

t h at i s , P

is

c o n s t an t

I t m ay b e

c h ap

Q /Q

21

ete

rm i ned

by m e t h o d s

S e e b e l o w , E x am p l e I

i m i l ar

t o th o s e

u se

in

d e te r m i n e d w e g o o n t o d e c o m p o s e th e p r o p e r f r c t i o n
by c on s i d e r i ng th e o t h e r fa c to r s i n i t s d e n o m i na t o r
a

P C L C ASES

154
2 md

Su pp os e t h er e i s

r Q d oes
g e n e r al p r i n c i p l e
w he e

a
:

by t h e

not

r ep eate d fa c t o r (oz
c o nt a i n th e fa c to r 5c

is

no w

h e n c e , by

ch

P
a nd

th e

re

a, ,

d eg r e e

i s l es s t h a n

'

i nt o

a1

th e fo m

d et erm i ne d

to be

See

L et t h e r e b e

b e i ng p r i m e t o

Q
Q

aT -

"

c on s t an ts

ar e

a,,

f a c to r

m ay,

ao

be l ow , E x a m pl e 2
3 rd

93

fu n c ti o n , w h o s e

ao

We

2 1 , w e m ay p u t i t

r e fo r e w r i t e
F

w he

i nt eg r al

an

s ay

r i te

C HAP

S E IA

a}

8x
,

c
c

y)

8 2;
,

so
8

t ha t

N ow , w e h a v e
I
P
Q

F
P

m ay

x
B
,

c as e a n i nteg r l f n c t i o n
t h e r e fo r e w r i t e s e e c h p v

i s i n th i s

We

a
;

th u s h a
ao +

a0

box)

(
(a

ve

boa:

bl a)

823

at

y)

as

'

o,

0,

'

by

a ny

ao

r
c o ns t an ts a b
h av e to be d e te r m i ne d
a
r
o
r
i
at e m e th o d s
S
e
E
am l es 3 a n d 4
pp p
p
I n t h e p ar t i c ul ar c a s e w h e r e s
1 w e h av e o f c ou r se
w h e e th e 2 s

m os t

by:

cl

23

y)
y)

d e g r ee

2 1,

a,

(a

of

boo:

m er el y

X PAN S I ON

THEO

R EM

1 55

B y Op er a ti ng s uccess i vely i n the w ay i nd i ca ted we

every r ati ona l fr ac ti on i nto a su m of p a r ti a l fr a c ti ons,

r of

one or othe

belong s to
y)

re

whe

s
,

t
o
s
i
ve
p

8 , y,

a,

i nteg ers

the two typ es p r

b,

as,

ar e

/(

a;

r ea l

a ll

decomp os

ca n
ea

ch of

wh ich

8 2:

as

cons tants , a n d

a nd

i m p o r ta n t

r em ark th t e ach s u ch p a r t i al fra c t i on

h as a s e pa r at e a n d i nd e p e nd e n t e x i s t e n c e a nd t h a t i f n e c e s s ry
o r c o n ve n i e n t t h e c o n s ta n t o r c o n s ta n t s b el o n i n
g g t o i t can be
d e te rm i n e d q u i te i n d e pe nd e ntly O f th e o th e r s
C or If P be an i nteg r al fu ncti on of a: of the nth deg r ee and
c
ons tan ts n ot l ess
8
y y
y
than n
1 i n num ber r of whi ch ar e equal to
3 equa l to 8 t equa l
to y
then w e can a lways em
p r ess P i n the for m
I t is

to

a, a

a,

E {a0

w here

a , a:

y)

a,,

a (

fo ll o w

at

T h es e
P /(

th eo

em s

BN9:

T h er e

constants

a re

r)

o n e,

I n p ar ti cul a r ,

y)

if w e

c ons i d e r

th e

f ra c ti o n

c o rre s po n d i ng t h e o r em w h e r e a
az
re re laced b
a n y i n t e g r a l fu n c t i o ns w h i c h a
y
p
y
t o e a c h o th e r a n d t h e s u m O f w h o s e d e g r e es i s n o t l e
is

Ob

v i ou sl y

p i me
t h an n

1,

re

a,

ss

r c e e d t o e x e m pl i fy th e p r a ct i c al c rry i n g
o u t o f t h e a bo v e
r e ti c l p r o c es s 3 nd w e r e c o m m e n d th e
s tu d e n t t o s tu d
s th e
y c a r e f ll y th e e x am p l e s g i v e n
y ff o rd a
c ap i t l i l l s tr ati o n o f th e su pe r i o r p o w e r O f g en er al p r i n c i pl es a s

c ontras te d w i th r u l e o f th u mb i n Al g e br a
\Ve

no w

p o
t h eo

ple 1 I t i required t determ i ne the p rti l fr ction corre ponding

in the deco m po i tion f

Ex am

to

1,

4
4
x
(

1 639 + l 7a: g

1)

8 9c +

a:

2)

2
w
( +

W e h ve
a

F
an d

we

4x 1 6233 +
c
c l
ac
4

1 7 :c

8x + 7

)(

:c

h ve to fi nd the con t nt p
a

s a

Q
(x

156

F rom the identity

deduce the identit y

N ow ( 2 ) b
m s
b

eco e

v lue

o r al l

+ 7 =p

8x

'

e i ng t rue f

ca n

ul tipl ying b oth ide

l
x
l
7

4 334

X A MP LE S

s o f 9c,

4 2 2p ,

( 9c

2)

by

g
az

1)

a;

Q (a2

+ 1)

u t hold w hen m

th t i
a

s,

in thi c e it
s

a s

of

fa

ct

:c

can

be

ro m

T hi s being an identity the le ft -h a nd s ide m

in po i nt

2 x4 8x3 + 7 zc2

so

an

as

ence the required p rti l fr c tion i 2 /(

I f i t b requ i red t deter m ine l o th integr l function Q thi
done t once by pu tting p 2 in
d ub tr cting 2 (
We thu ob t i n
b oth ide
H

we

1)

2 ) 2 ( a32 +

a
c

a n d , af

ter c rryi g
n

be d i vi s i bl e by
s
, w e g et

u st

I t is

90

the d i vi ion

o ut

2 ao3

hich determ ine Q

T he tudent m y veri fy f pr ctice th t w e do ctu ll y h ve

or

4aA

l 6 a3 + 1 7x 2

8x +

2 x3

ple 2 T king the m e fr ction

grou p f p rti l f r ction corre ponding t
We h ve w
E xa m

l ) (x
(

6x2 + x + 1

in

as

E xam

ple 1

to

de term ine

th e

( a:

no

4x

sa

c
c

ao

a1

at 2

V (

'

(1 )

(x

hence
406 4

2 ) ( x

3
2
6
1 90 + 1 7x

In

the identity

(2)

put

a o:

an

a nd

we

by

Q (96

get
th t i
5=5
ub tr ct i ng
2 w h ve

= 2,

a o,

Putting n w
1 i
d dividing b oth ide

s, a 0

1)

1)

'

in thi l t identity

there re ult
5=5
th t i
1
T he group f p r ti l f r ct i on requ i red i there fore
oc = 2

as

an d

ro m both id es
S

2)

s, d l

a1,

+ 1) f

4x 3 7 x 2 + 2 x 3 = a 1 (x

Put

1 /( oc

1 /(9c

required Q m y b determ ined in E m ple 1 by m e n

determ ining
d
depend
Another good m ethod f

cont i nued divi ion

I f w put
2 on b oth ide
f
w h ve th identity
3]

If

as

xa

a o an

or

a1

s of

s on

the

s o

4 ( y + 2 )4

8(y + 2 ) + 7

If

it i

s n o t,

then there h

as

een

i t ke in the w orking
s a

u se o f

III

th t i

X AMP LES

1 57

s,

( )
g

a1
_

4)

the e p n ion f r tion l fr ction in de cending

po w er f I /y d cend i ng po w er f y i uniqu Hence i f w perform
the per tion f cending continued d i vi ion the le ft the r t t w t er m
4g + g ) w il l o b viou l y
m u t b ident i c l w ith
+ y) ( 3
/y + /y f
f y m erel y
f urni h po w er
N O W, by
s

ch p

2 0,

as

ao

s o

a1

on

as

an

or

\Ve h av e
5 4+

+5+

there fore
1
+1
T he nu mb er f coe ff cient w hich w m u t c lcul te i the nu m er tor d
deno m in tor the le ft depend f cour e n the num b er f coe fcient t b
determ ined the rig ht
de t erm ine the p rti l f r ction corre ponding to
E m ple 3 L tl y let
+ 1 i n the b ove f r ction
We m u t w w rite
a0

a1

s o

on

xa

as

no

a m+

Whence

1 6x3 + 1 7a:2

ultipl ying by

89c +

) (a2

(x

m+i
z

4x4

4 ao4

an

us

on

+ 1

'

hence
4x

the proper fr ction

m u t h ve the identit y
N ow

s on

the

tw o

i de

s of

(3) m

st

be

equ l th
a

i s, w e

7 a = 8x
)

6,

6
there fore
b 7
7b + = 8
Mult i plying the e t w equ tion by 7 d by 1 d dding w get
5 0 b = 5 0 th t i
b= 1
E ither f the m then give
1 hence the required p rti l f r ction i
a

s a

an

an

s,

nother m ethod f o b t i ning thi re ult i follow

Re m e m b ering th t
1
i) (
ch p
i) (
w
(
v ni he w hen w i
N w w h ve
A

or

at

30

s as

s ee

- 1 9c2
4x 4 - 1 6 x3 l 7

(x

1)

(x

e se e

th

at x

158
P ut

in thi identity

ob erve th

an d

X AMP LE S

4z

i =(

1)

+ 1,

x
i

an d

h ve

we

8 13

ss

ss

7b+ a

b
7a ) ;
(
6,

b + 7
=
hence
b
8
i
7
+
(
)
n equ lit y w hich i i m po
ible unle both ide

w
a

( a i + b)

6:

at

C HA P

s are z

ero hence
,

b+ 7a

ro m w hich nd b m y b determ ined be fore

A nother m ethod f nding
n d b m ight b
u ed in the pre ent c e
We up p o e th t the p rti l f r ction corre pond i ng to l l the f cto
e cept m + 1 h ve lre d y b een de term ined We n then w rite

a a

as

a a

we

4 x4

F l
(
b t in the identity

2
)

as

rs

+b

a se

(5"

w2 + l

1 6 x3 + 1 7 x 2

hence

8x + 7
1)

4
x

dividing by (

an d,

ca

1
2

2 (ac
w

ac

F ro m thi

4 x3 + 3x2 + 4 x
1)

a:

an

oc

) (zc

(ac
x

T hi s b ei ng o f cours e

2 ) ( oc2 + 1 )

(
l ) (x
1)

az

identity

+ 1 = ax + b

we

u t h ve
s

= 1,

bz 1

nother proce f nding the con t nt in ll the p rti l fr ction depend

the m ethod f equ t i ng coefc i ent ( ch p
d le d to the i r
determ in tion by the olution f equ l nu m ber f i m ult neou equ tion
f the l t degree
T he f ollo w ing i m pl e c e w i ll u fciently i llu tr te thi m ethod
E m ple 4
T deco m po e ( 3
1) (
2 ) into p rti l f r ction
We h ve
A

ss

on

or

an

se e

s a

an

v.,

xa

as

s.

there fore

35e 4
C
e 1
az 2

)(

3x

ence ince thi l t equ tion i

,

as

4 = a (oe

for

b) oc
,

an d

b)

(2a

h ve

we

2 a + b= 4

2 ) + b( o:

ident i t y

s an

+ b = 3,

ence olv i ng the e equ tion

x 2

(a
H

( s ee

ch p
a

x vi

ind

we f

no re l m ult i ple ( d i ff ering fro m ero ) f the i m g i n ry un i t

re l qu nt i ty S b ove ch p v ii 6 T he tudent hould recur
c e g i n fter re d i ng the ch pter on C o m ple N u mber
Fo r
a

as

ee
a

s
s

c an

to

= 1,

be

th i

X E RC I SE S

ple 5 We give nother in tructive e

Ex am

F
we

m ay w

r i te

here A B C
,

con t nt
s a

a re

xam

- c

T o decom po s e

ple

+ p vc + q

(a:

w9 + p x + q

159

XI I

(1)

N ow
w2 + p m+ q = A( vc

H e re i n

put

'

a , and

b)

) ( v:

(ac

here re ult
s

hence

B y s ym m

b)

) (a:

c) ;

+p a + q

b2 + p b + q

etry

) + C (:c

b) ( a

2
c

We h ve there fore

+p c+ q

C-

c- a

bl

'

3
a

c
ca

+ p vc + q
as b x

b2 + p b + q

+pa + q

2
c

+p c + q

W
)
)(
)
ident i ty lre dy e t bli hed b ove 5 E m ple 6 I t m y trike the
tudent note w orthy th t it i m ore e ily e t b l i hed by the inver e th n
by the d i ect proce
T he m ethod f p rti l f r ction i i n poin t f f ct
f ru i t ful ource f co m plic ted lgeb r i c l i den tit i e
(

an

b a C
l
)(

s a

as

ss

EX E RC I S E S X I I
Ex

pre the follo wi ng

ss

(1

+ 2x

as

r tion l f r ction
a

(3 )

+ 2 ac3 2 ;c 1
Q

3
o
c
3
a
5a: 2
oc +

s at

3 -

(
s
a
s
(

9 a 2 9c

1 2a

1 1 (c

(1

( 9-l
{ (al

bm )

(a m

bq)

their lo w e t term

3 - 2 a
c
396 x

2
3
a
m
1
6
2
0
3
+
(

2
o
c
3
5 ai 2
+
4
x + 2 a3 2 ao 1

9x
4
x

(a q

bp )

x 2 + 4 x

b) ( vc -

s a

xa

as

a w
h
(
)(

1 60

192

( 1 2 -l

+ ( le

X ERC I SE S

XI I

C H AP

{ a
2
x
{p + ( k

px

c
c

2x

2y

1 /( a 2 b 1 /( a 2 b 1 / ( a
1 / ( 2 a3

1 /( 6x + 6 )
x

m4

3x 2 )

2)

"

q
J

4513

6x
3x 2

9x + 4

+y

3z
c + 2

+y

'

(x + 1 )

(x + 1 )

4 ao
+

t x

2x + 1

2 ( a3 + 1 )

{(

+ 1

56

2 9d

2
90

2 a ( a c)

'

ra

3
a

4a ( a + w
g
Z
a a x l-fv

7J

(JJ

20

l so
_

{(

(w

1 +

3ac + 2

2d x

2 8

wo

3
:c

e a

3 (x

2
oe +

+ l

+2

42o
+
x

+3

2 80
w+ 4

1 80

20
_

w2

42 0
_

w- 3

( 30 ) { lacy
3
3
z
l
( +y +
-

( 2a c

b3

c2 2 bc

2 80

163

vm

2
3
(

2 (b

b)

) (a

)(

2
93

c)

1
2 ( y z) /ac
b) ( a - c)

a - c

H( oc

azyz

3a bc

1 zv

w y

{ II ( 1

b) ( a
a

(b

v)

c)

(6

" 2

( 3v

3 51 v? ) 2

161

x 11

g 3
1 Gr
e g
/

4
93
5
(
3/

1 03c3 y2

X E RC I SE S

l
v

<1

1
(v
>

at )
b) (m C )

"

b)

(a + p ) ( a
S a g /(a
b) ( a
2 ( y2 z?
2

( 50

53

w_ y

h)

( a c) ( a
C) ( h
a)
y) ( ac z)

Ba

/( a

) (a

?
C

2
h
)(

(b

a 9

)(b

Prove the follo w ing identitie

2 /(
b) (
c) 2
2

C u

here

)(

b)

= au 1
)
(

nu

ab

2
c v

)
wa s
a

o n+ 16 ) 6

bv( 1

12 :

b) ( a

no

b2 )

ab
e

xa

d)

ny/cubed

e
b
(
.

( 59 )

( 60

( 5s

cd a 2 b2 +
a
b
(
)(

)(

c3 d 9
)

b2

2
c

at

b) ( a c) ( b a )

2 (v

4 (a h

Ea 3

cd

{2

) }
s

s of

58

bd )

) (ac

2 bc2

D ecom po e the f ollo w i ng i nto u m

a bc.

E ve

p rt i l fr ction
a

2)

1 ) ( vc2

VO L

b2 a
)(

( 54 )

e2

(ao
2 ) (a

-b

1 62

X ERC I SE S

XII

ca n

vm

(67 )
1 /( vc a ) ( oc

( 2x
zc

a3

tw o

r tion l f r ction
a

as

cending pow er

u ing

) (x

at

E (b
be d

a )

a
o

-d
d
)(

)(

x,

of

"

of

a s

s an

an

s um

as

ss

s ar e x

pre
the
1)
1
d
w ho e deno m i n tor
+ 1
in eri e f
E p nd
p rt i l fr ction d continued divi ion
( 7 6 E p nd in l i ke m nner
) (1
S ho w th t
a

<

1 /( ac8 + a37 x 4 x 3 )

Ex

c
w
a
b
(

)( oc

b) ( ac

CH AP T ER
F u r t h e r A p p li c a t i o n t o t h e
ON

TH E

VA R I O U S W A Y S

IX

T h eo ry

R E P R E SE N TI N G
F R ACTI O N A L N U M BE RS
OF

of

N u m b e rs

I N TE

GR AL

AN D

The fo ll o w i ng g e n e r al th eo r e m l i es a t th e r o o t O f th e
t h e o r y o f t h e r e p r es e n t a t i o n o f n u mb e r s by m e a n s o f a s ys te m a t i c
s c al e o f n o ta t i o n :
L et

r,

r2

i nteg ers restri cted

*

then

r n s

r3 ,

in

exp

r essed i n

re p
a re g i ven
whe

<

an

<

r2

se

ea

r, ,

r i es of

i nfini te

ch is to be g r ea ter
the ni te form
o o

tha t

no w a y ex ep t

i nteg e N may be

a ny

denote

en

r,,

tha n 1 ,

r2

r3 ,

done i n one way only

F o r d iv i d e N by r t h e q u o t i e n t b e i ng N a n d t h e r m a i nd e r
th e q u o t i e n t b e i n g N
nd th e re m ai nd e r
p ; d iv i d e N by
n t i l t h e l as t
u o ti e n t s a
i
l
t
h
n
e t
a nd s o o n
s
e
s
s
a
t
h
e
n
m
yp
q
p
n u m b e r i n th e s e r i es w h i c h fal l s t o b e ta k e n a s d iv i
r Then of
c ou r s e th e p ro c es s s to p s We n o w ha v e
,

thi s

ca n

be

, ,

, ,

so

N1

)
.

N u i

Nlr1

p1

N g re

72

N ara

Pn

rn

th i ch pter unle the contr ry

po i t i ve integr l nu mber
u e d denote
In

s a

ss

(p
is

< 7
n
'

(0

d i tinctl y i m pl i ed every let ter

s

FA C T O R I A L

164

F r om

us n

T h en c e

2 :

Thu s

r 1r2N 2

,r l

,r 1

r2

ar l

i nally

,rl

zr l

r esolu t i on

Ag ai n, t h e

r2

3 r 1r 2 r 3

+ p nr 1 r 2

i s p os s i bl e i n

o nl

w ay

on e

r, ,

F or

su

o
se
pp

h ad

90

q u a t i ng
s ho u l d h a v e

th e n ,

N g rg ) ,

( pl

w e o b ta n

al s o

an d s o o n

we

C H AP

u s ng

T G ER

t
e
g

we

r,

p0

SE I E S F O R A N I N E

r
r
e
.
a
r en
w
a

r.

rn

A
( )

(p l

B
( ),

an d

and

d i vi d i n g
r

p g r2

p ur e

b o th

n.
s

i d es

by

B
( ),
r,

we

190

(p

T1

I
l

B u t th e t w o br a ck e t s
an

d p o/r l

He n c e

on

th e

p3

r 2 r3 +

r ig ht

( A)

and

E xam
s

erie

ar e

ple L et
.

2 , 3, 4 , 5,

n ow w
an d

B
( )

r r
3 2 3

P r o c e e d i ng
p ro v e

an

d l e ft

Of

i i nt e g e r s
p r op e r f r a c t i o n

C
( )
a

o n ta n

r
z ,

d p o /r l ar e, b y h yp ot h e s i s , e ac h
m u s t h av e p o/r 1 -p 0 /r l 3 th at i s ,
=

P0

an

we

p2

r g r3

r, ,

r 2 r3

r, ,

i th ( D)

so

p0

on

i d e nt i c al

d i d be fo r e w i th (C ) w e s h all
o t h e r w o rd s th e t w o e
r
s i o ns
e
p

as

In

we

the nu m b er
C rrying out the divi i on i nd i c ted

N = 7 1 9,

an d

l et

s r 1 , r2

H
O
L
D
I
C

h
:

r3
a

be

ab

ove

the
,

we

tur l
h ve

na

F AC T O R I AL

ix

Hence
a nd

we

F RACT I O N

S E I E S FO R A

p4= 5 ;

1,

h ve
a

T he re
f r a c t i o n,

is

c o rr es p on d i ng

n a m e l y, r , ,

A ny p r op er

rn,

fr a cti on

A/B

ca n

p op o si t i on fo r
& c , b e i ng as b e f o e ,

be

exp

r essed

r l rg r3

r ,r 2

rl

r , r2

re

whe

ca n

be

r om

w e p l ea se
rn

j ected

in

of

r 1 , r2

is

ei t e

n,

d i f c u l ty i n d e d u c i ng th i s p r op o s i t i on
ar a r a h
I
r
t
m
a
l
o v e d th u s
so
b
e
g
p
p
p
y

l as t

h av e

no

Ar l

Ar , /B

Brl

r1

t h e fo m p 1

< B
B
h
ere
w
,
,
q
q/
1

q1 /B

pl

i nt o

N o w w e m ay p u t Ar l /B
We th en h a v e
A

rn

F,

one w ay on ly

r e ad e r w i ll

th a t

by taking

IVhen

Th e
f

as

r zero or can be ma de
suf ci ent n umber of the i n teg r s
ol u ti on
ar e
i
t
h
i
res
r
v
e
n
s
g

a nd

as s ma ll

i n the for m
17

r esol vi ng

r , , r,

165

rl

i c

w he e

S n e,

by h yp o th es i s A< B

He n c e

Tr e ti ng
a

pl

th e p

1
,

ql

( 1)

r o p e r f r a c t i o n q /B

i n th e

A/B , w e h a v e
(1 1

P2
r2

r,

92

re
S i m i l ar l y

whe

< r
,,

<

r3 ,

<

q.
B
w he

re

r.
n

q.

7, B
p

<

B, & c

s am e

w ay a s w e t

e ate

FA CTORI AL

1 66

n.

rn

rn

F R A C T I ON

FOR A

C H AP

on
,
B

re

Now ,
su

R IE S

nally

And ,

w he

SE

<

i n tu r n, w e

( )

e qu at o n s

us n
g

d edu c e

cc es s iv ely
A

17 2

17 1

92

rl

r ,r 2

r ,r2 B

P1

P2

P3

{73

r1

r ,r2

r l r2 r 3

r1

r , r2

r l r g r3

r ,r 2 r 3 B

r ,r2

rn

91 b

( A)

r ,, B

r l r .2

w he e

r th e r e f o r e t h t q
r r
r B
w h i ch c n
/
c l e rl y be m ad e as s m l l s w pl eas e by s fc i e n tly i n cr e as i ng
T hi s o f c ou r se i n
t h e n m b e r o f f a c t o r s i n i t s d e n om i n at o r
v ol v e s a c o rr e sp o nd i ng i n cr ease i n th e n u m be r o f th e t e r m s o f
th e p r e c ed i ng s e r i e s
0
I t m ay h app e n o f c o u r s e th a t q v an i sh es n d t h e n F
We l e v e i t a s an e e rc i s e f or th e s tu d e n t t o pr o v e th at th i s c as e
m u l ti pl e o f B a n d t h at i f A/B b e
r
ccu r s w h n r r
is
H o g h t al s o t o
t i ts l o w e t t e r m s i t c ann o t o cc u r o th e r w i s e
nd l i ttl d i fc u l ty i n p r o vi ng th a t t h e r e s ol u t i o n i s u n i qu e w h e n
e g i v en
r
d l t t h nu m b er
E m ple 1 L et
&
b
It

pp e a s

",

,,

ar

xa

6 , 8, & C

an

s r1

r2

444

\Vc n d

57 6

E x am

ple 2

11

r1

r2

&C

e i ng 2

3, 4 , 5

6,

&C

13

rbi tr ry w m y choo e the m th t the nu m er

&
h ll e ch b un i ty W e thu h ve proce f d m p
t
2
p
m f other w ith nit nu m er tor
ing y f r ction into
S

i nce

r1

72

a ors

an

r2

&c

a re

a su

so

ss

or

e co

os

EX A

1x

ple 3

Ex a m

11
2

MP L E S

167
1
13

13

13

9
2

13

W hence
11

13

h ve cho en t e ch tep the le t m ult i plier po i ble When

thi i done it m y b ho w n th t the ucce ive rem i nder dim i ni h do w n
to ero the ucce ive m ult i plier incre e d the proce m y b b rought
end If thi re tr i ction on the m ultiplier b not ttended to the re o
t
l ti n m y b v ried i n m o t c e to
con ider ble e tent Since ho w ever
w
l w y divide by the m e divi or B t here
onl y B po ible re m inder
m el y 0 1 2
B 1 hence fter B 1 oper tion t m o t the re m inde r
m u t recur i f the per tion h
not term in ted by the occurrence f ero
E m ple 4 T hu w h ve
Here

we

o an

e a

na

lo

a s

s a

s,

ss

as

a re

a z

ple

ss

E x am

as s

xa

an

as

sa

ss

ss

as

e s

ss

lo

lo

29
a s

a s

an d s o o n

g
1 is
we

+ i

Th e m o s t i m po r ta n t p r a c t i c a l c a s e
th a t w h e r e r r 2 ,
ar e a l l e u al ,
q

r e su l t
E very i nteg er N ca n

of

th e

s ay e a

r
o po s i ti o n i n
p
c h = r Th n
.

h a v e th i s

be

eap r ess ed,

an

d tha t i n

one

way only, i n

the for m

pn

w he e p 0 , p 1 ,

ar e e a

ch

<

rd s d et c h i ng th e c o e fc i ent a nd ag r ee i ng t hat
t h e i r p o s i ti o n S h l l i n d i c a t e th e p o w e r o f 7 w h i c h t h e y m u l ti l
p y
a n d th t
p p os i ti o n s h all i n d i c t e a dd i t i o n ( nd n o t m u l ti pl i c a
t i o n a s u su al ) w e s ee t h a t r b e i n
g ny i nt g e r w h at e v e r c h os en
In

o th e

p
wo

s,

'

S ALES

th e

as

ra d a:

0,

v al u e s

s al e o

r ep r es en t e d i n th e
l e tt e r s o r dig i ts p p

v al u e s

r
w h er e
:

1 0,

C HA P

r m ay be
p p ; w h e r e e c h o f th e
m u s t h av e s om e o ne o f th e i n teg ral

pn

l ,

if

i nteg e r

nota ti on, a ny

e x am p l e ,

T G

T T

N O A I ON , I N E ERS

f or m p n p n

3,

Fo r
th e

OF

16 8

w h at eve
a

i n teg e r

any

r ep r

m ay b e

p ,p 0
p o,
p n h av e
0, 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9

ea

ch

by

so m e o n e

of

e s e nt e

Th e p r o c e s s o f 1 at o n c e f u rn i sh es u s w i th a r u l e for n d i ng
s u cc es s iv el y th e d i g i t s p 0 , p , , p , ,
n am e l y, Di vi de the g i ven i nteg er
N by the chosen

ra dix r ,

the

r emai nde

w ill

di vi de the i nteg r al

be p o

l ast di vi si on by r , the r emai nder will be p , , and s o on

U su ally, O f c ou r s e, th e i nteg e r N w i ll be g i v en ex pre ss e d i n
s om e
p ar ti c u l a r s c al e, s ay th e o rd i n a ry o n e w h ose r ad i x i s 1 0 ;

t
ent o
i
u
o
q

an

r eq u i r ed

d i t w i l l be

r ad i x
th e

i s g i v en
n s c al e
i
v
e
g

to

I n th a t

e x p es s

c as e

th e

r s cal e w h o s e
op e r at i on s w i l l b e c a rr i e d o n i n
it in

s om e

o th e

d ent w i ll O f c ou r s e p e rc e i v e th at al l th e r ul es O f o rd i
n ar y d e c i m al a r i th m e ti c ar e a ppl i c a bl e t o a r i t h m e t i c i n an y s c a l e
t h e o nl y d i ffe r e n c e b e i ng t h at i n t h e s c a l e o f 7 s y t h e r e ar e

t
3
5
6
n d t h at t h e
o nl
d
i
i
s
0
l
2
4
a
c
arr i a e s
o b
7
y
g
g
g
y
Th e

st u

s an

by l 0

not

c
e c e ed s 1 0
c ou r s e h e i nv ented to r e pr e s e n t th e d ig its
f r e am p l e d i g i t s m u s t b e u s e d fo r 1 0
I f the

rad i x

of

th e

s al e

an d e

fo r 1 1

E x am

ple

n e w s ym bo l s

I n t he
an d

1 1,

s al e
s ay 1

convert 1 3 6 991 ( r di

To

1 0)

into the c le
s a

Of

12

T he re sult i s
E x am

6
6 7 336

ple 2

To

convert 6 7 3 3 ( r d i
s

) 6 7 33
r )7e l 7

1 2)

into th c l e
e s a

1
9

T he re s ult i s

1 3 6 9 91

)
r )11

T 64

m us t

of r .

of

1 2,

f or 1 0

Ix

X AM P L E S O F

lthough thi m ethod

pre fer the follo w ing
A

is

R T HM ETI C AL O P E R AT I ON

good pr c tice the

a

6 7 336

U ing the proce

s

ss o f

ch p
a

( ra di x

1 2) m

ple

3+

en

udent

m ay

very pro b bl y

c al e

Of

h ve
a

11

3+

7 2 + 9 4 8 + 1 1 41 2
6 + 7 9 + 9 5 1 + 1 1 41 5
o ne

1, we

1 3 6 9 80

F
r
om
]

st

1 3 , E xam

6+ 7+

169

A I

1 3 6 99 1

p o i nt o f v i e w t h e S i m p l e s t
h i n v o l v e s t h e f e w e s t i g i ts

n o tat o n

d be th at w h i c
d
I n th i s r es p e c t
th e b i na r y s c al e p osse s ses g r eat a d v an t a g e s fo r i n i t e v e ry d i g i t
F or e x am pl e 3 6 5 e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s s c al e i s
i s e i th e r 0 o r 1
All a r i th m et i cal o p e r at i o ns th en r e d u c e t o th e
101 101 101
Th e c ou nt e rbal a n c i ng d i s d va n tag e i s t h e
a dd i t i o n o f u n i t s
e n o r m ou s l e n g th O f t h e n o t at i o n w h e n t h e n u mb e r s are a t a ll
l ar g e
W i th a ny r a d i x w h ate v e r w e can d i s pen s e w i th t h e l a t te r
ar t o f th e d i i ts al l o w ab l e i n t h at s c al e
r
i
d
d
a l l ow t h e
ov
e
w
e
p
g
p
F or l e t th e r ad i x be r th en w h ene v e r
u s e o f n e a t iv e d i i t s
g
g
o n d i v i d i n g by r th e p o s i t i v e r e m a i n d e r p i s g r e a t e r t h a n r 2 w e
/
r
can a dd u n i ty t o th e q u o t i e n t a n d t ak e
f
a n e at i v e
or
p
g
(
)
r em ai n d e r w h e r e o f c ou r s e r
F o r e am p l e 3 9 7 8 3 6 2
(r ad i x 1 0 ) m i g h t be w r i tten 4 0 2 2 4 4 2 w h e r e 2 s tan d s f or 2 3
so th at i n f act 4 0 2 2 4 4 2 s ta n d s f o r

w ou l

2
E xam

ple

Work

out

314 :

the product

of

1 6 98

a nd

31 4

in the b in ry c le
s a

1 0 0 1 1 1 01 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 00 1 0

1 1 01 0 1 0 0 01 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 00 0 1 0
1 1 01 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

1 1 01 0 1 0 00 1 0 0
1 0 00 0 0 1 00 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 01 0 0

E xam
th a

n3

53 3 1 72

r di
a

re 1 6 98 d 3 1 4 i the c le f 5 u ing d i git gre ter

d w ork out the product f th t w tr n for m ed nu mb er

ple 2

an

Ex p

ss

an

s a

no

170

X A MP L ES O F

R I THM ETI C AL O P E R ATI ON

UH A P

2 33 1 3
2231
2 331 3

1 3 1 111

1 02 1 1 1
1 02 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 2 1 3 03

T he s tudent

veri fy th t 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 0 3 ( r di
( r di
w e i ght
f 31 5 lb
r t w ith erie
E m ple 3 Sho w h w to w eigh
2 lb
2 lb
f 1 1h 2 l b
f w eight
there b e i ng
f e ch ki nd
econd w ith er i e f w eight f 1 1b 3 l b 3 l b 3 l b & t here b eing
onl y f e ch kind
F ir t E pre 3 1 5 in the bin ry c le W e h ve
m ay

xa

s o

one

H
2

ence w

l bs

ss

l bs

a nd

s a

2 8 l bs

in

3 15

ss

s a

the c le

o ne of

econd E p re
unit y We h ve
S

s O

u t put in

l bs

on e

s o

a s

s Of

the b l nce the we i ght

a a

1 1

2 l bs

tern ry c le u ing no dig i t gre ter th n

t he

s a

31 5

1 1 0 1 00

ence over g in t the given eight w m u t put the w eight 3 l b

d 3
d
the m e i de the g i ven w eight the w eight 3 l b
lb
I f w e s pe c i al i s e t h e p r o p o s i t i o n o f
2 b y m a k i ng
E ver
r sa
h
t
h
w
w
e
a
e
e
f
o
ll
o
n
v
i
ea ch
r
r
y
g
y p rop er
fraction A/B ca n be exp ressed a nd tha t i n one way only i n the form
H

an

on

sa

as

an

whe e p , , p , ,

ma de

a s s ma l l as

If

,,

ar e

we p l eas e

is

i ci ently i n crea s i ng

ea ch <

by

r , a nd

ei the

su

ze o, or

be

r be th e rad i x o f a ny par ti c u l r s c al e o f n o tat i o n

9

can

the f

r a c ti

on

the m ult i pl i c t i on i n E m ple 1 d 2 i purp o ely

v ried b ec u e lthough it i f no con equence here o m etim e the
order
i m ore convenient o m e t i m e t h other
A i m il r i t i introduced in
6 E
m ple 1 nd 2
T he a rra nge m ent

xa

s o

of

xa

an

v ar e v

one

c al l e d a r d i
m
l
t
h
ace
e
and
ci e n ts
p
i nt e g e r s
o i n t be i n g
p
T h us w e m ay w r i te
u s u ally

is

I N VA RKNRS S CALE S

ix

fra c t i o n

in
pl a

c o oth

th e

j t s i n th e c s e o f
i n d i ca te fractio nali ty

o s i t i o n,
p
p

c ed r s t

d e t ch

m ay

us

to

A
P 119219 3

Pm

i
t
h
e r s t p l a c e a f t e r th e r a d i x p o i n t s t a n d s f o r p l r ,
n
p
/
g
i n th e s e c o n d pl a c e s t an d s f or p Z/r , a n d s o o n
S i n c e t h e d i g i t s p ,p , p 3
p , , are t h e i nte g r al p ar t o f t h e

w he e
g

i d

not

r i n at e

u nl e s s

te m

He n c e, if

d iv i d i

by

q u o t e n t O bt a n e

Ar

is

Ar

b y B , th e

m u l t i pl e

r ad i

B for

of

fr a c t i on

som e

v al u e

can
of

r
d
u c e d t o i ts l o w e t t e r m s s o t h a t A
e
pp
f r c ti o n c n n o t t e r m i n a t e
i s p r i m e t o B w e s e e th t t h e r a d i
1 0) be p w e rs o f
u n l e s s t h e p r i m e f c t o r s o f B ( s ee c h a p iii
m
5
r
i
r e
m
f
a c t o r s w h i c h o cc u r i n r
F
o
l
e s i nce 7
1
0
2
e
p
p
v u l g r f r a c t i o n ca n r e d u c e t o a t e r m i n a t i n g d e c i m a l f r c t i o n
5
u nl es s i ts d e n o m i n a to r b e o f t h e f o r m 2
I n al l c as e s h o w e ve r w h r e t h e r a d i x f r a c t i on d o e s n o t
t r m i n at e i ts d i g i ts m u s t r e p e t i n a c y c l e o f n o t m o r e t h a n
1
B
1 g r e s 3 fo r i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e d ivi i o n n o m o r e th n B
d i ff r e n t r em i nd e r s ca n o cc u r (i f w e e cl u d e O) n d a s s o on s
o n e O f t h e r e m a i nd e r s r e c u r s t h e g u r e s i n t h e q u o ti e n t beg i n
to r c u r
we

A/B

ose

su

'

xa

7n

"

E xa m

ple

To

e pre
x

r di fr ction i n th c le

as a

ss

e s

of

10

to w ithin

1 /1 0 00 00 t h
2

2 00 0 00

66 666

1 05

1 03

10

3
10
w

here

6
+

10

10

10

G
4

10

2B

1 00 0 0 0

+ F,

1
:

1 0 0 0 00

1 0 0 00 0

pier f M erch i ton w pp rently the r t w h u ed the m odern form

f the not tion f
deci m l f r ct i on T he ide f the regul r progre ion f
deci m l i older Stev i n full y e pl i n i t dv nt ge i h i A i th meti q
d ger m
f the i de m y b tr ced m uch f rther b k
A ccord i ng
to t ho e be t qu l i ed to j u d ge N p i er w the r t w h f ull y pprec i ted the
Na

a s

or

an

as a

a o

as

ss

ac

ue

172

X AMP L E S

other w ord

In

h ve t the requ i red degree

we

s,

R AD I X F RAC TI ON S

OF

'

66666

ccur cy

of a

ob viou fro m the repetit i on f the gure th t i f w t ke 6 f ter the

point w h ll h ve the v lue f correct w ithin 1 /1 0 th f i t v lue
E m ple 2 L et the f r ction b
S ince 6 4 2 thi f r c tion ought
to b e pre ible
ter m in t i ng dec i m l We h ve i n f ct
I t is

e s

xa

ss

64
'

ith i n

1 /2 6 th

s a

7 31 2 5

0781 2 5

e pre

To

10

5 0 0000 0

64

ple

as a

E xam

"

it

10
.

ss

as

r di
a

r c tion in the c le
a

of

s a

to

26

26

h
ch
W

N eg l ectm g

ls<

7
2

1 01 0 1 0

'

26

26

an d e x r e s s m
p
g

42

In

the c le
s a

of

2, we

h ve
a

( ra di x

1 01 01 0

fr a c t i o n i s g i v en
a nd i t i s r e u i r e d to
q

r d as a r ad i x f ra c ti on
i n an y s c al e
ex p r e s s i t as a r a d i x fr a c t i o n
i n s o m e o th e r s c al e t h e fol l o w i ng p r o c ess i s c onv e n i en t
L e t t b e th e f ra c t i o n e x p r e s s e d i n th e old s cal e r t h e n e w
r ad i x an d s upp ose
W h en
,

e xp esse

( )

10 2

Pl

Pa

'

"

l 7
'

th en
r

sa

pl

N ow

is

p r o p e r f r a c t i o n , h e n c e p l i s th e

Ag a i n

d,

r )

p2

p2

i n te g r al

S o t h at p 2 i s t h e

of r )

an d

of

v i ou s th at a v u l g a r f ra c ti on
m u s t t r a n s f o r m i n to a v u l g a r f r a c t i o n i n
I t is

p ar t

sa

c) ,

rt

i nteg r al

ob

SO

on

y c
an
y o th e r 3

in

an

s al e o f
an

n o ta t o n

d w e s h al l

per tion l
f the deci m l poin t ; n d in h i C
t cti
( w ritten long
b e fore h i de th
lthough not pu bl i hed t i ll 1 6 1 9) it i frequently u ed S
9 th ed
l o R e recent
G l i her A t
N pier E n y l p wd i B i t nn i
tr n l tio n f the C t cti p 89

u se

a s

s a

'

ons ru

o,

c c o

ons ru

ca ,

a s

ee

Ix

X A M P L ES

17 3

c hapte r ( s e e G e om e tr i c al P r og r e s s i on) tha t ev e ry

r ep eati ng r ad i f r ac t i on can be r e pr es en te d by a v u l g a r f ra c ti o n
He n c e i t i s c l ea r th a t e v e r y f ra c t i o n w h i ch i s a t e r m i na ti ng or a
r ep eat i ng r ad i fr a c t i on i n any s c al e ca n be r e pr e s ente d i n a ny
o th e r s c al e by a r a d i x f r a c t i o n w h i c h e i th e r t e r m i n a te s or e l s e
r ep e ats I t i s n ot h o w e v e r tr u e th a t a te r m i nat i ng r ad i fr a c ti on
a l w a s t r a n s fo r m s i n to a te r m i n a t i n
y
g r a d i x fr a c ti o n or a r ep ea te r
i nto a r pea te r N o n te r m i na ti ng n o n r ep eati ng r ad i fr ac ti o ns
n t o n o n t e r m i na t i n g n o n r e e a t i n
t r an s fo r m O f c o u r s e Ii II
p
g r ad i
f r a c t i ons o th e r w i s e w 8e 8s h ou l d h v e t h e abs u rd i ty t h a t a v u l g ar
fr ac t i on can b e t r an s f o r m e d i n to a n o n te r m i nat i ng n n r ep eat i n g
r a d i x fr a c t i o n
I t i s o b v i ou s th at al l th e r u l es f o r o p er at i ng w i th d e c i m al
f r a c ti on s ap pl y to r a d i x f ra c t i on s g n e r ll y
sh o w

in

l a te r

ple 1 R educe 3 1 6 8 d 1 1 3 4 6 to the l f 7 d m ult i pl y the

l tter by the for m er i n th t c le ; the w ork to b ccur te to 1 /1 0 0 0 th
thro ghout
T he required degree f ccur cy involve the 5 th pl ce fter the r d i c l
po i nt in the c le f 7
E x am

an

s ca e o

s a

an

s a

'

1 68

7
7

7
7

1 1 1 42

( r di
a

1 1 3 46

1 42 2 2 6 45

1 42 2 7
1 42 3
6 32
32

5 0 6 41 4 6

R E M AI N D E R O N D I V I D I N G

174

BY r

C HA P

ccount f the duodeci m l d ivi ion f the E ngl i h f oot into 1 2 inche
the duodec i m l c le i o m et i m e conven i ent in m en ur t i on
rect ngul r
E m ple 2 F ind the nu m b er f qu re f eet
d i nche i
c rpet w ho e di men ion
21
by 1 3
E pre ing the e l en g th
i n feet nd d odeci m l f foot w h ve
On

xa

s s

a s o

21
13

n a

an

ar e

s,

ss

36

'

'

ollo w ing O g h t d rr nge m ent w rever e the m ult i pl i er d put the

n i t gure under the l t decim l pl ce w h i ch i t b reg rded the
c lcul tion run thu
I f, f

re

s a

as

an

1 93 6

96 1 1

1 93 6 0
1 93 6
1 763
1 36

2 09 7 8

( ra d i x
7 8 ( ra di x

ence the re
a

If

di vi de N

eet

i s 2 97 f

a nd

the

der

r emai n

the

is

Le t

He n c e

nte

an

or

p ur

ge

v e ry

f r a nd
by a ny fa ctor of r
s al e o

we

1,

n
.

1)

p , (r

1)

i s d ivi s i bl e by r 1 ( s e e
m o n t he ig h t is
iv i s i bl e by

r
n y f c to r o f r
, s o m i nt e g e r
e

1)

p1

an

1,

P n( 7

i n the

exp r essed

pf

p ,r

p0

r
r
b
a
t
h
e
e
f
o
e
d
y
,
a ny f a c t o r o f i t , a nd 1

or

92

eet
q u re inche
1 0) f

He n c e

8:

i ts d ig i ts by r
the s ame i n both a s es

N o w , m be i n g
.

N be

12

c ha p
r l

su m o

(p

inche

92

nu mbe

1 2)

( ra di x

2 97

2 09

te

we

Hen c e,

ng
b
e
i
p

ha v e

N
S upp o s e

SO

t hat

no w

i ch s how s
r e mai nd e r i s

wh

re m ai n d r w h
Th n
g iv e s

t h at t h e

en

N is

d iv i d ed

by p , i s

a ,

th a t w he n p o

i s d iv i

d ed

by p t h e

C AS T I N G

1x

C or 1

i dr

r ema n e

3 , the

su m o

the

For

dig i ts

i ts

e x am

by 9

n ne s

18

13

117

128

1152

1 28

384

O n C or 1

of

a nd

3,

d oes

so

su m o

or

7 i s f ou n

r i thm t i c
e

ded

k no w n
c sti ng

t h e w e ll -

c a l c u l a t i o ns c

al

ry mu l tip le

eve

e x a m p l e,

For

dig i ts of

the

a ll e

m etho

th e

ou t

Le t L

th a t

so

mu l tip l e

r e m a i nd e r

9 g i v e s fo r

I t also follows tha t the

c h e ck i ng

of

by 3

or

l
1
e
3
6 92
,
p

3 mus t be

or

the

s a me as

-9

C or 2

we d

i s the

I7S

NI N E S

ivid e any i n teg er by 9 or by

r emai nder w e obta i n by di vi di n
g

rdi nary scale if

I n the

T II E

O UT

by 9 ,

M N 3 then i f L = l 9 + L M = m9 + M N = u 9 + N
M N a r e t h e r e m a i nd e r s w h e n L M N ar e d i vi d e d
,

ha v e

we

l9

M ) (n 9
mu 8 1
M
n
m
N
)9 M N
(
a
m
n9
M
m
9
M
N
N
3
)
(

(m 9

'

p p e a r s th a t L
w h e n d iv i d e d by 9

it

w h en e

m ai n d e r

M N m u s t h a v e t h e s am e r e
L M N a r e ob ta i n e d i n a cc o rd

a nd

c e w i th C o 1 o f 7 by d iv i d i ng th e s m s o f t h e d i g i t
r espect iv e n m be rs by 9
E m ple 1 S u pp o e w w i h to te t the m ultiplic tion
an

xa

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56 8

2 7 2 2 02 6 4

d i v i ded by 9 proceed thu

c t out 9 d 2 i le ft 3
c t out 9 3
T he re m inder
S i m i l rl y f ro m 5 6 8 t h re m i nder i 1
d f ro m 2 7 2 2 0 2 6 4 7
i 7
N w
g i ve f cour e th m e re m i nder 7 -29 T here i there fore
7
trong pre u m pt i on th t t h b ove m ulti plic tion i correct I t hould b
error w hich thi te t w ould t d etect i f
b erved ho w ever th t there
w
repl ced the product by 2 7 3 1 9 62 4 f in t nce the te t w ould t i ll b
ti ed b t the re ult w ould b w rong
ince
I
y to the c e
p pl yi g th i te t to divi ion
d there fore L P = M N w h ve to c t out the n i ne
w h ve L = M N + P
f ro m L P M
d N
d
bt i n L P M
d N
T h en the te t i
y
P h ll b the m e the re ult f c t i ng out the i ne fro m M N
th t L
T o get the re m a inder w hen
an

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E xam p

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2 7 220662

ere

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9]
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47 92 3

3 98

5 68

P = O 2 = 2,

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is

r i n te r e s t i n g m e t h o d f o r e
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a n o th e

y p r o p e r f ra c t i o n

it

96

pa n

or

te t

us

TH E O E M

n u m e a to s

a nd r , , r 2 , r 3 ,
be the quoti ents
L et q, , q2 , q3 ,
rema i nder s r esp ecti vely w hen B i s di vi ded by A , r , , r , ,
sp eeti vely, then

A
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91

91 92 93

91 92

re F

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1
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d i mi n i s h i ng i t i s O b v i o us th at i f
A an d B be i nt eg e r s as ab o v e s u pp ose d th e p r o c e s s o f s u cc e s s i v e
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a a
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31 69

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( s c al e o f 1 0 ) in the s c ale O f 7
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tr ct the qu re root f
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f 1 1h 5 l b
5 lb
&
7 wt b
w eighed
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c le onl y d u i ng y nu m b er
f equ l w eight not e ceeding four
e i ther
S econd b y putti g w eight i
l b t not u i g m ore th
t w equ l w e i ght
Fi nd the re f rect ngle 35 f t 3 % i n by 2 3 ft 6 % i n
Fi nd the re f qu re w ho e ide i 1 7 ft 4 i n
F ind the volu m e f cu be w ho e edge i 3 ft in
F ind the ide f q u re w ho e re i 1 39 q ft 1 3 0 q in
E pre ed i n cert i n c le f not t i on 7 9 ( c le f 1 0 ) beco m e 1 4 2
f nd the r d i
f th t c le
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x

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1 78

X ERC IS ES

X II I

CHA P

h t c le f not tion doe 301 repre ent qu re integer ?

c le f 7 h i t d i g i t rever ed w hen
A nu mb er f 3 d i g i t in t h
e pre ed i the c le f 9 3 nd the digi t
If 1 b
dded to the product f four con ecutive i nteger th re ult
i
l w y qu re integer 3 d in four c e t f ve the l t d igit ( in the
co mm on c le ) i 1 d in the re m ining c e 5
A ny integer f four d i g i t in the c le f 1 0 i d i v i i ble by 7 pro
d the hundred d i g i t t w i ce the ten
i d d i t r t n d l t digit b equ l
digit
I f ny i nteger b e pre ed i the c le f
the d i ff erence b et w een
um f the integer in the dd d even pl ce re pectivel y g i ve the
th
m e re m inder w hen divided by + 1
doe the integer i t el f w hen
divided D educe te t f m ultiplic tion by c t i ng t the eleven
T he d i fference f y t w integer w hich
e pre ed in the c le
f 1 0 by the
l w y d i v i i ble by 9
m e digit di ff eren tl y rr ged i
num ber e pre ed in the ord i n ry c le con i t f
even
If
nu mb er f digit
rr nged th t tho e equidi t nt fro m the b eginn i ng d
end equ l it i divi ible by 1 1
Tw integer e pre ed in the ordin r y c le
uch th t
h
ero i l l the dd pl ce the other ero in l l the even pl ce the rem ining
digit b eing the m e in b oth b t not nece rily rr nged in the m e order
m f th t w integer i divi i ble by 1 1
Sho w th t the
T he rule f iden ti fying le p ye r i th t the nu m b er for m ed by the
Sho w th t thi i
t w l t digi t
f the y e r m u t b divi ib le by 4
gener l criterion f d i vi ibility by 4 nd t te the corre pond i ng criterion
f
d i vi i bility by
f
integ er b p p p ho w th t the integer
I f the l t t hree dig i t
w i ll b e
ctl y d i vi ible by 8 prov i ded p 21 + 4p b e ctl y d i vi i ble by 8
S ho w th t the
m f l l the nu m b er w h i ch
b f or m ed w ith t h
d i git 3 4 5 i divi i ble by the m f the e d ig i t nd gener li e the theore m
nd
d(
n b converted into circul t i ng deci m l
If p/
p
the rel tion b et ween the gure in the i r peri od
deci m l re m i der
I f i conver ti g the proper f r ct i on /b in t o
equ l to b occur ho w th t h l f the circul t i ng period h been found
d th t the re t f it w ill b f ound by u b tr act i ng i n orde r f ro m 9 the dig i t
lre d y found G ener l i e thi theore m
perfec t 5 th po w er end i n
I the c le f 1 1 every integer w hich i
one other f the three digit 0 1
c le f 1 0 the d i ff erence b et ween the qu re f every nu mb er
I th
i
f the nu mb er f or m ed by rever ing the d i g i t
f tw digit
n d the qu re
d i vi i b le by 9 9
A nu mb er f i digit w ho e l t d 4 th 2 d d 5 th 3 d d 6 th
digit
re pect i vel y the m e i divi ible by 7 by 1 1 d by 1 3
me
S ho w th t the unit d i g i t f every i ntegr l cu b e i e i ther the
th t f the cub e root el e i the co m ple m ent ry d i git ( By the co mp le
m ent ry d i g i t to 3 i m e nt 1 0 3 th t i
the c le f 1 2 qu re integer ( t m l ti pl f 1 2 ) end
If i
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X E R C I SE S X I I I

is 3,

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a nd

170
o

the qu re root end

ith

uch th t
then ny nu m ber i div i i ble by
provided the r t m integer p p
f i t e pre ion i n the c le f
p

i divi i b le b y
uch th t 1 + p +
+p
T he d ig i t f
dded the d ig i t f th i m dded d on
till ingle d i g i t i rrived t T hi l t i denoted by
S ho w th t
d th t the v lue
f ( 8n ) f
1 2
ucce ivel y con i t f the nine digit continu ll y repe ted in de cending
order
how th t
( 43 A nu m b er f 3 dig i t i dou b led by rever ing i t d i git
the m e hold f the nu mb er for m ed b y the r t d l t d i g i t d t h t
l out f three
uch u m b er
b found in onl y
If

be

170

r are s

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C HA P TE R

Irr a t i o n a l F u n ct i o n s

G E N E R AL I SATI O N O F THE C O N CE P TI O N
I N TE R P R E TA TI O N O F
asp /9

OF
r

of

i n d ex

'

AN

IN

DE X

c h ap ii 1 be
c o m es m ean i ng l ess if th e i n d e be o th e r th an a pos i t iv e i nteg e r
I n a cc o rd an c e w i th th e g e ne r al i s i ng s p i r i t O f alg eb r a w e
ag r ee h o w e v e r t h at t h e u se o f i n d i c e s s h al l n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d t o
th i s p ar t i c u l ar c ase
We ag r ee i n f ac t th at n o r es tr i c t i o n i s t o
be pu t u po n t h e v al u e of th e i nd e x an d l ay d o w n m e r el y th at
th e u s e of th e i n d i c e s Sh al l i n e v e r y c a se b e s ubj e c t t o t h e l aw s
L es s th an th i s w e
al r e a d y d e r i v e d fo r po s i t i ve i nt e g r al i n d i c e
c anno t d o S i nc e th es e l aw s w e r e d er i v e d f rom th e fu n d m e n t l
l aw s o f a lg e b r a th e m s el v e s t o w h i c h e v e ry al g ebr a i c al s ym b ol
m u s t be s u bj e c t
Th e q ue s t i o n n o w a r i s e s W h at s i g ni c at i o n Sh all w e at t i
m
b u te t o a in th es e n e w c a s e s l We a e no t t l i be r ty t o p r o c e e d
l r e ad y
a rb i t r ar i ly an d g iv e any m ean i ng w e pl eas e f or w e h a v e
m
i nas m u ch a s i t h as be e n m ad e su bj e c t
by i m pl i c at i o n d e n e d a
t o t h e g en e r al l aw s l a i d d o w n f o r i n d i c e s
Let
Case of rep /1 wher e p a nd q are a ny p os iti ve i n teg ers
2
d e n ote th e v al u e O f rep /9 w h at e v e r i t m ay be 3 t h en Si n ce a p lI i
t o b e s ub j e c t t o th e r s t l aw o f i n d i c e s w e m u s t h a v e
Th e

d e n i t i on

an

n
i
ve
g

in

f
act or s ,
q

zq = z x z x z x
x 2

x
o

ter m

c rs

q fa t o
s,

C H AP

T RP R

IN E

o th e

In

i s w h at i s

by {/

ETA TI O N o r a

rd s a i s u ch th t
c al l e d a qth r o o t O f
wo

181

i ts qth p o w e r i s
th a t i s , z
w h i c h i s u s u ally d e n o te d

l
r

He n c e

I n p a r t i c u l ar, i f p

1,
l /9
(c

c o ns i d e r h o w f an alg ebra i c al v al u e o f
a qth r o o t o f e v e r y a l g e b r a i c al q u an t i ty can b e f o u n d
I n th e c a s e of a r e al po s i t i v e q u n t i ty [6 S i n c e
p as s e s co n
*
tinu ou sl y t h r ou g h a l l p o s i t i v e v al u e s b e tw een 0 a n d
as 3
i t i s c l ear
p asses th r o u g h all p os i t i v e v al u es b e tw e e n 0 an d
t h at f or s o m e v al u e o f a b etw ee n 0 a n d
w e m u st h a v e
k
I n o th e r w o rd s th e r e e x i s t s a r e al p o s i t iv e v al u e o f {/ h
U nl es s th e c on tr ary i s s tate d w e s h all w h en It i p os i t i v e
l /9
as s tan d i ng f or t h i s r e al p o s i t iv e v al u e
tak e te
Th e s tu d e n t s h ou l d h o w ev e r r em ark th at w h e n q i s e v e n
sinc
2 r s ay th e r e i s a t l e as t o n e o th e r r al v al u e O f
3 fo
if w e h a v e f ou n d a p o s i tiv e v al u e o f 3 s u c h th a t
k th at v al ue w i th i ts S i g n c h ang e d w i ll al s o s at i sfy th e r e
i
r e m e n t s o f th e
u
r
l
o
b
em
q
p
N e x t l e t h be a n eg at i ve q u ant i ty
I f q be O dd th e n s i n c e
a sses th r ou h all v al u es f r o m
t o 0 as 2 p as s e s t h r o u g h
p
g
al l v a l u es f r o m
t o 0 t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e o n e r e al n e g a t i v e
v al u e o f a s u ch t h at
h
I n o th e r w o rd s if g b e o d d th e r e
i s a r eal ne g at iv e v al ue o f {/ k
I f q b e e v en t h en s i n c e e v e r y ev en p o w e r o f a r e l qu an ti ty
or
i s p o s i t iv e t h e r e i s n o r e l v al u e
(no m atte r w h e th er
Of 2
Hen c e if h b e n e g at i v e and q e v e n
T hi s
i s i m ag i n a r y
c ase mu s t be l eft for f u tu r e d i s c u ss i on
I t w i ll be u s e fu l h o w ev e r for th e s tu d en t t o k now th a t
u l t i m at el y i t w i l l b e
ff
e r e nt
r
v
d
t
h
t
r
se
d
i
a
v
c
o
e
h
s
i
n
e
e
a
p
y
q
v al u e s e x r ess i o n s f or w h i c h i n t h e f o r m o f c o m l ex n u m b e r s
p
p
can b e f o u n d
O f th e s e v al ue s o n e or a t m o s t t w o m ay b r l
a s i n d i c at e d ab ov e
( s e e c h ap x i i )
\Ve h a v e

to

no w

ar

00

00

00

r,

co

co

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fu

ller di cu i on
s

ss

of

ea

xxv

the po i nt here involved

s ee

ch

ps

x v. a n

V E RI FI C AT I ON

182

O nl y i n th e
q u an t i ty
E xam

ple

r at i o nal

be

ca n

F O R as p /9

h i s t h e p th p o w e r

w he e

as e

L AW S

O F THE

Of

r at i o n a l

If h :
2

4/

h h as t w o

+ IL P +

If k :

h 2P + 1

tha t

a ll

In

re l v lue

one

re l v lue

h as

foll ows

lb

+ lL

chap ter

i n this

an d -

+ lb

s,

o ne

2P t l /
lc

Wi / le h as
g
If k:

re l v lue

rc

w e s ha l l r es t i t the

ra d icand

h, to be p os i tive ; we sha ll r eg ard only the real p os i ti ve va l u e of the qi h

root of h ; a nd thi s ( wh i ch i s call ed the P R I N C I P A L V A LU E O F TH E

R OO T)

i s what w e

to be the meani ng

u nderstand

l /q
te

theory f f r c ti on l ind i ce could ( in th r t edition f t h i volu m e )

f
the
b e tended
t cover the c e f neg t ive r dic nd b t onl y
order f the root i dd T he pr ctic l dv nt ge g i ned by thi e ten ion i
b y co m pl i c ting the de m on tr tion
n t w orth the trou b le w hich it c u e
W e think i t b etter l o f ro m cienti c n d educ tion l w ell f ro m
pr ctic l point f view t con ider the r dic tion f neg tive r d i c nd
p rticul r c e f th r dic tion f com ple r dic nd ( ch p X ii
We h av e n o w t o Sh ow th a t th e m e an i ng j u s t s ug g e s te d
fo r
i s c o n s i s te nt w i th al l t h e L aw s o f I n d i c es l a i d d o w n i n
c hap ii The s i m pl es t w ay o f d o i ng th i s i s t o r epr o v e th es e
Th e

so as

as

s o

a s

as

so

a r as

s s

a s

as

as

see

as

as

d e n e d sym bol
We r e m rk i n th e r s t pl a c e th at i t i s n e c e s s ary t o pr o v e
a nd I I I
b
e cau s e a
h
i
n cha
h
w
n
as
b
e
e
n
S
o
o n ly I ( )
3
( )
p
ii I
c n b e d e d u c e d f ro m I
f r om 11 1 ( )
( ) an d I I I
w i t h o u t a n y p p ea l t o t h e d e n i t i o n o f
l a w s fo r t h e

n ew ly

r o v e I ( ) c o ns i d e r
p os i t iv e i n t eg e r s a n d l e t
To p

a n d ai

r 3
,

w he e

r,

ar e

ai

T h en s i n c e
i
i
3 i s a l so r
e
os
t
v
p
,

a nd

r 8

8
/
r
e

e al a n d
s
q
z

ar e ,

p os i t i v e

by h yp o th es i s ,
Al s o

r /s qs
/
p
q
m x
,

>

ea

ch r e al

an d

V E R I F I C ATI ON O F

1 83
wh

ich

New

by t h e m e a n i n g s

rep a n d

8
re /

as s

by t h e l a w s f o r p o s i t i v e
I t n o w f o ll o w s t h at

r e al

an

by

ig ned

/
p
re 1

to

an d

hav e

we

He nc e

al p

is

FO R as

i nteg r al i n d i c e s r eg ard i ng

b y th e l a w s f or po s i tiv e
t h e e i s n o q u es t i o n

all

L AW S

TII E

p /'1

sPg )

i n teg r al i n d i c e s
z

t h e qs th

is

i c

and , s n e

of

oo t

d p o s i tiv e , i t m u s t be t h a t qs th
T h e r e fo r e

r o ot

wh

ich

Of

fa c t o r s

p , q,

we

d e n o te

t h a t i s to

s a y,

Th e p r o o f i s

e as

z
i ly

e x te n

To p r o v e L a w
t

iv e i n te g e r s

an

d ed

to

an

n u m be

c on id e r

w he e

s ar e

po s i

d let

T hen S i nc e

re

b y h yp o th e s i s ,
is
th a t i s z, i s e al a n d p o s i t iv e

/
p
re 1

an d

d e n i t i on

e/

Ic 0 1;

of a

i n t e g r al i n d i c e s 3

f r ac t i o n al i nd eX 3

by l aw s

Wb1

r e fo r e

Al so

by l aw s f o r p os i t iv e
by

p o s i t i v e , th e

Of

p os i t i v e

i nteg r al i nd i ces 3

"
,

d e n i ti o n

b y l aw s

He n c e

is

qs th

roo t

and, s n e a

mu s t ha v e
s

t h at i s ,

f ra c t i o nal

po s i ti v e

i c

of

r /9 8
e
A

of

of a

is

i nd ex

i n t eg r al i n d i c e s
r e al a n d p o s i ti v e
.

we

P AR AD O X E S

1 84

L as t l y

to p

r ov e

L aw II I

( )
a

h y p o th e s i s ,
and

an

p o s i ti v e
xv/q

22

d yp /q

ar e

ea

c h r eal

a nd

Al so

ru e

i nteg r al i n d i c es

by l aw s f or p o s i tiv e
mp

let

n/q
P
i
M
33
y

T h e n S i n c e by
p os i t i v e 2 i s r e al

C HA P

29

d e n i t i on

by

(m

f or

f ra c t i o n a l

i n d ex

i nt eg r al i n d i c es
i s r eal an d p o s i t i v e

by l aw s f o r p os i t i v e

He n c e

is

w e mu st

qth

r o ot

(ay)

of

an

i c

d,

s n e 3

h av e
2

'

Th e p r o o f i s ob vi ou s l y a ppl i c ab l e w h e r e th e r e i s a n y n um b e r o f
f a c to r s , a, y,
Al th ou g h i t i s n o t l o g i c al l y n e c es s a r y to g i v e s e pa r ate

ro o fs of L aw s 1
a n d I II
t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d as an
e x e rc i s e c o n s tr u c t i n d e e n d e nt
r
f
s o f t h e s e l a w s f o r h i m s e lf
o
o
p
p
I t Sh o u l d be n ot i c e d th at i n l as t p a r ag r ph w e h a v e s u pp o e d
b oth th e i n d i c e s p /q a nd /s t o b e fr a c t i n s
Th e c as e w h e r e
1 or s
e i t h e r i s a n i n te g e r i s m e t b y s u pp o s i n g e i th e r q
1 3 th e
o nl
y e ffe c t o n t h e bo v e d em o ns t r t i o n s i s t o s i m pl i fy s o m e o f
p

s te ps

th e

B efo r e pas s i n g

on

her

to

c as e

i t m ay b e w el l t o
s t r i c t l i m i ta ti o n as t o

ano t

c all a tte n t i o n t o p ar d o e s th t ar i s e i f th e
Sig n o f
b e d ep a r t e d f r o m
B y th e i nt er p r et at i o n O f a fra c t i o n al i n d e
a

{L /

A2

Bu t
wh

/ rc 3

z
A

i ch

Val u e

f/ a
a

:1
:

96

2
.

r i g h t i f w e tak
b u t l ea d s t o th e p r a d ox 6
is

"

?
"
as
to

s t an
2

f or t h e p o s i t i v e
2
2 i f w e ad m i t th e

v al u e o f

n eg a t ve

i m i l ar d i fc ul ty

w oul

d ari s e
mn

i n th e

m
( y3
n

l
i
c
ati o n
pp

of

th e l a w ,

T R P R ET AT I O N O F

IN E

(4 )

e x am p l e ,

fo r

w ou l

l ea d t o

i 4,

d m i tte d Su ch di i u l ti e s ar e al w ays ap t
t o a r i s w i th rep /1 w h e r e th e f r a c t i o n p /q i s n o t a t i t s l o w e s t t e r m s
Th e t r u e w ay o u t o f al l su c h d i f c u l t i e s i s t o d e n e an d

d i s c u s cc a s a c ont i nu ousl y v a r yi ng fu n c t i on o f n w h i ch i s c all e d

I n th e m ea n t i m e f r ac ti o nal i n d i c e s ar e
t h e e p o n e n t i al f u n c ti o n
i ntr o d u c e d m e r el y as a c o n v e n i e n t n o t ati o n i n d e al i ng w i th
u
an t i t i e s w h i c h a r e ( e i th e r i n f o r m o r i n e s s e n c e ) i rr a t i o n al 3
q
a n d f or su c h p rp o s e s t h e l i m i te d V i e w w e h a v e g iv e n w i l l b e
s u fc i e n t
T h i s c as e a r i s es n t ur al ly a s th e e tr em e
Case of
w h en n
c as e o f L w I
m 3 f o r i f w a re t o m ai nt ai n th at
l w i nt c t w e m u s t h v e p r o v i d e d a 6

i f b o th

v al u e s

1 85

4,

th a t i s ,

we e

m
{U

in

23

th a t i s ,

T h i s i n terpr e tat i o n

is

171.

i m pl y

X $

i ch

mm X 1
is t

r ue

w h a t ev e

La w I

( )
a

f or

i nto

mm ,

31

of

m ay be

m0

66

Is

i mpl y

an

i n t e r p r e t at i on

th e

Ag a l n ,
that

m e an s
.

wh

in

cl ear l y c o n s i s t en t w i th
.

m ean s

7"

or

g i v es

1 by

( )
a

ou r

i n terp r e tat i on 3

m
,

r i g h t e v en i f m b e a p o s i tiv e f ra c t i o n pr o v i d e d w e
d o p t t h e p r o p e r l y r e s t r i c t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a f r c t i o n l i nd e
iv
en
ov e
Th
e i n te r r e t a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e c o n s i s te n t w i th 11
b
g
p

Th e i n t er p r e tat i on 2
1 i s a l s o c o n s i s t e n t w i th I I I ( ) f o r

wh

i ch

is

T his provi s ion

.

i port nt ince the for m

is m

o o

y
1 x 1

i mply m eans

x xv

0 is

indeterm in te (
a

s ee

ch p
a

186

NE

n u m be

Let

: :

an

a:

1 0

i c

( )
a

r eal

p os i t iv e

or s

p.

i g nl e s s )

i s to h o l d fo r

X m

/x

m
,

i nd i c e s

n e g at v e
x

ve

m -l-m

an

0, w e ha

S n e

if La w I

D I CES

th e n ,

IN

m is

w he e

Cas e

G AT I V E

VVh en ce

l he

by l a s t p ar a g r ap h

As

an

l aw s , l e t

us

e x a m pl e

ro v e
x

By

o ur

d e ni ti o n

- 7

of

th e

( )

r e c i p r o c al o f
t h i s w i t h t h e o th e r

i s th e

of

y that

sa

Wb
w

?b

'

h av e

we

o th e

r w o rd s
r e c o n c i li a t i on

In

1
th e

l ast

p by th e l a w s
fo r a l l p os i tiv e
e s ta b l i s h e
s te

(m

r dy
i nd i c e s 3
al e a

d e ni t i o n

by

o f a n e g at

i ve

i nd e x

He n c e
I n li

ke

m a n ne

we

c ou l d

Sh o w

th at

-n

rc i s e
Th e s tu d e n t s h o l d r end r h i m s el f fa m i l i r w i th t h e
r
i
d
i
c
iv
e
s s i o n o f t h e r su l t
o f th
l
aw s
f
n
al e n t
u
e
e
i
n
t
h
e
e
p
q
f o r m s w i th r a d i c al s 3 an d h o u l d al s o a s n e e rc i s e w o rk ou t
d e m on s t rat i o ns o f th e e r e su l ts w i th ou t u s i ng f rac ti o nal i nd i c e s

Th e

ve

r i c at i o n

of

th e

o th e

l a w s m a y b e l e ft

as a n e x e
a

a t all

For

e x am p l e ,

he

S h o ul

d p r o v e d i r e c tly
:

r i ve r

z/

f/

t h at

l
I
r

wer e

X MP L ES

1 87

E A

X AM P L E S

OF

B e yo n d t h e

P E RATI O N W I TH I RR ATI O N AL F O R M S
i nt e r p r e t a t i o n s

d e nt h s
w
t
n o th i n
o l e a r n SO f a r a s m e r e m n i u l a t i o n i s c n c e r n e d
n
e
p
g
r e g a rd i ng fra c ti onal i nd i c e s a nd i rr t i o nal ex p r es s i o n s i n g e n r al
S ti l l so m e p ra c ti c e w i ll b e f o u n d n e c es sa r y t o c qu i r e th e r e q u i s i t
W t h e r efo r w o rk o u t a f w e am pl e s o f th e m o r e
f c i l i ty
c omm o nly o ccu rr i ng tr an s fo r m at i o n I n om e c s e s w e qu o te
t e a c h s t e p t h e l a w s O f a lg e b r a w h i c h
e a pp e l e d to 3 i n o t h e r s
w e l e a v e i t a s n x e rc i s e f o r t h e s t u d e n t t o s u p pl y t h e m i s s i o n
o f s c h r e fe r e n c e s
th e

s tu

x
s

ar

ple 1
T o e pre

E x am

ss

in the form

{VB

WP

by l a w
by l a w

E x am

ple 2

indice

of

of

II I

i n d i ce

W
A

/A
Z
l

fo r

A l /m

A p / mp ,
1)

E xa m

ple 3

m
xl

i-q

mf q ltm
p
f
x
i"
i
x t ab

as

ple 4
T o e pre

E xa m

seq /

:e1

7"

by l a w

of

in d ice

I ( a)
.

z/ a

ss

A rl

{/ y

{/ x p / N/ y
il

[y

pe5

E xa m l

"

as

the root

r s

V3 2

/ (m x
1 6 x V2

r t on l func t on
a i

o f a: a n d

E X AMP L E S

1 88
E xam

ple 6

\/2

ple 9

E x am

ple

/ 2

E x am

C H AP

%
2

1
2

1 + 4+ i + e

10

(2 9 2 3

<v 3 + aa 6 r

2
I

2 2

E xam

ple 1 1

2,

x/ ( 1

w) +

+ 92

a+ 6

+6

4
.

3
3
w) ( 1 + 3

) (1

p e 12

E xa m l

sg

+y
w
{x/ (
uh

an

R ATI ON AL I SIN G F AC T OR S

pe

13

l
x

&
a
:

- x

+x

i
3

a:
a
c
+

i
x

ple 1 4
Sho w th t

t
2 : ao

i
w

i
+m

i
x

E xam

rr

"
5
V0

E x am l

+y+x

189

d
a

a:
-

f
,

i
i

{V W h l
b

ence e tr cting the qu re root

a

06

we

h ve
a

Vb)

V (a

R ATI ONAL I S I N G FACTO R S

10

G iv en

c o n s i d e r r a t i o n al
Fo r
are

c e r tai n i rr ati o nal s

a nd

i t m ay be

m A/ q
l A/ p
i nteg r al fu n c t i o n s o f

e x am p l e ,

al s o

n A/ r , a nd

/p ,

/ q,

say

Jp

i n teg r al
l ( A/p )

m ay

we

f u n c ti o n s

m V(p q)
th e l s t

of

A r,

/ q, J r ,

of

th e s e

( V qf

2 nd

an d

d eg r ees r es pe c ti v e ly p r o v i d e d l m n d o n o t c o nta i n /p / q / r
m
/ q m A/ r) i s a r ati o nal bu t n o t i n te g r al
Ag ai n (l /p
f u n c t i on o f th e s e i rr at i o n al s
on th e
o th e r
A/ ( l
h and i s an i rr a t i o n al fu n c t i o n o f d p an d A/ q
Th e s am e i d eas m ay al s o be appl i e d t o h i g h e r i rr at i o nal s
l lm
I/
&c
su c h a s p
q
C o n ning o u r s el v e for t h e p r s e n t t o q u adr ti c
i rr t i on al s w s h all Sh o w th t v e r y r t i on al fu n c t i o n o f a
c n
be
/p / q / r &
g iv n s e t o f q uadr t i c i rr a t i o n al s
,

R ATI ON AL I SI N G FA CT OR S

1 90

r ed u c e d

l i ne ar

to a

i nte g r al

fu n c t i o n

i r p r o d u c ts p g p r qr p qr & c
T h i s r e d u c t io n i s eff e c t e d m a i nl y by

a nd o f

t he

factors

s qu a e

of

p , q,

r,

r r o o ts

th e

of

C HAP

m e an s

Of

r a ti ona li si ng

r o c ee d t o e x pl a i n
If P be any i n teg ra l functi on of cer tai n g i ven i rr ati ona ls and Q
a nother i nteg r a l functi on of the same s uch that the p r odu ct Q P i s
r a ti ona l so f a r as the g iven i r r a ti ona l s ar e concer ned then Q i s ca ll ed
a r a ti ona li si ng fa c tor of P wi th resp ect to the g i ven i r r ati ona ls
I t i s o f c ou r s e o b vi ou s th at i f o n e r a t i on l i s i ng f c to r Q
h as b ee n O btai ne d w e m ay O b tai n as m an y o t h er s as w e pl eas e
by m u l t i pl yi n g Q by a ny ra tional fa c to r
w h o s e n a tu e a n d u se w e

Case

bf onomi als

q u adra ti c i rr at i o nal f o r m s t o d e al
s u ch , n am el y, p i a n d qt
m os t g en e r al m o no m i al i n te g r al f u n c t i o n o f th es e

Su pp os e w e h a v e

w th ,

sa

y two

T h en

th e

o nl y

18

w he e

r at i o n a l

A is

i c ( V

I
p
i

s n e

is

Hen c e

n o ne e

to

c o n s i d e r e v e n i nd i c e s

to

I
w h e e th e

is

re d u c es

Now I

There
r ati o n al

1329

3
9
2 9

90

r t w i th i n b r a ck e ts i s r at i o n al
r t i o n al i i ng f a c to r i p i qi f or
m
i
Tr a (Ar aa

we

h ave

r a ti o n l
%
3 3 3
g
g
3
5 i 2 3 5
th t i
E m ple A r t i on l i i ng f ctor f 1 6 2
1 l l
a
t
o
n
l
s ay
Su pp o se w h v e t h e i rr i a s p
g
c ons id r

wh

i ch

is

xa

s,

an

Ap

I
wh

i ch

m /t

i s t h e m o s t g e n e al m o n o m i a l
l e a ly i s
A a ti o nal i s i ng f a to

c rc
1

m /t

l) /s

or

i nt eg ra l
ri

<

s,

of

t h es e

m
,

(i

-in

) /t 7 ( u
.

-n

) /u

f
i f th
Where f cour e l
m t
educed by prel i m i n ry proce l ike th t i c e
o

f un tion

Us

1
9

l /S

<

ss

n <

u,

or

as

ey

ere

no t

they could

be

R AT IO NAL I S I N G F A CTO R S
E x am

ple

r tion li ing f ctor i

a

3 5f
3

B i nomi a ls

Case

Th e m o s t g en e r al fo r m w h e n
c o n c e r ne d i s a A/p b A/ q, w h e r e a

ar e

w e s u p p o se

fo m A

p
V

/P l

r,

I f s /P

Fo r , i f

5
/
s
Il
(

bg

r t i o n al
The two forms a /p
b / q a nd a / p
b / q ar e s a i d to be con
/
t
a
h
t
e
t
o
c
h
o
t
e
r
w
i
h
re
f
r
n
c
e
o
e
e
e
t
j g
q a nd w e see tha t a ny bi nomi a l
int g ra l fu ncti on of qua dr a ti c i rr ation ls i s r tional ised by mu l tip lyi ng
wh

ic h

qua
and b ar e

dra t i c i rr ati o nal s

r t i o n l 3 fo i f
t o t h e m o r e s pe c i l

o n ly

c o m pl e t e s q a r e t h i s r e d c e s
q w h e r e A a n d B a e r t i o n al
l i i ng f a c t o r c l e a r l y i s a / p
b /q
a

r a ti o n

191

is

u a

i t by i ts

con u g a te

c o ns i d e r t h e f r m s
i n t eg ral fu n c t i on s O f g i v e n i rr a t i n
Le t

us

f /B
f
/
i
bq , t o w h
ap
7

a l s ca n al w a ys

{13

73

b9

/
g

i c h b i no m i a l

re d c d

be

96

Le t

73
,

L e t m be t h e L C M
.

fo r m u l a

th e

e s t ab l s h e

mt 1

He r e

m 2

(a

"

"

of

th e t w o

c h ap

in

iv

my

I Ii

i nt e g e rs
1 6, w e

in

I
>

N ow ,

us n

m
.

m ls
b

q
) , w h e e m a /y a nd
n
by bo th y a n d 8, t h a t i s , ze

i n teg e r s s i n c e m i s d iv i s i bl e
r a ti o na l
A r a t i o n a l i s i ng fa c to r i s t h e r e fo r e
m l
m i
w
h
i
n
h
a; i s t o b e r e l a c e d
i
c
aty
y
p
,

3
y
have

ar e

'

is

T rt agl i a pro ble m

Se e Cos s a l i S tor i a d el l A l g ebr a

by ap

7
,

an

d y by

vol ii p
.

q
.

2 66

R AT I ON A LI S I N G F AC T OR S

1 92

Th e fo r m

E xa m

ple

4
( )

or

fo r m u l ae

Of

m e an s

ap

m ay b e t

(5)

2 3

3
.

32

32 3

a 4

i
a

r
Qu adra ti c
Let
m o r e c o m pl i c a te d

s o m e w h at

3 4 2
.

us

r s t

Jp

at t e m p t

NI

/ 3

Vq +

A r

rid

to g et

I
)

de

=
=

rid

To g e t

{2

/ ( p q)

of

of

r e sp e c t

is

a
'

i rra ti o nal

th e

to

of

We

r a t i o n l i s i ng
{v

Of

lg

Th i s

+ A/ r

t h en h a v e

( WY

m u l ti pl y by th e c o nj u g a t e
T hu s na lly

(v

fa c t o r

/p

~ r

He n c e

d ef

J2

/v

( Jr

w e m u st

/ ( p q) w i t h

2
r

T h i s c as e

can

1
E
1

I rr a ti ona ls

d o by m u l t i p l yi n g by th e c o nj u g a te
w i th r e s p e c t t o Jr , n am el y, A/p
A/ r
A/ q
we

I
let

T i nomi als wi th

and

i n l i k e m anne r by
16

r e ate d

iv

m=6
ere
r tion li ing f ctor i

and a

c h ap

of

{2

9
r

of

2p r

2p q

2q

I is

lv +

W)

/q

01

JQ

rrang ement of

the si g ns

a nd

/p

ex

c ons i d r i ng atte nt i v ely th e fa c to r ( 2 )

i ts cons ti t ent f c tor s ar e obt i ned by

By
t h at

WN W

W!

( JP

c ept th e a rr ang

This
w r i tten V

is

m e nt

re ll y the
a

( b q)

wh
a

V( c r )

Mr

s tu

taki ng

d e nt w i l l s e e
every p oss i bl e

i ch o cc u rs i n th e g i ve n tr i nom i al

o t gener l form
g

th e

in

W)

fo r

+ bVq +

m ay be

R EDU C T I ON
Ex am

ple

'

r tion li ing f ctor

a

L IN EAR F OR M

l O
'

1 93

VJ
\/ i
o

ple 2

E xa m

r tion l i ing f ctor

a

of

1 + 2 V3 3 V2
2

(1

V3

3 V2 )

r
a c t i c e i t i s O ft e n m o r e c o n v e n i e nt t o w o rk o u t
p
t h r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n by s u cc e s s i v e s te ps i n s t e a d o f u s i ng a t o n c e
B u t t h e r u l e i s i m p o r t an t
t h e f c t o r a s g iv e n by th e r u l e
b e c a se i t i s g ener al a nd wi ll fu r n i sh a r a ti ona l i si ng f acto f or a
su m of a ny n mber of qu a dr a tic i rr a ti ona ls
In

ct

V3 + 3 V2 ) ( 1

u al

ple 3 A r tion li i ng f ctor

E xam

1 +

is

(1 +

V2

of

V2

V3

V3 +

2
4
1
V )(
V
x

4 1
3
V
V )(

V4 )
V3 + V4 )

V2 +

(1

B e fo r e g iv i ng a fo r m al pr o o f O f th e g e n er a l t r ut h o f t h i s
r ul e , i t w i ll b e c on ve n i en t t o e nun c i at e o n e o r t w o g en e r al p ro

i t i o n s w h i c h a r e o f c o n s i d e r abl e i m p o r tan c e bot h for f ut u r e

a ppl i c a t i o n a n d f o r m a k i ng c l e a r t he g e n e r al c h ar a c t e r o f t h e
O e r at i o n s w h i ch w e a re n o w d i s c u s s i ng
p
E very integ r al f uncti on of a s eri es of squ ar e r oots
/ r & c ca n be op res s ed a s the sum o a r a ti ona l ter m
/p V q
p
f
/
a nd r a tiona l mul tip l es of
q / r t c a nd of thei r p rodu ct
s
o
p

Fi rs t

l et t h e r e be

r ro

c o ns i d e r
/p s ay b( /p )
Ev e r y t e r m
a ny r t i o na l i n t e g r al fu n c t i o n o f
/p w i l l b e r at i o n al a n d e v e ry t e r m o f o d d
ve n d e g r e e i n
of
d e g r e s u c h a s A(
m y be r e d c e d t o
p th at
He nc e c o ll e c ti ng l l th e
i s w i l l b e a r a t i o n al m u l t i p l e O f / p
ll t h O d d t e r m s t og et h e r w e h a v e
e v e n t e r m s t o g e th e r a n d
,

o nly o n e s q u a e

a nd

a re

VO L

ra t i o n a l

uch

an

a su m

P f
e

p,

<

A/

e,

whe

o t, s a

is

c lled
a

L ine r F orm
a

R ATI ON A L I S AT I ON

1 94

N e x t,
N

to

p,

lp

F i rs t

al o n e ,

T EG R AL F U N C TI O N

C H AI'

c i o n t o c o nt a i n tw o s q u ar e r oo ts s ay
p r o c e e d i ng as be fo r e a n d a tte n d i ng

t h e fu n t

s u pp o se

/q)

O F ANY I N

all ,

Of

t
e
g

we

r P a n d Q a e r a t i o n al s o fa r as p i s c o n c e r ned bu t are
i rr at i o n l r e g rd q b e i n g e a ch r a t i o nal i nt e g r al f u n c t i o n s of
/q
R e d c i ng n o w e a ch o f t h e se w i th r e fe r en c e t o / q w e h all
O b t ai n a s i n ( l )
/
= P
P = P
Q J9
Q
Q
q
w he e

as

'

'

an d ,

n aUy,

Q Ma ( P Q #9) 00
7
P
P W
Q #9 Q
w h i c h p r ov e s th e p r o p o s i t i o n f o r t w o i rr a t i o n al s
I f th e r e b e th r e e w e h a v e n o w t o t r ea t P P Q Q by m eans
a nd
w e s h al l e vi d e n t ly t h e r eby a rr iv e a t t h e f o r m
of
F
1)
A+B
+
+
veno m
n
4 4JP

d o)

and s o o n

Cor
at

I t f oll o w s

at o n e

ro m

t he p

r c es s

by w h i c h w e

rr i v e d

1
h
at
t
( )

9(

Q ~/F

/
ral fu ncti on of /p
s
a
i
)
p
r a ti ona l i s i ng fa c tor of 95( A/p ) ; a nd mor e g ener a lly if qS( /p Jq
then if w
be a n i nteg r a l f ncti on of / p / q / r
/r
take a ny one of them s ay Jq a nd chang e i ts si g n the p r odu c t
/
/
/
/
/
T
i
s r ati ona l s o
ar
T
/
P
Q
f
M
Q
bf P
as :/ q i s c oncer n ed
nd the v lue f
d
If
E m ple 1

Hence

qS(

Jp ) be

a ny

i nteg

xa

V3 )

and

V 3)

V3 )

V3

an

+ 1 + 2 V3 + 3
+ 1,
~

1 6 + 9 V3

deduced by w rit i ng
H
b ove c lcul t i on

V3

V3 ) i s

i n pl ce
a

e n ce

4 41
X 7 41

=
3
l
/
l
\
*

9 V3 ;
f
9
3
( V l.
2 56
2 4 3,
13
6

Of

e v er vw

h ere

i n the

L I N EAR FUN C TIO N

Ex am
S

ple

F ind

OF S

v lue

th e

QU A R E R O OT S
of

ince

+y +

3
z

RA I O N A I S E

a:

yz,

Vp +

Vp

hen

1 95

Vq

Vr

Vq

0J
we

h ve ( ch p iv
a

25 , I X

2 23

)
2

3xyz

03

T here fore

my:

(n

Eacy ) ,

2 xyz,

2 ( s/ e

Ex am
z

V5

ple 3

(q

v lu te ( 1 + y +
a

x/ r )

VP ) ( s / Io V9 )

( x/ v
2 (r

( 1 + z + x ) ( 1 + w + y) w

hen

'

V2

V3

dy

ti

2
2
2
z
e
( + + y )z

We
i n d i c at e d

ab o

ve

in

If P be the

s um

14

tog ethe

foll ows

c r

ve

2 x yz,

2 x yz

ry e as i ly t h e

g e n e r al p r o p os i t i o n

the di er ent

r of

a ny nu mbe

fa ctor Q i s
fa ctors that

squ a e r oots,

Jq

m
u l ti l i n
P
b
y
f
p y g
be obta i ned fr om P a s

obta i ned
ca n

/p

say A

or

Keep the si g n of the rs t term u ncha ng ed, a nd talce every

a r r ang ement of si g n f or the fol l owi ng terms , excep t tha t whi ch

ssi bl e
o
p
o cu s

a ll

33 56 + Swy

pro v e

a r a ti ona l i si ng

A r,

3 yz

can n o w

&c

&c

i tself

in P

F o r t h e f a c t o r s i n t h e p r o d u c t Q x P c o nt a i n
a rr a ng e m e n t o f t h e s i g n s o f a ll bu t t h e r s t t e r m

ry po s s i bl e
Hen c e al o ng
w i th th e
S i g n b e fo r e an y t e r m s ay t h a t c o n t a i n i ng Jq t h e r e
w i l l o cc u r e v e ry p o s s i bl e v ar i e ty o f a rra ng e m e n t of al l th e o t h e r
v a r i a bl e s i g n s 3 a n d t h e s a m e i s t r u e f o r t h e S i g n b e f o r e / q
He n c e if w e d en ot e t h e p r o d u c t o f all t he fa ct o r s c o n ta i n i ng
/q by b( / q) t h e p r o d u c t o f a l l th os e fa c t o r s t h at c on ta i n
/ q i n pl c e o f
Vq w i ll d i ffe r f r o m qb( q) o nl y i n h a v i n g
/
/
t
at is m
He n c e w e m a y
h
d
d
e
e
n
t
e
b
b
o
q
y d(
q)
y
w r i te Q
i
c
r 1 i r a ti o n al
P
w
h
h
1
5
o
b
C
J
V

q)
y
M q)
s o f ar a s J
Th e l i k e m ay o f c o u r s e b e p r o v e d for
q i s c on c e rn e d
e ve r
Al s o fo r e v e r y fa c to r
y o n e o f t h e ir r at i on al s / q / r
in Q
P o f t h e f o r m /p
te t her e i s e v i d en tly a no th er o f t he fo r m
ev e

<

>

R AT I O NAL F UN C TI ON R E DU C ED

1 96

/p

h3

is

en t

SO

E very

r f

nu mbe

r a t i o n al

P is

be

to

as w as

as

r eg ard s

show n

fu nction

r a ti ona l
A

, A

lp

Hen c e

ra l or not of any
ca n be ex ress ed as the s um
p

whethe

C HA P

r r oots /p / q /r
p a r t and r a ti ona l mu l tip l es of

s qua e

r a ti ona l

i r e l y r a t i o na l
17

that

L I N EAR F O R M

To

i nteg

/p , A/ q,

&c ,

A r,

a nd o

/ p r) V qr
r roducts
( )
F o r e v e r y r a t i o nal fu n c t i o n i s th e q u o t i e nt o f t w o rat i o na l
i nteg ral fu n ct i on s s ay R/P L e t Q be a r at i o nal i s i ng fac to r o f
P ( w h i c h w e h a v e s e e n h o w t o nd ) t h e n
thei p

RQ
_

r at i o na l

PQ

r at i on al i nteg r l f un c t i o n o f
a n d ca n t h e r e fo r e b
Jp / q / r
e x r ess e d i n t h e r e u i r e d
p
q
fo r m
He n c t h e p r op o s i t i o n i s es tabl i s h e d
E m ple 1 T e pre
m f r tion l m ultiple
f
V2 V3 )
qu re roo t R t i on li ing the deno m in tor w bt in by ucce ive tep
Bu t P Q i s
A

no w

ss

as a su

s a
x + l

+x + 1

ai
x

v lu te (
a

9 + 2 V1 5

here

ss

s,

w we
s

s o

3
2
V
V )

V2

V2 ( 1 +

3
2
V
V
2

ple 2

3
2
V
V

1 +

1 +

xa

E xa m

d RQ i s

an

V3 + V5

5
3
V
V

1 33 + 3 4 V1 5

( 149

3 3 V1 5 ) ( 1 3 3

3 0 V5

3 8 V3

1 33 2 + 437

s4

1 1 4 V5

4 6 V3

3 4 V1 5 )

15

1 2 V1 5

3 49

B e s i de s

theoretic l intere t the proce f reduc i ng r tion l func

tion f qu dr tic irr t i on l to l i ne r f unction f uch irr tion l i i m port nt
fro m n rith m etic l point f ie w ; in m uch
the line r function i in
gener l the m o t convenien t form f c lcul tion T hu i f it b required t
t
i
c lcul te the v lue f
pl ce f dec i m l i t w ill b
foun d m ore co n venient to de l w ith the equiv lent for m 3 + 4V2
)7 V6
o

i ts

a s

s,

s x

a s

as

as

or

ss o

a s,

T HEO R Y

FO R I

RR ATI ON AL S

G E N E R AL I S ATI O N

F O R EG O I N G

TH E

OF

O F AN Y O

RDER

THEO

1 97

RY

I t m ay be o f u s e t o t h e s tu d e nt w h o h as a l r e ady
m ad e s o m e p r og r e s s i n al g e br a t o S k e t c h h e r e a g e n e r a l i s a t i o n o f
I t i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i ng p r o
1 3 -1 7
th e th e o ry O f
.

p os i t i o ns

ry i

ve

nteg a l

a re r a t ona l , so

ci

un

on o

m
p

ar a s

Af t e r w h a t h as be en

r educed to the for m

w her e A
A

l can

be

, ,

concerned
th i s i s ob v i ou s
is

d o ne
I I E very i nteg r a l functi on of p

r
e
d
a
a l i nea r fu ncti on o
s
es
s
p
f p
.

um

&c ,

ities

ua nt

q
the

5 7

Z/m

two, th

ree

at a

ti me,

n amely,

the p r odu ts

an d

&c,

ex

I /n

be

ca n

thes e

I /m

p
q
m
s o f ar a s
p
2

he

coefcients f the l inea r function bei ng ra ti ona l

l
r l
& c are concerned
P r ov e d ( as i n
1 5 abo v e) by s u cc e s s iv e ap pl i c t i o n o f I

Z/
/
Ap
Ap
I I I A r ati on ali s i ng f actor of A
A
ca n a l ways be fou nd
We s h all pr o v e th i s fo r th e c a se n 3 bu t i t w i ll be s ee n
t ha t t h e p r o c e ss i s g e n e r a l
o

"

'

Le t
th e n
an

i
p P

Let

(l )

iP

: 2

=
=

A ,p i

A,
pA

A ,p

A, p ii

p A1

Agp i
l

Ef
A
p ,p
.

Aop

9
3

for p }, a nd y fo r p , o n t h e
w
3
e ma
t
r
i
and
h
n
w
t
h
em
e
t
e
3
)
y
(

u s n ow

p ut

2;

r i g h t h an d s i d e s
-

of

(A

( P Ae
( 2 A:
1

w h en e, e l

i m i na ti ng

( A,

P ) ( A:

3P
A
01 3
I
)
% P + A 2$
9
I
) P

x an d

A 19

A0 9

y, w e m u s t h a v e

se e

%P
A
(p , p )

%P
A
(p , p ) ( A f

A, A, )

c h ap

x vi

A , A, )
0

8)

T HEO RY

1 98

F OR I

RR ATI ON AL S

O F ANY O

R D ER

CHAP

\Vh e nce

( ( A3

( Af

( pA;

p A, A, )

p A, ( p A,

A
A
,
,)
p

He nc e

r a t i o n al i s i ng

f a c to r

( AO

p A,

A
I
e
I

A,

p A, ( A,

A, A, )

A, A, )

3p A, A,A ,
Of

A
(P ;

r a t i o n al i s e d r e s u l t

th e

p A,

and

A,

SB

P is
I

J
T
AOAI E

A
( 1

A0 A2 )I%

is

p A,

p A,

(7

3p A, A,A2

r ead e r w h o i s f am i l i a r w i th th e e l e m ents
o f d e t e r m i n an t s w i ll see f r o m th e w ay w e h a v e
t ha t ( 6 ) a n d ( 7 ) a re th e e p an s i o n s o f
Th e

t he th eo y
th em
obt a n e
of

i d

1
1

5
9
1

%
7
1
an

A,

A2

Ac

A:

17 A:

A0

d
I

A2

A0

A.

19A.
19A .

A.

A.

F A.

A.

d i fc ul ty i n w r i t i n g d w n th e r ati onal i s i ng
fa c to r an d th e r e s u l t o f r at i o n al i s at i o n i n t h e g e n e r l c ase
I V A r a tionali si ng fa c tor can be fou nd f or any r ati onal i nteg r a l
l lm

& c by r s t r at i on al i s i ng w i t h
functi on of p
q
1
m
u
h
l
n
w
h
n
t
n
a
l
s
t
e
es
u
t
t
h
r e sp e ct t o p t e r a i o i i g
r
i r es pe ct t o g
and

i ll

h av e

no

an

SO

a nd o

coe

on

il m

l lm

qI /m

r ati onal functi of p

be exp r essed as a l inea r fu ncti on of

E very

n ot, ca n

q
the

on

ci en ts

the

fu ncti on

being

the p

l"

m
p

m
p

i n teg

ra l

or

rodu cts

r a ti ona l , so

whethe

f ar

ig/n r V/m
g
as

l l

cr d
F o e v e r y u c h f un c t i o n h as th e f o r m P /Q w h e r e P a n d Q
a r e r at i o n al a n d i n t e r a l fu n c t i on s o f t h e
g i v e n i rra t i on al s ; an d
g
if R be a r a t i o nal i s i ng f ac t o r o f Q P R/Q R w i l l b e o f th e fo r m
r e qu i red
a r e con e ne
r

ple

Ex am

X E R C I SE S

ho w th t r tion li ing f ctor

a

1
$

t i

3
:

z x

2,

3 3

th t the re ult

f zf zf x l --2 xl
f
y
2/ ) 3

the r tion li tion i

of

H/

13

is

y +3

i l
w gl )

of x

t l

3
3

y +

and

1 99

XIV

sa

+ y + z)

56

2 7x yz

E X E RC I SE S XI V
Ex

pre

root

ss as

i
2

'

r tion l nu mb er

s of

hi

{ i/ ( c n

i
9

{M

1
3
5
9}
9

i pl i fy the follo w i ng

S m

{Ia

-e

/b

w
a
M

- u r
b
-c

ca
i
x ( m HI ) (

ho

w t

)
c

h t

/
Z

l/

(6

9:

+2
x

Si m p l i f

(w
(

i
x

)(

2 + :c

>/e

-2 + x 1

"

l
f
x
y

) ( 2;

3
-

a/ n

2g )

ho w th t

/( x

W
F(

06

II

P
.c

If m

Q/ n

l /n

If 6 6

hen

fa

(e

(1

i
x

"

(x

"

/y
z

1,

'

x
,

Or

11

1)

v/(
v)
a)

sc

/(

3
1
6

114
-

{1

n ty n

'

" 1

l '1 m

then

T ra n form the f ollo w ing into s u m s

1)

3
4

{1

e( u)
11

'

2 /( r

F ee )

then

z a y,

+ 1)

c z

lm

1 /2 n

of s

Joy s

i mp l e irr tion l term

Vet/( Va V b) Vo/( Va V6 )
3
2
8
2
6
3V )
( V5
V
( 93 + 1 V2 V3 ) ( 76 + 1 V2 V3 ) (33 + 1

cording t po w er
o

s of x

V2

V3 )

rr nging
a

ac

2 00

(w

1N

b/ ( Iv

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H I ST OR I CAL NO T E

20 2

C R AP

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C H A P T ER XI
A r i th m e ti ca l

ALGEBRA IC AL

AN D

l a s t ch ap ter

In

Th eory

of

Su rd s

AR I T HME T I C AL I R R AT I ONAL I T Y
di s cu s s e d

we

t he

e r ti e s

ro

i r ra

p p
t i o nal fu nct i o n s i n s o far a s t h ey d e p e n d m e r e y o n ou t w a r d
for m ; i n o th er w o r d s, w e co ns id er ed t h em m er e y fr om t h e
a
e h a v e n o w t o c o n s i d er c e r t a i n
g ebra i ca p o i n t o f v i e w
o

p ecu i ar i ti e s o f a p ur e y a ri th m e ti ca
com mensura bl e nu mber
th a t i s , e it h er

im pr op er

vu

l g ar fracti o n

d e c i m al

d e n o m i n a t or

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s u r a bl e n um b e r

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ot

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be

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a commensur a bl e nu mber

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be

ll

co mm e n s u r ab e

t h a t i s , p i s th e nth p ow e r

n ot a

F o r di s t i n ct i o n

o r r e p ea ti ng

wi

t h i ng ,

sam e

I f t h e r e f ore p be
a

t o th e

T h en if n be a ny p o s iti e i n teg er
co mm e n s u r ab l e u n l e s s p b e t h e n th
p o w er o f a
.

p r op e r o r
o f di g i t s i n i ts
or

nu m b e r
co m es

an

ed

a ccor

q u ad ra t i c,

d i ng t o t h e i ndex ,

cu bi c,

bi qu a d ra t i c

n, o f

or

th e

u ar t i c,

ro o t

q u in ti c,

t nt ho l d tt nd to th l t ph
f th d i t i on of
i nco mm
bl
oot m i ght b conc i d w h i ch do n t co m

s u de

e nsu ra

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to

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i s bri e y pu t b y

r as e o

as

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ng th t p
a

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p f ct
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po w

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C LA SSI F I C A TI ON

204

or S

U RD S

ca n

o d n i t i on
d t th m th d m on t t i on
t o m f th
f t l
p opo i ti on i th i ch pt w o l d n t ppl y F
m p l th n m b
(
t h ch pt
t h E pon nt i l Th o m i
f th i w o k ) i i n m
P t II
m n
bl
nd V i i nco mm n
bl
h nc V i n t
d i th
ct
n f th d n i ti on N i th i V( V 2
f
bl
V2 1 i i nco m m n
O t h oth h nd V( V2 ) w h i ch
n b
p
d i n th fo m
do co m
nd th t d n i t i on l tho gh t
q d ti c b t
d
bi q
d ti
H
ho l d l o o b
th t
l g b i c ll y i t i on l f ncti on y V
m y
m y n t b
i th m t i c ll y i
ti on l th t i
d t i ctl y c ll d
cco d i ng t th l f th
Th V4 i n t
i bl
d b t V2 i
th e

ab v e

se

er

s e r ve

ar

r at i o na

si n

le

e ex

as a

an a

ra

ra

e :23

n u m be r a nd a s i m p e

m o nom i a l

su r d nu mber, a n d s o o n

h at

su c

as ra ti ona l

is

the

not

Fo r
th e
an

ar e

d 2

le

J18

J2

a nd

37 5 4

an

s u rds

an

s am e , a

to the

of

i mp le mono
r a t i o na

bi nomi a l

pr o o f o f
o f s u r d n u m b e r s ca n
a m o u nt

to

m o nom i a

b i n o m i al ,

s i mil ar

when they

be

ca n

dis si mi la r

s a me su rd

s i m i ar

tha t

an

ca n

b e i ng
ar i s e

ar e n

ex r essed

p
when thi s

be

a re

e x p r e s s e d r es p e c ti v e

t h er e f o r e

sim i ar

ly

in

J6

5 bu t

e x pr e s s ib e

i n th e

fo r m s

to

fr om

p
1 d is ti nct
,

a n d no

F o r, i f w e

the

the

extr acti on o

s a me n th

root

Ther e

co m es

nu m b e r ,

the

V8

to be equ i racl ical

h u s i 3 i g are

at,

ar e s a i d

to be

J2

d is s i m il ar

a r e e ac

A l l the

sa

f or m s

case

Ag a i n ,
an

sur

one a nd

su r d nu m b er , as a s i mp l e

m ay b e

ca s e

mu l tip les

e x am

d V2

l
p e

s ur ds ar e sa i d

Two

a s ur

s im

th e

as

c s ur

so

su r d s , or

ex

p
t r i no m i al , & c ,

s u ra

ra

s r

a s

be

co

e exa

as

th e

as

s ee

es

URD S

Th e pr op o s i tio ns s t a te d i n l as t ch apt er
s t a t e m e n t th a t e v e ry r a t i o n a l fu n ct io n
re s s ed

ua

tw o

as a

sp o k e n o f

is

s , su r

nu m ber , o r, w

su m of

er e

a su r

us

the

rra

o f a s i n g e su r d ,

m u tip e
mi a l s u rd nu m ber

e o

r es s e

ua

rra

e v ar a

su r d

e,

or

C LA SS I F I C AT I ON OF

eas

e v a ue o

su ra

no

re

s o

o r ex a

ca

e ar

s ra

er

a s

or

e s

er

er

e, a

se o

er o n

sura

an

co n s i d e r

w h ere ,a a n d
a r a ti o n a

A ll the

a ll e q u i ra d i ca

w it

su r ds equ i ra di ca l

h p7

na mel y,

w i th

H"

more

m/n

w h e re m

ar e

i n teg e r s,

m u l ti pl e

o f o ne o f

s urds equ i ra di ca l

w i th p

l /n

>

n,

a nd

the

th en w e
v <

h av e p

H e n ce

a bo v e s er i e s

a re ra ti ona l

fu nctions ( na mely

C LA S S I F I C AT I ON

x1

or o

sur d s equ i r ad ical

the

form

Al p

AO

Au

T hi s

AZp

a re r a tiona l s o

i s m e rel y

205

p
1 di stinct sur ds whi ch

the n

URD S

m
m
n
d
e
v
r
r
e y ati ona l fu nction of p
f p ; a
1m
wi th
may be ex r essed as a l i nea r fu ncti on

i nteg r a l p owers )

p osi ti ve

OF S

w ith p /" , tha t i s, i n

l

a r e e u i ra di cal

Q/n

where A, ,

m is
p

ar a s

a r e s ta t e m e nt o

concer ned

18

of c

hap

The p r oduct or qu oti ent of two s i mi l a r qu ad ra ti c

ra tiona l, a nd if the p roduct or qu oti en t of the two qua d ra ti c
ra ti ona l the
a re si mi l ar
y

su r ds

is

sur ds

is

F o r, i f t h e

su r

ds

Si m

ar e

i l ar , t h e y

e x pr ess i b e

ar e

i n th e

fo rm s A A/p a nd B Vp w h ere A and B are rat i o n al t h e r e fo r e

A Vp x B Vp ABp ; a nd A Vp /B Vp A/R w h i ch p r ov e s t h e
ro o s i t i o n s i n ce AB
a n d A /B ar e r a t i o na l
p p
p
Ag ai n i f Vp Vq A or Vp / Vq B w h er e A an d B ar e
ra ti o n al t h e n i n t h e o ne ca s e
Vq i n t h e o t h e r Vp
,

B u t A/q a nd B
B Vq
s i m i l ar i n bo t h ca se s

ar e

ra ti o n a

H e nce

Vp

a nd

Vq

ar e

Th e

is

s am e

the p roduct

no t

t ru e fo r

two s imi l ar

or o

of

s ur d s

h ig h er

two equ i r a d i ca l

i n d e x t h a n 2 , bu t

s u r ds

i s ei ther

ra ti on a l

or a n eq ui radi ca l su r d

I NDE P ENDEN C E OF

S URD

N UMBE RS

If p , q, A , B be a ll commensura ble, and none

a nd A/p a nd A/
q i ncom mensura bl e, then we can not have

F o r,

q u a r i ng , w e

Vp = A + B Vq
s h o u l d h a v e as a
2

Bg

w h e n ce

hi ch

a s s e r ts,

s ur abl e

(r

co n trar

y to

our

zero,

co n s e q u e n ce ,

2 AB

Vq ,

w 2 AB

13

h yp o t h e s is

that

Vq

co m m e n

Si nce
e x p r es s e d

to th e

d9

th em

e v e r y rat i o n a

i n the

l fu n ctio n

f o rm A

Vq

of

th e

Vq

m ay

a b ov e

h
a
( p
c

t h e o re m

is

fo ll o w i ng

One qu adra ti c sur d ca n not be

a nother whi ch i s di s si mil a r to i t
.

e 1p ress ed a s
.

r a ti ona l

1 5 ) be

q u i v a e nt

fu nction of

20 6

Si n ce
no t

e v e r y r ati o n a
e q u at i o n

m er e

NDE P ENDEN C E

w h er e

m edi a tel y b e

w h e re

to

a no t

ar e ra ti o n a

nu mber s, ca n su bsi s t

Vp

b et w e e n

t o th e

l;

of

C HA P

an d

Vq

w h i ch i s

f
or
(

e x am p e ,

th e

th i s

e q u a ti o n

m ay i m

f orm

f oll o w s t h a t

whi ch i s not

mere equ ati on between

two di ss i mi lar qu adr a ti c su rds

between

for m

an d , S i n ce

h er

it

URD NUMBER S

co mm e n su r abl e s

r e d u cib e

r a ti onal r el a ti on,

No

u a t io n

ar e r at io n a

re du ce d

an d

b e tw e e n

5) is

B, C , D

or S

r a ti ona l

If the qu adrati c s urds Vp , Vq, Vr , V ( qr) be di ss i mi l ar to

ea ch other , then V cannot be a ra tiona l fu ncti on o
n
d
r
a
V
J
f
p
q

F or, i f t h i s w e r e

Vp
w h er e

B , C, D

Now w e

B, C, D
In

an

w h i ch w o u

l
e lse

s i m i ar
or

ld

ei t

by

case ,

h er

ou r

z er o

h yp ot h e s es h av e th r ee
,

of

t he

fo u r

we

be

h ou l d h a v e

Vq + C

qu a t o

h er

a r e a ll r a t i o n a

ca nn o t,

ot

t hen w e

s o,

ho uld

e
t
o
n
s u ari n
g
q
g

r a ti o na

e qu ati o n

co nn e cti n

g t w o di s

q u ad r ati c s u r d s , w h i ch i s i m p o s s i b e, a s w e h av e u s t s e e n 3
h
r at i o n a i t
a n e u at i o n as s e r t i n
t
e
o f o n e o f t h e su rd s ,
y
q
g

ll y i m pos s ibl e
i m por tant part i cu l ar cas e o f t h e

w h i ch i s

An

e qu a

A qua drati c
s u r ds

sur d ca nnot

sum

be the

bov e i s t h e

fo ll o w i ng

two di ssi m il ar qu a dr a ti c

I t w i ll b e

g o od

e x er ci s e

f or t h e

s tu d e n t

to

th i s

prove

d ir e ctl y

t h eo r y w h i ch

Th e

m at te r

f ar th er

bu t th e

e s tab

r ea

d e r w h o h as

u se u

l i sh ed

a ce

to
an

an

f ar

so

e x t en d ed

f o ll o w e d

f l i n p a v i ng t h e w a y
t h e d e l i cat e r e s ear ch e s o f L ag r ang e A be l

t h e id e a s g a i ne d
of

h av e

m ay b e g e n e ra i s e d , a nd a s o
h i s i s no t t h e p
e x ce e d s 2

r a t i c s u r ds
u
a
d
q

w h o s e i n d ex

we

to

fo r

s u rd s

t o p u rs u e t h e
so

far w i ll n d

u n d er s ta n d i n

d G al o i s

re

g ar d i ng

i N nE r E N DE N C E O F S

XI

th e

4 th

l g ebrai cal

t h a t, i f w e

h e r e Vp

f oll o w s

a re

O ne

Vq

and

cas e o f

r a te
a
p

If

as

led t o

se

of

e q u a t i o ns

d eg r e e

w h ose

t h is i s

e q u at i o n s u c

dis s i m i l ar

are

0,

n e c es s a r y c o n s e

an

so

e x ce ed s

th e

s u r ds,

y, z, u be a ll
a nd if a
Vy
z,

bu t

hav e

e n u n ci a t e a nd

commensu r a bl e, a nd

Vy

Vu

then must

e a nd

9;

3 sa

Vy
Vu
a
Vy = Va
= u
2
a
+
V
y
y
= z +

Va

and

: 0
h
r
t
h
en b
w
e
e
a
4
,
,
y
y

w h e n ce

pr o ve i t

i ncomm en

h yp o th es i s

iz

/r=

(u

ce

th e n w e m u s t

i m p o r ta n t t h a t w e

a + e +

H en

d 6

an

For i f

h i ch

as

O,

of

n ce
u
e
q

ly

a,

su r a bl e,

207

It

s o u ti o n

URD NUM BE RS

Vy

t h at

as s e r t s

h av e
Va th at i s

h av e Vy

is

w e m u st

co m m e n s u r a b e
z

= u

a n d,

B ut th i s is

b e i ng

h at

s o,

w e m ust

so

a so

QUARE ROO TS OF S I M P LE S U R D NUMBER S

Si n ce t h e

n ot

s qu ar e o f e v er y s i m p e

bi no m i a l

s ur d n u m b e r

l t o i nq uir e w h e t h er V09 Vq)

ca n a l w ys be e x pr e s s e d a s a s i m pl e bi n o m i a l s u rd n u m b er t h a t
i s i n th e f or m Vx + Vy w h e r e a: a nd y a r e ra t i o na l n u m b er
t ak es t h e

Vq

fo r m p

it is

n a t u ra

L et

u s s u pp os e

t h at

su c

an e x pr es s io n e x i s t s

AH

Jr

w h e nce

I f thi s

Vq

p
e q u at i o n

b e t ru e , w e m u s t

:c

the n

h av e

V(ay)

by

8,

0t

w+ r =r

Jr

3
a nd ,

fro m ( 1 )

and

( 96
t ha t i s ,

r)

a:

u ar i n

an

4 962/

y)

su b t r a c t i n g ,

9,
p

w e g et

LI NE AR EX P RE SSI ON

2 08

N ow

g i v es

eit

FOR

f
i

f/
56

or

m e a nt i m e ,

( 4)

x/

a n d co m b i ni n

a)

x +

(r

g it

T
s / (J

h e n ce

2x

(p
x/ ( r

is

ha t

i n s t ea d

I f w e tak e

Of

y, w h i ch
Us i n g t h e v a

a; a n d

resu

1 7
2

Q)

q) ,

d 0)

ly

er s ig ns

If

we

we

e nd

fo ll o w i n g

th e

a: x

t o g e t h er

h ad

Vy
or

s t ar t e d

/ Q,

w i th

w e m us t t a k e

l o w er

th e t w o

t r
-

to

V( p

V9)

We

Vq)

si

h av e

( 9)

an

r m

/ (r i

tr:

cer ta i n

W
are

been

g ns

(I
.

Th e i d e n t i ti e s

t h e tw o

h er

i t w ou d

i
i

ei t

r:

v a u es

O btai n

h o o s e Va an d Vy w i t h O pp o s i t e
F i n all y t h er e f o r e w e h a v e

n ece s s ar y

i n ter ch a ng e t h e

i n th e

WP

1 ?

w e sim p

of

Q)

h av e

we

lt

Si n ce, by
pp

l e d s t o n o t h i ng n e w
l u e o f ( 7 ) nd ( 8 )

//
x o

m m

2 i = 1)
t

d b)

(a

a
9)
w i th

s / (p

h er

Ta ki ng

ly

t r ue ; w e

Q)

h av e

in

fact
T h ey

ed on e of th em ( s ee ch p x 9 E am pl e
y
w i ll n o t h o w e v e r fu r n i s h a s o l u t i o n o f o u r p r ob l e m u nl e ss th e
F o r t h i i t i s ne ce s sary nd
al u e s o f a; an d y a re r a t i o n a l
s u f ci e n t t h at
p
q be a p os i t i v e p er f ect s qu ar e and t h at p b e

a r ead

v er i

2 09

EX AM P L S

xi

os i t i v e

H e nce

p
s imp l e bi nomi a l
t
i
o
i
ve
s
p

the

Vq

squ are r oot

s u rd

a nd

p ror ided p be p osi ti ve

nu mber,

exp r ess ed

be

ca n

as

q be

p erfect s quar e

E x am p l e

i pli fy V( 1 9

S m

4 V2 1 )

V( 1 9

Let

Th n

w + y = 1 9,

2v

/y =

nx

y)

33 6

2 5,
oc y
93

h nc
e

{c =

V( I

E xa m pl e 2

fo

th e

in

rm

(V

'

{1

q/p he

po i t i
s

er e

ve

Vq)

ill b
p f ct q

V7)

V( Vp

x/

{1

ex

2 X

l i n th fo
th i th fo i

re ss ib e

s,

u a re

e re

x/

2 V4 2 )

V( s

E x am pl e 3
t he

th

I t is

N ow let

us s u

er a
z,

'

x/ q

us

en

e s o, a n

an d

e,

se

(5 )

I t is
s

we

ave

th e

re

Vy

er

s a ti s f v

u re

as e s

V( p

Vq + Vr + Vs )

t i on l
l of

are ra
y,
er m i e th e v a u e s
.

ew)

u,

ma

nn

er

wi

y,

w ay)

a/ r

th y

we

O bt ai n

i n o d th t ( 2 ) m
q ti on

e es s a ry,

th e

a n d z,

er

hol d th t th
,

m us

To n d

l t i pl i c t i on
4m m w e

by m u

e v a u es

ua

93 +
.

ib l

p o id d
q i d cond i ti on
+

f th n c
ur

h ll

VOL

'

us

ee

re s s

z w as ) N

m V8 = x + y

( 8)

ppo th t

h nc by i ng
P oc d i ng i li k
w

rm

ere r ,

2 x/ ( zx )

F om ( 4)

ex

V6 )

V2 )

o b i o th t i c t i n c
p i bl i th fo m V + Vy + V w h
d to d t
cond i t i on t h t th i m y b
re s s

re ,

ex

m ay be

Vq )

V( s x/ r

be

av e

e x a m pl e ,

Fo r

=
y 7,

l 2,

nd th ond i t i on th t
+ Vy) i/ p w h
w

v
V( x/ z

N ow

TO

sa

+ y= 19 ;

th t

so

= +5

=
z
+
y
p

l et

AR I THME T I C AL S Q UARE ROO T

21 0

th t i
a

w e m us

s,

th

2P

i gn th o gho t m t b po i t i
A l o i nc y m t l l b t i on l
th e

e re

e as,

us

us

h nc
e

'

in

ur

be

po i t i
s

v e.

ave

ers , s u

ch th t
a

th

z m u s t al l

y,

e,

e at,

w e m us

a"

v e ra

a re

nc

9r

po i t i
t i on l n mb
5 7
t n w o bt i n

)8 , y

ere a ,

ve , s i

e ra

rs

av e

V( TS/q)
w

CH AP

=7

'

a,

AR I T HME T I CAL ME THOD S F O R F I ND I NG A P P R OX I MAT E RA T I ONAL

VALUE S FOR S URD NUMBER S
.

I t h as
ti o n ,

c o s e as

as

nu m b er

w h i ch

th e

a r ea d y

su c

that

ro
x i m at i o n s
pp

x im a t i on
r
o
pp

s ta t e d

l ea s e can a l w ays
w e ll t o g i v e h er e

we p

I t w i ll b e

b ee n

to

adr ati c s u r d
u
q

p pr o x i m a
ev e r y su r d

be

f ou nd f or
o n e m e t h o d a t l eas t

O b t ai n e d

be

ca n

a r at i o n a

an

by

We b eg i n w i t h
Sh a ll a f t er w ar d

d we

h er cas es m i g h t b e m ad e t o d ep end o n t h i s
F i rs t Of all w e m ay p o i n t ou t t h at i n ev ery ca s e w e
m ay r e du ce our p r o bl em t o th e ndi ng Of t h e i nt eg ra l par t o f
Su pp ose f o r ex amp l e w e w i s h
t h e s qu ar e r o ot Of an i n t eg er
t o n d th e s qu ar e r oot Of 3 6 8 9 corr ect t o v e p l ace s o f d eci mal s
T h en si nce V3 6 8 9 V3 6 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 / 1 0 w e h av e m er el y t o
n d t h e s qu ar e r o ot Of t h e i nteg er 3 6 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 corr e ct t o th e
l a s t i nt eg ral pl ace an d th en co u nt O ff v e d eci m a l p l ace s
Th e f o ll o w i ng p r op o s i ti o ns ar e al l t h a t ar e r eq u i r ed

h ow t h at

all o t

f or t h e p r e s e n t pu rp o s e

The

resul t o

su btracti ng

r s t s ubtra cting A
f

resu l t o

Thi s i s obvi ous,

II

i nteg er
to

VN

A
(

then 2 AB,

B)

fr om N i s
a nd na l ly B

B)
2

2 AB

in

If the fi rst p out of the n dig i ts of the

"
N have been found, so that P 1 0 P i s a
1 di g its w i ll be the
p
the qu oti ent {N

then the

i nteg ra l p art of
er ror

si nce

A
(

excess o

nea t

1 i n the l as t di g i t

the

same as

the

2
.

2
.

s qu are r oot o

the

rst app roxi mati on

rs t p 1 dig i ts of the
w i th a p os si ble

AR I THM E T I C AL S QUARE ROOT

x1

L e t th e w h o l e

r es t o f

th e

Of

N /N

P10

the

u ar e r o o t

211

be

Th en

w h er e

w h e n ce

N (P i o

2P 10

n -

2PQ 10

'1

"

p
10

<

me

n -p

NOW
2

/2 P 1 0

H ence Q /2 P 1 0
d th e

l op

an

wi

ll

at

m o st

th e

a ffect

1 ) th p

2p

b e i ng

P rop o s i
co ur s e ,

T h en P r op o s i ti on II m ay be u s ed to nd
b e p o s i ti v e
Th e appr ox i
t h e s u ccee d i n g d ig i t s i n l ar g e r a nd l ar g er g ro u p s
m at i on can t h u s b e carr i ed o u t w i t h g r e at ra pi di ty, as w i ll b e

l w ays

of

w h i ch m u s t,

re s i du es ,

t o nd t h e

u s ed

rs t

th e

s,

i n t h at p l ace w i ll b e a t t h e u t m o s t 5 i n ex ces s
t
1
es e
Of
h
i
i
t
s , t h e rs t p
d
s i n ce Q co n t a i n s n
p
g

e r ro r

T h er e f o r e
1 d ig i ts Of {N
w i ll b e g i v e n by t h e rs t p
w i t h a p o s s i bl e e rr o r i n e ce s s o f 1 i n t h e l a s t d ig i t
I n t h e act u a l cal cu l a ti o n Of t h e s q u ar e r oo t
f e w g u e s m y be f ou n d s i ng l y by s u cce s s i v e t r i al
tion I

l ace

fo ll ow i ng

by t h e

s e en

q
ho tn

L e t i t be

h ch

w i

fo r

Ob vi

ti
rs

re

u i re

es s ,

o ly

e x am p e

d to nd
w w it
e

in

oth

u a re

oot O f

N : 6 80 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 00 00 0

VN

us

th e

er

od
r

VN

s,

ont i n
a

d i gi t

s , and

th e

n w to
d
W h
d t ill l
nd th g t t d i gi t w h i ch
t nd i n th cond p l c
th
th
q
th n N th t i (by P opo i ti on l
f t h p t fo nd l
po i t i
2
r id
I t i fo nd by i n p ct i on
(7 )
th t = 2 C yi ng t th
t ion i nd i c t d th t i
b t ct i ng
bt
f om
w
h
n w
id

h ch

N ow N
e

e s

es

w i

rea es

u ar e o

ar

ue

ra c

su

a e

eav e

eav e

u
a

su

s,

a ve

an

a e,

av e

ue .

ve

ou

arr

ess

r es i

e se

x x

rs

can s a

9:

i s th e

ra

as

res

ue

id
ch n o w o l d b to gi
n g ti
i
t h p oc
13 ;
th t i p ct i c i t w o l d b i mm d i t l y d i co d
f
m pl
d
ct i d A
f
c w h th
o ct ll y occ
th
d m ght t k th q
oot f
n m ly 7 4 5 5 1 995 d tt m pt
to d d c f om 7 4 5 th tw foll ow i ng d i gi t H w i ll nd by th b o
l
52 in t d f 51
If it b
ti on o f th b t pp i m ti th l gi
q
h
l w y th b t l t b t th i i not l w y w h t i w nt d

Th e

an

r ea

s ea

ere , a s a

err r

ra

e o

s a n exa
e s

su

so

of

es s o

re

er

f ct

ef e

es

r e su

a se

u es

ve

es

an

e a

r ox

on ,

v ere

u rs ,

v e ru e

e ru e

ue

ua

r es

a e

err r a

ere

ve

e a

s,

u are r

ve s

EXAM P LE S

212

ca n

nd
do bl f t h w hol f th p t f VN w fo nd i
n t to d y l g
th t
m yb
w h
h ll m i n po iti
Th i l f y i
n to b 4 I t m i ght f
by
nd
co
b fo nd ( b y P opo i t i on I I ) by d i i d i ng
t k i ng th t g of th q ot i nt
f nd i ng th t fo
p oc
id
Th
i n w
Th
d i gi t i th i w y m y b
ng d th

Th e

av e

ex

u rs e ,

re

rs

res

ve

e as

u re

e, s o

e a rra

s see

s va ue o

11 0

ar

ar

as

ue

rs

ess

ur

us

t 4( 6 )

1 1 2 40 0 0 0 )

We

i ght

eas e

an

ont i n i n th m w y g by g
co d i n b ck t f t h
o
w pl
d w m i ght o m i t th
h d y fo nd fo
H i ng ho w
g
nd th
w
by
id
w h i ch i
d i i d i ng t h
th do bl
d y fo nd
t h p t f VN l
e

av

of

ar

ea

ra

ur

can

re

ree

e of

as

e zer s l n ea

e s o

u res ,

l ong
ch li n
mo
by

u re, as

u re

ue

a re a

e sa

e re

e v er, a

e res

ue

u rs e , c

co

1 3 1 986
2 90 40

1 6 492

1 2 5 4 80

1 1 5 44 4

n t th d ig i t
th fo 8 1 7
h
onl y b t ct d f o m VN
w
f
w
S bt ct i ng l o
81 7( 2 )
\V m y n w d i i d
th i
93 6 8 5 1 1 0 00 0
nd th
1 6 4 9 3 6 3 40 0
g t t h l t t w g
Th e

or

su

av e

re e

ex

ere

ra

us

re

is

as

1 6 4 93 63 400

n ot

g et t h e r u e r e s i
by 2 x 8 2 468 1 7 ( 2 ) ,

u r es

th e

an d

ye t

as

a s

ra

s ar e

We h av e th en

9 36 8 5 1 1 0000

res i

ue

82 4 6( 5 )

n m ly
th t i by
a

u e,

s,

56

8 2 4 6 8 1 7 00 0
1 1 2 1 6 9 4 0 00 0
9 896 1 80 4 0 0
1 3 2 0 7 5 9 6 00

\Ve

av e

82 46 81 7 5 6

now
.

fo nd
u

th e w

ho l of
e

th e i

nt g l p t
e

ra

ar

of

V6 80 1 ( 1 4 )

am e

ly

RA T I O N AL A PP ROX IM A T I ON

x1

TO AN Y S

URD

213

d i d to
pp o i m t i on f th 8 pl c ft th
y th
d i m l poi nt co l d t onc h fo nd by d i i d i ng th t
id
q i no m o pl c th n tho
( 1 3 2 0 7 5 9 6 0 0 5 6 ) by 2 8 2 4 6 81 7 5 6 I f w
8 pl c
id
i
th n th
l bo b y
f n i m po t nc
nd w
m y
dopti ng th bb i t d m thod f l ong d i i i o ( B ook Sm i th A i th
m ti ch p
Th
If i t w e re

es re

ec

carr

a es ,

c,

r x

r ev a e

r a

v s

a es

re

e, a

s ee

rue

u re

e re

a es

ue

e r,

ar

e res

e a

e a

er

r es

ue

sav e

se

ur

'

us

1 3 2 0 7 596 00

31 36

terstate
n

1 32 0 7 5 6 4 6 4

8 007 6 7 3 6

1 81 9 4 90 8 1 0

1 2 6 5 6 54
1 1 5 455 4
1 1 1 1 00

9 8 96 2
1 2 1 38

1 1 5 45

5 93
495
98
98
0

We th u s nd
wi

On

ll nd th t i po i nt O f f ct
n

fyi ng

v er i

th e

rea

er

( 82 4 6 81 7 5 6
It w i

q
pp o i m

th e
a

ll b

u a re

good
ci f h i m to nd t h w m n y d c i m l p l c o f
oot o f g i n i nt g m t b fo nd b fo th q
f th
t i on c
to b i nco ct i n th l t i nt g l pl c
e a

y, by

r oo t o

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by

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.

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t h en
,

a e

a es

In

th a t i s t o

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an

ot

s q u ar e

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>
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t h a t i s , if w e m a k e 2 a

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t er m s , w h i ch

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2n

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r o o t, a n d
as

us

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any p o s it i v e q u an t i ty

th a t

if

ll y

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F o r l et i t b e

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er

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ve

By
sa

se

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214

E XAMPL E S

i f w e m ak e

w h i ch ca n

m aking

su

it

f ci en t ly

h ow ev er

n
t
i
t
u
a
q
y,

r ea t

er

oth

In
wi

mus ma

we

th 5 1

er

th e

od
r

r esu

r o ot

h at ev er

For

e n

= 16

r esu l

t ct th q
f o m 1 by l
y d i ff

we

tm

ex ra
er

15

2"

( 51

2"

5 0 00 0

is

e it

h oo s e

by
an y

oot b g i nn i ng
th n 0 0 1
e

ess

'

e x ra

es s

u ar e

00 1

oot

1 4 t h at w e

h ap i x
s h a ll h a v e
.

2 ) l et l

ab s o u t e

h er

ly

or

be

is

h er e

any

q u ar e
bi nary

a,

e it

is

to
s

i n th e

e x p r e ss e d

<

th e

e x tr act i n g

8 , y,

g nn i g

be i

es ,

ca n appr o x i m a te

see c

t n t im

si x ee

m b t h e r o ce s s o f
p
y
p

s ay

6 553 6 ,

w h e r e e a ch o f t h e n u m era t o r s
.

e x ce e d

u are r

,1

s i n ce

216 2

3 2 7 6 8,

t ct t h
l th n 1

if we

s,

l t wi ll b

th en w e

s ca e,

mus

f o ll ow s f rom

It
s ur d

es

N ow

h nc

b e d o n e,

av e

us

l w ays

2 m ay b e m ad e t o

re a t

pl H w m n y t i m
th t t h n l
w i th 5 1 i n o d
\V m t h
Ex

c 11 4 1

h er

or

1,

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as

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we

as

H en ce
[

1 /I b

+ 36 ,
4

N ow
th e

ex ce

for m

l as t f

p l e a s e by

l as t

p ti ng t h e
28
,

w hi c

c o n t in u e

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a ct o r

can

eac

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be

ex tracti o n

an d

if

)7

/2 3

th es e

s i n ce r

le

as e

e
'

av e

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an a

pp o

eit

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r xim a e v a ue o f

5 11

3
.

her

c ose

as

by as s m all
t h e pr o d u ct

E xa m pl e To nd

is

fact ors

ppr o x im a ted t o as
Of th e s q u ar e r oo t

h o o se w e can m ak e i t d iffer fr o m 1
w e ch o o se
I t f oll o w s t h er e f o r e t h at
h an d Of ( 1 ) m ay b e f ou nd i n r a ti o nal
c

X I)

If

1,

ly

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a

Of

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as

we

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0 11

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r ig
as

ht

we

AL G E BRAI C A L S QUARE ROO T

XI

N ow we

co ct to
rre

ave,

th e

fo th d c i m l pl c
ur

foll o wi ng

th e

a e,

J
p

v a ues

1 0 00 9 6 ,
'

179

51

1 0 002 3 ,

1 2 7 85 7 ,

- 02
00 0
,

1 0 1 5 48,
0 0 3 85 ,

H nc
e

51

l t plyi ng th t n i n n

mu i

e,

rs

tog th

u m b e rs

1 22

we

e r,

1 0 000 1

<

g et

3 7 08 4 1
'

Th e

co ct

i s 3 7 0 84 2 9

va ue

r re

j u s t e p l a i ne d
v e r y t rou bl e s o m e i n p

Th e m e th o d

t h eo r y, w o u d

be

be

l t h oug h

r act i ce

i n ter e s t i ng i n

Th e m et h o d g i v e n i n
1 3 fo r e x t r acti ng th e s q u a re
l
i
an
s e d i n t o a m e th o d f o r e x t ra ct i n
eas l
n
era
e
y g
g

di re ctl y,
s t u de nt

g u r e by g u re
w i ll b e abl e t o

eco n o m i ca

th e

of

co u n terp a rt s

an

nt h

r o ot

d g r ou p by g r o up o f g u r es
Th e
e s t abl i s h f or h i m se l f t w o pr o p o s i ti o n s ,
.

1 2,

l l

of

ca cu ati o n

h i g h er

a nd

cube

of

m ay

an

an

d to

r es i

th e

g e a p r oce s s f o r
A m e th od o f th i s

a rr a n

du es

ki n d i s g i v e n i n m o s t ar i th m e ti ca l t ex t-b o oks fo r
cu be r oo t , bu t i t i s n e e d l e s s t o re pr od uce i t h e r e,
t i on

ro o t

r oo ts , an

ev en of

e x tract i ng

th e

as

e x t rac

q u ar e r o o ts , i s no w
o g ar i th m i c o r o th er t ab es

p l i s h ed

i n p r act i ce by m ean s Of l
M
see
ch a
x xi )
oreo
v e r , t h e e x t ract i o n o f t h e nth ro o t
(
p
g i v e n nu mber i s m er e l y a p ar t i cu l ar cas e of th e n u m er i ca l
a cco m

t i on

Horner s M ethod,

O ur
th i s

is

h apter
i d ea s

r o cess

of

d eg ree,

pr o cess fo r

l
w h i ch call e d
,

d e si r e t o

l ies

so u

be g i v e n i n a l a te r ch ap te r
d w e ll i ng o n t h e m or e e l e m en ta ry m e th od s
cu ti v a te

th e

at

n at u r e

th e

i n th e m i n d

of

r oo t o f

of

th e

l ea

r ner

l l
m a ny u s e fu l app l i cati o n s
a

p pr o x im a te

of

ca cu a t i o n

of

QUA R E ROO T

g ar ds

nth

ll

Wh e n a n
as r e

the

r e g ar di ng

w h i ch

m at h e m a ti cs

wi

f or

r eas o n

e x act

a n e u at i o n o f
q

Of

th e

a
s,

i ts

OF

AN I N T EGRAL FUN C T I O N

i n te g r a l

q u are

ro o t

f u nct io n o f
c a n b e f ou n d

1;

is

by

OF

a co m

l ete

m e th o d

q u ar e

a na o

g ou s

A LG E BRA I CA L S Q UA RE ROO T

216

l ai ned

ndi ng th e s qu are r o o t o f a n um be r
Al th ou g h th e m e th o d i s o f l ittl e i nt eres t e ith er t h e o re ti call y o r
pract i call y w e g i ve a br i e f s k e tch o f i t h e r e b e caus e i t i ll u s tra te s
at o n ce t h e a n al o
a m e nt a l diff e r e n ce b e t w ee n
f
a
n
d
t
h
u
n
d
e
gy
ar i t h m et i cal a n d al eb r ai ca l O erati ons ?
g
p
in

t o th at e x p

1 2 , for

we

m ay

P r op o s it i on 1

re s ta t e

B t o m ean i n teg ra l

an d

1 1 If F
.

fu n ction s

of

1 2,

,,

f VF

to be known, then

terms i n the i nteg ra l p ar t

F or w e

f (F

2P

""

r s t p

Q /2 P

)/2 P

ll

of

ar t

p
at m os t

ll

n
2
P
i
2
s
/
( p)
t h e t e rm i n

a ffect

b e i den t i cal w i t h

4 1)

71

Q d o w n t o t he t rm i n

2P +
x
i ncl u s i ve
I n o t h er w o rds th e rs t n p
( n 2p ) p
t erms O btai ne d b y d i v id i ng F
P by 2 P w i ll be t h e p ter m s of
t h e s q uare r o o t w h ich f o ll o w P
\Ve m ay u s e t h i s r u l e t o O btai n th e w h ol e Of t h e t e m s o ne
P

wi

wi

2P

t h e i nt e g ra

of

H e nce

H ence ( F

q,x
Q , say; a nd i f
,

h av e

N o w th e d eg r e e
.

q)

(q x

""

"

qox
q ,x
the n ext p terms will be the

2P

2p

VF

"

h e nce

if
,

now

a nd

w e supp ose the rs tp terms, namely,

d ers t and ing

of x

2
p 0x

un

h ig h es t b ei ng o f cou rs e fou nd by i ns pect i o n as th e

s u ar e r oo t o f th e h i h e s t t er m O f t h e r a d i ca n d
o r w e m ay o h
g
q
tai n a ce r ta i n n u m b er i n t h i s w a y an d t h e n Obt ai n t h e r e s t by
at a

t i m e, t he

di v i s i o n i
The p ro cess w i l l be

un

d ers to od

f ro m

f ol l o w i ng

th e

e x am

pl e ,

l og y f o m t h
thod w p o b bl y o bt i n d by
i th m t i c l
p oc
It w
t g i n by R co d i Th lV/ t t f Wi tt ( bl ck
l tt
l i t E ngl h w o k
lg b
th
i n d i i i on w m y i f w p l
ng th d i nd cco d i ng
1 J t
to c n ding po w
f
Th n l
l t w ill b th m w h i ch
ng
I f th i i not
dopt d p o i d d th d i c nd i co mpl t q
m nt b
c th op t i on m y b p ol ong d i nd n i t ly j t i cont i d
th
d i i i on W l
n to d i co t h m n i ng f th
l t o bt i n d
th l
hc
q i om
f
i
i on f t h m tt
wo ld
Th f l l d i
nc t t h th o y f i n fi n it i

Th e m e

es s

as

as

us

v s

as e

as e

v s

e av e

a ses
e

e ra

n s uc

is

e rs o

e a

es

e ea r

er,

ve

rs

as

ear

on a

e ra

ana

er

s cu s s

e s er e s

e e

ve r

er

u ar e

us

as

re

u re

nue

e res u

ea

ev er a rra

ca

e ra

e sa

s a

eas e , a rra

res u

ra

i e s one o

e ar

re e r

A LG EB RAI C AL SQ U ARE R O O T

\ t
.

r s t

i n w h i ch w e

fi nd th r e e

r e m a i n i ng

t h e n d e du ce t h e

E mple
T d the squ r e r t
xa

rm s

of

r o ot

the

s in

l
g y,

an

tw o by di vi s i o n

th e t e

of

217

of

oo

4a" -

1 2 3; + 1

9
9a5

1 23 +

4 18

+1

4 18

+3

4 18

+2

6+

4+

8 22
8 2 4
2+

2+

6+

+1

He nce the squ re r t i

4
d s i ce the r es i due
1
2 + 1 i the squ r e f the t w l st te r ms n mel y
1 w see th t the
r d ic d i
e ct squ re O f c u rse w b t i
the v lue f the squ re
r t by ch gi g the s i g f every c efc i e nt i n the b ve result
a

an

s an

xa

n o

r p r o ce s s

an

o b t ai n e d

be

e x t act i o n o f

xa

r oo ts

su

e
p

an

d th a t i n

r e nd r s

co e f ci e n t s

a ll cas es

a ny s p e ci a l

r u ou s

Thi s w ill b e

u n d e s to o d

oo

1 4a"

the r d i c d
a

The squ re
a

an

be

c mplete squ re
o

a:
of

+1

squ re r t must b

i ts

oo

e of

th e

is
2p x

( 212 9

2 r ) a; 7

2 S ) JJ6

th i s must b i de t i c l w i th ( 1 ) he ce w must h ve
n

6,

29

1 3,

2] ) q

2r

4,

212 7

'

23 :

th e

p r o ce s s

N ow

1 8a "

If

by i ns p ect i o n

r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g e x am p l e
E mple
T e t r ct the squ re r t f
o

f i n d e te r m i n at e

f or t h e
f

ro o t c

m e th o d

rr ang ed fo r t h e e t r cti on o f th e
b u t i t i s n ee dl e s s t o p u r s u e t h e m at te r fu r th e r
Th e s tu d e nt h o l d o bs e r v e t h at i n th e s i m pl e r ca s es
be

ca n

th e

a n an o

e o

an

a:

s i m il a

r oo t

cu b e

an

oo

oo

18

(1

f rm
o

3 18
Z

X ER C ISES XV

C HA P

The rst f t h ese equ t i s gi ves p 3 p be i ng thus k

=2
w n the th i r d g i ves
i
ves
d 9 b ei ng k
4
g
q
p
k w the l st gi ves
We c uld n w nd t i l i ke m
bv i us f m the c ef c i e t f x th t t
1
He ce
v l e f the sq re r t i
on

no

an

no

n,

ro

on e

a u

ua

5
x

the sec nd
nd p q
b e i ng
er b t i t i

n o w n,

'

a nn

oo

4
3
x
+
+ 2 x3

4mg + a 1

'

The equ t i g f the c e f c i e ts f the rem i ni ng terms f ( 1 ) n d

s t i sed by the v lues f p q
( 3 ) w i ll s i mpl y g i ve equ t i s th t
lre d y f u d lw ys supp s i g th t the gi ve d i c d i
e ct squ re
A p r cess e ctl y s i m i l r t the b ve w i ll fu rni sh the r t f n e ct
cub e n e ct 4 th p w er d
N B
.

on

an

(4

owi n

(1
(3

V2

(7

2 V5 ) ( 5

as

n ra

so on

s an

xa

oo

xa

IS

n a

V3 )

on a

ls i nv lved
o

V2
V2
V5 ) ?
V5 )
2 V7 ) ( 3
V5 ) ( 1 1

(1

V7 ) ( 3 I

2 2 2
2
I
S
V(
V )

an

E X E C E XV
l i e r fu ct i ns f the i rr t i
V2

E press the f ll

ar e

xa

xa

V3 )
V3 )

4 V7 )

V {(8
V( 7 4 V3 ) V( 5 2 V6 )
V( I 5 4 V I 4 ) I / V( I S + 4 V I 4 )
1 / V( 1 6
2 V6 3 )
1 /V( 1 6
2 V6 3 )
1 /V( 1 6 V3
6 V2 1 )
V( I 6 V3 6 V2 I )
.

C lcul te
a

to v e

C lcul te
a

V1 3 )

V( V1 5

to

pl ces

of

seve n pl ces
a

dec i m ls the v lue

a

dec i m ls the v lue

of

S i mpl i fy

{ 3 + W9
V {a + b
3
g
2 + 0LV( a
V {a

x/

W9

i3

E press i
x

n a

l /x

l i e r f rm
n a

V( 5 V6 V

2
5
4 V3
V(

lO

VI 5 )

of

V( V1 5 + V 1 3 )

E X ER C ISES

XI

the f rm

if

the n

d z bc,

pe rfect s q u res

l
m
b an d

c a re

If

Sh

ona

V(

here

o na

b,

a,

if

be

93

'

az

an

an

g -

a,

n a

3 5 V8 )

+ 93

th t

ow

34

/ (p

3 4 V7 ) = 2 V7

sh

an d

q) ,

7 4 V5 )

w)

V1 8 )

f/ ( 1 1 7 V2
x

3
x

E press i n l i e r f rm
Sh
If

an a

ona

are

an d

r t i l d Vb d
He ce sh w th t i f
b
such th t 4 3 z the f/ ( -lVb)

f/ ( a

ow

rr t i l the
r ti l
w he r e z i
Vy

l w ys b e pressed i
th t th i s w i ll b dv t ge us i f
ca n

2
trf

2 19

XV

th t

ow

3-

3 7 w 2p
'

Ifpy

the n
x

= 0, w

p ss i ble
o

a ll i

rr t

a i ona

a re a

here p q y
ll r t i
He n ce sh w th t i f y
l the n n e ther f the equ t s

+ qy +

x,

ona

an d

al l

be

i i

rr t i
r ti l
a
:

a on

an

+y

2 5x2 +
4

9x +
433
6
x

2 4x3

+ 1 0x

8x + 1

1 2 38

m
)

5x
?

t ?

2 x Vx + 3 x

oo

8x 9
x

+ 12

4 x3 + 2 x2 +

8x

16

4
.

of

3 6 905

oo

2 7 a"3

5 4x 3

27

of

3p q3

9 +p q

Sh w th t A n b determ i ed th t + 6 + 7 6 + A sh ll
n e
ct squ re
Fi nd b
th t
6
4 4 + 4 sh ll b
8
e ct squ re
I f + b + b su btr cted fr m ( + 2 + the r em i der i
e ct squ re ; d b
If m
b
d
e ct squ re sh w th t
f b
o

xa

ca

so

96

"

95

be

so

c,

as

3
x

"

ca:

93

an

ax

xa

r
z

a,

on

6x7

E tr ct the cub e r t

d ivisi

"

2 Vx + 1

E tr ct the cu b e r t

by

to 5

1 6 y

2 3cc

2 00

a n

9,

2 2 x3

can

ou

VI O

'

of

as

o o

3 0wy

1 2 1 3]
2 5x y3
6 x4 + 4 x 3 + 9x 2
1 2x + 4

xa

is

1 02 x

63
12

4x yz(z + x )

4x 6

an

as

ou n

oo

+ za3 + ccy)

yz

na

an d

g=

F i d by the full use f the rd i ry ule the v lue

pl ces f deci m ls ; d d m y m re gures y
l
e U se the v lue f VI O thus f d t bt i V OO4
E tr ct the squ r e r t f the foll w i g
a

a i on

ona

ona

a,

ax

ca

as

e an

ca:

xa

s an

a n

'

w ga g b + 4122 {; a o
r
3
2
a
a
a
g
b
e
a
b

%
g
l

a g a
v

c:

y."

i"

5
n1

i
a c

&bc
e ?
e
{ F l} i a bc
,

l e?

E X ER C ISES

220
A nd

th t the squ re r t i
a

oo

the rem

r t

a i ni n

&

an

oo

2 x3

g three terms

bhc

x1

l ab

the rst f ur te rms

a re

o f an

e ct squ re
xa

nd

If
d d te rm i e the c e fc i e ts
Sh w th t
e

ca n

3
aa

4a;6 + 1 2 x 5 + 5x4

xv

be
e,

g , h, i n

per fect cu be
terms f Z d k

an

nd

cu b e

i ts

b2 ( a

b) ( c

b)

b) 2 }

b5 ( ( 6

e ct cu be
d
E press
} i the f r m + b + +
T h w m
the 4 t h p w er f
f
y te rms d es the squ re f
y u r result gree w i th 1
E press by me ns f the rd i ry ule f e tr cti g the squ re
r t (1 )
sce n di ng seri es f i ntegr l p w ers f
the
f
4 th p w er
desce n di ng seri es f p w e rs f c lcul ti ng
E p ress
i te rms f the se i es
b used t n d
Sh w th t L mb ert s the rem ( ch p i
9)
r t i l ppr i m t i n s t su rd um bers A pply i t t h w th t V2 = 1
ppr i m tel y ; nd est i m te the err r
is

an

xa

as

ar

a:

as

an

an

cx

na

or

te, a s

ar as

as

s x

ox

x,

on a

oo

as

00

o S

ox

ca n

C H A P TE R X I I

C o m p l e x N um b e r s

ON

F UNDAMEN T AL NAT URE OF C O MPLE X NUMBERS

THE

Th e

p t t o m a e ce ta in fo mu l ae f or factdi i s a t i o n
of i n
b
l
a l ead
s h o w n u s t h e n e ce s s i t
s
o
s
i
e
h
as
p
y
y

k
r

a t tem

g e n e r al a s
t ro d u ci ng i n to

as

i m ag i na y u n i t
ha v i ng t h e p op e ty
e
d
1
I t i s o bv i o u s f o m i t s d e ni t io n t h a t i ca nnot be equ a l to
( my r ea l qu anti ty, f o r t h e s qu a es o f a ll
eal q ua n t it i es are p os i t i ve
Th e p o p e ti e s o f i as a su b e c t o f op e a ti o n are th e efo e to b e
al g e b a a n

r
r
r r
j
r
r r
d e du ce d e nt i r e l y f r o m i t s d e n i t io n a nd f r om t h e g e ne r al l aw s
li k e e v e ry o t h e r al g ebr ai cal q u ant i ty i t
o f al g e b r a t o w hi ch
m u s t be su bj ect
S i nce 6 m u s t w h e n t a k en al ong w i th oth e r al g ebr ai cal q u an
t it i es obey a ll t h e l a w s o f al g e b r a w e m ay co n s i d e r a ny r e a l
m ul ti pl e s o f i s ay yi a nd y w h e r e y
/ a nd y a r e p o s it i v e o r
.

'

n eg at i v e , a nd
an d s o o n

a co nt i nu ou s

u ni t

h av e y

w e m us t

if

'

we e

iy, yd y
/ i (3/
r eal q uantity

y )i

f(y

2:

r eal m u l tipl e s o f i f r om w i to
s e r i es o f p u r el
y i m ag i nar y q u an t ity
all

00

i , w e h av e

to

w h o se

e x actl y as

B y ta k i n g

'

is

a nd

0i

w hi ch

co

'

00 2

rr es po nd s

th e

to

r ie s

of

r eal

e qu al

to

any

se

q u ant i ty,
oo

w h os e u ni t

is 1

s ay

jI/ i ,

00

N o q u an t i ty o f t h e
q uan ti t y o f t h e s e r ie s
2 2

is y i = y

se

r i es

( ex cep t

qu a r e o f
th a t i s , i s

f or th e
7

0 73)

ca n
an

be

ea

l m ul ti pl e

n e g a ti

ve

of

u a n t it

F UNDAMEN TAL CHARA C T ER

222

H en ce

no

p ur ely i mag inary qu anti ty

i n ce 0 2
a
a i
)

S
qu anti ty
l a w s ar e t o app l y t o i m ag i n ary

C O MPLE X NUMBERS

OF

excep t

Oi

be equ al to
0 , if th e

ca n

'

H en ce 0
i mag i n ary j u s t as

as

i s t h e m id d l e
it is

of

th e

se

co m bi n e,

If w e

0 ; h e n ce y = 0

by

r eal

qu a nt i ty :1; w i th a
m i x ed q u anti ty as y,

m
a i na r y q u a n t i t

t
h
e r e a ri s e s a
i
,
yy
g
p
t o w h ich t h e n am e comp l ex nu mber i s a ppli e d

v al u es

to y

We

t h u s h av e

ri es

of

v al u es

to

se

= 0,
i
y

a d d i t i o n , an y

ni t e
\Ve m ay c o n sid e r t h e ii n
oss i bl e r eal
fo r m e d by g i v i ng all p ossi

s i nce

u ely

s am e

o nl y

= 0 t h at i s
x
i

,
,
y
y

ea

r ea l

r eal

q uan t ity, w e i n f e that

v a l ue o f t h e s e i e s o f
p u el y
ies o f eal qu a nti ty ; i t i s , i n
to

q u an ti ty co m m on t o th e t w o s e ri e s
= O w e i nfer tha t
i
F o r,
Conversely,
0
,
y
y

f act , t h e

C R AP

co m

pl e x

x, a n d

d ou bly i n ni t e

se

all

r ie s

n u m be s

i
oss
bl
e
p
of

co m

u a n ti t
T
h
e s tu d e nt s h e
o u ld n o t e a t th e ou ts et th i s d o u bl e
l
ex
y
p
q
o n a cco un t o f t h e con t r a s t w h i ch
ch a r a ct e r o f co m pl e x q u an t i ty, 0
.

thus
on

th e

r i s es
on e

b et w een p u r el y r e al or pu r el y i m ag i nary q u an t ity

h and , an d co m pl ex q u an t i ty o n t h e o t h e r Th u s t h e r e
.

r yi ng z co nt inu o s ly ( w i thou t r e peti ti on o f

1 to
2 sa y i f c i s to b e al w ays
i nt e r m e di at e v al u e s ) f r o m
r eal an d o nl y o n e w ay o f v aryi ng z i n li k e m ann e r f r om l t o
B u t t h e r e a re a n
2 13 i f z i s t o b e a l w a ys p u r ely i m ag inary
1 + 4
i n ni t e n u m b e r o f w ay s o f v ar yi ng a co n ti nu ou s ly f r o m
to 2
s ay i f t h e r e b e n o r es tr i ct i o n u p o n t h e n at u r e o f
b a com pl e x n u m b e r
e ce p t t h at i t i s t
is

onl y o n e

w ay

of

va

'

Fl u 1
.

an

d YO Y t h e

ax i s o f

pu r e l y

ARG AND S DIAGRAM

xn

223

r epr es e nt any com pl e x n u m be r 9: yi w e m e as u r e f r o m 0 ( al l e d

t h e o ri g i n ) a d i s ta nce O M co n t ai ni n
m
u ni ts o f l e n th t o t h e
g
g
r ig h t o r l e ft acco r d i ng as a; i s p o s i ti v e o n eg a ti v e a nd w e d r aw
M P co n tai n ing y u n i t s o f l eng th u p w r d s or d o w n w a r d s cco r d
i ng a s y i s p o s i ti v e o r n eg a ti v e
Th e p o i n t P o a i s m o r e

co nve n i e nt f r o m s o m e
p o i n ts of v i e w t h e r a d i s v e cto r O P i
t he n s i d t o r ep r e s e n t t h e co m l e x nu m b e r x
I t i s o bv i o u s
p
yi
t h a t t o e v e ry co n cei vabl e co m l ex n u m be r t h e r e co rr e s o n d s o n e
p
p
an d o nl y one
o i nt i n t h e
a n d co n v e r e l
p
p l a ne of XX an d YY
y
t h at to e v e r y o ne o f t h e d ou b l i n n i t e s e r i e s o f
y
p o i nt s i n th t
P
pl ane th e r e corr e sp ond s o n e a nd o nly o n e co mpl ex nu mbe r
c

r,

P o i n t :6 yi

y , or s i m p l y t h e
I f P l i e o n t h e ax i s XX , th e n y : 0 , a nd t h e nu m ber a
yi i s
w h o l ly r ea l
I f P l i e on th e ax is Y Y , t h e n (c = 0 , a nd 23 + i i s
y
w h o ll y i m a g i na r y
N ow th e r e i s o nly o ne w ay of pa s s i n g fr o m
an
y p o i n t o n XX t o any o t h e r p oi nt, if w e ar e no t t o l e ave t h e

is

o f t en ca l l e d

th e

xe o f a:

'

'

ax is,

a on

n am el

t he

s am e

we

c
c-a x i s

i s tr u e for t h e

I f, h ow e v e r, w e
s tr i ct e d as
are

m u s t pa s s
a nd
th e

an

ax i s

a re

YY

n ot

re

t o o u r p a th , t h e e

i n ni ty

pa ss i ng f r o m
l
a n e o f XX
p

of

w ays

of

p oi n t i n t h e
"
a n d Y1
t o a ny

o ne
'

PM

Q N

r po i nt i n th e sam e pl an e
F I f w e d raw any co nt i nu ou s
cu r v e w h a t e v e r f r o m P t o Q a nd i m a i ne a
i
nt t o t ra v el al o n g
o
g
p
i t f r o m P to Q th e v al u e o f a co rr e s p ond i ng to t h e m o v i ng p oi nt
w ill v a ry con ti nu ou sl y f r o m t h e v al u e O M t o t h e v a l u e O N a n d
t h e v al u e of y i n l i k e m a nne r f r o m M P t o N Q
H en ce t h er e are
i
f
P
t
o ON
N
i
as
x
r
as m any w a ys o f v a r i n
i
om OM
M
Q
y
y g
t h e r e a r e w ays o f d r aw i ng a con t i nu o us cu r v e f r o m P t o Q
S im i la r r em a rk s ap ply w h en P and Q happ en as th ey m ay
i n p r t icu l a r cas e s t o b e b o th o n th e os a i s o r bo th o n t h e
-a i s
y
p r ov i d e d t h a t th er e i s n o r es t r i cti o n t h a t th e v ar y i ng
l
ays i m a g i na r y
h
w
e r e a re
t
l
r
a
T
r
ua
n
t
i
S
h
a
ll
b
e
a
l
w
a
s
e
a
o
y
q
y
o t he

IG

- x

RATI O N A L O PERATI O NS \VI T H C O MPLE X NUMBERS

2 24

C HA P

r p ro p er ti es o f co m pl ex nu m be r s w h i h are b e s t u nd e r
s t u d i ng A r g a nd s d i ag r am a nd w e Sh ll r e t u r n t o i t
s t oo d b
y
y
t
o
e v en t
t
n t h e m ea n ti m e
h
o w ev e r
r
r
ch
e
I
a ai n i n t hi
p
p
g
co n f s i o n i n th e m i n d of t h e r e a d e r w e s h all co n n e o ur s el v e s
for a l i ttl e t o pu r el y an al yti cal co n s i de r a ti o n s
"
=
F or i t fol l ow s f r o m
O y 03
0 then a
If a + yi
i
n o t v a ni s h w e s h ou ld
t
h
a t a;
i
H
e nce if
d
d
i
0
a
y
y
y
h a v e a r e al qu an ti ty as e qu al t o a p u r el y i m g i n ar y q u an t i ty yi
\Ve m u s t t h e r e fo r e h a v e y O and cou se
w h i h i s i m p o s s i bl e
m a ny

o th e

Oi
qu e n t l y a
C o r Hence if

Fo r a

yi

a:

H e n ce

re

'

(y

'

y )i

0,

RAT I O NAL F UN C T I O NS

OF

'

"

:c

{v

'

d y y
y i f r o m bo t h s i d e s ,

m y i, the n mu s t a
yi
y i g i ve s , i f w e s u b t act re

an

'

0,

t ha t i s

C O MPLE X N UMBERS
4 ] \l e h a v e s e e n t h at so l ong a s w e o p e r at e u po n r e al
r
i
w
co n ne o u r se l ves t o t h e r t i o n a l o p e r
u
a n ti t i e s
ov
d
e
d
e
q
p
m u l ti pli cat i o n a n d di v i i on w e
t i o n s add i t i o n
s u b t r act i o n
r e pr o du ce r eal qu ant it i e s a n d r e al q u an t it i e s o nly On t h e
o t h e r h an d if w e u s e t h e i rr a t i o n al o p e r a ti o n o f r o o t e x tr acti o n
i t becom es n e ces sa ry i f w e ar e t o k ee p u p t h e g e n er li ty o f
a l eb r a i cal o p e r a t i o n s t o i n t r o d c t h e i m a in ar y u n i t i
\
V
e ar e
g
g
nu m be r s
Th e q u es
t h u s l e d t o t h e c ns i d e ra t i o n o f co m pl e
If w e o p er a te r t i n l ly or
t i o n n o w n tu r l ly p r s e n ts i ts elf
i rr ati o nally i n c o r d an ce w i th t h e g e n e r l l w o f l g ebr a o n
qu a nti ti es r ea l o r c o m p l e as no w d e ne d s ha l l w e al w ays r e
d
u ce
u nt i t i e s r eal o r co m pl e x a s n o w d e n e d ; o r m a
r
o
p
q
y it
h ppen th at at s om e s tag e i t w i ll be n ece ss a ry i n t h e i nt e r es t o f
a l e b r ai c g e ne r ali ty t o i n tr o d u ce s o m e n e w k i nd o f i m a i nar
g
g
y
Th e a ns w e r t o t h i s q u e ti o n
q u a n ti ty no t as ye t i m ag i n e d ?
i s th a t s o fa a t l as t as t h e alg br ai cal o p e r t i n s f add i t i o n
.

'

He re d he re fter i th i s ch pter w he n w
u derst d th t th i s d e tes c mple num be r i
nd y
re l
an

a: a

oo

are

no

r te the f rm + yi i t i
th t
i t s i mpl st f rm

w i

so

RA T I ONAL F UN C T I O NS

X II

d i v i s i on ,

m u l ti pl i ca ti o n ,

s ub t a cti o n ,

f u th e

co n ce n e d , n o

C O MPLE X NUMBERS

OF

of

e x t e n si o n

an

th e

r oo t

2 25

e x t act i o n

co n cep t i on

of

ar e

lg e b r a i c

I t i s, i n fa ct, o ne o f th e m a i n ob ects o f t h e
q u an ti ty i s n e e d e d
o p ov e th at al e b ai c o e at i o n s on co m l e x
s e n t ch a t e
t
e
g
p
p
p
p
e
nu m be s
p o d uce o nl y c om pl e x nu m be s
.

r r r

r
The su m or p r odu ct of a ny nu mber of comp l ex nu mbers a nd
the quoti ent of two omp l ex nu mbers may be exp r essed as a comp l ex
nu mber
S u ppo s e w e ha v e say th r ee com pl e nu m b e r x y i
yi
.

s,

ysi , th e n

x3

m
( a

x1

by th e l aw s
Bu t
ar e s o

x3

Th e

r eal

/ 3 ) ia

(yr

7
.

Si n ce x , , x2 , x, ,

y, , y2 , y3
s ta n d a d f o m

y3 ) i i s i n t h e
co n cl u s i o n o b v i o u s l y h o l d s , h o w e ve

( yl

x,

o f a co m pl e x n u m be

a re

y3

y,

y,

$3

x3 an d

H en ce (x

x2

o f al g e b a as al e a dy e s t abli s h e d
x2

xl

x1

y,

m a n y t e r m s t h e r e m a y b e i n t h e a l g e br a i c s u m
Ag ai n, co n s i d e r th e p r o d u ct o f t w o co m p l ex

an

i
y

x2

H e n ce

x,

i
y )

(x

yg i )

y,y, i

x,x2

b ear i ng i n m i n d t h e d e ni ti o n

of

xl

(ml/
i

r ov e s

ro du ct of
nu m be r

t h at t h e p

e x p e s s e d a s a co m l ex
p

we

h av e m e r e l y t o

(x

x, y,i

co m pl e x n u m b e s

tw o

ca n

be

To p r o v e t h e p r e p o s i ti on f or
n u m b e r s , s ay f o r

i , w e h av e

(x
w hi ch p

y,i

di s t r i bu ti o n ,

of

\Ye h av e , by th e l aw

n u m b e s , x,

y,i )

ap p l y

(x

y2 i )

t h e l aw

y, i )

r od u ct

of

th

co m

pl e x

yai ) ,

x3

o f as s oci at i o n , an d

y, i ) } (x3

x2

r ee

yai )

r i te

We h av e al r eady sh o w n th at th e f n cti o n w i thin th e cr oo k ed

br k t r e d e t o
o m pl e
n m b e r ; h en ce P i
t h e p r du t
of tw o
o m pl
H en ce ag i n by w h t w e pr o ed
nu m b e r
b
P r ed e t o
co m p l e
n mb er
I n th i w y w e c n
e t e n d t h e t h eo r m t
n
f
m
l
r
r
t
f
n
u
m
b
e
o
o
d
o
u
p
p
y
nu m ber
u

ac

e s

uc s

ove,

a c

ex

uc s

VO L

a
s

ex

RAT I O NAL F UN C T I O NS OF C O MPLE X NUMBERS

226

L as t l y

co n s

id e r t h e q u o t i e nt

of

C H AP

co m p l e x n u m b e s

tw o

We

h av e

113,

91 0 6132

x1

a:t

mi l/ I l l:
2

y;

yf

x,

yf

Thi s p r ov e s th at th e q u o ti e n t o f t w o co m pl e x nu m be r s can
a l w a s b e r e d u ce d t o a co m l e x n u m be r
p
y
C o r 1 S i n ce ev e ry r ati o nal fu n cti o n i nv ol ves o nl y t h e o p e r a
.

tio ns

fro m w hat

fol lo w s

functi on of

more

one or

j us t

h as

b een

comp lex

sh ow n

nu mbers ca n

di v i s i o n, i t

an d

m u l t i pl icat i o n ,

ry

tha t

be

r a ti ona l

eve

r ed u ced

to

com

nu mber

ex
l
p

Cor 2
.

If

i ci ents

i ts

s u bt a c ti o n ,

ad d i t i o n,

of

coe

yi ) be

an

ra ti ona l

functi on of

yi , ha vi ng

a ll

r ea l , a nd

d(
)

i
y)

Y,

XV)

then
z

an

Cor 3
.

be

r eal
S till m o r e g e ne r l ly

d Y b e i ng

o f co u s e

a ny r a ti ona l

fu ncti on of

d) (x

n comp lex n u mbe s,

yu i )
havi ng a ll i ts coei ci ents

yer,

y, ,i )

/ ni )

y, i ,

x3

xn

yg i ,

if

rea l , a nd

d (x
)

y,i ,

x,
.

Yi ,

then
73
'

Cor

If

He r e w e

pe r f rm

the d e m i t r
ch p
no

the

na o

i t is

coe i ci ents

r a n i sh

a nd

r ea l,

a ll

w hen e

o
2

x7 1

the i nteg r a l

functi on d) (z)

en
i
t
h
,
y

va ni shes

per t i w h i ch w m i g ht descri b e
l g us t the pr cess f r t i l i s i

an o

a na o

on

ona

as

ng

be

w hen

re l i si g
d esc r ibed
a

In

E X AM PLES

xii

227

X Yi w h e r e X a n d Y a re r e al
F or , by C o r 1 , d) (a; yi )
H e nce, if ( 1) (x yi ) O , w e h a v e X Yi 0 H e n ce , by 3 , X O
.

and

Cor

If

equ a l

functi on

to

y, i ,
va ni sh when

w i ll a l s o

x,

xa

y, ,i

fu ncti on

when

va ni s h

x, ,

r esp ecti vel

then the

ar e e ua l
q

to

ya,

r esp ectively

y, ,i

y a,

E mple

the fu nction

a nd

y, i ,

xl

a:

a ll
r ea l ,

be
ar e

i
X Yi O Oi
d(
y)
the coei ci en ts of the i n teg a l

Th e r e fo r e

3 ( 3 + 2 t)
11

E mple 2
xa

20i

(2

5 i ) ( 3 + 2 4)

(2

+ 3 2)

5i) (6

(2
(2

9 i + 4i ) ,

'

5 2 ) 1 3 t,

2 i
6 + 65,

E mple 3
xa

bi )

(a + b
2 bc( b + c) l

(c + a
{11 ( b + c)

2 a bc

a bc

"

in

{a bc

Za ( a

b)

75

ge e r l
n

i z i"

i = 1,
a

E mple 5
xa

3 a bc} i ,

i3:

uf

i = i,

+ b)

n a

xa

t h e

i3:

1 ;

13

35

n
i
y )

"

z
e

n
7, C

( Cl

n-

C
L
'

"

p rti cul r

E mple 7
If

19

13

"

of

E mple

cycle
t4

6 l 5 + 1 9i

xa

11 1 43

1,

recu r i

1,

"

of

,
(

In

i,

(a

o S

an d ,

( b + c) ( c + a ) ( a

E mple 4
h w th t the v lues f the p wers
T
1
3
We h ve i = i
i
75

ci

Ea 9 ( b

2 a bc

ai
b
c
+
(
)

xa

2 6 73

65

9
I

02

,, C4 x

0 3 te

31

'

'

11 0 5 x

"

'

4
i
y )

4
x

9 z + 1
2

+1

2
t
2
3
+
(
)

5 + l 2i 2 3t + 1

3
4
x
(
y

4 x y3 ) i

'

-2 8

C O NJU G A T E C OM PLE X NUMBERS

3(
1 5 1:

c u m

229

3
2 29
1 47

229

Fr m th i s w
o

in

fer th t
a

1 47

#2
a

c clus i
on

on

229

72
7

2 29

h ch the stude t sh uld ve ri fy by d irect c lcul t i

w i

on

C O N J UGA T E C O MPLE X NUMBERS N O RMS AN D M O DULI

G ] Tw o co m p l ex n u m b e r w h i ch d iffe r o nl y i n th e S ig n
f t he i r i m g i na ry p ar t a e aid t o b e conj ug a te
Th u s
3
a nd
3
2 i ar e conj g a te o a e
4i
4 i an d
a n d g e n e r al l
y
,

yi

re

Co r

w e m ay e nu n ci a t e

of

fo l l o w s

th e

co e f ci en t s

of

r at i o n a l

th e

f u n ct i o n

I be

( )

r eal

t hen

v al u es o f

d) (a: l
) a,
d(

w h e e th e
co m

pl e x
Th e

v al u e s

n u m be s

r ead e r

The su m

and

rea l,

then

y,i ,
y,i ,
of

x.,

2 ,

i
y

x, ,

x2

yg i ,

a,,

th e

r ea di ly

both the

ei the

,c/ x
(

I t is
s a me

both

y)
ob v i o u s t ha t

modu lus ;

r
f
E m ples

squ a e r oot o
xa

ab e s

ar e

e s ta bli s h

su m a n d

ar e r ea l or

Th i s i s

ri

the p r odu ct of two

By t h e modul us
2

va

co n u

y, ,i )

a t e , a r e c o n u at e
g
g

w i ll

Conversely,
be

t h i s n o m e n cl a tu

I f th e

an

a nd x

U s i ng
as

a nd

of

th e

the

f ol l o w ing

con u g a te comp l ex nu mbers are real

the p

they

roduct of
j

co m pl e x n u m b e

yi i s m eant

tha t thi s modu l u s i s the p osi ti ve

.

d e n ot ed b y
yi 3
comp l ex n u mbe
a nd i ts conj ug a te have the

comp l ex nu mbers

thei p r oduct

two

a re con u g a te

u s u al l y

4i | =

V2

F rm e rl y by m
o

od

va lu e o

the

M O DULI

xn

It

s h ou l d

nu m be

b e w h olly

w hi ch

is

sim

sa

th a t i f y = O, t h a t i s , i f th e

n o ti ced

be

r eal

ta

F o r th i s

w he e x

is
.

co m

dx

to
Si

g n,

or,

r r s f r e q u e n tl y

C o nt i n e n t al

pl ex
s

p o s i ti v e

e x a m p l e,

w i te

u se

co n t acti o n

w i th t h e

r eal q u a nti ty a s an a bbr ev i ti o n f or

We sh a ll occa si onal ly m ak e u s e of

v al u e o f x

r ea s o n

k en

F or

r e d u ces

t h e n t h e m o d ul u s

pl y t h e v a l u e o f
n u m e r i cal v a l u e o f x

y, t h e
3

229

th e n u m e i cal

t hi s

co nv en i en t

r e s s th t w i ll b u derst d by refe rri g ce m re t 2 the

r d i ry lge br i c l i de s f gre te r d l w h i ch pply t r e l qu t i t i es
c
t b tt ched t c mple um b e rs Th re der w i ll h w ever d th t
f
m y pur p ses the me sure f the m g i tude f c mple umber i
i t m dulus
We c
t t the pr ese t st ge e pl i prec i sel y h w m g i
tude i here t b u derst d b t w m y r em rk th t i A rg d s d i gr m
the r eprese t t i ve p i ts f l l c mple um b e rs w h se m dul i
less th
c ircle w h se ce tr e i t the ri g i d w h se d i us i p
p l i w i th i
F or

a on

na

a n no

e a

x n

an n o

n a

Fo r i f

x +

y)

be

dy

re a n d

bo t h

is

a re
J( x

us

th a t

P r ovi de d
s e en

5 , Cor

re X

and

d) ( a;

thei

y i, th e n, by

a nd,

H ence

modu l i

bo th

s i nce

b u t,

as

s u m ca nn o t

bu t the

a re e u a l

3,

H ence

h a n d,
'

'

al l

th e

d o es

it
y

f oll o w

n ot

H en ce

y
co e f ci e n t s i n

th e

fr o m

d( x
)

/ (x

ar e

r ea l

yi )

J( X

yi )

Yi ,

is

yi ) b e

r ea l

not
,

X
J

Yi

"

vac

i i)

l (w

<>

ru e

w e h av e

th e n

yi )

y)

co n v e s e

2 ) t h a t if

d) (a;
N ow

are

d) ( a:
whe

r)

o th e

va ni shes

yi

va ni shes

an

ra

an d

rue

not

to
th e

On

ze o

comp lex n umbers ar e equ a l

F or , i f

ar e

i ts modu l us

an

p os i ti v e , h e n ce th ei r
Th e r e fo r e x O a nd y

h be

conve se

n an

x =

z e o u nl ess e a c

If two

3,

the comp lex nu m ber

0 , th en

real

are

van i sh

x n

= O t h en b
i
,
y
y

Ag a i n, i f
an

s a

va ni sh

the modu lu s

convers ely,

an

a n

x n

nu mber

comp lex

If

oo

o n

n a

on

es s

an

oo

an

or

n}

C H AP

M O DULI

2 30

I n l i k e m a nn e r i t f ol l o w s f r o m

d(
)

y,i ,
yl i ,

x,

y, i ,

x2

y2 i ,

5 , C or

3 , t h at

x, ,

g ni )

E H / 2 2,

q5(x ,

Th e t h e o r e m s
pr

It

Shou l d

p a ti cu la

( a;

be

c as e s

(
In

o th e

wo

lb

(x
l/ i ) ( 93

(95

rds

o th e

wo

rd

at

the p roduct

n comp lex numbe s

at

x.

the qu oti en t

332

( 93

l/ n i )

i s the qu oti ent of thei mod uli

Th e ea d e S h o u l d

(
l

thei r modu li

the modu lu s

s,

332

In

(m

the modu lu s

58

y, , i )

,,

i s equa l to the p roduct

Al s o

wo

(x

x
m
l l(

in

yu i )

'

yd)

u s efu l

rk e d be l ow
( 1 ) con ta i n s ce r tai n r em arka bl e

(T
y, i )

x1 1

ry

ve

ar e

e x am p l e ,

(2)

an d

e x a m p l es

b s e r ve d t h a t

F or

i n th e

s een

( 1)

by

w a t)

xn

, ,

(x

i
y

x,

e x p e s se d

w i ll be

a ct ce , as

i
y

, ,

two

com

nu mbers

p lex

l as t p a r ag r ap h d i r e ctly
I t m ay b e n o t e d t h a t w e

e s tabli s h

th e

r e s u l ts ( 3 )

and

( 4)

of

(v

2
.

v?)

a re

l e d t o t h e f o l l o w i ng i d e n t i ti e s

(at?

(no

I f w e g i v e t o a , , y,, x, , 7 , po s i ti v e i nt eg r al v al u e s , t hi s g i v e s u s
t h e p r o p os i ti o n t h a t the p roduct of two i nteg er s, ea ch of whi ch i s the
s um o

two

squ ar e

i nteg ers, i s i tself the

an d

th e f o m u l a i n di ca t es h o w

i n t eg e

rs

l a s t m e n ti one d

ca n

o ne

b e f o u nd

su m o

ai

two

squar e

v al u e s

of

of

i nteg e

rs ;

th e t w o

Al s o

x1

2
'

1
'

932

(m
a

x i xexa

cl/ 3 %
Q

may
/ 1:7 2 )
I

M O DULI

xn

This
i s the

sho w s

su m o

t ha t the p

two i nteg

rodu ct of

ra l

th

231

r ee s

two i nteg

u ms o

squ a r es , a n d

s h ow s

o ne

nd i ng th e t w o l s t m e n ti on e d i n te g e rs
S i m ila r r e s u l ts m y o f cou r s e be obtai ned
an
n u m b e r o f f a ct o r s
y
E mple 1
F i d the m dulus f ( 2 3 i ) ( 3 2 i ) ( 6 4 i )

ra l sq a res
u

l ea s t

of

pr od u ct

of

w ay a t

for

xa

(2

3i ) ( 3

2 t)

(6

1 2)

4 i

J l5 2 )

26

E mple 2
F i d the m dulus
xa

of

( V2 + i V3 )

V2 + i V5
z

mple 3
F i d the m dulus
Th m dulus i
Exa

of

{( B

v) i }

y)

'

(o

1x
?
a
+
) (ah
(n

r} {m

E mple 4
the sum
T r eprese t 2 6 2 0 3 4
U s i g the f rmul f 1 0 w h ve
xa

26

20

as

a o

(1

34

reater

(y

'

m (r

) i } {( a

tha n the

sum o

of

t wo i n

tegr l squ res

a

the

su m o

their modu l i,

com l ex
p

nu m be s

a nd

i s i n g e ne a l less
Th i s m ay b e e s tabl is h ed di e ct l y b u t a n i ntu i t i ve p

o b ta i n e d i m m e d i a te l
y f o m A g an d s d iag a m

be

(a
(a

3)

2
3
(

3
2
( +

The mod ul us
g

ws

h av e

s ee n

l r e a dy t h a t , w h e n P Q

is

neve

r oo f

w ill

0 , th en

e it h e

r o v id e d P a nd Q b e r e l q u a n ti t i e s I t i s
na tu r a l n o w t o i n q u i r e w h e th e r th e sa m e w i ll h o l d if P a nd Q
be co m pl e n u m be r s
If P a n d Q b e co m p l e
n u m be r s t h e n P Q i s a c o m l e
p
nu m be r
A l so s i n ce P Q = O by
Bu t | P Q |
8
H e n ce
10
N o w [P ] an d
lP i l l by
P =O

or

0, p

C H AP

ARGAND S D I AGRAM

232

|Q|

are

b o th

r eal

rP

e i th e

ei th e

h e n ce

r P

or

H e nce

Q 0
We con cl u de th e r ef o r e th at P Q 0 then ei ther P
Q 0 whether P and Q be r eal qu anti ti es or comp lex numbers
8,

or

by

or

D I S C U SS I ON

OF

C OM P LE X NUMBER S
A R GAND S D I AGRAM

MEAN S

BY

OF

Re t u r n i ng
the

co m p l e x

v ect o

nu m b e

F
( ig

OP

m ag ni tu d e,

t h e p o s i t i ve

d i ag r a m , l e t

us

con s i d e

r r e s e n t ed b y t h e r a d i u s
r eg a r d ed a s a s ig nl es s

yi , w hi ch i s ep
L e t O P , w hi ch i s

x +

w h at

or ,

t o A g an d

now

t o the

co m es

sam e

t hi n g ,

h av i ng

al w ay s

as

si

g n , be d e n o t ed by r , an d l e t t h e
m e asu r e d co u n t e r -cl ock -w i s e, b e d en ot ed by 6

an

g l e XO P ,

7e h av e
th e p

th a t i f

s een

r o j e cti on s

of

X OX

on

r ep r es e n t

OP

and

Y OY

h av e , by th e g eom e t r i cal d e ni ti o ns

we

r =

x v

From ( 1 )

it

app ea s

56

cos

t h at

yi , th e n x a nd y ar e
es p e ct i v e l y
en ce

o f cos

a nd s i n

9)
s i n 6,

y/r

6,

x +

t h a t i s O P , i s th e m o d u l u s

of

th e

Th e e q u ati o n s ( 2 ) u n i q uely d et e m i n e th e
p l e x n u m be
a n l e 6,
v id e d w e
t
i
ct i t t o b e l e s s th an 2 71
a nd a
o
es
ee
p
g
g
t h at i t i s al w ay s t o b e m ea s u ed cou n t e -cl o c -w i s e f o m
co m

We c ll
fro m ( 2 )

6 th e

of

th at

a mp li tud e o f

i t s m od u l u s

th e

yi

r eo s

fo r m, w hi ch w e m ay
m any i m p o r ta n t a d van tag e s
n ew

n u m be

co m

Th i s

co m pl ex

pl ex n u m be r can be
for w e h av e
a nd am pl i tu d e

eve

ry

I t f ol l o w s

ex p esse d

i n term s

i si n 6)

r mal f r m

cal l

t h e no

p o ss es ses

S met i mes i t i m r e c ve ni e nt t ll w 6 t i cr e se fr m
t +
th t i t supp se th r d i us O P t ev lve nt cl ck w i se fr m O X t
O X g in
I n e i ther w y the mpl i tude i u i quel y deter m i n ed w he n the
c ef c i e ts
um b e r g i ve e cept i the e se f
d y f the c mple
re l n eg t i ve num b er w her e t h mpl i tude p rt fr m e te rn l c n si der
t i n s i b v i usl y m big u us
a

s,

s o

2: a n

o r

e ou

er -

n,

7r

1r

x n

o a

on

a re

C OM P O S I T I ON

xn

S i nce
o

f th e

r e s ent

ax i s o

s u ch

hav e

tw o
as

th e
wo

one

o th e

rds

j u g at e
j ug at e

h av e

we

a n d,

g l es

E mple
xa

d i ff e r

o n ly

i n th e

s am e

dy s h ow n

i
t
u de
l
p

of

In

o th e

of

tw o

con

ar e

co n
FIG

I f OP , O Q

VE C O S

i
F
( g

3
1

4)

+t

yi

th e

an

3
1

5 7f

'

71

r e pr e s e n t
x

S l I1

to O Q
th e
x

F IG

sum

of

th at i s to

sa

y, t h e p

r ep r e s e n t

and

yi

For th e p r oj ecti on o f O Q o n t h e
x-ax i s i s th e al g eb r ai c s u m o f th e
p r oj ecti o n s

a n d e q u al

O Q w i ll
x +

if

a nd

i
y ,

x +

th en

nu m b e s

co m pl e x

P Q b e d r a w n pa r all el

s am e a x is ,

Si g n

of

de

2 33

re

a m pl i tu

nu mb e s

co m p ex
an

am

F
i
( g

th e

l
i
u d es
t
p

al e a

be 6 , th e
am

if t h e

w i ll b e 2 7

th e

w h i ch

t h e i m ag e s

ar e

i n th e

a n al y ti cal ly

th e

v e ct o e s

th e m

m o d u l u s,
of

a t e co m p l e x n u m b e s

co n u

ra dii

ea ch o t h e

H e nce

VE C T O RS

g
coe f ci e n t o f i , i t fo l l o w s

th e

th a t

tw o

OF

r oj ecti o n

of

of

OP

OQ

and

PQ

th e

on

on

th e

x-a x i s

is

Al s o t h e p r oj e ct i o n o f O Q o n th e y-a x i s i s, by th e sam e
r ea soni ng , y y H en ce O Q r ep res ent s th e co m pl ex n um ber
w
x +x
i
h
i
ch i s e u a l t o
x
i
i
x
,
y
y
)
q
y
(
) (
) (
y )
(

'

By si m i l a r
0 P5,

s ay,

r ea s o n i n g

r ep r es ent

ve

we

m ay Sh o w th a t if O P , , O P , , 0 P 3 ,

c om p l e x n u m b e s , a n d

if P , Q , be p a r al l el
.

234

a nd e u al
q

O Q5

to OP , ,

r e p r es e n ts

2n

pa all el an d eq u al to O R, a nd s o o n, t h e n
w hi ch i s th e s u m o f th e
co m pl e x n u m b e

QQ
,

C H AP

f l

,,

th e

r r r

pl e x nu m be s e p e s en t ed by O P , , O P , , 0 P 3 , OP , , 0 P 5
Thi s i s p e ci s el y W h at i s n o w n a s t h e p ol yg o n l a w f or com
i n ce O Q 5 i s n ev e g eat e th an th e p e i
p ou nd i ng v e cto s
m ete
an d i s i n
n
e
al l e s s , F i g
i
u s an
e
5
es
v
g
g
co m

r r

i ntu i ti ve g eomet i ca l p oof tha t the mod ulus

nu mbe s i s i n g en er a l less tha n the su m of

e ua lly o vi ous

from

F ig 4 that the modu lus

sum

the

comp lex

their m odul i

sum o

I t is

two

com

plex nu mber s i s i n g enera l g reater tha n the d i erence of the modu li

S u m o f co m pl e x n u m be s i n t h ese th eo e m s m ea n s , o f co u s e,

g ebr a i c

al

s um

an d

i sin

6,

i sin

r , eo s

th u s p

(6

rk
an

6,
r ,r , c o s

e m pl o y

we
wo

6,

r , cos

If
n u m be

co s

co m pl e x n u m be

6,

6,

i si n

si n

rm

r od u ct

62

r , co s

no

of

i sin

tw o

fo r

c om

l
p ex

co m

pl ex

n u mbe s ,

w e h av e

6 , si n

fo r m

sin

6,

co s

6,

cos

6 , si n

i sin (6,

ro v e

th e p

ou t

th e

t ha t t h e p

r od u ct

w h o s e m o d u l us

of

two

co m pl ex

i s t h e p r o d u ct

n u m be s
of

is

a.

t h e m od u l i

THEOREM

D E M O I VR E s

x11

th e t w o n u m b e

of

rs

r esu l t

al ea

2 35

e s tab l i s h e d

dy

the p rodu ct i s, to

f
h
e s u m of the a mp li tu des of the factor s
o 2 77
t
f
nd a n an g l e qt) ly i ng be t w e e n 0 an d 27r
t h e n e w t h eo e m t h a t the a mp li tu de o

F or w e

co s

( 6,

an

sin

a nd

( 6,

si n

95

a nd

ca n a l w a

ys

co s

q)

hav e 6 ,

th e n

we

h a ve

mu ltip le

th at

s u ch

we

6,

27 m

r e su l t

Th i s l as t

(l

of

d es

Si

an

6
( ,

6,

ov
d
r
e
p

ca se a l ea d y

( 6,

P r o ce edi ng

i sin

6,

r , co s

r , eo s

i si n ( 6 ,

6,

i si n ( 6 ,

u l t i m a t el

y p

resu l t

r ov e

t ha t

i Si n ( 6 ,

e x p es s e d

m ay be

i s in

6,

i sin

6,

Th i s

h av e

i si n

i si n

6,

we

6,

i n th i s w ay w e

Sin

6,

i si n ( 6 ,

(6l

i f w e m u l t ipl y b o th

i sin

r , r , co s

by t h e

i Si n

6,

r , co s

by

r l y g e n e r a l ; fo r
a dd i t i o n a l fa ct o r r co s 6
(
cl ea

is

6,

i n w o r d s th u s

The p r odu ct of n comp lex nu mber s i s a comp l ex n umber whose

modu lus i s the p r oduct of the modu l i , a nd whose a mp li tu de i s, to a

mu l tip l e

the

2 71

I f w e pu t

co s

r,

i si n

6,

co s

( 6,

su m o

the

the

e a ch

s a y,

c os

i si n

63

n comp lex nu mbe s

p li tu des

am

Th i s i s th e m o s t g e n e r al fo r m
Theorem

of

w ha t

ha v e

i sin

cos

i s in ( 6 ,

6,

we

k now n

is

as

D emoivr e s

If w e p u t 6 ,

( cos
w hi ch

i s th e

e a ch

6,

u sua

l form

cos n 6

i s in
of

D em o i vre

b e co m e s

6, t h e n
i s in

n6

I t is

r e s u l t o f th e h i g h es t i m p o r tan ce as w e Shall
Th i s the r em w rst g i ve i D em i vr e s Jlf i
p 1 i the f rm
(L d
w he r e
V( l
ti cal

on

as

s ee

s cel l a n ca

a n a na l

re

s e n tl y

cos

A n a l yti cal

6 , l = co s

no

QU OT IEN T

236

S i nce

cos

h av e, by ( 3

we

an

si n

co s

Th e t h e o r em f o r
o b t ai n e d

i sin

i Si n

co s

i sin

cos n 6

u o t i en t

co

i s in

rr e

i s in 6)

r co s

{(

p o n d i ng

i si n 6)

co s

co s

'

co s

He nce
a

the qu oti ent of two

modu l u s i s the qu oti en t

mu ltip le

nu m be s

m
ay b e
1
( )

to

e)

comp l ex n um be s

2 7r the di erence

co s

i s in

6 si n
6

'

6 sin

co s

i si n ( e

'

(e

( co s
s in

to

n6

th u s

r co s

whose

i s in ( 2 7:

6)

( 2 71

cos

'

ca n

II ( co s 6 ,
an

C OM P LE X N UMBE RS

OF

is

comp l ex nu mbe

the modu l i , and whose

the

a mp li tu de o

a mp li tu de

the two

is

comp lex

IRRAT I O NAL

PERA T I O NS W I TH C O MPLE X N UMB ERS

S i nce e v e r y i rr a tio nal lg ebr i cal fu n cti o n i n v o l v e s

o n l y r o o t e x t r ac ti o n i n a d d i ti o n t o t h e f o u r r a t i o n al O p e r ti o n s
n d s i n ce w e h a v e Sh o w n t h a t r a ti o n al o p e r a ti o n s w i th c om pl ex
nu m b e r s r e p r o d ce co m pl e x n u m be r s an d s u ch o nl y i f w e co uld
p r o v e t h at t h e n th r o o t o f a co mpl x nu m b e r h s fo i ts v l u e
co m pl e x n u m b e r o r co m pl e
o r v a l u es
n u m b e r s a nd s u ch o nl y
t h e n w e Sh ou l d h av e e s tabl i s h e d t h a t al l a l g e br a i cal o p e r ti on s
w i th co m pl e x n u m be r s r ep r od u ce co m pl e x n u m b e r s a nd s u ch
a

o nl

y
Th e
.

r e su l t i s D m o w r e s
Th e r em b t b e fo r e r es o r ti ng t o t h is p ow e r f l a n l yti cal e ng i n e
w e s h al l Sh o w h o w t o t r e at t h e p ar ti cu l a r cas e o f th e s q u ar e r o ot
i

w i th o u t i ts

Let

m ea n s

ch e f

of

u s su ppo s e

rri v i ng

at

t hi s

aid

tha t

xu

QUAR E ROO T S

Th e n

H e n ce

yi

x +

s i n ce

a nd

r eal

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Si d e s o f

b o th

ar e

(2)
(X

w h e n ce,

s i n ce

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and

by

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an

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y ;
i ly p o s it i v e w e d e d uce
,

/ (x

we

r e fo r e

+ 2

/ (x

y)

h av e

y)

d e riv e
2

\Ve t h e

"

3,

a,

a d di t i o n ,

t h at i s ,

g , w e d ed u ce

n e c e s sa

2X

237

a nd a d d i n

Y)
2

2 K Yi

m u s t h a v e , by

d
g

From

A C OM P LEX NUMBER

or

J 63

b y

7J
.

I n l i k e m ann e r w e d e r i v e f r o m

by

a nd

s ubt a cti o n,

&c

( G)

S i nce x + y i s nu m r i cal l v g r e ate r th a n x

is
H e n ce th e qu an ti ti e s u nd e r th e Sig n
n u m e r i call y g r e a t e r t h a n x
b
o t h r e a l a n d p o i ti v e
o f t h e s q u ar e r oo t i n ( 5 ) a n d
6
a
re
T
h
e
)
(
v a l u es o f X a n d Y a ss i g n d by t h es e e q u a t i o n s a r e t h e r e f r e r eal
S i n ce 2 XY y l i k e s ig ns m u st b e t ak e n i n ( 5 ) and
o
u n l i k e s i g n s a cco r di n g a y i s p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e
We t h u h av e nally
2

2
_

(7)
i f y b e p o s i ti v e

i f y be

E mple 1
E press V( 8
xa

L et

n e g a t iv e

The
He ce
He ce

6i )

as a

c mple
o

x n

um b er

9=

8,

an

3
+ y = 10 ;

zz

8;

2xy :

EXAM P LE S

2 38

theref re
He ce
S i ce

" a"z

F i ll y theref re
na

xa

of

+ 3 an d y :

h i ch

+ 1,

or x

and

h ve

we

6i ) :

can

be i

t (3 + i ) ;

mmed i tel y veri ed by squ ri g

a

E mple 3
E press V( + 5)
xa

L et

= :t 3 ,

V( 8

the c rr ect ess

E mple 2

2 y?

1 8,

must h ve e i the r

2 xy = 6, w e

ca n

an d

the
He ce

i)

V(

c mple

as

x n

i = x

(a )

'

um b ers

2 x yi

2xy

=
i
0
i
Fr m ( ) w h ve
th
t
e
the
r
The
y)
y
f rmer lter ti ve i i c s i ste t w i th ( B) he ce the l tter m ust b ccepted
1 w he ce
t l / V2
We the h ve f m
2
S i ce
d
lly
w h ve
y
o

na

x,

na

S i m i l rl y w h
e S

e a

an

'

: l:

V2

oo

of

an d

c mple
o

as

or

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Ag

th t

ow

E mple 4
T e p ress the 4 th r ts
o

oe o r

i
xa

ro

n on

s,

e ob ai n

f ur 4 t h r ts

of

oo

+ 1 , na

mel y

x n

+ 1,

um b e rs

i l

or

1, + i ,

i t

ai n

He ce
n

by

E mple 3
xa

VT

We

17

o f a n y co m p l e x

p o ce e d t o t h e g e n e
n u m be ,
( eo s 6 + i S i n

no w

r al

cas e o

f th e

r oo t

r r

S i n e r i s a po s i ti v nu m ber 1/ r h as ( s e e ch p

o n e r e a l p o s i t i v e v al u e w h i ch w e m ay d e n o t e by W
C o n i d e r th e n co m p l ex nu m b e r s
2

2 sn

c os

n th

2 7r

co s

7b

+ i sm

2ir

+
lt

2)

ROO T S

n TI I

x xi

4 77

C OM P LEX N UMBE R

O F AN Y

'

2 39

4 11

'

i Si n

co s

2 s 7r

2 3 7:

2 S 1 11

co s

l /n

7.

i sm

co s

th e s e

of

d i ffe r by l e s s t h an 2 77
i
sin 6 )
r t ak e t h e
r co s 6
f
o
(
.

,
n
r

2 s 7r

( )

it

q u al , s i n c e t h e
Th e n th p o w e

ar e

N o tw o

7r +

l)

2 57

am p l i t u d e s
of

any

two

y o ne o f t h em i s
e x a m pl e , a n d w e h a v e

1 ) th , for

of

an

+ i S 1n

co s

2 8 71

'

CO S

7; S I I I
7b

7b

2m
co s n

2 8 77

0 3 72

'

2 Si n n

by D e m o i v r e

( 3 8 72

(
r co s
(

r eos

H e nce th e com pl e x
n th r o o t s o f ( eo s 6

6)

'

s in

2
87
(

Th e o

r em

i s in

( )

nu mbe s

d iff e r e n t

it

ar e

i si n

by g i v i ng v a l u e s t o s e x ce e d i ng n
I , ob tai n
n e w v a l u e s o f t h e nt h
an
t
h
v al u e s o f t h e s e i e s
t
e
o
o
f
o
r
,
y
h
n
f
t
e
at,
t
h
e i o d i ci t
o
e
w
e
o
i
n
t
o
e
p
p
y
( )
g
\Ve

ca n n o t ,

t i g o n o m e t i cal

i
an

s o on

i n v ol v ed

f u ncti o n s
sin

2
n
a
(

\Ve

ha

r
ve

e x a m pl e ,

fo r

6 ) /n )

s in

6 /n ) ;

i n fact, p o v e th a t th e e ca nn o t b e m o e t h a n n
v a l u es o f t h e nt h
L e t u s d e n o t e t h e co m pl e x n u m b e
o ot
r co s 6 + i s i n 6
a n d l e t 2 s t a n d f o r a ny
b
a,
f
r
s
h
t
n
e
s
s
o
o
;
(
) y

\Ve

ca n ,

n th

ro

ot

of

H e nce e v e ry
cau s e s

(L

Th e n

n th

t h i s i n t eg

root

al

m u st
of

a,

f u n ct i o n

w h en

of 2

to

and

th e

s u b s ti tu t ed

v a ni s h

e fo

re

for

H e n ce

2
2

if

71

in

2 40

nTH R

be

2,

fact o

nth

rs

of

'l

r o ot s

of

Now

can no t e x cee d n

nt h

r oots a n

no

i 1

or

of

ch a

re

w i ll

t h e n th d eg

s ee

the

s ay,

is

a.

fa ct o r s

t ha t i s to

r oo ts o f
We con cl u de
a

a,

h av e m o r e t h an

ca nn o t

OO TS

r ee

al l

in

be
an d

2,

H en ce

be m or e th a n

ca n no t

th e

more

comp l ex nu mber

r e fo r e

a nd

th a t

ea ch o

every comp lex n umbe

these

nth roots can

be

has

n nth

exp ressed a s a

ry r eal n u mbe r i s m er ely a co m pl ex nu m

b er w h o s e i m ag i na ry pa r t v an i s h es i t f ol l o w s th a t e ery real
nu mber w h ther p os i ti ve or n eg a ti ve ha s n n th roots a nd n o m or e
C or 1
.

Si n ce

ev e

ea ch o

whi ch i s

C or

d in

ar ang e
an

bl e as
p
The i mag i na y
conj u g a te p ai s
ex r essi

r
r

r oo t o f
o th e r w i s e )

nth

a,

th en

a comp l ex nu mber

nth

r oots

any r eal

F o r w e h av e

th at, i f

s ee n

H en ce

n u mber

if

a.

be

be

yi be

r eal ( bu t

i
ll
s
5
o
r
4
h
a
x
i
t
f
o
o
w
b
C
t
t
no t
,
,
,
,
y)
y
(
t h at i s , x
i
i
s a l s o an nth r oo t o f a
y
[Vi i Thi s d o es n o t h old f or th e r o ot s o f a comp lex
.

ca n

= O
;

n u m be

n e all y
e
g

Ev ery

r e al

o
s i ti v e
p

qu a nt i ty

be w r i t t e n i n t h e

ca n

fo r m

r e os

a nd e v e

r y r ea l

n eg a t i v e

i si n 0 )

u a n ti t y

i n th e f o r m

i si n

r eo s 77

r i s a r eal po s i ti v e
i si n O
n th r o o ts o f co s 0
i si n

th a t i s ,

'

i
u
a
n
t
ty
q

w he e r

0 0 8 7?

A
( )

tha t i s ,

( B)

H en ce

of

l,

and

of

k n ow th e n
n n th r oo t s o f

if w e
th e

n di n g

1 , t h e p ob l e m o f
q u a n ti ty, w h e th e p o s i ti v e

th e n nth

o r n e g ati v e
is
r oo ts o f an y r eal
r
r ed u ce d t o ndi ng th e r eal p osi ti v e v l u e O f th e nth r o ot o f a
r ea l p o si ti v e q u a nti ty r ( s e e ch ap X i
By m e an s o f t h e n th r o o t s o f i 1 w e ca n t h e r efo r e co m
2
I
n a ddi t io n t o th e i r
h

ll
t
e l a cu na l e f t i n ch a p x
l
e t el
p
y
n e x cee d i n l y i m
u s e i n t hi s r e s p e ct t h e n th r o o ts o f i 1 pl y
g
,

OO TS

nTH R

xn

i 1

or

241

p or ta nt pa r t i n th e th eo r y o f e q u a t io n s , a nd i n h ig h e r a lg e bra
ne ra l l
t
h
e r e fo r e g i v e t h e i r f u n d a m e n ta l p r o p e r t i e s h e r e ,
W
e
e
g
y
.

l ea v i ng t h e
al

g e bra

s tu d e nt

nd s

he

as

P u t t i ng

n e ed

b e ri ng th a t

2 71

o bta i n

O+ i

si n

O,

co s

f or t h e

+ i si n

2 (n

i Si n

obt ai n

we

7r ,

co s

S i nc e

2 i r /u ;

s in

4 i r /rt,

s in

co s
an d

1,

7b

7r

2 Si n

7t l
2
(

) 7r

7b

1 ) 7r /n

2 (n

co s

2 7r /n,

4 7r /n,

2 (n
we

o n,

so

of

i SI n

l
2
n
(

co s

r o o ts

nth

fo r t h e

7b

Co r 1

I )

2 (n

3n

7b

COS

1,

3n

cos + i s 1 n
7b
7b

s of

1, 6 =
n

r e m em

a nd

root

n n th

P u t t i ng

1 7,

of

2 77

Co s

can

a r a ng e

Si n
sin

the

2 (n

1 ) rz-/n

2 (n

2 ) i r /u

roots

as

fol lows

r oo ts

n th

l,

co s

i sin

O
"
rr

of

1,
4 77

2 m 1

2m

u e v e n,

s ay,

4n
"

t i sin

co s
n

7r

cos

t i sm

2 m l )W
,

nth

1,

co s

r oo ts

of

1,

it od

4n

t i sm

co s

cos

t i sm

2m

d,
4 7r
n

2 7mi
i Sl n

7b

VO L

of

'

'

co s

t hi s pa t

in 1 ,

l , we

of

fo r i t

a nd

k n o w l e dg e

his

e x t e nd

to

sa

y,

( C)

242

S im ilar ly

we can

'

77

77

the

an e
g

of

2m

u e v e n,

7.

( 2m

i s1n

'

r oo ts

77

1 i S1 n

co s

i t odd ,

1,

9m

sa

t i 8 1 11

7r

F r o m ( C ) ( D ) ( E)
,

ro ot

n th

2 7n 1

co s

2 , t h at th e

7r

2m l

3 77

d: v SI n

'

co s

: :

of

'

77

y,

3 77

'

sa

2 772

nt h

foll ows

as

i s 1n

co s

3 77

ca n

'

co s

or a

roots o

1,

'

i SIn

rr

3 77

'

rt

r o o ts

n th

co s

ROO T S

n TH

it

we

of

1 h as

in

s ee,

acco

re

o ne

rd

a n ce

v alu e

if

w i th

ch a

be

o d d , an d

r eal v al e s if n be ev e n ; and t h at t h e n th r oo t f 1 h s
o n e r e al v a l u e i f n b e O d d a n d n o r e al v a l e i f n b e e ve n
We h av e al s o a v e ri cati o n o f th e th eo r em o f 1 7 C o r 2
t h a t th e i m g i n r y r o ot s o f a r ea l q u an t i ty co ns i s t o f a
et o f
p ai r s o f co nj u g at e co m p l ex n um b er s
tw o

C or 2
.

Th e

( )
n

r oo t

n th

of

Th en

r s t

of

n a m e l y, co s

L et

i m ag i na r y

the

2 77 /n

by D e m oi v r e

s i n ce ,

s of

i s i n 2 7r /n, i s

by

o ot

1 i n th e

ca ll e d a

d e n o t e th i s

us

r oo t

os

2 8 77

'

= cO s

+ i s1n

n
a nd ,

p r i mi tive

'

or

ri e s

Th e o r e m,

2 77

se

+ i si n

i n p ar ticu l ar
2 77

27

'

'

i Si n

co s

co s

i sm

2 77
'

2 17

1,

pr i m i t i ve i m g i ry th r t f 1 i ge er l i me t
r t f l we r rde F e mple
t ls
w h i ch i
ls cu b e r t f + 1 theref re
f + 1 b t it i
i
6 th r t
pri m i ti ve 6 th r t f + 1 I t i b v i us th t
2 /3 i
t
i i
pri m i t ive th r t b t the re i g e er l ther
i i
2 / i
t h p r pe ty f C
f these h
2
b sh w th t
y
By

s no

oo

s n

7r

s n

s no

oo

oo

o ne o

oo

or

oo

an

s a

na

oo

an

a n n th

co s

co s

r t
oo

ar e

xa

as

or

an d

2 7r/3 +
2 1r/n +

i t m ay

FA C T O RISAT I O N

xn

we

t h a t,

see

be

e)

n n th r oo ts o

S i m il ar

C O S 77
'

(5

(0

(o

i sin

7t

7r

w hich w e ma y ca ll

n,

n n th r oots o

1 , then the

n th r oot o

i mag i na y

1 , the n the

ar e
in ,

l y, if

243

n th r oot o

i nmg i na ry

r i mi ti ve

i A

o r x"

ar e

2n

'

t
i
v
i
m
i
r
p

r es u l ts o f l as t p ar ag r aph t ak en i n c nj u nctio n
Sh o w th at
w i th th e r em a i n d e r t h eo r e m ( s ee ch a p v

E very bi n mi a l i nteg ra l fu n ction x t A can be r esol ed i nto n

t
t
h
e l st deg r ee whose coe i ci en ts m y or m ay not be w hol ly
a
c
o
r
s
o
f
f
n u mber
r ea l or i n to a t mos t two r ea l f actors of the l s t deg ree and
*
al
a
ctors of the 2 nd deg r ee
o
re
f
f

Th i s fu ct i v i shes w he eve r w b
T ke f e mple
th t i i t v ishes w he eve r h
ti t t f
y
y 2 m th r t f
st ds f
w her e
f the v lues w
pr i m i t i ve 2 m th r t
Th e

l n

xa

of

oo

gm

"m
a ce

an

0)

or

su

an

s,

an

on

an

an

as

a:

oo

He ce the res lut i

n

t l i e r f ct rs i gi ve

in
m :
a

on

the res lut i

o b ai n

To

oo

en

an

n a

)(

aw

sir

3 77
a i s1n

x a

c sm

8 1'

+a

3 77

e ob

a,

an

on

s vr

'

x - a

a to

oo

serve th t c rresp d i g
d th t c rre
+
;
w h ve the f ct rs
W
c s m + s m

by

t re l f ct rs w
h ve the f ct rs

a,

aw

in

on

w
the r ts +
d
p d i g t the r ts

c sm

to
S

o r a: a n

u e

or

in

av

s1u

'

"2
x

He ce the res lut i

n

se

m"
a

( a;

We m ay t re at

in

on

2m

3I

) (x

2ax

cos

by

+a

7I L

oo

oo

cos
a

) (x

2 a oc co s

in

an d

2
a

sim i l r w
a

{cos

O+ i

si

th t i

co s

t re l f ct rs i gi ve

E mple 1
T d the cu b e r ts
He ce the cu b e r ts f + 1
xa

2d x

to

sa

of

We h a ve

+1 =1

a re
si n

s in

0,
1 /2 i

+ 1,

y,

a nd

i V3 /2

2 7r/3 ,

The s lut i
f th i s p r b lem w
st f u d i g e met i c l f m by
C tes i t w pu bl i shed w i th ut dem str t i i the H m i Ill
m
p 1 1 3 D em i vre ( M i c A l p 1 7 ) g ve d em str t i
d ls
f u d the re l qu dr t i c f ct rs f th t i m i l 1 2 6
on

as

on

as

na

on

r no

n a

on a

ar

on

co s

"

or

ens u r a r u

o n , an

E X AMPLES

244

Ag

ai n

{cos

s i n 7r

7r

C H AP

He ce the cu b e r ts

s in

/3
i V3/2
7r

'

o sa

xa

ar e

oo

cos

Sin

cos 77

1 /2 i
1
th t i t y
E mple 2
T d the cu b e r ts
f 1 +i
We h ve
45 + i i
He ce the cu b e r ts f 1 + i
V2 (
a

of

oo

( co s

s n

15 + i

sin

th t i
zu
th t i

oo

( co s

%
2

sin

1 35 + i

ar e

( eo s

2 55 + i

Si n

s,

cos

4 5 + t Si n

cos

75

co s

t sin

s,

t V3 +

th t i
a

V3

( V3 +

s,

s
i

( V3

V3

t;

1 )i

Here i t w i ll b Observed th t the r ts

t rr ged i c jug te p i rs
the y w uld ecess ri ly h ve been h d the r d i c d b ee n r e l
E mple 3
T d pp
i m tel y n
f the i m g i ry 7 th
ts f 1 O f the
i m g i ry r ts i
e

xa

na

rox

oo

on

an

the t b le

of na

as

na

ro o

ox

xa

ne o

+i

tu r l

Si n

es

sin

c s i es th i s gi ves

and

6 2 34 8 9 3

'

7 81 83 1 8 i

ppr i m te v lue f the 7 th r t f 1

E mple 4
If m b
1 t sh w th t
f the i m g i ry c be r ts f
d th t (
+ w y) ( w
+ mg ) i r e l
w
\V h ve 1
w
m) = 0 s i ce w = 1 nd 1
(1
Ag i

as o n e a

or

oo

e on e o

xx

na

oo

w + w?

07

an

an

e o

co s

By

are n o

oo

a n,

(
N ow

(e

an d

1 ;

woe

my )

g)
2

w + w

w x

= w3 w +

Ii e ee

1,

xy

c0

)
3

s i nce 1 + w +

wx + w

my )

y)

F UNDAMEN TAL PR O P O SI T I O N IN

93

TH E

xy

T H E O RY OF EQUA T I O NS
be

If

functi on of
are

i
ven
g

fa ctors
r

comp l ex

A ,,

cou s e,
,

the nth deg r ee, whos e

ea ch

AO , A , ,

ca n

the l s t deg

i nteg

ee

in

sa y 2

be in g i n g ene

a l co mp l ex nu mbe s

al

A, ,

i n p a r ti cu la r, r ea l nu mbers, wher e,
a l ways be ex ress ed a s the
p
p r odu ct of

n u mbe s , or ,

1 0 , then

: :

i ci ents

coc

an

FA C T O RISA T I O N

X II

s ub si

f o l l o w i ng
whi ch

of

l e as t,
is

1 ) th d e g

s ay

ca n

th e

r ee

A is

be fou nd

v a l u e o f 2 at

We h av e
h
w
e r e f (2 )
2
(
H ence w e pr o v e

d th e r e fo r e

2 ) th d eg

re e ;

a nd

on

so

(2

(2

A( 2

an

re

ca n a lways

0 , th e n , by t h e e m a i n d e
i s an i nt e g a l f u n c ti o n o f

n al ly t hat
w he

N o w , by o ur t h e o r em , o n e
f ou n d fo r w h i ch f , (2 ) v an i sh e s

be

f( )
2

w he e

of

no w

be d ed u ce d f ro m t h e

a com l ex nu mbe
p

th at

s u p pos e

us

r e fo r e

ca n

th e

th e

2,

cau ses

rem

ral

i n g ene
to va ni sh

va lu e o

F o r, l e t
t h eo

r o p os iti on

2 45

d i ary t h e or em

One

t h at th i s p

o b v i ou s

It is

IN T E G RAL F UN C T I O N

O F AN Y

a co n s t a n t

r e i s a l w a ys a t l e s t o n e
ni te v l ue o f 2 s ay 2 a su ch th at by t ak i ng 2 s f ci en tly n e ar
a
t o a t h a t i s by m a k i ng
l s m all e no u g h w e can m ak e
a s s m al l
as w e
So t h at i n t h is s ens e e v e ry
pl e as e
O h as a t l eas t o n e ni te r oo t
i nt eg ral e q u a ti on f ( )
s h al l

\Ve

r
p o ve

no w

t h a t th e

L et

[2 l

l
we

Am R

h av e, by

w he

fo

re

Ao/An z

1 4,

rov i d ed

s i nce

1
l

Ai b a

Th e n ,

l
l

A
l n

R) : b e l a r g e

e no u g h

the

r efo r e

re

O i s t h e g r e a t es t o f
ta k i ng p r ov i s i o n all y t > 1 , w e h a v e

lA a {1
A
l
l
[ a

|f ( )
Z

"

C( 1

n-

C /(R

O
1
pr ov i d ed R
Hence, by taki ng [2
a s we
p lease ; and we

IA /A l
O

Th e r e

w hose

modu lus

L et
A r g and

no w

P l an e

exceeds

w be
,

so

i ei ently l arg e

su

a s o see

th e

th a t

we

tha t there

ca n

ca n

ma ke

be

no root o

la g e
f (2 ) 0
as

v al u e

If ( u )
'

is

ni t e

at
.

a ny

n i te

i
n
t
o
p

i n th e

I t f oll o w s f r o m w h a t h a s

E X IS T EN C E

2 46

j u s t be e n p r ov e d
S o f ni te ra di us
I

al l

l o w er l im i t

w h i ch

is

th at

is

\Ve
an

Sh al l

r e os

d o es

th a t
no

r m al

Bh

If ( ) |

s i n ce

by D e m o i v r e

f(

of

is

w he e

CM

th a t i

s,

(2m

i
g ve 6

an

an

and

h)

an

I f (w ) I

q u an ti ty
w i thi n ,

ke

w e pl e a s e

s u pp o s e

a co m

e,

pl e x

O,

nu m b e

n
,

d h

by h yp o th e s i s
o f w, o n e o r m o r e

a nd

f u n ct io n s

p po s e t h a t

e tc

al l

ar e

of

st

nu m b e s

e tc

z e o,

i s th e

le t

co m p l e x

th e B

Th en ,

ni t e

be t h e

etc

i s i n (m6

d th e r e fo r e bo th
so

77

e tc

t h a t co s

on e of

Al s o w e h av e ,

th e m
th e

st

v al u e s

etc

r and

(m 6

y
a s su m e d e n i t e
sa

'

(m 6

d e t e r m i ne 6

st

y,

\Ve h a v e h,

Th eo r em ,

cos

of

ar e

th e

n ot

h) /

An h

v an i s h , a n d

fo r m s

ou t s i d e

bu t B ,,

n ot

sa

F o r,

An a
),
2

w h i ch m ay v a n i s h

of

ze o

L e t h be

e.

h)

B ,h

ca nn o t v a n i s h ,

re

ma

a c i cl e

p o si t i v e , i f w e
m u s t b e a n i te

v al u e s o f

w e ca n

rig i n

Th en

A (w

AO

th e

m u s t be

and

a s s m al l a s

al

and

h
t
at is to
;
I

u an ti t

th a t

t hat

so

re

th e

on

t h a t th e

s ee

A, , i s i n d ep e n d en t bo th

w he e

us

s i tiv e
o
p

S h ow

f (w )

v a l u e of

i s in

h)

f (w

we

a t e r t ha n a n
f
r
e
o
y
g
by p r op e rl y ch o o s i ng

r eal

d ch oos e w

sa

to th e

a bo u t

i
o
p n ts

is

n ot

a n d s u ch

w he e

al l

at

s i n ce

w i thi n

oi n ts

d es cr i be

ca n

t h a t,

s u ch

Th e n ,

co n s id e

t h at w e

C H AP

A ROO T

OF

77

at our

d i s p o sal

1 , s i n (m 6

O3

( 3n

'

'

Th e n w e h a v e Om

Let

v al u es , s ay,

I Ve

e tc

1
no w

h av e

f (w

C o n s id e r i ng

th e

rig h t

h an d

Si d e

a nd

m od u l us
of

of

f (w

th e m o d u l i

of

of

(4)

as

we

s e e,

th e

su m

by

l i e s b e tw e en t h e d i ff e r e n ce
th es e t w o

Al s o

of

bm r

1 4 , t h a t th e
a nd

th e

su m

X I S TE N C E

xn

or

o o o

w he e

bn b 'l r
l

I) i s t h e g r e a te s t

of

Izm

1,

so

ni

l 1

bu] ,

"I
,

r
v
i
d
e d w e ta k e r <
o
p
T h e r e fo r e w e h v e

2 47

RO O T

th a t

bm r

m ) b7

(n

'

m +1

f( w

r
vi
d
ed 7
o
p

be

ch os e n

so

tha t 1

a nd

m
1
+
r

bm r

5
( )3

m) b

m) br

(
72
(

m+1

Le t us fu r
r ch o o s e 7 s o tha t
m)
bo th p o s i t i v e
m
All t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w i l l o b vi o u s l y b e s a t i s e d i f w e
om 7

a re

<

bm r

1
'

'

th e

'

m +1
ln

'

g i ve

n i te v

to

a ue

'

l es s t h a n t h e l eas t

of

t h e th

r ee

1,

c h os e n
p o s i ti v e p r o pe r f r a c ti o ns s o t h a t lf ( m
i s a p o s i t i v e p r o p e r f r a c ti o n 3 a nd w e h v e
W hen

'

i s thu s

i ll

l i e b et w ee n t w o
1

wh e

u,

re

i ch s i n c e
ni te am ou nt

wh

pos e
t h eo

d ; in
r em i s

By

m a y be

o th e

th us

as s m a l l a s

i s th e r e f o r e

rd s L
e s ta bl i s h ed

r eas o n i ng

wo

not

m u s t be

l es s th a n L by a
l o w e r l i m i t a s s up

w e p l eas e , i s

n i te
ero
z

O u r f un d am e n tal

as a

bo v e w e

ca n e a s

ily

sho w

t h a t, if

th e n

li l

1 ) cl

f ( z)
Av

{M e

i s t h e g r ea t e s t o f
l e s s t h a n t h e l es s e r o f t h e t w o q u a n t i ti e s 1 ,
C o m b i ni ng th i s r e s u l t w i th o n e ob t a i ne d

r d

we

h a v e th e f o l l o w i n g

r oo ts ( r eal
Co r 1

i m a g i na r y )

r em o n
e u ti on
q

th e o

of a n

The equ ati on A O AS :

mod ul u s exceeds the g rea lest
.

whose

or

u s e fu l

th e

i n c i d e n ta l l y
d e l i m i ta t i o n

ab o

ve

of

th e

no

Awe"

p r o v i d ed

w he e

is

ca n

{he qzu m l i ti es 1

haze

oot

A
A
/
[ G n

G RA D I E N T

2 48
1

As /An

l eas t

f
.

<

|f (

7,

w e p lea se

1)

We ca n

h)

a l ways a ssi n a
g

re

whe

p os

is

ca n

1 ) An /AO IP

/s

i ti ve quanti ty

su

p osi ti ve qua nti ty

i s l ess than the

us

3 +

f ( z)

du l

w hose m o

or

C or 2
h
l

1,

C U R VE S

E Q U I M OD U L AR

AN D

ch

if

tha t,

as sma ll a s

T h i s i s e pr es s ed by sayi ng th at th e i n teg ral fu n c ti o n

is
c o n t i nu o u s for al l c om pl e v al ues o f i ts a r g u m e nt w h i ch h v e a
n i t e m o d u lu s Th e p r o o f i s obvi ou s af ter w ha t h a s a l r eady
be en d one
x

T he

ove dem on t r t ion i m erely ver ion f th proo f given by

i
A g nd in h i f m ou E
m pl i ed to m eet o m e crit i c i m
the b r i e fer
T he cr i t i ci m in que tion touch
t te m en t in e rl i er ed i tion
f th i w ork
t h f orm ul tion b t not t h e enti l princ i ple f A rg nd proo f w hich i
b o t h ingeniou
n d pro found
A
o m e f the critic pp e r to m t h ve
m i ed the re l point i nvolved perh p the fo l lo w i ng re m rk w h i ch the
tudent wi ll ppreci te m ore f ully fter re ding ch p
17 19
d
ch p i m y b u e f ul
T king ny v lue f = + yi l t
re l
w here
nd
f the re l v r i ble x
Plo t
f unction
d y
nd
y A rg nd
di gr m
T hen t e ch point ( y ) there corre pond
point (
lthough it m y h ppen th t to n (
point there corre pond m ore t h n
If w
t rt w ith y given point
d con i der
(
y) point
y)
i t i o b v i ou t h t the d i rection i n w hich I ) I v rie m o t
if ( ) I
p i dly i o bt i ned by c u i ng ( y) t m ove in the y pl ne
th t
long the r d i u vector to w rd the origin in th
pl ne
(
) m ove
l o th t the r te f v r i tion in the perpendicul r direct i on i ero I f
there fore w tr ce
n t
t in the
f the curve
y p l ne the
/
t ngent to thi curve t every poin t
i t i the d i rection f m o t r pid
f
v ri tion W e m y c ll the e curve the G d i n t C
r

ab

s a

ss a

xx x

o ne

0
u, *

one

u,

an

2. o n

s an

co

so

'

:e

ra

s z

e u

in p rt i cul

ac,

s v u

ar e

u,

one o

an

a s

an

s a

'

:e,

ra

s,

xv.

an

x,

s a

s s

s on

ss

ss

s o

u r ves o

plied d e m on tr tion given in no te in G er

d M th t v pp 1 9 7 2 0 9 ( 1 8 1 4
A
g n
t t w hich w
together w ith th curve +
r T he e curve
nu m b er f intere ting
m y c ll the E q i m d l
C
f f ( ) po e
d (
propertie S ince the E q i m d l
t h m ph
nd G r dient
d their penc i l f
ch p
i
erie f
t i circle
3 6 ) f ro m
com m on r d i i the y f or m t w m utu ll y orthogon l y te m
T hro gh
every given point (
not the ffi e f root f
there
w h i ch i

O
p e n q im d l
nd
gr dient

=0 p
e through l l the inter ection f
E ver y gr d i ent
through t h ffi e f l l the root f
N e r the root
i
po i nt the q i m d l t ke the f orm f m ll ov l enclo ing the e point
Se e

'

nn

ne s

u r ves
o

a o

as s

v u

ss

co nce n

on e

or

s ee

os e

an

'

a o

co n s a n

s ar e o r

2
v :

u ar

u ars

ss

u ar s a

u ar

ass

xx x

am

his

s,

ar

v u

a s

XII

RG AN D S

R O GR ESSI O N

A R OO T

TO

249

re d il y b ho w n th t the proce by w hich w p fro m w t

w +h (=w
ing
y ) in the b ove de m on tr t i on i m p l y m o nt t p
cert i n di t nce long t ngent to the gr d i ent curve through t h po i nt w
\V m y re p e t th i proce
t rting from w d p ing long t h t ngent
to the gr dient through w
h ll thu h ve f ( w ) f ( w ) >
d
\V
T hi proce w m y c ll A g d P g i t w d th
t
f (w )
I t may

>

a n e qu a ti on

th t

i nce

a ss

1 an

ss, s

an

on

so

as s

e s

an

ass

ss

ss

s a

sa

1,

r o r es s on

ar

e r oo

bn b, bm r m +

and

(n

i t follo w

(n

[f ( w ) l/2 ( n

r <

an d r <

m)

Em

I/( n

m ) A7I

the e cond i tion ho w th t the longe t d m i i ble tep f

A rg nd
Progre ion b eco m e m ller d m ller w p p ro ch root
T h i i e pre ed by y ing t h t the Progre ion b eco m e ym ptot i c w
ppro ch root
B ut the econd condit i on ho w t h t Pro g e ion l o b eco m e ym ptot i c
w
ppro ch point t w h i ch B = O
B =0 B
0
B =0 B =0
E
t tion ry point f th v r i t i on f
0 etc
S uch poin t
e thro gh the m T hey
l o m ultiple point n the
y p th w hich p
gr dient curve w hich p through them
th t t them w h ve 2 3 4
etc direction f m o t r p i d v r i tion f | f ( )
I f the or i g i n l progre ion le d to w rd one f the e poin t ( f
w hich f
cour e | f ( w )
w m u t in fer i t e i tence f ro m t h
y m ptotic ppro ch
d t r t fre h f ro m th t point long one f the t ngen t to the gr dient
th t p e through it ; w m y void th point ltogether by t rt i g
f re h on
p th w hich doe not le d to it
A intere ting e
m ple i to t ke
n d t r t f ro m
po i nt
+
i in the y d i gr m A rg nd Progre ion w ill le d r t to
th re l
0)
the m i n i m u m po i nt
the
i then long l i ne p r llel to the
i to the point ( 1 /2 i
w hich
the f e f the t w i m g i n ry
y
root T he d i gr m f ch p
1 9 w ill l o furni h cur i ou illu tr t i on
one other f the t w dotted line
by t king in i t i l point
to w hether
ctu ll y re che
I t hould b noted th t the que t i on
proo f i f w m erel y propo e to
i t lo w er li m it i n t e enti l in A rg nd
b fou nd uch th t
i le
ho w th t v lue f
th n y igned
po itive q u ntit y ho w ever m ll N do w r i e the que t i on w hether
the root i r tion l irr t i on l w h i ch w ould involve the u b tle que t i on f
the ult m te logic l deni tion f irr tion l nu m ber ( vol ii ( ed 1 900 )
28
ch p
T he r s t

ss

sa

e a

an

as s

or

xa

ax s

s,

ax s

on

or

s a

s a

ss

s o

ss

an

a s

ass

or

as

an

on

a s

s ee

h av e

n ow s h o w n

A is

A<

c o n s tant

th e g e ne

l f or m

th a t i n

22

al

cas es

(z

m ay b e
of

ax s

f ( z) E

re

We
w he

s ca n

or

xxv

as

or

ss

xv

ao

s on

a re

e as

s o

or

or

x s

on

s as

so

ss

are a s

a s

as s

or

ss

s as

r ss

s o

ass

s are s a

as

ss

s a

an

an

as

ss

of

r ea l

yi

or

c om pl ex nu m b ers
a l l d i ffe r e n t o r t w o

t h ey m ay be

T h ey

m a y be

250

nTA

or

DEG R EE

R OOTS

H AS n

ca n

i d e n t i c a l a s m ay b e e a s i l y s e e n b y
c o ns i d e r i ng th e ab o v e d e m on s tra t i o n
Th e g en e r al p r op o s i t i o n th u s e s tabl i s h e d i s e qu iv al e n t t o t h e
f o l l ow i n g
or

m or e

QU ATI O N

t h em m ay

of

be

If

be

f z f or

n va l ues o

ra l fu ncti on of z of

i nteg

an

va ni shes

whi h

the

Thes e

re

deg ree, the

nth

may be

va lu es

a re

r ea l

or

comp lex numbers a nd may or ma y not be al l unequ al

We h a v e al r ea d y s een i n c h ap v
1 6 th a t t h er e c ann o t be
m o r e t h a n n v al u e s o f z f o r w h i c h
v n i s h es o th e r w i s e a ll i t s
c o e fc i e nts w ou l d v a n i h tha t i s th e fu n c t i on w o l d v an i sh for
a ll v l u e s o f a
We ha v e l s o s e e n th at th e c o n s ta n t A i s e q u al
t o t h e c o e f c i e n t
We h a v e th er f o r e th e u n i qu e r es ol ut i o n
.

a,

)(

c o efc i e nts o f
b a l l r eal t h en w e h a v e
s ee n t h a t i f f (x + yi ) v a n i s h f ( w yi ) w i ll al so v n i s h
I n th i s
c as e t h e i m g i na ry v al u e s a m o ng c
w i ll o cc u r i n
c o nj u g at e p ai r s
Bi
If
be s u c h a c o nj u g a t e pa i r th e n c o rr e s p on d
i ng t o th em w e h v e t h e f c t o r
If t h e

l,

(2

(e

Bi )

r
ea l f c to r o f t h e 2 n d d e r e e
y
g
i
I t m ay o f c o r s e h pp e n th a t th e c o nj u g t e p i r
is
r e p ea te d s y s t i m e a m ong t h e v l u es a 2
I n th t
c as e w e s h ou l d h v e th e f c to r ( 2: ) 8 r epe te d 3 t i m es o
th at t h e r e w ou l d b e a fa c t o r
i n th e f u n c t i on
He n c e every i nteg r al functi on of :3 whose eoe i i ents are a ll r a l
ca n be r esolved i n to a p odu ct of r ea l fa ctors e ch of w h i h i s ei ther
a p os i ti ve i nt g r l p ower of a r ea l i nteg r a l functi on of the l s t d eg re
r ea l i n teg ra l f ncti on
h
a
t
e
i
a
or a
o
s i ti ve i n teg r a l p ower o
f
f
p
d gr e
T h i s i s t h e g e n e r l p r o p o s i t i o n o f w h i c h t h e t h e o r em o f 1 9
i s a p a r ti c u l a r c a e
t h a t i s to

sa

s,

e,

3,

,,

EXE R C I S E S

xu

EX

E xp

re

co m ple nu m ber
x

s s as

oi ) +

(a

60

(a

E S XVI

3
.

2 i

E CI

25 1

xv r

(a l t t r + a
t

'

2 6 1$
_

(4 )
o

( V3

69

(5

3 V 5 ;

( V3

6 V 5 )i

ho w th t
a

1 i

V3

1,

if

be

integer w h i ch i not m ult i ple f 3

p nd nd rr nge ccord i ng to the p o w er

an

y
Ex

(
S

a
c

ho w t h

s o f a:

i v3 )

at
2
b
{(

ho w th t
a

I f E+ ni be

re l then
a

a
e

b
2
a
{(

v lue
a

o f so

for w

hich

b,

a,

e i ng

ho w th t 4 ( X
ho w th t
m ultiple f 4

If
If

be

u i

ho w th t
e ceed t h gre ter
S

aim

/a

F ind th

of

and

odulu

provided

a nd

( 2 3i ) (3
( 6 + 4i ) ( 15
s of

Fi nd the m odulu

s of

ho w th t

n c,

is

the gre te t
a

/|z

of

ao a n

s of

F ind the m odulu

nc

4i )

{33 +

bc( b

ci

ca c

ai

b( a

bi )

ad

Fi nd the m oduli f
E pre
the follo w ing
am

an

ss

as

here

co m ple nu m ber
x

Vi e w 2 ( a

F ind the

4t h

root

s of

1 1 9 + 1 20i

eat

al

E X ER CI S E S

252

R e olve
R e olve
R e olve
s

213 +

i nto f ctor f the l t degree

i nto re l f ctor f the l t f the 2 md degree
f th
+
+
+
+
+ l i nto re l f ctor
a

5
rc

s o

em

se

2
013

3
z
c

or o

s o

2 md

6a m + a

c os

into re l f c tor

2m

the

s of

or o f

l st

th e

If
(O

ca n

R e olve
degree

2 md

degree

X VI

be

an

i m gin ry

n th

i f w be

i m g i n ry cub e roo t

root

of

+ 1,

ho w th

at

ho w th t

a
an

an

of

then

1,

+y +z

z a:
2
( y
)

x
2
z
(
y)

i div i i ble by
ho w th t ( w
+ y
v lue f m w hich i gre t er th n 3 d not m ult i ple f 3
S ho w th t
2
Y i
1
x
X
in a ;
i v
{

5c

an

3
1 f or

every

od

s n

cos

ir

cos

i pli fy

S m

( co s

sin

26

If

J(

2 6)

w 5

+ (y

one o f

a
c s-yi

si n

26)

ho w t h

( co s

sin

at

(c

the v lue
a

f/ ( a

s of

+2

ne w

prove t h

x 5 + x 4 w3 + x 2 x + 1

26 + i

2
a
a
2
2
+ x/ (
+
s/ i
c o s 7r/7 + i s i n 7r/7 ,

( co s

at - a

Pro ve t h t
If w

si n

+i

bi ) +

( cos

at

bi ) i s

w)

a:

) ( a:

"

w )

) (x

Fi nd the v lue f + w
w
w b eing the
+w
; w
th root
f 1
d
po i tive integer \Vh t m od i c t i on f the re ult i
nece ry i f i neg t i ve i nteger ?
=
Prove t h t
+w
+w )
)
/( 1
D ecom po e
into p rt i l fr ct i on f the form
H ence ho w th t
a

s o

an

s sa

r a

s a

"

'

ae

"

2x

s o

w2 + x4 x 5 + x 7 a s +

here

d nd R
etc
w nt i ng
F ind the equ t i on f le t degree h ving re l r tio l coefcient
n
f w ho e root i
O
3
34 0 0 i 3
root f
3 ow
366
5 5 nd t h other three
root
b
If
given co m ple nu m ber nd z com p le nu m b er w ho e
f
l ie
g i ven tr ight l i ne nd the locu f the f f +
S ho w th t the re
f t h tr i ngle w ho e ver tice
the f e f

. 3

ar e

e o

ne

'

13

2: 53

If

na

s,

7,

a o

s o

) l 3 1 'M752 1 }

xe o

s ar e

x s

here B
m ini m u m v lue
s in

co s
ax

s o

(a + 7

v r i ble nd the m i m u m
w hen uch v lue e i t
a

21:

3
x

s on a

xe

as

4
x

an

and

a,

of

are

con t nt
s

a nd

of

a nd

a m p 2:

H I STO R I A

C L

xu

+ yi m

a f x e o f x

I f th e

in im u m v lue

| 9c + yi |

of

is 1

ove

the line

on

253

N O TE

prove th t the

3x + 4 y + 5 = 0 ,

com ple nu m ber uch th t

ho w
th t i f the f f de cri be c i rcle b ou t the or i gin in Arg nd d i gr m
f
d i f the f
1)
then the f f de cribe
ell i p e
de cr i be c i rcle bou t the origin then th f f de cri b e qu rtic
curve w h i ch i the p rticul r c e w here the r diu f the circle de cr i bed by
n the i i
the f f i 2 b re k up into tw circle w ho e centre
ho w th t the f f l + y lie
d m+ y l
d y b re l
If
f
H ence ho w th t the f
nd
f e
f
n the line joining the
=
1
nd m b ei n g
m
l
l
lie

ed
tr
i
ght
line
provided
+
+
y
y
l
con t nt
im gin ry root f
prove th t ( E n) i
I f E+ ni b
f n = 35 + 2
nd
+ 3/SE
f the gr p h
f the inter ection
D r w the gr ph nd m rk th inter ec t ion w hich corre pond t the root
f the equ tion
ho w th t th i m gin ry root
If
b the re l root f thi cu b ic
If

an

tw o

v ar e

'

xe o

x an

on

z2

s a

: 1

22

ax s

s ar e o

xe

z2

xe o

e an

o ne

an

xe o

s a

s o

as

xe o

e a

an

s a

it

s an

it

xe o

s a

xe o

ar e

p ir f i m gin ry root f
ho w th t

o
8
f
S
4
ordin
te
the
re
l
i
nter
ection
f
5 1 21 5
E n p
5 n)
l l re l
re l d
f the cu b i c
Hence prove t h t the root
3q = 0
Wh t h ppen i f 41 2 7 q
27q
ccordin g 4p
t w i m gin r y
i m gin ry root the re l p rt f e ch i po i
If
+q + =0 h
i po it i ve
neg tive ccording
neg tive
t ive
h
T he cu bic
im gin ry roo t w ho e
9w + 3 3
nd l l i t root
13
m odulu i
d hence
+1
Fi nd the re l q dr tic f c t or f w H
prove th t
I f 33 1-mi be
co -

a re

3
x

ua

or

2 !

an

en

s o

or o n e

an

as

s,

as r

3
9e

ar e a

>

as

or

as

3<

Q-

s o

s o

s o

zn

'

an

2 11

2n sm

n 7r

'

1r

Sl n

2n + 1

Sl n

2n + 1

27 H 1

F nd in r tion l integ l form th equ tion w hich re ult by

el i m in ting 6 f ro m the equ tion z
6+b
36 y =
i m6 + b i 3 6
D e m oivre T heore m ) G i ve geo m e t r i c l in terpret tion f y our
(U
n ly i
a

ra

se

s s

u co s

ai

co s

s n

a s

gi n r y q u nt iti e p p e r f the r t t i m e i n the w ork

f the l 6 th centur y
C rd no i h i A ti 11 g
f the I t l i n m the m t i c i n
d R g l i A lg b i i L i b
vii p 6 6 )
i
U
t (
p o i nt
p
th t i f w olve i n the u u l w y the p ro ble m to d i vi de 1 0 i nto tw p rt w ho e
rrive t t w formul e w h i ch i n m odern not t i on m y
p roduct h ll b 4 0 w
15 5
b w r i tten 5
J 1 5 H le ve h i re der to i m gi ne the m e n i ng
f th e e
o p h i t i c nu m b er b t ho w th t i f w dd d m ult i pl y the m
i
f or m l
ccord nce w ith the ordi n r y lgeb r i c rule the i r m d p roduct
do com e t re qu i red i the evi dentl y i m p o ib le p rob le m ; d h dd
h
A i th m t i
b ti l i t
cuj u h e tre mu m t d i i deo
q
p g d it
t ub t i le
B o m bell i i h i A l g b
t i t i nut i le
f ollo w i ng C rd no
devoted con i der b le ttent i on to the theor y f co m ple nu m ber m ore e p ec i ll y
i connect i on w i th the olut i on f cub i c e q u t i on
H i s tor i ca l 1Vote I m a

s ve

e a

e s

es

ue
,

ro

s ou

s,

xxx

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an

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ur

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s a

s,

H I S T OR I C AL

254

N O TE

cu s p x u

There i s cle ar i nd i c ati on i n the f rag m ent

ove
th t N p i er w i n o e ion to o e e tent le t the theor
f ull y cogn i nt f the i n e endent e i tence
neg t i ve u nt i t
u nt it te
d f ti
r
cle r d i t i ncti on et een the root
m i nore
er
oi nt out
i er
t t
f n g t i ve nu
d
p o i t i ve
root f even order h ve no re l v lue e ither p o it i ve or neg t i ve w hen the
r di c nd i neg t ive Such root he c ll
d e p re l y w rn
;
g i
I th i p
9
l l 9
g i n t the error f u pp o i ng th t | j
g e there occur
the cur i ou entence H j
rc n i m gn i l g b i i fund m entu m p eriu
Li b i
ne mi ne q uod c i m
l t m it) q n
q uod ( q m i
p 6 j im
t m t m
e m olum ent i df t hu i c rt i t t i m th m ti i p o te p t h it
There i noth i n g f rther i n the f r gm ent D A t L g i ti c to ho w h w dee p l y he
h d p enetr ted the ecret w h i ch w
to b h i dden f ro m m the m t i ci f 2 00
ye r
The th eory f im gin r i e rece i ved l i ttle not i ce unt i l ttent i on w d r w n to
it b y the b r i lli nt re ult to w h i ch the
f the m l d E uler ( 1 7 0 7 1 7 83 )
d hi
d f ollo w er
conte mp or r i e
N ot w i th t nd i g the
m de b y E ler
d
other f co m p le n mb er i n m n y im p ort nt i nve t ig t i on th f und m ent l
f the i r logi c w ere l i ttle
ttended to if t enti rel y m i under tood
p r i nc i p le
T o A rg nd b elong the honour f r t cle r ing p th m tter i h i E i
m
ie
d
t
l
i
c t ti
Z q
ti t i m g i
d
p
H there g i ve geo m etr i c l con truct i on f
the m d
g mt i q
u m b er d deduce
r i ety f conclu i on th erefrom
p roduct f t w co m p le
H
low
f the r t to thoro ghl y un d er t nd
d n w er the q ue t i on f
2 1 reg rd i ng the e i tence f
root f every i ntegr l f unct i on A rg nd w
t i i p t d to
con i der b le e tent b y D n i h m them t i c i n C p r W e el wh
i n 1 7 9 7 p re ented to the R o y l A c de m y f Denm rk rem rk b le m em oi r Om
D i h ti
og
dt f
mm li g ti l p l
l y ti l
B tg i g
t F
g
i l P l yg
Op l o i g w h i ch w
ph
p u b l i hed by the A c de m y i n 1 7 99
b t l y b olutel y un k no w n to m the m t i c i
t ill i t w rep ubl i hed b y th
m e b od y i 1 89 7
i ntere t ing ddre b y B e n to Secti on A f the
S
A m er i c n A oc i t i on f
the Prom oti on f Sc i ence
E ven A rg nd re ult
d
m tter f h i tory i t w
pp e r to h ve b een t r t l i ttle not i ced ;
G u w h r t i n i ti ted m the m t i c i n i nto the true theory f the i m gin ri e f
ordin ry lgeb r H r t u ed the p hr e mp l
mb
d i ntroduced the
the i m gi n ry un it H i llu tr ted the t w ofold n ture f
f the ym b ol i f
co m ple num b er b y m e n f d i g r m A g nd h d done g ve m terly
di cu ion f the f und m ent l p rinc i ple f the ubj ect i n h i m em o i r B i
h i W or k vol ii pp 1 0 1
d 1 71 )
d f urn i h ed
q u dr t i c R e i due ( 1 8 3 1 ) (
three d i t inct p roo f ( the r t p ubl i hed i n 1 7 9 9 ) f the p rop o it ion th t every
e q t i on h root
F ro m the re e rche f C uch y ( 1 7 89 1 8 5 7 ) d Ri e m nn ( 1 82 6 1 8 6 6 ) on
co m p le nu mb er h p rung g re t b r nch f m oder pure m them t i c c lled
on the C ont inent f uncti on -theory The tudent w h w i he to tt i n full
co mp rehen i on f the gener l it y f even the m ore ele m ent ry th eore m f lgeb r i c
n l y i w i ll nd k now ledge f the theory f co mp le q u nt it y i n d i p en b le ;
f the h i gher m the m t i c
d w i thout i t he w i ll nd entr nce i nto m n y p rt
i mp o ible
F or f urther i n for m t i on w m y re fer the re der to Pe coc k A lg b vol ii
to De Morg n T i g m t y d D bl A lg b
w h ere
li t
f mo t
ubj ect i g iven ; d to H k el
f the E ngl i h w r i t i ng
th
V l
Z hl
w here
f ull h i tor i c l
mp l
ccount
ub
di
g
f C ont i nent l re e rche w i ll b f ound
I t m y not b
mi
to dd th t the
theory f co m ple nu m b er i clo el y ll i ed to H m i lton theory f Qu tern i on
m
A u d ehnun g lehre
d the i r m odern d evelop m ent
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a

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D e A r te L og i s ti ca ( s ee ab
2 01 )
, p
s m
x
at
as
of
H e w as
y
p s s ss

d p
x s
of
a
a
s
q a
y ( q a
a n d d aw s a
a
s
b w
s of
mb s
He p
s
s Ed , p
a
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( N ap

s,

C HA P TE R

R a ti o

R ATI O

AN D

rati o of the
s i mp l y th e qu oti nt of

\Vh e n th e Q u o t i e n t

P ro p o rti o n

P R O P O RTI O N

The

b is

and

XI I I

OF

a bs t a ct

B S TR A C T Q UAN TI TI E S

qu a n ti ty

to the

bs tr a ct qu a nti ty

by b

b
l :

01

'

0 1

18 S

k en

Of as 3

m uo

r i t ten a b ; a i s c all e d t h a ntecedent a nd b th e con

sequent o f t h e r t i o
T h e r e i s a c e r t a i n c o n v e n i e n c e i n i n t r o d u c i n g t h i s n e w n am e
n d e v e n t h e n e w f o u r t h n o t at i o n f o r a q u o t i e n t
So f r h o w
t h e p ro p os i t i o n s
eve r
a s m e r e a bs tr a c t q u a n t i ty i s c o n c er n e d
w h i c h w e p r o c e e d t o d ev el o p ar e s i mp l y r e s u l t s i n t he t h e o r y
o f a l e b r a i c al
g
q u o t i en t s a r i s i ng fr o m c e r ta i n c o n d i t i o n s t o w h i c h
w e s u bj e c t t h e q u an t i t i es c o n s i d r e d
b b e p o i t i v e a b i s sa i d t b e a r a ti
I f a b t h a t i s if a
o g r ea ter i ne u a l i t
f
y
q
I f a b t h t i if a b b e n eg a t i v e a b i s s a i d t o b e a r ti
of l s s i n qu a l i ty
W h e n t w o r t i o a r e m u l ti pl i e d t og th e r th ey e i d t o b e
comp ou nded T h u th e r a ti o aa bb i s s i d to b c o m p u nd d f
t h e r a t i o s a : b an d a
b
Th e c o m po u nd o f t w o e q u l r t i o s a b a n d a b n m el y
a
b i s c all e d t h e dup li ca te o f t h r t i o a b
S i m i l a rl y a b i s t h t ip l i c te o f t h e r t i a bf
F orm erl y b w po k en f the dou ble f the r tio b Si m i l rl y
;
;
b
w
f
b
f
b
d
c lled the h l or u du pl i c te
b the
\/
V
q i pl i
o f te n

i t is

>

<

s,

'

s,

ar

sa

'

r a te o

as

a :

as s

as

a z

"

an

a z

s es

P R O P E RTI E S

256

F ou r
when the

We

r ct nu mbers

a bs t a

th e n w

r i te

a and

po

rt i on

a,

If

b,

a,

ona

e,

c d
,

&c

e,

be

&c

su

ch

t h at

ar e s a

id

t o be i n

c o nt i n u e d p r o p o r t i o n

be i n

b et w ee n

conti nu ed p r op or ti on
b i s sa i d t o b a m ean

a an d e

c d be i n co n t i nu e d p r o por ti on b a nd c ar e
a nd s o o n
tw o mea n p r op or ti ona ls b e t w e e n a a n d d
If

rop or ti

r
o or ti ona l
p p

to be p

b,
b,

a,

a r e sa i d

h o m ol o g u e s
If
&c ,

CH AP

call ed t h e extr emes and b an d c th e means o f th e pr o

a n d c ar e s a i d t o b e h o m ol o u e s
and b and d t o b e
g

are

d,

c,

r a ti o 6

b i s equ al to the

r a ti o a

b,

a,

RAT I O

OF A

sa

id

to

be

If b be p osi ti ve, a nd a > b, the r a ti o a : b i s di mi nis hed by

a ddi ng the same p osi ti ve quan ti ty to both an tecedent a n d co ns equ ent
a nd i ncr ea sed b
t
r a cti ng the sa me p osi ti ve qu a n ti ty
b) fr om
su
b
y
both

anteceden t and consequent

If

cha ng ed

i ncr eased

b, the wo ds

i n the

a nd

mus t be i nter

di mi ni shet

a bove s ta tem ent

F o r,

)
b( b
a)

b( a

a:

b
a

b
(

h
(

b( b

N o w , if
by t h e

a >

n eg at v e

c o nd i t i o n i m p o d ;
se

a:

He n c e

13 ne

c
c

s n e a >

s n e

ai <

b,

b, b

so

(
b( b

{r a

a:

a:

i s po s it i ve

a ti

ve

as

ea

b
b
+
)/ (

32

al l

is

p os i t i v e
n eg a t

iv e

b)

a n d a:

He n c e

an

d a

F orm erly i n w r i t i ng proportion the i gn

u
ed
i
n
t
d
f
t h ord i n r y i gn
d
w
h
)
g
t re

a re

d b

ar e

b) /b( b

p os i t iv e, an d,
i s p o s i t iv e
.

( or i g i n all y

Ou

(b

b i s p o s i ti v e ,

b, b +

a
<

b+

i c

B u t,

l s,

Ag a m

a n d x,

hence

t 1i a t

i c

b, b a i s

of

equ lity
a

i ntroduced by

P ERM U TAT I ON S

xm

RO P ORT I ON

257

(l

r es t

r op os i t i on m ay be es tabl i s he d i n l i k e m an n e r
Th e r e ad e r w i ll o b ta i n an i ns tr u c t i v e v i e w o f t h i s p r o po s i t i o n
c om par i n g i t w i th E x e rc i s e 7 p 2 6 7
P ermu ta ti ns of a P rep or ti on
If
a
b c d

Th e

by

H en c e

OF A P

of

th e p

b za

th e n

an

F o r, f r o m

we

zc

b d
2:

ha v e

He n c e

/g

th at i s ,

/E
l

th a t i s ,
wh

i ch

e s tabl sh es

Ag a I n , f r o m
m u l t i p l y i n g b ot h

i d es

by

g
,

we

b
i s,

t h at i s ,
wh

h av e

th at

a zc

b
X

b z d,

i c h pr ov e s

r o m ( 3 ) i n t h e s a m e w a y a s ( 2 ) fr o m
The p rod uc t of the extr emes of a p rop orti on i s equ a l to the
anti ti es
e m eans ; a nd conver sel
u
u
t
o
t
h
i
t
o
t
o
t
w
o
d
r
d
c
r
o
u
c
h
e
q
f
f
p
y f
p
be equa l to the p r odu ct of two others the four form a p rop or ti on the
extr emes bei ng the cons ti tu ents of one of the p r odu cts the m ea ns the
consti tu ents of the other
ll
4
f
o
ow s f
( )

VO L

R U LE

2 58

T HR E E

OF

C HA P

F o r, i f
th at

I s,

th en

w h en e

A g a i n, i f

bd

c
=

bc

ad

be,

bc/bd,

is

w h en e

b
If thr ee

an d

ar e

f or

of

d ar e g i v en, th e e qu ati on

bc,

to

{i
we

Xx

h ve

connecti ng
If thr ee qu anti ti es a b c
Rela ti ons

th e

XgXi

conti nu ed p rop or tion

conti nued p r op orti o n then

be i n
g

proportion

qu anti ti es i n

= a

a zc

s of

bX

96

zc

a nd

If

a nd

e,

T hen

hence
Mul tipl ying by

b,

ple th t the l t 3 d nd 4 th term

denote the unkno w n 2 d term
nd let

x am

th e

o ne

a,

f r o m t h e i r b e i n g i n p r o p o r t i o n, b e
1 s t d eg r e e ( s ee c h ap x v i ) t o d e te r

ab ov e

by t h e

c om es a n equ at i on
m i n e t h e r e m a i n i ng
uppo e

r emaini ng

ad

the

determi ned

u niquely

i c h r e s ul ts

n
r
r
t
o
be g i ven
o
o
i
f p p

the te ms

F or, w h en t h r e e of th e q u ant i t i es

wh

bd,

ad

bd
/

C or

ad

th e n

one

fou r

iti es

u a nt

a,

b,

d, be i n

F o r t h e g e n e r al p r o p o s i t i o n ,

conti nued p rop or ti on

c
s ee

E x e rc i s e 1 2 , p 2 6 7
.

then

D ET E R M I NATI ON

X II I

F o r, if

a zb=

th e n

w h en

c c c

ce

Al s o

b=

E q u at i o n s

i on s

1
( )

ab ov e s ta t e

an d

b
2

b,

/ ( a r)

2
( )

"

no 2

w h en e

b
5x

259

b : c,

T h er e f o r e

P R O P O RT IONAL S

O F M E AN

e s t a bl s h

r s t

th e

of

th e tw o p

ropo s i

A g ai n , i f
th e n

Al s o
h en c e
t h at i s ,

th e

r e fo r e
F u r th e r

s 1 n ce

d
3

(l

w h en e

Al so ,

s 1 n ce

d
3

s|

a,

ad

c
c
(ad )
me n
I t hould b noticed th t the re ult ( 2 ) ho w th t the nding f
proport i on l b et ween t w given qu ntitie
d depend
e tr ct i on
th
f
qu re root F e m ple the m e n proportion l bet w een 1 d 2 i
?

w h en e

a s

or

xa

s a an

s on

an

D E L I AN P R OB LE M

2 60

ca n

g in ( 4 ) d ( 5 ) en ble to in ert tw m e n proportio n l b et ween t w

given qu nt i tie by e tr cting cert in cu b e root F or e m ple the t w
m e n proportion l bet w een 1
d 2
A

an

an

f/

(I

a s

i ca

22 )

xa

a re

62
an d

a s

us

C onver el y f cour e the ndi g f the cub e root f 2 w hich g in corre

p d t the f m ou D eli n pro ble m f ntiquity the duplic tion f the
cu b e could b m de to depend the nding f tw m e n proportion l
re ult w ell kno w n to the G reek geom eter f Pl to ti m e
s

on

s o

Af te r w h at h as bee n

d i f c u l ty

in

sh ow n

d on e

on

a a

th e

a s, a

s tu

d ent

i ll

h av e

no

g t h at

if
then

ma

d,
nd

mb

no

nb

mc

bn

en

b,,

cc

ma

a nd

nd

Al s o th at
if

a ,,

then

a ,a .

C or

a ,,

n,

f r a c t i o n al ,

c h ap
r
i
d
d
e
ov
p

s ee

b zb =

l , m , p , q,

b:

a?

a r e a ny

ci

g at i v e , i nt eg r al
o f t h e s am e S i n a s
g

or

ne

(l )

d zd

mb : p a

ml

la

a +

"

a i

dn

dl d,

d,

m ay b e p o s i t i v e
& c be
eal , a nd
a ,
,

then

la

then

w he e

a, ,

If

H
e re
(

, ,

qb

to

lc

"

md : p c

md

"

qd
"

pc

q u an t i t i e s , p o s i t i v e

qcl

"

or n e g a t

iv e

or
a,

C ON SEQUEN C E S

x xu

4 ls o,

then

P R O P O RT I O N

OF

261

ea

ch of

these

r a tios

is

equ a l

to
+

a nd a ls o

b, ,

to

T h ou g h o u tw ard ly s o m ew h at d i ff er e nt i n app ea r anc e th ese

six
r esul t s ar e i n r eal i ty v e r y m u ch all i e d Tw o d i ff er en t
m e th od s O f p r o of a r e u su al l y g i v e n
,

F I R ST ME THO D
L et

ta

us

ke

f or

e x am

1
( )

l
e,
p

Si n c e
th e

th

is

a
(
?

a i

w h en e

3:

an d

I)

r e fo r e

d:

c i

e s tabl s h es

W r i t i ng

t h e tw o

t h es e

r e s u l ts

s e p a a t el y

we

a +

in

h ave

c+d
d
c -

d
o

b
\vh en ce

a +

b)

d mt m,
wh

i ch es tabl i sh e s
S i m i l a r t r e atm e n t

e s ul

ts

a +

cy

m a y be

-a

c+ d
C

ap

i
e d to t h e
l
p

rest

of

th e

six

2 62

X P R E SSI ON

TE R M S

IN

S E ON

Let

us

ta

ke

S in c e
s am e s

D M ETHO D

sa

d e n ot e e a c h
We t h e n h a v e

w h en e

P:

( )

a ,

we

th e s e

ch

r at i o s

p i

b
p ,

of

u s ng

d
p

hav e
b

pb

b
p

1)

b(p

w ly

1
1

In

exa

c t ly

th e

s am e

(f

We

us

r e fo r e

ta

a)

h av e

h en c e
th e

a +

(l

pd
p

c+

l
p

ke
de

b,

b,
a1

d
p

Hen ce

w ay, w e h av e

Ag a i n , l e t

p b, ,

a 1 + a2 +

as

6,
a,

an

bn
=

p 12, ,

ea

a,,

pb, ,

+ an
+

sa

p bn

b,,

h enc e

C HAP

w e m ay

m
l
b
o
, p,
y

N ow ,

W E S T V A RI A B L E S

e x a m pl e ,

fo r

OF F E

Pa
s e ,,

b,,

by t h e

G ENE RAL T HE OR E M

XIII

F i n a l ly

let

us

ta

ke

Si n c e

"
a,

a,

we

263

p bl
t

'

&c

"

hav e

ha

"

lb

( s ee c h ap

"
.

I t fol l o w s th at

lg af

a,

ca n

b,

Of th e t w o m e t h o d s t h e r e

a2

&C

d o u b t t h at
s e cr e t O f i t s

be

no

c d
p ow e r l i e s
th e

s e on

c l ea r e r and m o r e eff e c t i v e Th e
i n t h e f o l l ow i n g p r i n c i p l e
I n es ta bli sh ing an equ ati on between condi ti oned qu anti ties
we
rst exp ress all the quantiti es i nvolved i n the equ a ti on i n terms of the
fewest qu anti ti es p os si ble u nder the condi ti ons then the verica ti on of
the equ a ti on i nvolves mer ely the es ta bl i shment of a n a lg ebr a i ca l i dentity
I n e s tabl i s h i ng
f or i ns t an c e w e e p r e s s e d all th e qu an t i t i e s
i nv ol v e d i n te r m s o f th e t h r e e b d p SO m a ny b ei ng n e c ess ar y
by 5 to d et e r m i n e a p r op o r t i on
A g oo d d e al of t h e a r t of al g ebr a i c al m an i p u l at i on c o ns i s ts
i n a dr o i tl y t a k i ng a d van tag e O f t h i s p r i n c i pl e w i th ou t a t t h e
s am e t i m e d es tr o y i n g th e s ym m e t r y of t h e fu n c t i o n s i nv ol v e d
Th e fo ll o w i ng g e n e r al th e o r em c o n tai n s d i r e c tl y o r
i nd i r ec tly al l th e r e su l ts o f l as t ar ti cl e a s p ar t i cu l ar c as e s a nd
w i ll b e f o u n d t o b e a c o m p e n d i u m o f a v e r y l a r g e c l a ss o f
fav o u r i te e x e rc i s e s o n t h e pr es e n t su bj e c t so m e o f w h i c h w i ll
be f ou n d a t th e e nd O f t h e p r e s e n t p ar ag r ap h
If
be a ny homog eneous i nteg r a l fu ncti on of the
va r i a bl es a
x
aa o the r th d e r ee or a homo eneou s fu ncti on
f
g
g
of deg r ee r
a ccor di ng to the ex tend ed n oti on of homo enei t
g
y a nd
deg ree g i ven a t the foot of p 7 3 and if
i s th e

,,

, ,

,,

then

ea

ch of

thes e

r ati os i s
a,

equ a l

to

b, ,

264

Th i s
of

th eo

r em

is

th e p

an

ple 1
Which i the g e ter r tio
e ch po itive

r oper ty

r a

"

+y

+ y,

o r 90

y,

an d

y b

eing

CR A P

i mm e d i at e co n s equ en c e of
f un c t i ons g i v en i n ch ap i v p 7 3

h om og e n eou s
Ex am

X AMP LES

+y

c
rz

y)

(M

w- y

w+ y

v)

2 x y2 2 x 2 y
2 96

(x

mm

y)

u) ( w

y)

2 xy
:1 :

N ow , i f

x and

y be

H e n ce

3;

e ch po itive
a

E x am

ple 2

then

an d

L et e ch f the r tio
b
C D
t hen = pb = pd ; A
o

a,

/A
cVC

b\ / B

s am

ew

d = p,
o B, C = 0 D

a nd c :

a :

CIA

I n th e

:x -

ple

If b be

C - d VD z

tw o A

an d

bv B

d VD
_

b\ / B

(a )

d s/ D

w e g et

ay

1 ) b\ / B

th e

required re ult follo w

s

e
w

(5 )

d\/D

e n proportion l be tw een
a

a an d 0 , S

how th

at

( a)
an d

T aking (

we

h ve
a

b) ,

(a
N e w , by

d t

a a, a

/b

an d

b/c,

here fore b =

ac

ence (

ac

is

proved

hence
a c,

ince b =

2
a l c
2

c
9

VA

( Pva
- l d
U
l x/ D
( PV

a nd

E x am

neg tive

e ch f th
We then h ve

an d

l )d \ / D

(a)

al l y

b B
A
V
V

'

(N

F rom

ss

If
a

e en ti

is

ac

b2

2
c ,

X II I

T aking

us

a nd ,

n ow

put

for

X AMP L ES

v riet y dopt i ng the econd

a

i
H

th t p( p )
ence pb b p
We h ve to veri fy the identity
a

so

2 65

ethod

of

9,

let

=e
9

'

(c

th t i to
a

pc

(p 6 )

( pc)

2 (p

)(

pc

c)

p c

s ay,

N ow

hich prove
E m ple

th e t

r th
u

of

(y )

an d

there fore e t b l i he
s a

xa

If

L et

/( b + c

),

put

us

b + c a

c+ a b

(b

c x

as

= (a + b

ro m the l t three equ tion

b)
+ (c
)y + (

N ow , f

b) z

(b

a + b c

= ( b + c a ) p,

y = (c + a
z

hen
z

then

ble,

)p

-c

we

s,

h ve
a

c )

(b
2
2

b
c
a
+c
{(
{ O O}pa
2

b2 )

p,

(a ( b

E x am

ple 5

If

be + ey

cx

bc

+ az

ay

c- a

+ bx

(I)

then

L et e c h
a

Of

the r tio in
a

( 1 ) be

equ l to p then
a

bz + cy = p( b c)
cx + a z = p( e a )
ay

F ro m

by

+ bx = p (a

d d ition

b)

p0 ,

If

n ow w e a d d a x +

by + cz

to b oth ide
s

s of

(6 )

t in equ tion

w e Ob a

ple 4 5 nd 6 i llu tr te pecie f lgeb r ic l tr n for m tion

w hich i very co mm on in geo m etric l
pplic tion I n re lity the y
m ple
f
proce w hich i con idered m ore full y in ch p i
E xam

s o

ss

s o

a s
a

x v

a re

ex

266

ple 6

E x am

be

cy

how th

C HA P

If
s

X AMP LE S

qb +

as

qb

rc+p a

pa

rc

bx

ca:

ay

p a + qb

rc

at

l a + b c r c a
(
)
qK

L et e ch
equ tion
a

the fr ction

of

s,

cy +
az

of

a a
p (

q b(

( 1 ) be

bz = ( qb + r c p a ) p
ex 2 ( r e + p a
q b) /J

s a

a r e s ym m

il3l

)p

hich thu ri e

re

o b erve th t the three

an d

7
x yz

etric l in the trip le

a bc

set

so

th t the
a

si m

ul

27 97

interch nge f the letter in tw f the vertic l colu m n im pl y

ch nge e ch f the equ tion ( 3 ) in to nother f the m e t I t f ollow
then th t i m il r interch nge m de in y equ tion derived fro m ( 3 ) w i ll
derive there fro m no t her equ tion l o deriv ble fro m
N w i f w m ultipl y b oth i de
f
by b n d both ide
f ( y ) by
w
obt in by ddition f ro m the tw equ tion thu derived

tan eo u s

a s

N ow ,

u i ng the v lue
s

2 bcx

pa ( qb

u tr cting p

S b

rc

( qb + r c

)}

qb) + c(p a + qb

re

)}

rc

s o

e,

s o

rc a

h ve

we

+ bz

F om

given by ( ) w h ve

p )
( b
p {p ( b c ) qb( b c )
f
w h ve
p ) fro m b oth i de
b + ) g b( + b c )
b
)}
(

O f cy

s,

be } : p { b( r c + p a

cy

se

sa

s o

2 bcx + a

an

a s

( 7)

in

\VO m ay

( 7 ) m a ke

the i terch ge
n

an

a nd

or

we

h ll
a

t in tw other equ tion deriv ble f ro m ( 3 ) by proce l i ke th t u ed to

derive ( 7 ) it el f T he e interch nge le ve the r ight -h nd ide f ( 7 ) n
ltered b t ch nge the le ft h nd ide into the econd d third m e mb er f
l l equ l e ch b eing in
re pectivel y Hence the three m e mber f ( 2 )
f ct equ l to p/2 b
T hi i good e m ple f the
f th principl e f ym m etry i n co m pli
t d lge b r ic l c lcul tion
Ob a

- a

s a

s o

an

ar e a

xa

s o

ss

ca e

u se O

EXER C I SE S XV I I

xm

E X E R C I S E S X VI I

267

Which i the gre ter r t i o 5 7 1 5 1 2 08

If th r t io 3 4 b dupl i c ted by u b tr c t ing f ro m b oth nteceden t
nd con equen t
ho w th t
W h t qu ntity dded to the ntecedent d to the con equent f
b w ill convert t hi r tio into
d
F ind the fourth proport i on l to
a l o the third p roportion l
to 1 + V2 nd 3 + 2 V2
d 19
d l o tw m e n
I n ert m e n proportion l bet w een 1 1
proportion l b et w een the m e tw nu m b er
F ind im ple urd nu mb er w hich h ll b m e n proportion l b
t w een V7 V5 d 1 I V7 1 3 V5
If
nd y b
uch th t w hen the y
dded to the ntecedent nd
con e q uent re pectivel y f the r t i o b i t v lue i un l tered ho w th t
s

or

an

sa

a s

a s

e a

x a

e s

a re a

an

s.

an

an

a s

a s

C
!

x a

uch th t w hen the y

dded re pectively to the nte
cedent d con equent nd to the con equent d ntecedent f b the tw
re ult i ng r tio
equ l ho w th t e i ther = y or + y =
b
F ind qu nt i ty uch th t w hen i t i dded to the four given qu n
titie b d the re ult i four qu ntitie in proportion E e m plify w ith
3 4 9 13 ;
d w ith 3 4
2
d le t
I f f o r qu ntitie b proportion l the
m f the gre t e t
i
l w y gre ter th n the m f the other tw
I f the r tio f th di ff erence f the nteceden t
f t w r t i o to the
m f their con equent i equ l to the d i ff erence f the tw r tio
then the
nteceden t
i n the duplic te r tio f the con equent
I f the n qu ntit i e
b in continued proportion then
If

x an d

an

y be

s ar e

an

su

a2

71

a3

a ,,

8/ ( a l

9
n

then

be

e i ther
other w ill l o
a s

of

the

et

tw o

a7

g 2

g 2
a e

a,

ad

b,

r c + sd
b
)
q

=p s

- r c s d
),

qb + r c
qr

or p

q,

r,

orm

proportion

then
a e

g g

6d

e e
a
a

--r e z rb
c
q
q s

q tl + rf

= V( a 3

by ?

3
= a 3 df + c3 b
f + e bd

a -

s,

= ( pa

if

If

a nd ,

as

an d

a2

s o

an

s a1

o.

su

s ar e

su

s a

as s

s a

c,

an

a re a

s a,

(2

ce

f/ bdf

ac

ac

th e

EXE R C I S E S XV II

2 68
lf

b b,
mn
i

then

a m bu

(
If

a zbz

then

mru

b )m+n

6,
?

ab

,3

(0 d

2
3
6
a
(
)(
d3 52 ( c3 d )

6
e
Cel b 5

then

b= b zc = c d ,

a a

m+ n

m
a
bu

b)

m
n
l
a

m +n

an d a

d,

If

(b

(a )
( B)

c + d
+ b c

(
If

a,

c b in continued proportion

b,

)/b
( e)

c) ( a

then

e,

a b=

If

(a c
If

d be

in continued proporti on

b d

) (a

)(

(a)

(a )

c)

)
b,

a,

a t ( ac
)

then
If

'

ca n

- c 2

) (b

cd = f then
e

ea

06

)/d bf ( d

b +f

(a

'

f)

c
then e ch
a

d2

ti

of

ff

the m
d)

{ b(f

t h en
5 b : 3b u z 2 b 3a

If

then

7x
If

ey z by

a ):

ab

+ ds =

6g

83

ay

+ cz

0
z

bz + d x =

then e ch

ad

of

az

+ cx

+ di

the e r t i o
a

a nd

if

a nd

I f (a
m

ll

mm

R ATI O

m z)/l

ny

'

(c

12

(b

'

b
nn

AN D

n a

ll

mm

P R O P O R TI O N

OF

nn

l b

/m

then

m a:

ll

mm

'

nu

C O N C R ETE QUAN TI TI ES

c o n s i d e r h o w th e th e o r em s w e h a v
e s t b l i s h e d r e a rd i n
g
g th e r t i o n d p r po r t i o n o f abs t ra c t n u m
b e r s ar e t o b e appl i e d t o c o ncr e t e q u n t i t i e s
e s h ll b a e
hav e

n o w to

'

Im

port nt i n the theory

a

of

the centr l
a

a x s o f a s v s tc m o f

orce

s,

&c

C ON C RE T E

X III

A T I O AND P RO P OR T I ON

269

h i s , fo r pr act i ca pu r
pp i cat i o n o n t h e t h eory o f u n i ts
o
s t h e m o s t co nv e n i e n t co u r s e, bu t t h e s tu d e n t i s n o t t o
i
es
s
,
p
thi s

ll

t
m
t
a
s e t h a t i t i s th e o n y o n e o e n t o u s
I
b
e we
o
o
y
p
p
p
re ca
o n ce m or e t h a t a ny t h eo r y m a y b e e x pre s s e d i n a g ebr a i ca
s ym bo s , pr ov i d e d t h e f u n d am e nt a
pr i n ci p e s o f i ts og i c are i n
su

ll

w i th t h e

r e e m e nt

If
w hi ch a r e

a nd

or a

o f al g e br ai ca

r a ti o

o p era ti o n

concrete

quoti ent

or

qu anti ties of the same ki nd,

a nd the sa me u ni t by the com

B be two

p ressi bl e i n ter ms of one

nu mbers a a nd b r esp ecti vely, then the

dened to be the

b,

fu n d am e nta l l aw s

er

mensurabl e

a :

f A

to B i s

r a ti o o

abstra ct nu mbers , namely,

these

h
/

ho l d b ob
d th t by p op l y choo i ng th n i t th ti o f
nt i ti w h i ch
ch co m m n bl w i th y n i t n i t t
t w conc t q
l w y b p d t h t i o of t w i nt g l n m b
ll
F
b l ngth
p t i l y th n
m pl
i f th q nt i t i
f 3 f t
d 4% f t
n i t %t1 of foot th q t i t i
p ibl by 2 6 d 35
by t k i ng f
p ct i l y
t i o i 2 6 3 5 Th i fo ll o w l o f om th l g b i c l
d th
th o m th t ( 3
g)
It

se rv e

re e

ua

es

can a

e,

b,

and

B
C

e ra

s o

s u ra

u an

es

ex

res

r es s

s a s

ra

ee

a re

e ra

e u

an

an

ee

e ra

be two

concr ete

D two other

n ecessar i ly o

e rs

ec

or

ve

ex

an

sa me

the

e a

concrete

ki nd

as

ki nd, whose

ra

ra ti o o

b=

a :

r a ti o

is

d ( bu t not
qu anti ti es of the same ki n
A a nd B ) , whose r atio i s c z ol, then

to be p rop orti ona l when the

O to D , tha t is , when

to the

same

the

ua n ti ti es o

are s aid

A, B , C, D
equ al

If A ,
a :

er

as

an

ve

re

es

or u

are ea

r es s e

ex

ua

r es

c z cl

f A

ra ti o o

to B i s

We may Speak o f the r ti o A B of t h e concre t e m ag nitud e

C D w i th ou t all u d i ng
t h em e l v es a nd o f th e p r op o ti o n A B
w h i h m ea s re t h e
ti o s
bu t
e p l i i tl y t o t h
ab tract n m b e
l l concl i o n r eg r di ng t h e e r ti o s w i ll i n ou r p esen t m nn e r
e u l ts
u h as
o f t eat i ng t h em be i n t e p e t t i o n s o f al g ebr i cal
w e h a e b e e n d e e l o pi ng i n th e e a l i e r p ar t o f t h i
ch pt r
a

us

rs

by

p r op or tio n o f
t h e o r y o f t h e r at i o

T h ere

ar e,

e x am i n a t i o n

ra

O p erati ng

a nd

o b t ai n e d

w i th a ,

b,

c,

Th e th eo ry

of

th e

r at io

qu an ti ty i s t h u s br o u g h t u n d e r t h e
a nd
p ro p o r ti on o f ab s t ract q u an ti ti e s

co ncr e t e

h ow e v er

s ev era

i
n
t
s
o
p

w h i ch

re

i
re
u
q

n ear er

I n th e

r s t pl ace

i t m u s t be

n o t i ce d

t h at i n

a co n cre t e

2 70

SP

ra ti o

th e

s am e

ki n d

be

l ike

ant e ce d e n t a nd

r a ti o
.

cou

ld

o i nt

of

re

th e

RO P OR T I ON

ca n

co n s eq u e n t

l as t al ike

th e tw o

Vi ew

l eas t t h e re
a l i n e o r of

at

to

area

is

th e

i n s p e ak i n g
o f coa l s t o a su m

no s e ns e

ton

s o m e of

i n ki n d

T h u s f r om

t h e p r op o s i ti o n s p r ov e d

of
of

bov e

t h e p er mu t ati o n s Of a p r o p or ti on , f or i n s tan ce
i mm e d ia t e y ci t e d a s t r ue r eg ar d i ng a pro p ort i o n

a
r di n
g
g

no t

am o n

an

a nd

of

C ON C RE T E

IN

m u s t b e qu an ti ti e s o f t h e
co n cr e te p r o p o r ti o n t h e t w o
r s t t er m s m u s t

A ccor di ng ly

m o ney
th o se

in

a nd

i n ki nd ,

re s e n t

p
th e

E C I AL P O I N T S

f ou r

g
s a m e k i nd

be

m a g ni t u d e s ,

c on cr e te

u n e ss all

th e

f o ur

w er e

th e

Of

Th is h o w ev e r i s a m er e m t ter o f th e i n te rpretati o n o f
a l ebr ai ca l f o r m u l ae a m a tt e r i n s h or t r e g ar di n g t h e p u t ti n g o f
g
an d t h e r e m o v i n
i
t
rom
b
ra i ca l
Of
f
l
t
h
e
a
e
a p r o bl em i n t o
g
g
a

m ach i n e

m or e i m p or tan t q u es ti on ar i s e s fr o m th e con s i d er a
t i o n t h at, i f w e t ak e t w o co n cre t e
m ag n i t u d es
t h e re i s n o

th e

Of

r e as o n

e x i s t s any u n i t

ly e
m en s u r abl e

is

e x act

Let

us

s am e

to

kin d

a t r an d o m ,

e x p ect

i n t er m s

of

t h at t h er e

w h i ch

p r es s ib e by m e an s
n u m be rs

ea c

of co m

co n s id e r ,

f or

th e

e x a m p e,

h i s tor i ca lly fa m ou s ca s e o f th e si de AB
O n th e d i ag ona l A C l ay
s q u ar e A B C D

d di ag o n al AC o f a
o ff AF = AB , a n d d r a w FE p e rp e n d i cu l ar t o A C
r e a d i l y s h ow n t h a t
FC
B E EF
an

CF
CE

N ow , i f AB

an d

AC

I t m ay b e

H en ce

AO

AB

CB

CF

(1)

w e r e each co m m e n surab y e x pr e ss ib e

in

ni te u n it e ach w ou l d by t h e re m ark i n 1 2 b e an
B u t f rom ( 1 ) i t f oll o w s
i n teg ra l m u l tip l e o f a cer tai n ni te u ni t
th at i f t h i s w ere s o C F w ou l d be a n i n teg ral m u l ti p l e o f t h e
t h a t C E w o u l d be an i nt eg ra l
n d ag ai n f rom
s am e u ni t ;
N o w C F a n d C E ar e t h e s i d e a n d
m u l ti pl e Of t h e s m e u n i t
d i g o na l of a s q a e C FE G w h o s e s id e i s l es s th an h al f th e s i d e

t er m s

o f a ny

X II I

CO MM EN S URAB LES

AB CD 3

of

ll er

sm a

t ip

l es

of

we

as

m u ti p e s Of
a n d d i ag o na

ni te

pp ose d

l e as e

l Of

ar e s u

s id e

s u pp o s e d

ou r

ll

C FE G

fro m
w h os e

s q u ar e

sm a

as

an d

an

ld

i n t ur n b e d er i v e d

s id e

We
A

as s u m e,

and

A , t h en

ab s u r d

ari s e s

re g ar d i ng

a x i o m at i c

as

s ti

ll

su c

b e t w o q u a nti ti es r e s p e cti v el y l e s s
t h e ra t i o A : B i s g r e a t e r t h a n A

an d

as

side

o f con

t h at i f

ra t o,

an d

g r e a t e r t h an
a n d l e s s t h an

th e

i n th e t h e ory

con cre t e

u
ar e
q

i n te g r a l

H e n ce

ar e

o f co n cr e te ra t i o

cu l ty w h i ch th u s
s u rm o u n t e d as fo ll ow s

is

h ad

we

d i ag o n a l

a nd

Th e d i f
cr et e r at i o

m ag n i tu d es

not

d e n i ti o n

ou r

o n, u n ti

so

; w h i ch i s
ar e

27 1

diag o nal w o u l d be i n t e g ral m u l

w h os e

u ni t

t o be i n

cou

a nd

u ni t

q u ar e

AND I N C OMMEN S URABLE S

f ou n d s u ch th at
w h i l e e a ch i s co m m en su rabl e w i t h B t h e y di ffe r fro m e a ch ot h e r
a n d t h e re for e e ach d i ff e r s fr om A by a s l i tt l e a s w e p l eas e
Su ppose i n fact t h at w e t ak e f o r o u r u n i t t h e nt h p ar t o f B
t h e n t h e r e w i ll b e t w o co ns e cu ti v e i n t eg ra l m u l ti p l e s Of B /n s a y
mB /n a nd ( m + 1 ) B /n b e t w e en w h i ch A w i ll l i e
T ak e t h es e

f o r o u r v al u e s o f A a n d A 3 t h e n
A

an

d we

h o w t h at

an d

can

be

I ) B/n

m
(

mB /n,

B /n

H ence
as

we p

l ea se

ca n ,

by

m/n

ra t i o s ,

h Of

e ac

we p

w h i ch

l e as e

f ci en tl y i ncre asi ng

n,

be m a de

as s m a

ll

We th u s Obtai n

tw o

su

an d

in

w i t h t h e d e fi ni ti o n

a cco r d an ce

m
(

)/

n,

b e tw e en w h i ch t h e

m ay b e m ad e t o d i ff er

by

1 2,

A : B l ie s,

r at i o

f ro m A B

Of

as

l i ttl e

as

P racti call y s pe aki ng , t h en, w e can n d for t h e r ati o o f t w o

i n com m e ns u rab l e s an e x pr e ss i on w h i ch s h a ll b e as accu rate as

l e as e
E m pl

we p

xa

R eg ar d ing t h i s m atter

see v o l

ii

h ap

xxv

2 6 -4 1

d i gon l f
f A B w h i ch h ll b co
ct to 1 /1 00 0th
If w t k f
n i t t h 1 /1 000 th p t
I f B be th e

si

or

an d
e

th e

r re

But

err r

be

i ng

a s

u are,

to

nd

ra

ti on l
a

va u e

N o w 1 4 1 42 2 1 9 993 96 ,
th e

ar

a nd

of

B th n
,

B = 1 00 0,

H nc
H nc
e

an

d A2 :

we

av e

EU C LI D I AN THEORY

27 2

PR O P O R T ION

OF

ca n

th o y f p opo t i on g i n i E cl i d E l m nt g t o t h
di f c l ty f i nco m m n bl i
l tho gh i ndi ct m nn
y i ng i o
N w o k i ng d n i t i on O f
t i o i tt m pt d b t th p opo ti on l i ty f fo
m gn i t d
i d n d
b t nt i l l y
fo ll o w
I f th
b fo
m gn i t d
A B C D
h th t lw y
Th e

es

ere

su

ur

s a

o d i ng

an d n

b ei n

any

nt g l n

ra

us a

e s

v er

re

er

ur

suc

mC >

as

mA >
a cc r

en

as

es

n a v er

es

s a

ve

a ra

su r a

or <

nB,

or

n D,

<

s,

th n A B C D

u mb ers \Vh ats oe v er,

are s ai

dt

p opo ti on l
f t h not i on f
H
i m d
nit
th t th d i f c l ty O f i n
i d
com m n bil i ty i
t
O n t h oth
h nd th i b t i t t d
om w h t i ndi ct d co m pli c t d m thod f t ti ng th b i t nc n
b i t nc O f p opo t i on l i t y
th t i f A B C D b p opo ti on l cco d i ng t th
It i
y to
l g b i c l d n i ti on th y h th p op ty f E cl i d d n i ti on F i f
f th
ti o A B d C D w
d b t h n m ri l m
b nd
h

be

n o u se

ere

su

e as

er

av e

so

or

es

er e

e su

s s e

su

u e

on

e or

e z

a :

see

ra

a u

a e

s s e

ra se

an

re

no

su ra

e o

ca

er

ea s u r e s

ra

or,

an

av e

hn
e

ce

f om w h i ch i t foll o w th t m
n m ly th t
Th con
E c l i d d n i ti on th n
s

v ers e ,

a >

ma

me

nb

mi

if

B,

G i ven

ea

ve

Le t

c d

e x ee

be

s na ,

so

ra

er e r <

s h or t o

f a ll

u mb er, a n d

to

a cc r

comm ensu r a bl e

/b by

l i ttl e

as

l t

l e t m b be th e

mb

eas

mu

qu a nti ty
w e p l ea se

as

l t i pl

h ch

bw i

e of

r,

es o f

th i q ti on by
s e

ua

ce

n b,

nb

o di ng

D i i di ng both i d

hn

nd

<

or

a n oth er

na

emm a

qu a n ti ty a /b

s h a l l ex eed or

nt g l n
th t

an

c>

a n y com m en su r a bl e

be f ou n d w h i ch

ca n

p o d by m n O f th fo ll o w i ng l
r

as

c
_

be

can

cco di ng m
C D b p opo t i on l
n b, a

or <

,
,

we

av e

th t m/n
d /b by /nb N w i n
n
c d t h gi n
m k
q nt i ty b by m k i ng n f c i ntly g t w
m ll
w
/ b
m k m/
c d /b by li tt l w pl
pl
3 th t i to
y w
noth co mm n bl q nt i ty m y b
Si m il l y w m y ho w th t
fo nd f lli ng ho t f /b by l i ttl w pl
F o m th i i t foll ow th t if tw mm n bl q ti ti d i by
b tw
bl q
n ti ty w h i ch l i
lw y d
th
mm
w
l i ttl

so

ex cee

ua

e,

e ca n a

a no

o co

er

ce r

co

e sur a

en su r a

e r n

s u ra

ea s e

ex ee

as

er

ev er

ca n

n ex ee

e as

as

re a

e ca n

sa

ar

su

eas e

s a

as s

e as

ua

ve

as

ea se
a

u an

ua

es

ever s o

cr

es

een

C OM P AR I S ON

xm

nd noth co mm n
th n th d i ff nc
th t

th em ; f or w e can
es s o f th e t w o by l e s s

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ppo

s e n ow

er

er e

cco d i ng
r

a nd n

th

Fo r, i f

t f
f ct i on
if
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v ir ue

ng

1 5)

ra

an y

es e

ers

f ct i on
d i ff by
y wh
ra

/m s a
a /b b e t h e

en ce,

nt g

er

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ess o

>

ht

at

on

od
r

we

h poth

f ct on

ev e r s o
an

n b,

or

<

nd ,

th e

re a er.

mus

th

av e

'

a re

o,

se

ss

ers ,

us

s u ra

es

er

ee

av e

a <

s,

th
t
m
d m
h fo nd tw i nt g
av e

nd

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ma

nb

me

nd

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c nnot b n q l

es i s ,

/d

a <

e u

T
h
er e
]

17

or ,

an

ers ,

a nd

n, s u

ch th t

we

av e

ce

B u t , by y
i s a /b an d

m ay

<

ppo

an d

ra

or

w e m ay s u
e, i t w i

ex cee

to b o mm n bl by
li ttl
ll b po ibl to nd noth
n
d m
i nt g
w h i ch l i
b t w n th m
f th tw
th
w m
th
t
i m
b3
b m
c

er

ua

ee

oth

th n w

a ev er ,

( w h i ch

In

l q nt i ty w h i ch
t
b tw n i t
d th g

su rab e

me

as

be i

273

ma
a

T HEOR I E S

OF

ar e

u
t
a
n
t
i
q

a
s

t h

me <

av e

nd

H nc e
e

th e

AR I A T ION

i n ni t e

n u mber

of

w ays i n w h i ch w e

l l l

y t o d e pen d u p on , b e ca cu ab e from ,
m at h e m ati ca l a ng ua g e , b e a fu ncti o n o f, an ot h er

co n ce i v e o n e

i n t e ch ni ca l

an

w e m us

ua

i
t
n
t
u
a
y
q

Thus

we

m ay

h av e

= 3
a
i
2
= 1 7 zc

y
y

fo r

ac
c+

e x am p e ,

b,

a nd s o o n

F or

c o nv e ni en ce 9c

dep endent

var ia ble

is

ll e d

ca

t h e i ndep endent

3 b ecause w e i m ag i n e t h at

i s g i ven t o cc, a n d t h e co r r e s p o n d i ng
by m e an s o f th e f un ct i on a l r e l ati o n
.

q u an ti ty
VO L I
.

th a t

o ccu r

i n th e

bov e

l
A ll

vari abl e, an d

an y v a u e

v a ue o f

th e

y th e

we p

l ea se

y d e r i v ed f r o m i t
o th er s ym bo s o f

e q u at i o n s , s u c

as

3, 1 7 ,

a,

b,

c,

2 74

NDE P ENDEN T AND DE P ENDEN T VAR I ABLE

2, &c

s u pp o s e d

ar e

r e m ai n

to

x ed

and

C HAP

t h e r ef o r e

ar e

ca

ll ed

cons tants

H er e
m or e i n

w e at t ach m eani n g s t o t h e w o r d s
acc o r d an ce

t h o s e g i v en

wi t h

( ch ap

ab ov e

t h ei r

ii

va r i a bl e

i n p op u l ar

u se

an d

consta nt

l a ng u a g e t h a n

j u s ti cati on o f th e d oub l e u s ag e if n ot a l r e ady appar en t

w i ll b e m o e f ul l y u n d ers t o o d w h e n w e co m e t o d is cu s s t h e
t h eory o f e qu at i o n s an d t o co n s i d e r m or e fu ll y th e v ari ati on s o f
Th e

fu ncti on s

o f v ar i o u s

ki n d s

h ap s

see c

x v -x v i i i

I n th e m e anti m e, w e pr o p os e t o d i s cu s s v er y br ie fl y
t h e s i m pl e s t Of a l l cas e s o f t h e f u n ct i on al d e p e n d en ce O f o n e
n an o t h er , t h at, n am e l y, w h i ch i s ch aract e ri se d b
u an t i t
u
o
q
y p
y
th e

f oll o w i ng p rop er ty
L e t th e f o ll o w i n g s ch em e
.

V l of
I nd p nd nt V i

Co

a u es

th e

ar ab l e

pond in g V l
D p nd nt V i

a u es o f

rr es

ar abl e

th e

fl?

f]l

a i r s w h a t ev er Of v a u es o f t he
p
p
i n d ep e n d e n t and d ep e n d e n t v ar i ab e s, t h en t h e d e p e nd en ce i s to
b e su ch t h at a w a ys

d e n o te

an y

t wo

cor r e s

o n d in g

It is
n at ur e

Of

O b v i ou s t h at t h i s

p o n d i ng p ai r o f v a
w h e n v h a s th e v a u e
.

of

t h e d e p en d en ce

res

l ue s

co m

ro p er t

ar e

p o n a,
g i ve n

y h a s th e

l e te l y

d e t er m i n e s t h e

as s o o n a s a n y s i n
g e co r

va ue

Su pp o s e, i n
y,

fa ct

t h at ,

t h e n , by

w h e nce

N o w w e m ay k ee p a , a nd y0 a s a x e d s tanda rd p ai r, f o r
r e f e r e n ce a s i t w e r e 3 t h e i r r at i o yU /a o i s t h er e fo r e a g i v e n c o n
,

'

XII I

SI

s t a nt

M P LE ST C A S E OF FUN C T I ONAL DE P ENDEN C E

u an ti ty,

w h i ch w e m ay d e n o te by

a , sa
y

275

W th

er e o r e

i n th e

h av e
= ax
y

t h at i s t o

y is
ch ap i v

l ang u ag e Of

t h e l s t d eg r ee

of

E x a m pl e
y,

an d

a:

i nc
H nc

an d

Le t

17

m u l ti p l e

co n s t an t

h o m og en eo u s

Of

i n te g r a

or,

l fu ncti on

o f a;

us ppo th t w h
l t i on y = y ;
co pond i ng p i
su

th e

i
v en
g

s a y,

se

re a

: ac

: a

rre s

are

"

pond i ng p i
Th n
th t w h n
3 y=6
H nc

for

av e

an d

an

y tw o

a rs

c rr e s
53

a rs

y = 2 cc

C o nv ers e l y
I
F
o r f r om
)
(
,

of cours e,

l ea d s

t h e pr o p e r t y

t o th e p r o p er ty

a0:

r
/

h e nce

it

an d

be

ot

her

tw o

co r r e s

aa

p o n d i ng

v a u es ,

H ence
y d ep e n d s o n a: i n th e m a nn e r u s t e x p ai n ed i t i s s ai d
to vary di rectly as a, or , m o r e s h o rt y , to vary as cc

A be tter p h rase, w h i ch i s a so i n u s e , i s y i s p rop or ti ona l

Wh en

l
l

to

T his
ex

p ar ti cu ar

p resse d

conn e ct i o n

I n pl a ce o f
b, and so o n 3

a:

is

so m e ti m es

by w r i t i ng
y

an d

b et w e e n y
a:

oc

w e m ig h t w ri t e i n

a,

we s

q u at i on

x,

h o u l d t h e n h av e
7
/
.

( B)

b)

'

a a

o f th w o d V i t i on i th p nt conn ct i on i nfo t n t
b c
th
q l i fyi ng p ti cl
l l th t i nd i c t
th t w
h
i
conc n d not w i th i t i on i g n l
pl i n d i 1 7 b t m ly w i th
th
i m pl t of l l th po ibl k i d f i t Th i t nd ncy i n d c t d
m i nd to
ppo th t th i im pl t f l l k i nd f f ncti o l i ty i t h o ly
nco g d by th t nt i on f t h bo p i c of
d th i t nd nc y i
3
nt i q t d n o m ncl t
Th e u se

e au s e

er

an

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ua

es

ar

su

se

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ar a

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o ne

s s

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.

res e

a es

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O T H E R SIM P L E C A S E S

2 76

Th e

co rr e s p o n d i n g

fo rm s Of
y

r:

1 /x

7
.

1 /a

y:y

1s

In

a s as, an

sai d

th e n

to

d i n v e r s el y

( y)

th e

as

"2

=l /r

(B )

1 /r

b e p ro p o rt i o n e d t o, a , l /a , 1
s o m e t i m e s s a id t o v ar y i n v e rs e l
y

v a r y a s , or
an d

cas e s

h
1
w
o
u
d
t
e
n be
( )

e qu ati o n

ca n

y is

u a r e o f a; r e s p e cti v e

q
i n st e ad

ly

of su
Sti ll m o re g e ner all y,
pp o s i ng t h e d ep en d e n t
v ar i abl e t o d e e n d o n o n e i n d ep e n d e n t v ar i ab l e , w e m ay s u
se
o
p
pp
t h e d ep e n d en t v ar i a bl e a t o d e p e nd o n t w o or m o r e i nd e p e nd e n t

v ar i ab es , a,

For

an

d,

y, z, & c
e x a m p e , w e m ay
.

co r re s p on d i n g

to

l
( )

h av e

co rr e s p on d i ng

any

ar ez

aye

my

to

()
(o
e ,

/y

n
n

n
u

aye
;

yz

(f )
( f)
i

ll

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in

c as e

c as e

()
e

is

di r e ctl y

( 6)

/y

c
c

s ai d

s o m e ti m e s

a s a; a n

an

a tte n t i o n

p
in

r ov e

of

n om e n c a tu re

t o th e se p o i n ts i s

f oll o wi ng

th e

on e or

a ff ai r

tw o

ro

oc

2
.

a ll

a v

r
c,

H e n ce

If yl o c a: l and
P roof B y d a ta yl

then
,

v ar y

an d

j o i n tl y 3

n ow

We

as

an

as

d i scu s s i ng i s t o
n o t a t i on ,

s tu

a nd

de nt w i ll

v e th e
i
g

l arg e
l i ttl e

q u i re t o
d e mon s t ra ti o ns
re

y y

t h at t h e

o s i ti o ns

p p
s e ci m e n ca ses
p

If z y and y oc
P r oof B y d at a 2
t h er e f o r e

ar e

/y

to

d i n v e r s el y

Th e w h o l e m a tter w e
e x te n t

oc

oc

bx, w h e r e
at, Si n c e a b

then y,y,

a a nd

is

b ar e

co n s ta n ts

co n s t a n t

cc

a a,

he r e

al

a n d a,

ar e

co n

PR O P OSI T I ONS

xm

s ta n t s

a , a,

is

H en ce

co n s t a n t

w h i ch

yy
,

I n g eneral if yl
r yg
ag ,
c
A nd, i n p ar ti cu l a r,
ar ,
If

If

If

then

cc

oc

when y i s cons tan t,

both

v a nd

P r oof

v a ue s o f

va r

cc

ea,

ec

a nd s

t hen y

a
/
.

is

a nd on

y, ,

var i a ble or cons ta n t

be

oc

an ,

c a

oc

f o ll o w i n g

th e

i nv o l v e d

a r a bl e

y ha s th e

a nd

then y,y2

'

oc

these

a l on e, a nd

cons tant,

then

oc

oc

'

y when

s n ce

n
w
h
e
y

oc

D p nd nt V i

Then

s i nce

t h e p r o p o s i ti o n ,

v ar i ab es

w heth er

/y,
and

on a:

C o n s id e r

th e

oc

then

c
cy,

dep end

r o ve s

277

oe

cc

V A R I A T ION

R E GARD I N G

s t em

co rr es p o n di n g

of

nd p nd nt V i

s am e v a u e

ar a bl es

fo r b o t h

2 a nd

we

h a ve

by d a t a,

Ag ain,

s i n ce a

i s th e

s am e

f o r b o th

2,

a nd

h ave

by

d a ta,
s

F ro m th ese

two

w h i ch p r o ve s t h at s

ee

q u at i o n s w e

"

h av e

t h at i s ,

A good
pon i t b
s

e x am

a s e an

pl

th i c
l tit d

Of

as e

i s th e

d p nd nc of
e

th e

a r ea

of

ri an

gl

E XA M P L ES

278

We h av e

A
A
l ti t d

( al t i t u d e
a l t i t u d e ( bas e

r e a cc

H nc
e

ba s e

e a re a cc

In

x a

the

r es t r ema i n cons tant,

when both

s a

v ary

m a n n er w e m ay p ro v e t h a t if s dep end on
a nd on thes e a l one, a n d var
y a s any one of these when

If

h n b oth

s a

a,

(7

e,

S im i ar

v,

con t nt )
con t nt )

bas e

re a cc

C H AP

a n,

oc

(y

oc

then

a, ,

a nd z

consta nt

l /y

oc

when

a l l var
y

a: cons ta nt

then

oc

/y

va ry

p l i f V P T d not th ol m p
d b ol t t m
O f gi n m
f
p f ct g th n
t
p
V 1 /P ( T con t nt ) V T ( P con t nt )
H nc i g n l V T/P
E m pl 1
nd
t w h n f i con t nt
d 2
If
f w h n t i con t nt
f wh n
l t i on conn ct i ng f t
t
1 nd t h
l i ght t n i on f 2 0 ( 5 ) th t w h n f d t b oth y
I t fo ll o w b y
= f t wh
i
H
nc
con t nt w h i ch w h t d t mi n
l
f
h n
i=1
N w wh
f = f 1 th t i &f
f ; i n oth w o d
th
l t i on q i d i th fo
w m
%f t
g Th
E m pl 2
f
g i nd ton i n l t d i t h i ng b t i t d i
Th th i ckn
g d lly d imi n i h
B y h w m ch m t i t
d i d i m i n i h b fo th
i
h l f f i t m i w o n w y ? G i n th t th m
d i ctly t h
m in
q
di w h n th th i ckn
n lt d
f th
th
d not th m
d i th n b y d t m =
wh
i
L t
con t nt
d i con q n
m b co m gm th n Am
b co m
L t n w
h nc
ex am

Fo r

er a u re

e,

ve

a ss o

er e

xa

e ra

cc

en

xa

ua

as s

s a

s a

an

s a

s a

re

u re

an

ce

e re a

es

s,

s,

av e

v ar

re , s

e er

ere

us

ve

er

s,

ra

s u

us

us

a s s v a r es

ere

us

ra

re

re

as

ra

e ss r e

er e

as s ,

us

e ra

in

s a

e re a

es s

u are o

u e

ra

av e a

us

o:

s cc

s,

ex e

e s

a s

s a

e re a

oc

ressu re , a n

e,

cc

as ,

s a

oc

e v

u s,

a a,

ar

ere

an

se

ue

ce ,

ar

ar
ar

th t
a

I2

Is,
r

w 1I e nce

V2

fo ll o w th fo th t th d i f th ton m t b d i m i n i h d i n
t i o 1 V2
th
E m pl 3
A dB
p tn i
b in
i n w h i ch th i i nt
t
i n th
t i o b Th y dm i t C to th p tn h i p w i tho t l t i ng th w hol
m o nt f c p i t l i n
h w y th t th i nt t f th th p tn i
th n q l 0 cont i b t to th c p i t l f th m
th b i n
It

s,

e re

e ra

a :

us

us

an

e ra

xa

ra

re ,

es s

ers

n a

us

us

ar

are

a re

suc

ua

a
.

es s

ar
a

e re s s

e r

ers

u es

eres s o
6

er

ar e

re e

ers

ar

n
.

E X E R C ISES

xm

X VI I I

279

h i h i w i thd w n f o m th c p i t l to b d i i d d b t w n
A nd B nd w h t c p i t l h d h i th b i n o i g i n ll
of t h c p i t l th y ch h
S l ti n Si nc w h t C p y i n i h i h
n lly i th b i n
l t n w
b A
h of C p ym nt
th t
h of th m I ff ct A f k
d B ( )
t
( ) i B
th
nd ( + ) i
of th b i n
H n th y h d o i gi n lly
By d t
th n w m t h
b in
H o w i s th e

s um

? a

'

o a

us

are

es s

z
c

'

us

ess

ce

a a,

ess .

us

e sa

av e,

ere

us

av e

ua

Hn
e

d i i d i ng by
v

ce ,

a;

be

bx

2 ac

b, w e

a re

ra

y ?

an

so

ou

'

av e

ea

9;

es

ee

:c

by

(2o
ax

dd i ng

b) x = ( 2 a

c
c

e ri v e ,

b( c

re ,

as

2c

are

h nc
th fo
w h
F o m th i l t q ti on w d

s s

es s

us

ea c

ra

be

an
;

to b oth i d
S

es ,

b) c

av e
a
s

H nc
e

9c

b) c
2
a
(

+ b

<2

th n th t A d B t k ( 2
b)
d (2 b
b)
p cti l y t f th b i n
C p ym nt m t b d i i d d b t w n th m
i
th
m
t i o f th
th t i i th t i o 2 b 2 b
Th y h d i n
th b i n
o i gi n ll y
p ct i l y
b)
d
It

r es

pp

ears ,

ve

ou

ra

us

us

es e

es s

an

ess

s,

su

s,

an

us

hn
e

F or

v a u es

or

9
v cc x

a
c

at

v a r es

re

as 32

v a ue

a:

z ?

cc x

ua

a n d ac

If

+y

cc a:

y,

th n
e

or n

+y

If

zg

a: 0 :

oc t
r

a:

e ra

re

ra

s , an

e r ve

my

cc

my

an

3 cc

+y

th n i th
e

er

mz + y3

oc

l /x

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2 85

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C ON D I T ION A L

2 86

E x am p l e

E Q U A T IO N

A HY P OTHE T I C AL I D EN T I T Y

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l eas t

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i s g i v e n by t h e fo ll o w i ng fu n d am e n tal p r op os i ti o ns
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a n s w er

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XIV

RO P O SI T I ON S

T O DE T ERM I NA T ENE SS OF S OLU T I ON

AS

Rig h tl y co n si de r e d th i s

287

l t im ate l og i al pr i ncipl e w h i ch
m ay b e d i s cu ssed b u t n o t i n any s t ri ctl y g e n eral s en s e p r o v ed
Th e r ea d er i s a w are
L e t u s i ll us tr at e by a co n cr e te e am p l e
t h a t a r e cti l in ear t i a ng l e i s d e t e r m i nab l e i n a v ar i e ty o f w ays
by m ean s o f t h r ee e l e m e nts a n d t h a t co n s e q u e ntl y t h r e e co nd i
t io n s w i ll i n g e n e r a l d e t e r m i n e t h e g u r e
TO tr an s l ate t h i s i nt o
a n a l yti ca l l a n g u ag e l e t u s t k e f o r t h e t h r ee d e t e r m i n i n
g e l em e nt s
th e t h r e e s i d es w h os e l e ng th s at p r e s e n t u nkn ow n w e d e n ot e
Any t h r e e c o n d i ti o n s u p on t h e tr i ang l e
b y x y 2 r e s p e c ti v e l y
m ay b e t ra n s l t e d i n to t h ee e q u ati on s co nn e cti n g x y 2 w i t h
is

an u

g i v en

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ll

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q uan ti t i e s 3

c o n s t an t

or

eq u ati o n s

t h e s e t h re e

i n g e n era b e su f ci en t t o d e term i n e t h e t h r e e v ar i ab e s ,
9
2
Th e g en er a p r i n ci p e
co m m o n t o t h i s a n d i ke ca s e s i s

si m p

l ess

ly P

in

ro

tio n

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o
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n eed

To

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t h a n Of l i m i ta t i o n
Wh at i s w an te d i s an

Of

r e tu rn

if

e x am p e,

u n d er

i t i s l iabl e t o

w h i ch

e x cep

p ar ti cu ar case : Wh at w ou d h app e n ,
o f t h e co nd i t i o n s i m o se d u p o n o u r tr ia n
e
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to

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w e r e t h at t h e s u m

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pr o o f
o f t h e ci rcu m s t a nce s

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of

tw o

of

th e

h ou l d f a ll s h or t of t he
T h i s con d i ti on co u l d be

Side s

g iv e n p os i ti v e qu an ti ty ?
sa
by a n e q u a ti o n ( na m e y, x y 2
e x p resse d q u i t e w e
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ed b
ai n , i t m i h t ch an ce
bu t i t i s f u
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lll

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t h at t h e

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th e t h r e e g i v e n

co n d i ti o n s

m er el y

w as

a co n

rs t We s h ou l d t h en h av e i n r eal i ty o n l y t w o
co n di t i o n s th a t i s t o s ay a na l y ti call y s p e aki n g i t m ig h t ch a n ce
t h at t h e l a s t o f th e t h r e e e q u at i o n s w as m e r e l y o n e d e i v abl e f ro m
th e t w o r s t a n d t h e n t h e r e w ou l d b e a n i n n i te n u m b er o f
Su ch a s ys t em i s
so l u ti o n s o f th e s ys t em Of t h re e v ari abl
se

i
n
u
e
c
e
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q

th e tw o

es

3x

2y +
22

by

f or,

e x am p e ,

f or

2, y

A n
th e L a w

am e

s e em s

to

th e

r e ad e r

l o w ch p
,

a,

be

re

qu i e d

x ix

1Q

m ay

w h er e

2 a,

D eter m i n a te M a n if ol d n ess

I See b e

'

as

e as i

is

th i
m i ght b

for

ly

v er i

an y

fy

it is

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s at i s

ed

h a ts o e v e r

p d i ng l og i c l p i nc i pl
gg t d

s al l- erv a
e su

es e

e :

PR O P OSI T IONS

2 88

I t w i ll be

f o ll o w i ng

in

s ee n

m e t i n par ti cu l ar
a d m i t P rop o s i ti o n

P r opo s i ti on II

cases

a nd

i bl es

an

v ar a

T hi s

sa

var i abl es,

v a u es

ar e

if w e

nu mber

an

sa i d

<

ther e i s i n g enera l

n o solu ti on,

L et

be

to be i nconsi s tent

v ari ab es

equ a ti ons

be

n , an d
as s i

us

th e

n u m b er

t o th e

n
g

rs t

of

p l ease , an d r eg ar d t h e se as cons tant

i n ni ty o f w ays If w e s u bs ti tu t e any su ch

s e t of v a u e s

w e ma y d o i n

s et o f

w h er e

y,

the system of equa ti o ns i s

F or, l e t t h e nu m ber of

m,

ca n

y r ea d i y
equa ti ons be less than the
v er

i s i n g en er al i ndeter mi nate
If the number of i ndep endent

nu m ber

tha n the

e qu at i o ns

f o ll o w

h e rs

If the number

P rop o s i ti o n I II
a
re
ter
g

ot

Obs er v e t h at

us

tw o

SO L U T IO N

h o w th e se d i ffi cu l ti e s

h apt e rs

M ea n ti m e l e t

OF

solu ti on

the

var i a bles,

DE T ERM I NA T ENE SS

AS TO

we

i n th e m

t i o n s t o d e t er m i n e t h e

e q u ati o n s,
a st

h av e

we

v ar i ab e s

n o w a s et o f

and

e qua

t h i s , b y P r o p o s i t i on

ll d o d eter m i nat el y I n oth er w or d s for ev ery set o f

m v ar i abl es th e m e qu ati o ns
v al u e s w e l ik e t o g i v e to th e r s t n
i
v e u s a d e t er m i n at e s et o f v a l u e s f or th e l as t m
W
e t h us
n
e
t
a
g
g
i n ni te nu m ber o f s o l u ti o n s 3 th at i s th e s o l u ti on i s i nd eterm i n ate
N ex t l e t m be n If w e tak e th e r s t n e qu a tions th es e
i
t
v
e
a
d
e
er m i n at e s et or a
w i ll i n g e n e r al by P ro po s i ti o n
g
ni te num ber Of d et erm i na te s ets o f v al u es f or al l th e n
If w e n ow t ak e o n e o f t h e s e s e t s Of va l u es and
v ari ab l e s
t h ey w i

>

su bs ti tu t e
e q u a ti o n

it in

t h er e for e i n g e n era

I t m ay, o f
r e o s i ti o n d o e s
p p
e q u at i o n s

w h i ch h as t h e

for m er

n ot

h app e n

h ol d ;

eq u a t i o n s ,

t h at

e qu ati o n s

wi

ll

ti ona l

cases ,

foll ow i ng

t h at

y s te m

of

th i s

thr e e

1,

2x

5,

th e

d e ter m i na te , h o w m any

fo ll o w i ng

excep

w i tn e s s t h e

co m m o n s o u ti o n x

t o t h i s , i n th e

Of

in

s ys t e m

v a r i ab e s

We h av e al so

tw o

Th e

be i ncon s i s t e nt

co ur s e ,

i n tw o
x

is

n ot

q uati o n
n ot i n
r a l t th e
e
n
e
g
e

r em a i n i n

i n g e n er a l be s ati s ed 3 f or , if w e tak e an
a t r a n d o m , an d a s o l u ti o n a t r a n d o m , th e l a tte r w i ll
wi

ll

th e

of

on e

cas e

of

f ur th er

2, y

2 y = 8,

qu e s ti o n,

s o u t io n s

i n te g ra l

p r o p o s i ti o ns

3x

ar e

e q u at i ons ,

Wh e n

s ys te m

The

answ e r

f u r n is h e d

by th e

t h er e ?

is

t he

MUL T IP L I C I TY OF DE T ERM I NA T E S OLU T I ON S

XI V

P r opos i ti o n I

A determi na te sys tem of

whose deg r ees i n these

vari a bles,

nu mber

nth

deg r ee i n

one

at

a nd

P ropos i ti on I I
i vely, ha s,

the

more, whi ch may be r eal or comp l ex,

not a ll u n equa l, a ccor di ng to ci r cu ms ta nces

a l l u nequa l or

equa ti on

n roots and no

has

vari a bl e

A n i nteg ra l

2 89

mos t, p qr

nteg r al e u a ti ons wi th
q

var i a bles ar e

and

sol u ti ons ,

mi

has,

p ect
j ust tha t

p , q, r ,
i n g ener al ,

r es

P r o pos i ti on I w as pr ov ed i n th e ch ap t er on co m p l e x nu m
b ers , w h e r e i t w as Sh o w n th a t fo r any g i ve n i n teg r a l f uncti o n
Of x o f th e n th d eg ree t h e r e are j u s t n v al u e s of x a n d n o m ore
.

re d u ce

t h at

f u ncti on

th a t

co m p e x , a n d al l u ne q u a

P r op os i ti o n II w i ll

to

t h es e

z ero ,

th e

or n o t a s

v a ue s

ca se

m a y be

or

e x ce p t

in

r ea

b e p r o v e d i n t h i s w o r k,
o ccu r i n
ch a p te r s t o
f o ll o w
n ot

be i ng

l a r cas es w h i ch
G e n era l
r oo fs w i ll b e f o u n d i n s p e ci a l t r e a t i s es o n th e t h eo r
p
y o f e qu a
ti o n s
We s e t i t d ow n h er e becau s e i t i s a u s e f u l g ui d e t o th e
l ear n er i n t each i ng hi m h ow m an y so l u ti on s h e i s to ex pe ct
I t w i ll al s o e na bl e h i m occas i on all y t o d e t ect w h e n a s ys te m
i s i nd et er m i nat e fo r if a n um b e r o f s o l u tio ns b e f ou nd e x ce e d
i ng t h a t i nd i ca t e d by P ro p o s i ti on I I t h e n t h e s ys t e m i s ce r ta in l y
i nd e t er m i nat e, t h at i s t o say h as a n i n n i t e nu m b er o f s o l u
p ar t i cu

t i o ns

E x am pl e

o l t i on
u

tm
tt

Th e s ys
As a m a

er

of

+y

1,

f ct th
a

ese

po t on

1 h as , b y P re
si i
s are x :
0, y :
u i

ol t on

Two sys tems

si s t o

on e or

solu ti on

f A

f A
Fr o m

more
is

equ a ti on s,

a solu ti on

B ( each of

a nd x

1,

w hi ch

may

con

) ar e sai d to be equivalen t when every

of B a nd ever
u tion o
so
l
f B a solu ti on
y

e u a ti ons

a nd

1,

EQU I VAL EN C E OF S Y S T EM S OF EQUAT I ON S

7

II

ni ty

of

n e ce s sar i

In

ot

of

s ys t e m ,

d e d u ce

be th e

w or ds, w e

case

A,

a no t

Of

h er

e q u at i o n s ,

t
s
y e

t h a t t h e tw o

m ay n d i n

q u ati o n s w h i ch w i ll b e

VO L I
.

g iv en

w a ys

ly

h er
e

a ny

an

in

s a ti s

w e m ay

in

an

in

B 3 b u t i t w i ll n o t
s s t e m s ar e e u i val e n t
y
q
,

n i ty

ed

by

of

w ays

al l

v a u es

y s t em ,
of
th e

DEFI N I T I ON

2 90

f or w h i ch A i s

v ar i ab e s

t h at A w i

v e rs el y
sat i s

th e

ed TO
v al u e x
.

t ak e

1,

s a ti s

ed

by

1)

x x

e qu i v a ent

so

to

in

co n v e n i e n t

e d f or all
v er
s i m p l e e x am p l e
y

d by

ot

no

i s, i n

suc

fo r
0 is

is

x x

is

ed

w h en

0 is

s at i s

fr o m

1,

ed by
sati s e d by
s at i s

0 is

ed

an

f o ll ow co n
w h i ch B i s

h e r by
s at i s e d w h e n

not a w a s
y

1 to

eit

to 0

not

0 , bu t i s

no t

0,

fact

m o re t h an

v a u es

s at i s

0 is

ot

no t

h e r 3 x (x

1)

C H AP

b ut i t w i ll

s a ti s

be

for i t i nv o l v e s

ed 3

= 0 r e d u ces x
f
a
or
;
0 m ay b e d e r i v e d

x x

s a ti s

h er h a n d
t h e r e f or e x

1,

is

x x

B r i e y,

sa

O n th e

or

an

1 , t h at i s t o

ll

EQU I VALEN C E

OF

an d

cas es

to

as

e q u i v a en t
a

l t er na ti v e s
1)

t
h
a
t
y

sa

to

O is

I t w i l l be

e qu iv a e nt

to

d er i v e

fro m o ne sys t em an o th er w h i ch
i s ex act l y e q u i v al en t w e m a y call t h a t s t ep a r evers i bl e d e ri v a
If
t i o n b e cau s e w e ca n m a k e i t b a ck w ar d s w i t h o u t f a ll acy
Wh e n

by

a n y s t ep

we

th e

is

s ys t e m

d eri ve d

t h e r eby t h at

i rr eversibl e, m ea ni n g
e x a m i n at i o n

T h ere
l og i c

of

e q u i v a e nt ,

n ot

m ay

we

th e back w ar d

ca

ll

s te

th e
re

s te p

q u i r es

f e w p ar ts o f al g ebr a m o r e i m p or tan t t h an t h e
d er iv at io n Of e q u a ti o n s, a n d fe w , u nh app i l y, t h a t

ar e

th e

l y fas h i o n i n e l e m e n tary t e ach i ng

N O m e r e b l i nd ad h er e n ce t o s et ru l e s w i ll av ai l i n t h is m at t er ;
w h i l e a l i t tl e a t t e n ti o n t o a f e w S i m pl e p r i n ci p l e s w i ll r eadi l y
r e m o v e a ll d i f cu l ty
I t m u s t be bor n e i n m i nd t h at i n O p er at i ng w i th co nd i ti onal
e u ati o n s w e al w ays supp ose t h e v a r i a b l e s t o h a v e s u ch va l u e s
q
a s w i ll r en d er th e e qu a t i o n s i d e nt i ti e s a l t h ou g h w e m y n o t at
t h e m o m e nt a ctu all y s u bs ti tu t e s u ch v al u e s or ev e n k n o w t h e m
We ar e therefor e a t every s tep hyp otheti cally a t l east app lyi ng the
ar e

t r e a t e d i n m or e

s o v en

fu ndamenta l l aws of a lg ebra i ca l transforma ti on j u st as i n chap i

Th e f o ll o w i ng g e n era l p ri n cip l e a l re ady l ai d d o w n for real
1 2 for com
q u ant iti e s a nd ca r e fu ll y d i s cu s s e d i n ch ap x ii
e tak e n a s th e ro o t o f t h e w h ol e m atter
l
x
ua n ti t i e s m a
b
e
q
y
p
.

A DD I T IO N

X IV

L et P

do

n ot

a nd

If P

a nd

be two functi on s

become i nni te

to consi der

O th e rw i se, the

P 4 0 , then wi l l

a nd

0,

P
R i s ei ther

t h en

ot

w o rd s , i f

Co r 1
.

to the
ti on,

If w e

other , a t

the

if w e

or

deduce i n

Q
Q

same

ti me

w hi ch make P

both P

or

a nd

tha t

(m
,

functi o n of

the

var i abl es

r ever s i ble

R,

a ll

rever se

a n e u ati on
q

from

the

one si de

i ts si g n of addi ti on or su btr ac
on both si des of an equ a ti on, we

r eversi ng

the

si g ns

ea ch ca se a n equ i va len t equ a ti on

t h at i s ,

B S

Ag a i n

S,

S S,

S P

R S

th a t i s ,

or

C or 2
.

sa

y,

if

Every equa ti on

can

P Q,

RS

be r educed to

the form

For, i f t he

e q u a ti o n

be

a n equ i va l en t e u ati on o
q

th t foll o w l l f ncti on f t h
i bl th t pp
ppo d
b co m i nn i t f
ny
l O f th
i bl cont m pl t d C as
nd t ndi ng i i ol t d m t b con i d d p t l y
th i

In

ere

h ol d s s o d o es
transfer a ny ter m i n

and

R=

th en

not t
wh

if P

O,

2
( )

For, i f

mm

0,

Q: R
FR = Q q

her

those

var i a bl es

or

t h at i s ,

in

thi s deri va ti on is

Fm f

whi ch
y, 2 ,
var ia bl es tha t w e have

var i a bl es x,

then wi l l P

the

co ns tant or a ny

We s h all s h o w t h at

2 91

f u n d a m e n tal l aw s Of al g e br a

by t h e

Mm

T E R MS

or

w here

the

=
t=0 ,

only va lu es o

f oll o w s

It

a ny va lu es

or

make ei ther P

are s uch as

T RA N S P OSI T I O N

AN D

al l

s u

s a

e rs a

or

s v

s o

e v ar a

v a u es
a e

us

es

v ar a
s

es

e re

ea r a re su

se

ar a e

a e
.

se

es

MU L T I P L I C A T ION B Y A F A C T O R

2 92
w e h av e

P Q

tha t i s

w h i ch i s

of

E x am p l e
Su b

for m
3

th i w
id
s

all

th e

si

one s

e,

so

gn

s,

we

ra

n can a
of

th e

reversi bl e

fun cti on of

the

is

F or , i f

be

g e n era pr i n ci p

le

of

B u t, if

by

q u i va

be

v a u es o f

l en t

ng d w i th
m i po i t i

e arra

er

ua

al l

i ts

erm s o n

v e.

of

l g ebra th a t

from

di eri ng

0 , bu t

not

QR

8,

QR

P
(

Q) R

=
I=0

it wi

ll f o ll o w fr om

by t h e

7 , t ha t

to

th e

f u n cti o n Of

th e

l nt q ti on

u i va e

"

P Q
w h i ch i s

PR

co n st an t

QR

i s , by

t h at i s ,

N ow , if

PR

a cons tant

var i a bles

a n e u i v a en t e u at i o n
q
q

th e

av e

es

PR

be

fu nd am en tal l aw s

th e

then

bei ng

lw y b
h i gh t t

s tep

x 2 4 x

ua

we

es ,

av e

f o ll o w s fr om

It

the

+ x + 4x + 3 = 0

nt g l q ti o
th t th co fci nt
i

an

3x3

In

f om both i d

3x3
a

O,

3x + 2 x + 3x

t t g

Ch ngi ng

Q
R

HAP

in

ra c

th e

v ar i ab e s

( 4)

v ar i ab es ,

th a t

s a ti s

m ay

a so

be

sa ti s

ed

fy
5
( )

h v a lu e s w i ll n o t i n g en er al sa ti s fy
fact ( 2 ) i s e q u i v a l ent n ot t o
bu t

an d s u c
.

In
a

l ter nativ e s

p oc
t i on
h ll
.

to

1
( )

an

5
( )

as

pok n O f
m l t i pl y i ng th
q t i on by R Simi l l y th
pok n O f
dd i ng
f om th q
f 8 i
bt ct i ng R to
Th i l ng g i n t t ictl y co ct b t i
on n i nt th t w e
i t wh
n
conf i o n i t b f d

Thi

ess o

us e

is

as

s s

e re

ua

as
o

us

or s u

s r
s

r re

e are

, 7

ua

ra

or

so

ar

ve

ua

D E D U C T IO N

x 1v

I N T E G R AL F R OM R A T ION A L E Q U A T ION

OF

2 93

Fr om th e abov e it fo ll o w s th at di vi di ng both si des of

a n equa ti on by anyfu ncti on other tha n a constan t not equ a l to zer o i s not
Co r 1
.

l eg i ti ma te p rocess

T hu s

QR

PR

der i va ti on,

is

eq u i v a ent

g iv es

Q R/R

w h i ch

is

e q u i va e n t

to

P R/R

w h er e a s

w e may thereby l ose solu ti ons

s i nce

m er e y t o

P Q =a

E xam p le

di i d

If w e

oth i d
s

d c i t to
q i l nt to
w h i ch i
(
h nd i q
th oth
( )
by

1 , we

on

er

H nc
e

tw o

2,

C or 2
.

y
o f d er i v at i o n

fr acti ona l
ys

Also

gi

xa

v es , o n

pl

l nt to

2
)

o l t i on
u

s x

1,

i n the

a lg ebra i ca l or

have

gl

2 3 w

h il

h as

on l y th

Si d e s

of

e q ua t i o n

an

by

i n the

ar i thmeti ca l s ense,

ici ents

i n whi ch the

coe

we

can

ar e a l l

a l ways s o ar r ang e a n

i n teg ra l

e u a ti on

q
s ay the hi g hes t, sha l l be

term we p lease,

tha t the

co

3x + 2

6x + 3

2x + 4

l t i pl yi ng b oth i d
s

t ct i ng 1 0

er s ub ra

h
id

are

m ay, t o x h i s
a si n

measure

n o comm on

es

by 4 0 ,

e re

e as ,

e v a ri ab e

m er e y
as su m e

5 ( 2x +

8 ( 6x

20

As w e

2,

d iv id e b o th

or

4 8x

24

l ox

f o m both i d

+ 20

6 8x

of

s,

ft

a ny

mu

ce , a

u i va e

l o( 3x + 2 )

th t i
wh n

2)

(x

(a)

1)

q u an t i ty d iff e r i ng fr om z e ro i s a r e v e rs i b e pr o ce ss
e n ce , if the coei ci ents of a n i nteg r a l equ a ti on be

we ca n

ci ent o

ree s

)(

ua

ei ther

a nd

i nteg ra l,

nd a n equ i va l en t equa ti on

a l wa

s e

To m u l t ip l y

co n s t a n t

an

th

( a ) h a s th e

2)

q t i on

u va e

s e

re

th e

es o f

24

2 0,
es ,

0 3

t l i h i ng n g t i p opo i t i on th
d
th t l l th l tt
t nd f i nt g l f nct i on
e s ab
a

e rs

ve

s a

or

ra

r ea

er

D ED UCTI ON

2 94
w

h nc g
e

e a

ain , a

I N T E GRA L FROM R A T I O N AL E Q UAT IO N C HA

OF

ft d i
er

vis i

on

of

oth i d
S

E xam pl e 2

7
1

u va e

s e

es

9%

F r om

S u pp ose w e

or

m u l ti p l y

W+r q 3/

2 2

we

eri v e

mx

2 2

2 2

+p q y

92 w ,

h a ve

ra ti o n a

ar e

i nteg ral equ a

solu ti ons ma
y

extr a neous

bu t

( )

Q
al

of

Q t h e n LP an d L Q
b ot h s i de s o f ( ) by L

in

by p q ( p 2

s,

+q

bu t i t i s p oss i ble that

t h e d e n om i n a t o r s

in P

2 9: J

every ra ti ona l a lg ebr ai ca l equa ti on a n

L CM

Of

10 + q
a

an

th t i
9%

w here P
.

q)
Q

be i ntr odu ced i n the p rocess

10

by p q ( p

l nt to

lJ

H ow }

be dedu ced

ca n

ui va e

x
+

m2

(v

Cor 3
ti on

i7

s,

ua

l(

th t i
whi h i
q

l t i pl y b oth i d
q i l nt q t i on

If w e mu
e

q
th e

by 6 8 ,

es

LP

i n t eg ra l

n ot

fra cti o n s t h at occur

H e n ce
both i n t eg ral
.

ei t

h er

if

we

w e d e d u ce t h e i n te g ra

e q u ati o n

(e)

LQ

Le t L b e t h e

l th e

are

l l L co ntain s th e v a r i abl es i t i s
0 m ay sa ti s fy
and
p o s s i bl e t h t s o m e o f th e s o l ut i o ns o f L
We s ay
su ch s o l u t i o n s w o u l d i n g e n er a l b e e x tr a n eou s to
p oss i bl e 3 i n g e n e ral h ow ev er t h i s w i ll n o t h app e n be cau s e P
factor s i n L
n d Q co ntai n f ract i on s w h ose d e n o m i n a t o r s a
H en ce th e s ol u ti o ns o f L 0 w i ll i n g e ne l m ake ei th er P or Q
i n ni te a nd t h er e fo r e ( P
Q ) L n o t n e ce s s ari l y ze ro Th e p i n t
a t i ssu e w i ll b e b e s t u n d e r s t oo d b
s tu dyi n
t
h
e t w o fo ll o w i n
y
g
g
e am p l e s
E m pl 1
Si n ce ,

h ow e v e r

t h e m u t i p i er

re

ra

xa

2 x 3 +

6x + 8

If we mu

l t i pl y both i d
s

2
x
3)
(

ra

by

(x

2)

(x

we

dd c
e

(a )

u e

th e

q ti on
ua

2 9c
)(

( B)

h ch i i nt g l d i t i d by ny ol t i on O f ( ) W m t ho w
o l ti on f ( 2 ) (
ti fy
Th
mi n w h th
y f th
t
ol t i on
2
d
Th
cond f th Ob i o l y do
t i fy
m t
nd w
d ; b t = 2 doc t i fy
d n d n t b con i d
it
m i n ( ) to
w h th
t i th t q t i on l o

w i

e xa

es

s are x

an

ex a

ee

an

s sa

er a n

an

s ee

s o

er

e re

sa

es

e se

e se

sa

ua

us

sa

a s

us

e v er ,

ese

es

no

sa

us

RA ISI NG BO T H S I DE S T O SA ME PO WE R

XIV

fo

Now,

si

6x + 8 5

ce

(x

2)

( a ) m a y be

(x

w ri

tt n i
e

2 95

th e

q i l nt
u va e

rm

h ch i O b i o ly not t i d by 2
I t pp
th fo th t i n t h p oc
d
d th
t n o o l t i on 2
E m pl 2

w i

us

sa

ears ,

u ce

e re

e e x ra

xa

re ,

e us s

oc d i ng
ee

O f i nt eg ral is a t i on

es s

we

ave

nt o
r

2 x3 6 x + 8

3 +

Pr

93

be

as

( 2x

fo

re ,

3 ) (x

dd c

we

(a )

t
a 3

{lg

u e

2 ) (x

6x + 8) (x

ll b fo nd th t n i th o f th l
ti
2
3
H nc no t n o ol t i on h b n i nt od c d i th i c
N B
Th
on w h
t i ( B) i n E m pl 1 i th t th n m
2
6 + 8 f th f ct i on on th l ft cont i n t h f cto
2 w h i ch
to
cc i t h d no m i n to
I t wi

e x ra

u rs

C or 4

Th e

er

av e

rea s

y x

p ower i s

us s

is

s ides

e qu i v a e n t

ed

wi

ll

"
I
P

by

an

s ta n d ar d

er

r x

i nteg ra l

sa m e

deri va ti on

(l)

we

s o u ti o n

for m
t h en

o
ces s o
r
p

be

es

to the

of

It

(1) 3

h o w e ver

is

n ot

b ut to

to

e u a ti on

an

n ot a r ever s ibl e,

P
s a ti s

ase

I f w e m u t ip y by
d e d u ce f rom ( 2 )

is

sa

oe z

to

xa

u a ti o n

w h i ch

es

Ra i s ing both

e q u iv a e n t

l eg i ti mate, bu t
q

ra

ee

sa

v a u es

Obs er ve d th a t
P

if w e

s tar t

w i th

0 , tr a n s fe r t h e p a r t

an

u
a ti o n
q

t o t he

ri

i n th e

g h t hand
-

to t h e nth p o w er , t h e r e s u t i s th e
sa m e a s i f w e h a d m u ti
i
e
d
t
h
d
u a t i o n i n i ts
o
s
i
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
e
b
p
q
i
n tr o d u cti o n O f
o r i i n a f o rm b
a ce r ta i n fa ctor
m
k
t
h
0
a
e
e
g
y
e x t ra n eou s fact ors m o re e v i d e nt w e ch o s e t h e att e r p r o ce s s 3 bu t

s id e , an

r a i se

bo t h

s id es

i n p r acti ce t h e f orm e r m ay
I f th e r ead er w i ll r efl ect
in

h ap

o f a r a t i o na

t h i s ki n d

for

ra ti on a

l isi ng fa ct or

on

l i s i ng

th e
an

h e w i ll

e v er y a l g e bra i ca

to b e t h e m o r e

h app e n

n at u r e o f
al

s ee

e b r ai ca

t h a t by

e q u a t i o n ca n

low

See b e

12,

be

c o nv e n i e n t

*
.

t h e p r o cess d escr ibe d

l f u n cti on

rep e at e d
re d u ce d

E x a m pl e 3

by m e a n s

O p e r a ti on s
to

of

a r a t i o na

2 96

EVERY ALGEBRA I C A L EQUA T I O N C AN BE

fo rm

3 bu t

s t ep e x tra ne o us

at eac

C H AP

I N TE G RALI SE D

s o u t io n s

m ay b e i ntr o d u ce d

u a ti on

ca n

H ence
Co r 5
.

bu t i t does

equa ti on

E x am pl e

h
po i t i

th e

ere

ve s i

n ot

ed

be

tha t

di c nd

ra

gn

Con i d

th e

er

ar e s u

a r a ti ona l

der i ve

by

sa ti s

fol l ow

we

eq

a ny sol u ti on o

every s olu ti on, or

even

fy the ori g i nal

the der i ved equ a ti on will

s olu ti on, o

w hi ch w i ll

equ a ti on,

i nteg ra l

every a l g ebr a i ca l

F rom

s a ti s

the g i ven

tha t

a ny

one

q ti on
ua

ppo d to

be

se

r ea

an d

th e

u are r

oot to h

(a )
av e

th e

*
.

l nt to
1
V( +
by q
i ng
w h nc w d i
1
+1=1 +
w h i ch i
q i l nt to
1
2 M(
F o m th i l t g i n by q i ng w d i
(a ) is

u i va e

er v e ,

u ar

u va e

s e

as

u ar

er v e

h ch i q

w i

s e

l nt t

u iva e

th e i

nt g l q t i on
ra

ua

4x
th e

on l y ol t i on f w h i ch
I t h pp n h
th t n
s

Pr

E x am pl e

oc d i ng
ee

e re

is

5:

c tl y

V( w + l )
be

as

fo

re

we

+1

H ( B ) gi
o i gi n l q t i on
a

fo r

VG}

V( g

1)

v es

ua

1 +x

(x

1
1
5

4 ao

av e
x

ere

is

er ,

e xa

ere a

see

a s

( c)

h ll h ft
not ol t i on of (

we

as

4 (x

4( x
0

h i ch h pp n th i t i m to
e

be

ol ti on of

th e

i o n by g i i ng t w
o o i ti n
We o ncl de t h i di
p p
n t i n i n g m o e t h an o n e
pp l i abl e t o ys tem o f e qu t i on s
ti n
T h e s by n o m e n
h t t h e bj e t 3 b t
o
eq
o bj e t h ere i s m
el y t o
w k e n t h e i nt ll ig n e of th
s tu d en t
t h e r e t m y b e l e f t t o h i m s e l f i n t h e m e nt i m e
a

ua

s cu s s

er

co

ex

su

F rom the sys tem

P , = O, P ,

ur

as

Pn

0,

aus

( A)

we deri ve

P,
a nd

the two wi ll be equ i va l ent if L 1 be

Vh n V
t k n nl

to b

ac

is

e ss

i m gin
i t i oth
a

y, i t s
er w i s e i

ar

a consta nt

p i nc i p l
nd i c t d

a e

Pn

O,

v a ue

di er i ng

( see

hp

B
( )

from
.

x xix

o ght
u

s o u ti o n o f

Any
to 0 ,

an

B
( )

re

al l

Pn

P , , P, ,

to 0 ,

P 3,

P2 ; P 3 ,

r ed u ce s

and

s ay,

i f L, be

c ase , a n

s o u t i on

co n t a i n

a c o n s ta n t

Of ( B)

s a ti s

l to 0 ,

P,

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by ) ( bx
by) ( bx

)
a y)

by ) ( bx

av

av

w e g et

ab x

61 5 3

4 )x y

b2

e xy =
l=0,

4 )xy

t n po i ng

re , an d

it

52 969 .

ra

we

a bc x y :

r ea

ch n lly
a

0,

concl d th t

we

3
b
4 a bc = 0
c
+
+

l t f l i m i n t i g y b t w th q t i on
q t i on ( n) i O ft n c ll d th l i mi n nt (
S ch
( ) ( B)
l t t ) f th gi n y t m f q t i on
E m pl 8 S ho w th t i f th t w t f th fo ll o w i ng th
q t i on b
gi n th th i d
ppo d th t
b d d c d i t b i ng
0
th t ( n)

so

i s th e

an

su

q u i re d
an

ve

xa

ve

re

is

ua

as

ca n

My

u e

u va e

vz

x3
/

ua

+ 31

o S

rs

ee n

e e

ree e

se

su

i f we

ua

or

9 2

11 5

ua

w )
2 2
a2 x (2 + x ) + 2 x
a wy( x + 9 )

re

(a )

be w ee

a e 2

li mi n t

n(

a nd

( B)

th e

and
g

a i

a x

M ul t i plyi ng

( 5)

an d

(B)

h nc
e

ax

( e ) by

20

+x

an d

{f (w

j ct i ng th f cto

e , re e

cco d i ng t pow
+

mu

l t i pl yi ng

a nd s u b t ract i mI

( 6)

w e g e t,

an

ax

p ct i ly
ve

we

ax y

h ch i p

{ (

a x

d ( e ) by

av e

'

ew )

w +
y

la

(e )

t ct i ng

a n d s u b ra

an d

r a

w e g et

e rm ss i b e s i

xy 2

j ct i ng th f cto
e

+ y)

a x + x

er re e

we

v)

y) 2 , w i

r a x

ft

r es

axy

Ag in

ers o f 2 ,

a (

WW

a yz

x,

?
z

q i l nt t ho w i ng th t

rra

r es u

s e

lt i
A ngi ng (

res u

Th i

ay :

uiva e

(a
U s i n g (7 )

n ew

=0 ,
xy a

l nt to

or

)
from ( c)
2
(c

eas

bx2 ( bx

ft t n po i t i on to

dd c

we

av e

r)

er

e
w
(

th t i to
U i ng
a

we
x

ua

ay

ng

s e

( bx
(

w ic

ce x

: y,

: 0,

res

p ct i l y
e

ve

2
,

( n)

EXER C I SE S

XIv

Fi n lly m l t i pl yi ng ( 3)
bt
t i ng w g t i nc
a

su

an d

ra c

h i h gi
q i d
th

v es

e re

u re

a
r es u

lt

(x

- x
y a nd

a x

+ y)

ww

t d

a xy

res

p t i ly
ec

ve

an

=
I=O

e 2

{um+

( n) by

30 5

X IX

m m

f -

- x

xy

y)

a xy x

wl m
=

w+

0,

E X E R C ISES X I X

(0n
S

ol

ve

by i

th e Red u cti on

qu

n p ct i on th foll o w i ng
s

a ti ons

ys

x
ax

q ti on

e ms of e

ua

s :

2b

+b

I nteg r a l F or m

an

to

x - a

b) x

(b

(b

w)

Fo r w
be

com

e an

h t
a

va u es o f a a n d

d nt i ty

x -a

do

ra

q t i on
ua

) ( 3x

nt g li th foll ow i ng q t i on 3
l nc O f th n l q t i on t th gi n
I

th e

es

se

ua

+1 +1

+a
a

ia
x

+
x

di c

1
c

14

ch

cas e

th e

e qu i va

1 + d x

1
a
x

1
x

+c
2

+
x

2
b
+
b

I O)
(

(3

(1 1 )

ea

b2
+

in

s u ss

2x + 1 1

+2

o ne

ve

a nd

ua

+ 11

+p x

+q

l l

+px + t

1a

(
x
x

hn
VOL
e

+ (2

c a

)(

0
a

T+ U

t
)

'

+ (2

+ T U

2 T= s + t s

-s

st

t )
- t3

E X E R C I SES

306
x

(15 )

C HAP

+b

ax

R t i on l i th foll ow i ng q t i on d d c
fo m po i bl
i mpl
wh
X Y Z
a

se

e a

ua

v ar i ab es

re

u e

th e

ar e

ra

c+

/[M
ne w s m an

ua

Vx + V( x
Vx + 8
Vx + 3
+ 33)

t i on l f ncti on
a

of

(y

- 2

E x/ ( y z ) :

Vx + 2 9

- x

03

and s

w)

ho w t h t M
a

i
x

%
5 2c

22

/ ( a - Mx )

(0 n

the Tr a nsf orma ti on

3
:

/b

X E C ISES XX

y,

ere

v a ri ab es x ,

a
3

y)

V( 3 Dy2 ) ( th ree

f S ys tems of E qu ati ons )

t d nt ho l d m i n c f lly th l og i f
d
tph tk
t i fy h i m l f th t i t i con i t nt w i th h i d t
ibl
ho l d l o m k l to h i m l f w h th
h t pi i n t
[I n w o rk i ng
e

a s

th i

es , a n
a

s s et
sa

e c ear

th e

s u

se

ex a

se

(U

tl i ei l

th e

Vx + 48

s e

f(w

x/ ( a

l ti ng q t i on t

Ix

r e su

ss

as

an

e re

m+ a

as s

X I X XX

s or

s e

y
1

I
x

+y+z

e v ery

co

s s e

er ea c

are u

He

a a

r e v ers

E X ER C ISES
If

the

3
a

{(

3
C
L

3
z

'

) y}

as

a
t,

be

) }

+y

an

(y

307

+y
3

re l d i f
y
le t f the th ree must b equ l
If

xx

{(y

3
3
z a
c

) }

)+

( Ta i l )

J ) = 0,

(x

the n

at

If

the n
(5

If

(p

the n e i ther
If

my

56
2x

( 9%

or

373

gr

b r

me

6 61

here

,o

sh

ow

and

the

th t e ch
If
a

of

in

0,

0,

2 2
6 2

the the ry
o

of

the w ve sur f ce
a

+y+

z=

0,

cz) ,

( by + cz

if

(9

If

+ 2y

y + 2z

the n
Za b
10

If

2 a b + b2

m
a

the n
the n

If

and

ab+

a 2

2
+
a x

'

Za J

e
cu
z

cz

b?

ab+

+b

lf 2

ab

(y

if

f l at [3
.

the

My

ca

the m i equ l t
s

b c

( Imp ort an t
( 1 ) If

{W

2
x

2 2

9
8 2

2 n+ 1

2 98 17

2 332

here
the

a
c

-5
+
B 7
)

f (a B
)

7:

b)

c,

the

y,
n

2,

a -

Ta i t

E X ER C IS ES

308
m

If

g
b

m
a M

If

9
3
3 b

a -

zx
_

then

If
an

2
z

y
= b+
+
b e
_

u ltered by i nter ch
d i t w i ll v ni sh i f x + y +
be

2
z

na

an

gin

2
x

her e

n on

y4
i

a:

2 , a ny

G ve

of

tw o i

an

2,

t o yz +

zx

an d

as,

+ xy

a: an

e a

the e ch

# y,

these

of

is

2
m
1
w
+
(
)

a:

( m + 1 )w

( n + 1 ) acy

mply the thi rd ( C

a yl ey

yz

my

na o

n x

o,

ha

5
a

or

3
x

an

90

n x

If
2

the de n mi t rs b ei g er the = y =
2 m=
G i ve
i=o p r ve 2 ( y +
G i ven Z = 0 pr ve
G i ve 2 = o pr ve th t 2 2 /2 i i depen de t f x y
5 mys y the
2
E y+ 2 3
If 2
1 + 22 y =0
II (
l)=
If
1
d 2 y
+y+ =0
/ = 0 the
n

01

on

w Q

2
z

u n ltered by i n terch ngi g

d y it
g x d p r v i ded y z b ll u equ l ;
31

9
g

E/

ls
O f the th ree equ t i s
a

a nd a

If

equ l t

be

+ ( yz

ll

cm

th t

ow

wi

an d

sh

C H AP .

XX I

XX ,

refers t the f ur v ri bles

o

the n
x,

y,

z, u

her e the

E X E RC S ES
I

XX I

( 0 n E li m i na ti on )
.

El i m i n te
a

If
of x

a:

V( a y

etw een the equ t i s

a

V(

2
a ax

on

e press
x

e
(L Z

/)

in

terms

EXER

x xv

(3

If

(L
c

a
b
c
+
(
)

b( c + a

b)

pr ve th t
m
y
b 3/
( 5 G i ve
y b
th t
f the fu ct i s i b i
o
Sh w th t the result f el i m i ti g
a

309

XX I

)
My) ( 1
y)
= F ( x l FU ( 1
F(
JV

x (y z
x
z
x
l-z x )
+
+
(
y(
y)
y z)

G ve

2 /( a

F (a: )

the

C I S ES

one o

on

ex

a2

(t

+ b c)

9
03

x,

ez

c a

2
z =

na

a: an d

y b

i s ( b%

2 -

)p

'

El i m i n te
a

ac,

y,

a x

'

fr m

S
C ,

by 2
'
'
by 2

ax
'

h ch b
d i ffere t

2
90

t ke the pl ce
a

10

d 2)

2
,

'

ay

of a , S

ow

th

'

ac y

th t w s i m i l r equ t i s
pr v i ded b c b
a

on

e al l

an

y tw o

of

the f ll
o

ow i n

g equ t i s
a

on

ca n

be

deduced fr m
o

a az+

be = zu

by

El i m i te x
na

ca

y,

d b z wc,

2w ,

da

cc z

x y,

x ( 2 + x
)

y)

z fro m the th ree equ a t i ons

(z + w

sh

it

Sh w th t
the ther three

an d

on s

c ) (b

wi

a nd 0

If
w i

et wee the equ ti

2 (7L2 b2 )p 2

a al

Q 7/
9

pr ve

za z

2 y:

ow

+y

(y + z

th t the re ult i
a

s a bc :

(y +

(a

cv

+ a d = yz

C H A P TE R X V

Va r i a t i o n
Th e

v i ew

of

F un c ti o n s

w hi ch w e t oo

of

of

t h e th e o y

co n

di t i onal

robl em of ndi ng a s e t
o f v a l u es o f t h e v a r i abl e s w hi ch s h o u l d r e n d e r a
i
v e n co n d i ti o n l
g
e q u ati o n
n i d e n ti ty
Th e r e i s a n o th e r o r d e r o f i de as o f a t l ea s t
e u al
n
l
t
q
y i cal i mp or tan ce a nd o f W i de r p r a cti cal u ti li ty w hi ch
w e n o w p r o cee d t o e pl a i n
I n s t ea d o f l o o ki ng m er el y a t th e
v al u e s o f th e v a r i abl e s x y z
w h i ch s a ti s fy t h e e qu at i o n
e

t
i
u
a
o ns
q

i n la st

ch ap t e

l ed

t o th e p

us

f(
t h at i s, w h i ch
al l

r e nd e r

s i bl e v a l u e s o f
o
s
p

v al u e s o f

re

s t,

the

t o g iv e

w e d i s co v e

t h e fu n ct i o n

ze o

x,

y,

t h e fu n cti o n f ( x, y,

t h e f u n cti o n 3

v a l u e s s u f ci e n t

th e

va

r i abl es

or , a t

t h os e

rr

p os s ibl e co e sp on d i ng
co n s i d e a n u m b e o f s u ch

r i d ea o f

v al u e s o f

w e con s id e

z e o,

a n d al l

l eas t, w e

u s a cl e a

z,

th e w h ol e 3 t h e n ,

th e

va

r iabl es

w h i ch

am o n

rend e r

Th e t w o m eth o d s m ig h t be i l lu s t r ated by t h e
o f nd i n
r
t
i
cu l ar m a n i n a l i n e o f s ol d i e r s
a
a
p
g

t w o p o s s ibl e w ays

We m ig h t ei th e r g o s tr i g h t t o so m e par t o f th e r nk w h ere
a p r e o n e i e d t h o r y w o ld i n di
te hi p r e e n ce 3 o w m i g h t
w l k al o ng f r o m o ne e n d o f t h e l i ne t o t h o th e r l o o k i ng t i l l w e
fou nd hi m
I n t h is n w w y o f l o k i n g t an l y ti l fu ncti on s
th e g r ph i c l m e th o d
i t i c l l e d i s f g r t i m p o r t n ce
Th i s o n i ts i n r ep r es n t i ng t h e p r p e r ti e s o f th f n ti n i n
n w i th
m e w y by m e n s o f a g e om e tr i l fi g r e s th t w
th b d i ly e ye t k a com p r eh e n si v e v i e w
f t h e p e u l i ar i ti es o f
a

ca

so

s s

an

y i ndiv i d u al

as

ca

ca s e

ea

ca

e ca

RAISING

x xv

s ce

N ow,

in

BO

TH S I DE S

6e+8

r tte

( a ) m ay b e

( a;

2)

SAME P OW ER

TO

w i

in

tegr l i s t i

on

2 x 3 + x 4

h ch i b v i usly t s t i sed by 2
I t ppe rs theref re th t i t h pr cess
d
d the e t r e us s lut i n w = 2
E mple 2

w i

s o

no

u ce

an

xa

the equ i v le t
n

of

in

we

h ve
a

in

tr

23 3

2 95

r ceed i g
n

as

3)

ef re
o

(x

2 ) ( a:

3)

S) ( a;

6 3;

a;

deduce

we

-8

3)

(a )

I t w i ll b f u d th t e i the r f the v lues

s t i se
He ce e tr e us s lut i s h ve bee i tr duced i th i s c se
N B The re s
wh
2 s t i s f es
mple 1 i th t the numer
i E
t r w 6 + 8 f the fr ct i
the left c n t i s the f ct r 2 w h i ch
ccu rs i the de m i t r
e

no

p ower i s

Th e
is

l eg i ti ma te, bu t

not a

I f w e m u l t ip ly by
d e d u ce f om ( 2 )

P
e q u i v al e n t

to
1

l
(

a n

by

an

to the

equa ti on

an

r e ers i bl e process of
P Q
P Q 0
v

ed

xa

to

s a ti s

e q u a ti o n

w hi ch i s

s ides

e q u iv al e n t

on

Ra i s i ng both

na o

on

no

C or 4

y x

on

a on

an o

a o

s o l u ti o n

s ame

der i va ti on

(1)
Q

ra l

i nteg

l
,

we

h o w e v er, i s

of

n ot

b u t to

P
2

r v e d th t i f w e s tar t w i th an e qu a ti o n i n t h e
s ta n d a r d fo r m P
Q 0 t r an s fe r t h e p r t Q t o t h e r i g h t h a n d
t
h
e
w
r
s id e an d t h e n r a i s e b o t h s i d e s to t h e n th
t
h
e r es l t i
o
e
p
I t w i ll b e

o bs e

i f w e h a d m u l t i pl i e d b o t h

s a m e as

s i d es

of

the

e q u ati o n

i n i ts

r ig i nal form by a ce r tai n fa cto r To m ak e t h e i nt r o d ucti o n o f

e t r a n e o u s fact o r s m o r e e v i d e nt w e ch ose t h e l att e r p r o ces s 3 b u t
i n p r cti ce t h e fo r m e r m ay h app e n to b e t h e m o r e co n v e n i e n t
I f th e r ead e r w ill r e fl e ct o n t h e n at u r e o f th e pr o ce s s d e s cr ib ed
i n ch p X for r ati o n al i s i n g a n a l g eb r ai cal fu n cti o n by m e an s
o f a r a t i o n al i s i n
f
ct r h e w i l l s e e t h t b
r
e
a t e d o p e r a ti on s o f
g
y
p
t hi s ki n d e v e r y a l g eb r ai cal e qu a t i o n ca n be r e d ce d to a r a t i o n l
See b el w 1 2 E mple 3

a
le

xa

2 96 E VERY
fo rm 3 b u t

EQUA T I O N

ALC EB RAtCAL

h s t ep

a t e ac

C AN B E I NTEG RALI S E D

m ay b e i nt r o d u ced

s ol u ti o n s

e x t a n eo us

ca n

H en ce
Cor 5
.

ra l

ry alg ebr ai ca l

F r om

equ a ti on

eve

we

der i ve

ca n

a ra ti ona l

ed by a ny solu ti on of the g i ven

equ a ti on ; bu t i t does not fol low tha t every sol uti on or even tha t a ny
sol u ti on of the der i ved equ a ti on w il l s a ti sfy the or i g i n al one
si de the equ t i
E mple 1 C
i nteg

w hi ch w i ll

equ a ti on,

be

s a ti s

xa

on

on

here the r di c ds
supp sed t b re l
p si ti ve s i g
( ) i equ i v le t t
V( + 1 ) 1
w he ce w deri ve by squ ri g
1
w h i ch i equ i v le t t
Fr m th i s l st g i by squ ri g w deri ve
w

an

at

E xa

mple

as

4 ( a;

on

s no

on o

xa

as

ef re w h ve
o

Here
gi ves
i gi l equ t i
on

We

or

M( E

Kg

1)

4 (x
0

to

h ch h ppe s th i s t i me

= g, w i

t o be

s lut i
o

(B )
of

on

the

co n cl u d e

ap pl i cab l e

1 + 2 x/ ( a3
+ 1 =1 +x
1
2 V( 9c l
1
5

na

or

s x

r ceed i g e ctly
o

av

V( x

l y s lut i n f w h i ch w sh ll see here fter i

I t h ppe s here th t m= a i t s luti f ( ) f
on

the

oo

h ch i equ i v le t t the i ntegr l equ t i

the squ r e r t t h e the

a n,

1
w i

an d

ar e

(a)

t hi s

m
s
t
e
s
y

by g i vi ng t w o p r op o s i ti o n s
o f e qu a t i o n s co n t a i n i ng m o r e t h an o n e
dis cu s s i o n

Th e s e by n o m e an s e x h a u s t th e su bj e ct 3 b ut, as o u r
o bj e ct h e r e i s m e r el
y t o a w a k e n t h e i n te ll ig e n ce o f th e s tu den t,
e q ua ti o n

t he

r est

m ay b e l e f t t o hi m s el f i n t h e m ea nt i m e
F rom the sys tem
P , = O, P Q

Pn

O,

A
( )

= 0

we der i ve
)

Ll P l
a nd

L2 1

Ln P n

0,

P2

the two wi ll be equ iva l en t if L I be

to be

a cons tan t

m g i ry i t pri nc i p l v lue
t ke u less i t i ther wi se i d i c ted

V h on
V

P 7,

O,

n,

Va:
n

is i

s o

na

differ i ng

( see

ch p
a

B
( ),

from
.

x xi x

ught

E X AM PL E S

x 1v

s o l u ti o n o f

Any
to 0,

an

h e n ce

d t h e r ef o r e

sa ti s

Ag a i n,
and

th e

th e

an

ca s e, a n

s ol u t io n o f

s i m pl

if

L ,P ,

be

r e d u ce s

to O,

s a ti s

Pn

P2 , P3 ,

an

to

al

l to 0 ,

0 t o L ,P ,

L ,,P n

LQ P ,

a co n s t a n t =
1=O ,

B
( )

th e

co n t ai n

H en ce

O,

i n thi s

es

va

r iabl e s

O,

PQ

then (B

e q u i v al e n t , n o t

is

to

A
( )

y, bu t t o

j
As
s

al

Pn

P , , P, ,

L, P 2

L ,P ,

( B)

so l u t i o n o f

s ay,

ce s

2 97

es

t hat i s to

If

r ed u

( A)

s te m

r e du ce s

r ef o r e r e du ce s

DERIVATI O N

or

P,

p a ti cu l a

th e

of

ca s e

O,

abo v e ,

h av e t h a t t h e t w o

we

ys t e m s
P

S;

an d
ar e e u i va e n t
q

F o rth e s e m ay b e w r i tt e n

If l, l
whi ch

m, m

ar e s uch

be

O, R

O3

O, R S

whi ch

constants , a n
y one o

tha t l m

'

may be

ze o,

but

l m =l= 0 , then the two sys tems

U
a nd

lU

lU

O,

O , mU

0,

mU
'

'

ar e e u i va l en t
q

Th e pr o o f i s l ef t to t h e r ea d e r
d e m o n s tr a te d i n ch ap x v i ;
4
.

A ny

sol u ti on o

a solu ti on o

s p e ci a l ca s e

A
( )

QS R = S

(B) ;

ar e not e u i va l ent
q

w e de i ve

PR Q R
2

s i n ce

u se d a n d

the sys tem

bu t the two sys tems

w hi ch ,

is

the sys tem

PR

F r om P

P
is

is

e q u i v al en t

PR

I t f ol l o w s t h e r e fo r e t h a t

an

to

QS

s ol u ti o n of

A
( )

s at s

es

2 98

E X AM PL E S

S tar ti n g

DERIVA T I O N

OF

B
w
e ha v e
,
)
(

n o w w i th

PR

S i nce R S ( 1 )

beco m e s

PR
w hi ch i s

QR

q u i v al e n t t o
P
(

t h at

is,

i
al e n t
u
v
q

O:

to

P Q

R
He nce t h e s ys t em ( B ) i s

th a t i s t o

o th e

In

wo

e qu i v al e n t

r ds (B)
,

P
R

Q R S
0 S
O

O,

i nv ol ve s , be s id e s

a
:

h i ch i ddi ti t the s lut i

b el n gi g t the s ystem
n a

on

on a

2, y:

al t e n at i ve s ys t e m ,

y,

2, y : 1 , we
a = 1 + y,
1 , h as a o

deri ve the s yste m

ls the s luti
o

on x

O, y :

0, 1 + y = 0

I n t h e p r oces s o f s ol v i ng s ys te m s o f e q u ati on s , o n e o f
m o s t co m m o nl y-occu rr i ng r e q u i r e m e n ts i s to d ed u ce f r om t w o

th e

m ore

ass

on x
~

a3 2

or

"

y,

( A) , th e
0

x x
,

0,
:

as

S
R S

Q R

E mple Fr m
2
1
system w h i ch h the s i gle s luti
.

to

P
R

R
xa

to

s ay ,

th e

of

ig ne d

va

e q u at i o n s

r i abl es

a no t h e

Th i s i s

th a t

call e d

s h al l n o t co n t a i n ce

el i mi na ti ng

th e

va

ri

r t ai n

bl e s i n

11
r
f
d
o
r t h e p u r ose
1
e
p
q
p
f o r m i ng th e el i m i na ti o n w e m ay, o f cou r s e , u se any l eg itim at e
r
r
i
va t io n bu t s tr i ct a tt e n ti o n m u s t al w ay s be pai d t o
o
c
ess
o
f
d
e
p

between th e

u e s ti o n

eq u a ti o ns

u se

th e q u e s ti o n

e q u i v al e n c e

E mple G i ve the s yste m

xa

2
7
J

(I)
a)

w+ y = 1

requ ired t el i m i te y th t
v lv i g l e

i t is

in

na

:2

a on

i s, t o

deduce fr m
o

(1)

a nd

(2 )

an

equ t i
a

on

EX

xv

A M PLE

31 5

The ge ner l f rm f the gr ph f

the right -h n d s i de f the i s f y
i Fi g 2
i c ce r ed w i ll b
A s reg rds eg ti ve v lues f
f the
n d the left h n d s i de
the p rese nt
is f y i
i t i me r el y ecess ry t n t i ce

th t i f w put
the
i c n ce r ed
sult f
1
i f w put
+
i the s me
3
He nce
f
1
+ )
) 1
every p i t P the cu rve
f
d rd i te
w h se b sc i ss
d + M P ther e w i ll b
+ OM
p i n t P w h se bsc i ss nd
d MP P
rd i te
OM
F
2
the i m ges f e ch
nd P
ther w i th respect t Y Y ; d the p r t AP B f the gr ph i merel y
i m ge f the p r t A PB w i th res pect t the l i e Y Y
L et see w h t the gr ph tells us eg rd i g the fu cti n 1
F irst w see th t the gr ph cr sses the
i s t t w p i n ts
d
m re
1
th se mel y f w h i ch
1
d
He ce the fu n ct i 1 h
l y t w r ts 1 nd 1 3 i ther w rds the equ t i
o

on

e as

a:

- a

ax

case ,

on

o n

a an

an

na

na

an

a re

an

us

na

on

oo

"

or

an

9
:2

no

an

n o

ac :

sc-ax

IG

ar e

ar e
e

or

as

or

re

a,

a;

ar a s

so

ax

ar as

so

"

on

as

on

1 w2 = 0

d
re l r ts
1
m re
+1
Sec dly S i ce the p rt B AB f the gr ph li es w h lly b ve d the
i s w see th t f
p ts C B CB w h lly b el w the
ll re l v lues f
l yi g betw ee 1 d + 1 the fu cti 1 i p si ti ve d f l l ther
e l v lues f eg t i ve
Th i rdl y We see th t the gre test p s i t i ve v lue f 1
i 1 c rresp d
d th t b y m k i g x sufc i e tl y gre t ( ume ri c ll y ) w
i g t
g i ve 1
eg t i ve v lue l rg e umeri c ll y w ple se
Al l these results c uld b
b t i ed b y d i rect d i scuss i
f the fu ct i
t
gl ce
b t the gr ph i d i c tes them ll t the y

h as tw o

oo

on

so n

an

a n

or a

an

an

or

as

H i th e r to

we

as

as

a n

h av e

"

on

no

oc-a x

an

an

a3 :

r a

ar

o
t

e a

as su m e d

an

ca n

on o

on

on ,

t h at t h e

re

are no

br eak s

or

d i s co n ti nu i t i e s i n t h e g r ap h o f t h e fu n cti o n
Su ch m ay, h ow
e v e r, occ u r 3 a n d , a s i t i s n e ce ss ar y, w h e n w e s e t t o w o rk t o
.

d i scu ss by
t h at

no

co n s i d e

g en e

r al

co n s id e

r i ng

p o s s ibl e cas e h a s
th e e x cep ti o n s

a co n t n u o u s cu

The functi on

l p o s s ibl e cas e s, a bov e all t o b e s u r e

es cap e d ou r n o ti ce, w e p r o ce e d n o w t o
t o t h e s t at e m e n t t h a t t h e g r a p h i s i n

al

rv e

may become i nni te f or

ni te valu e of

316

D FFE

RE NT

I N DS

OF D

IS C O N T IN U I TY

ca n

E mple 1

C s i der the fu cti n

i
very l i ttle less th n + 1
) Whe n

the
1
1
1 0 00 0 0 3 th t i t
) gi ves y
y
/(
y
d ve ry l rge 3 nd i t i
b v i us th t by bri gi g
f
y y i p s i t i ve
1 w
gi ve y l rge p s i ti ve lue w ple e
i tl y e rl y up t
d i f b very l i ttle g e ter th
1
O the the r h
y
1 0 00 0 0
d it i
b v i us th t b y m k i g
the y = 1 /(
ecd 1 by sufci e tly m ll q n ti ty y n b m de l rge n eg ti ve
qu n ti ty w ple se
The gr ph f the fun cti n 1 /( 1 ) f v lues f n e r 1 i theref re
f ll w s
The b ch BC scen ds t
i i te d i st n ce
l ng
K AK ( l i e p
llel t th
is t
di st nce fr m i t
y
c t inu ll y c m i ng
e rer t KAK b t ever
re ch i g i t t y i te di
t nce fr m the - i s The
br ch D E c mes p fr m
i i te d i st
ce l ng the
the s i de f KAK i n s i mi l r
m ner
Here i f w c use t i n
cre se fr m v lue 0 L very
l i ttle less th + 1 t v lue
F 3
O M very l i ttle gre ter the
v lue f y w i ll jump fr m very l rg e p s i ti ve v lue L O t very l rge
eg t i ve v lue M D 3 d i f t the sm ller w m ke the i cre se f
pr v i ded l w ys w p ss fr m the
s i de f 1 t the ther the l rger w i ll
b the j ump i the v lue f y

d di
n
I t ppe rs the n th t f
+1
) i b th i n i t
xa

on

ac :

sa
sa

c en

an

as

e a

a:

an

as

ua

va

an

ca

as

sa

a
c su

as

at :

as

a ex

r a

s o

e ca n

n a

a:

an

or

as

as

r an

an

-a x

n a

on

an

IG

an

ti n u ou s

ac

or a

mple 2

on

an

n at :

e an

s co

1 /( 1 zv) 2

or

a:

a n
.

an

or a

a: n a

s as

a
c,

y
t o th e

on

ai

We le ve the d i scussi
e de r The gr ph i i Fig 4
The fu ct i bec mes i i te
1 3
d f
ve ry sm ll
w he
i c reme t f
e r th i s v lue the
I f ct
i c reme n t f y i very l rge
i f w i c re se
d i m i i sh fr m the
v lue 1 by n i i tel y sm ll
i
m u t y w i ll d i m i ni sh by
i tel y gre t m u t
Here g i w h ve i i te v lue
d i sc nt i u i ty
a

E xa

r a

o a

on e

a:

an

an

a o

an

an

x ax

an

a o

ar a

FI G 4
.

of

the fu ncti

on ,

a nd a

cc mp
o

an yi n

DI FF EREN T K INDS

xv

II

The

DIS C ON T INUI T Y

OF

the fu nction may make

va lu e o

w
h
t
ecomi ng
b
i
t
ou
p

um

317

i nni te

Th e g r aph for t h e n eig h bou r h o od o f su ch a v al u e w ou l d be

o f t h e n a t u r e i nd i ca te d i n Fi g 5 , w h e r e , wh il e 9: pa ss e s t h r o u g h
t h e v al u e O M , y j u m p s f r o m M P
.

MQ

to

S u ch

i m m e d i a t el y p o v e ,
t e g r al f u n cti o n s o f
ca nn o t

o ccu

fu nct i on,

f u th e

i n g f o m al d e

A
chang e

it here

we

h av e

f
f or

an

e
b
a i cal
g

n ee d

val u e o

no t
FIG 5

'

j u st

co n s id e e d

sa id

to be

l e ad

conti nu ou s

the i ndep endent

a ls o

i nni tely s ma l l ;

i nni tely sma ll cha ng e

the

al

to g i v e t h e f ol l o w

us

va l u e o

the fu nction i s

is

w i th i n

I n fa ct i t

we

n i ti o n

t h at

fu ncti on
i n the

a)

any

so

ca s e s

o ccu

w i th

co n s i d e

Th e

w e s h al l

a case cann o t, a s

the function i s

w hen f or

the cha ng e i n the va lu e

var i a bl e

to be di scon ti nuou s w hen

a nd

the i ndep endent

i nni tely s mall

an

va

ri a ble the chang e i n

r ni te or i nni tely g r eat

ei the

I t may happ en that the va lu e of a fu ncti on, a l l of whose

s tants ar e r ea l, becomes i mag i nar y f or a r ea l val u e of i ts var ia bl e

III

con

E mple
Th i s h ppe s wi th the fu cti
p s i t i ve v lue f the squ re r t
de l w i th the gr ph i i Fi g
xa

oo

s as

V (1

on

th t w
a

so

sem i circle
ri gi

f ct

in

v lues

al l

o n

no

the

at

No
g eb

s u ch

r ai cal

cas e

as

f u n c t i on

t hi s

an

our

ca n

o n

r is e

so

ow

18

ann o

on

on

on

ca

e no

can

on o

as

l o ng

See bel

na

e ar e n o

1,

or

+ 1,

or

al

is

a:

a3

h se ce tre

of

on

the

v lue f y
l
) i i m g i ry 3 nd the
V(
gr ph i c p i ts f them c
t b c structed
i the k i n d f d i gr m w
w us i g
The c nt i nu i ty f the fu cti
t A
t st ri ctl y spe k i g b tested ; s i ce i f w
ttempt t i ncre se bey d + 1 y bec mes
i m g i n ry
d the r e
n b
quest i f the
i tude f the i c reme t fr m
prese t p i t f v i e w t le st
a

- a

Fo r

on

If w c e u rselves t the
h ve s i gle v lued fu ct i t

is

r a ti o n a l

L IMI T IN G C ASES

318

ha v e

th e

n o w e num e a ted

C H AP

e x ce p t i o n al ca s e s o f

f un ct i on al

r i at io n so far a t l eas t a s i s n eces a ry fo r p r e s ent

G r aph i c p oi n t s at w h i ch an y o f th e p e cu l i ar i ti es j u s t
o ccu r m ay b e g e n e r al ly r efe rr e d t o a s cr i ti ca l p oi n ts
va

pu pos es

O N C ER T AIN LIMI T ING C ASES OF ALGEBRAI C AL

w h i ch w e

s i ti o n s, s o m e o f

r e ad e r

m ay, i f h e

s h all

ta

ke

all

not

ar e

th e m

Sh all

we

so

illu s tr ate

cau ti o n

th e m e a n t i m e w e

th e

un

PERAT I O N

u s e d al ea d

de r st ood

To

r o po

i m p o r ta n t

Th e

Th e
y
al t h o u h , a s
g

a x i om ati c,

i n d ep en d ent

m att e r i s th at t h ey b e th o r ou g hl y
be

as

t h e f ol l o w i n g p

h av e i n ci d ent al ly

ch oose,

t h ey

s e e,

s ys t e m at i cally

l ay d o w n

nex t

t h ey

di scu s s ed

we

s e cu e

t h at

f th em by e x a m pl es
In

th at by
i n ni t el y s m all

s om e o

r e ad e r

w e m e an , i n m ath em ati cs ,
s m al l e r t h a n
i n ni t el y g r e at

or
as s m al l a s w e p l e a s e,
an d
a ny a ssi g n abl e f r acti o n o f u n i ty,

r
r
or
as
eat e r t h an a n y a s s i g n a bl e m u l t i p l e o f u ni ty ,
e
a
t
as
g
g

or

we

no

f or

or

w hi ch i s

oo

an y as s i g nabl e

th a n

is

He m u s t b e s p eci all y

l
e as e
p
s m b ol
y
.

th e

s i m pl

m ag ni tu d e,

for

h i s g ua r d ag ai ns t t r eat i ng

a bb r e v i a t i o n fo r
r
e at e r
g

on

an

d e ni te q u anti ty
i t a n y of t h e l a w s o f

as

Th e r e

p pl y i n g t o
ati n g w i th i t a s w e d o w i th

us ti cati o n

op e

an

r d i nary

al

b
a,
e
g

ym bol

of

u a n ti ty

If

be

constan t

var ia ble,

p r ovid ed i t does not become

i nni tely small, then when Q becomes

or

i nni tely g r eat when Q becomes

i nni tely s ma ll P Q becomes i nni tely s ma ll

O bs e r v e th at no thi ng
a ti o n

i n th e

whe

ca s e

00

b e i n fe rr e d w i th o u t f u r th e r

ca n

e x am i n

re P

b e com e s i n n i t el y s m all
t e m i n at e f o m

b e co m es i n ni t el y g r ea t w h e n Q
Thi s ca s e l ead s t o t h e s o -call e d i n d e

E mple 1
L et supp se f e mple th t P i c st t 1 0 0 00 0 y The i f
w m ke Q = 1 / 1 00 0 00 w r educe P Q t 1 3 i f w m ke Q = 1 /1 0 00 0 000000 0
It i b u d tl y ev i de t theref re
d
w r educe P Q t
3
sm ll w ple se
b m de
th t by m k i g Q sufc i e tly sm ll P Q
xa

us

xa

or

an

so on

I d ete m i te f rms
n

on

an

na

ca n

di

sa

n,

s a

ar e

an

as

scussed i ch p
n

as

xxv

LIMI T IN G C A S E S

xv

E mple 2
xa

319

L et

P = 9c + 1 ,

i m de t
He e w he
ppr ch the v lue + 1
v lue 2 w h i le Q ppr ches the v lue 0 Supp se
the n
r

a
:

oa

PQ

sm ll
E mple
a

as

as

xa

,
,

ppr ches the ni te

e mple w put 1

for

oa

xa

(2

v usly theref re
w ple se

O b io

PQ

an d s o o n .

oa

by

su fc i e tly d i mi i sh i ng Q
n

we

can

m ke
a

Q = a3

P : 1 /( x9

Here w h ve the pecul i rity th t w he n Q i m de i i tel y sm ll P ( see

We n theref re n l ger
b el w P r p s i t i n I I I ) bec me i i tel y gre t
i n fer th t P Q b ec mes i n i tel y sm ll b ec use Q d es
In p i nt f f t
=1
w h i ch b ec mes
PQ (
w he n
I I If P be ei ther cons tant or var i a bl e p r ovi ded i t do not become
i nni tely sma l l when Q becomes i nni tely g reat then when Q becomes
i nni tely g r eat P Q becomes i nni tely g r eat
Th e cas e w h e r e P b e com e s i n ni t el y s m all w h e n Q be co m es
a

ca

so

a
c

on

ac

i n ni tely g r e a t m u s t b e fu r th e r
t o as t h e i nd ete r mi nate f o r m 0

e x a m i n ed

3 i t is

u sual l y

r efe rr e d

00

E mple 1
Supp se P = 1 /1 00 000 The n by m k i ng Q = 1 0000 0 w reduce P Q t 1 3
d
It i
by m k i g Q = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 w reduce P Q t 1 00 00 0 0 ;
n
cle r theref re th t by sufci e tl y i re si g Q w c uld m ke P Q e ceed
h w ever g re t
ny n um b e
The tude nt sh uld d i scuss the f ll w i ng f h i mself
E mple 2
xa

r,

so o

or

P =x + 1,
xa m

ple 3

P Q = oo w

(x
PQ = 0 w

If P be ei ther

l /( x I )

he

P:

I II

xa

nc

an

he n

constan t or va

o
c=

ri able p rovi ded

,

i t do

not

become

ni tely sma ll when Q becomes i nni tely small then when Q becomes
i nni tely s mal l P /Q becomes i nni tely g r ea t
Th e cas e w h er e P an d Q b e com e i n n i t el y s m al l fo r th e s am e
v al u e o f t h e v a r i abl e r e u i r e s fu r th e r e x am i na t i on
Thi
s g i v es
q
in

th e

l l e d i n de t e r m i nate fo r m

s o -ca

L I M ITI N G

32 0

C AS E S

am p

E mple 1
Supp se P c st t = 1 /1 0000 0 I f w m ke Q = 1 /1 0000 0 P /Q bec mes
1 3 i f w m ke Q = 1 /1 0 00000 0 0000 P /Q b ec mes 1 00 000 0 3
d
He ce
m ke Q sm ll en ugh w n m ke P/Q l rge
w see th t i f nl y w
w ple se
The studen t sh uld e m i n e ri thmet i c ll y the tw f ll wi g c ses
E mple 2
xa

on

e
e

an

an

e ca

so on

as

as

xa

xa

F = az+ l

E mple 3
xa

P /o

be ei ther

If

he

P /Q = 1 w

IV

n c
c:

ca se

whe

fur th e r

u i es

= w1

he n

'

=1

re P

vi ded i t do n ot become
r
o
p
g r eat then when Q becomes

cons tan t or var i a bl e,

i nni tely g r ea t when Q becomes i nni tely

i n ni tely g r ea t P /Q becomes i nni tely s ma ll

Th e

P:

a nd

ex am i nati on

b eco m e i n ni t el y g r e a t t og e th e r r e
Thi s g i v es th e i n d e t e r m i na te f o r m

Q
.

CD

00

E mple 1
Supp se P c st n t = 1 000 00 I f w m ke Q = 1 000 00 P/Q b ec mes 1 3
He ce by
d
i f w m ke Q = 1 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 P /Q b ec mes
3
m ke P/Q less th ny ssi gn ble qu t i ty
suffi c i e tly i cre si ng Q w
E mple 2
xa

on

xa

e ca n

an a

xa

an

a nd

ni tely sma l l
F o r, l e t

for ti ori

th e
,

n wz

Q = 1 /( a

in

v al u e o f

he

V If

Q = 1 / (w

P /Q = 0 w

P /Q =
ea ch

he
i nni tely smal l

oo

become

then

P Q

becomes

P
va

be t h e

r i abl e

num e

Th e n,

if th e y h av e

ri

l l y g r eat e r of th e t w o f or
if th e t w o h a v e t h e s am e S ig n,

pp os i te

ca

s i g ns , n u m e

<

2P

an

y
and ,

r i cally

ni te a nd by hyp o th e si s P can be m a de as s mal l as

ca n b e m a d e a s s m all as
H
I
a b ov e
2
P
a se
b
e n ce
l
e
y
p
ca n b e m d e a s s m a ll a s w e p l e as e
se
e n ce P
H
l
e
Q
p
VI If ei ther P or Q become i n ni tely grea t or if P a nd Q each

N ow 2 i s
we

so on

E mple

we

an

P =x + 1,

a
.

L I M ITI N G

xv

C ASE S

32 1

become i nni tely g rea t and both have nal ly the

becomes i nni tely g r eat

same si g n,

P Q

then

P r o of

S i m il a

t o l as t

Th e i nf e r e nce i s
Si g n

s am e

th e

for m

n ot

ce

r tai n

if t h e t w o h av e

ca s e

the

I n t hi s

r e ar i ses

E x am pl e l

= (2x

1 vv
e 1 r

A ls
P+

2 a: 1

mple

=1

in

c
+ 2z

(w
w

he n w= 1

en
c
e

h
a:

3
a

(w
2

Her e
I n f ct

i n d e te r m i n at e

t he

oo

00

E xa

n o t u l t im a t e l
y

m kes P
th i s c se
a

Q
Q

oo

th t

so

oo

I ve 1 r

(2x

we

a n no

in

fer

P + Q = oo

P+

a:

1)

(a

(x

( 513

v lues f
fw
e rl y
1
ny v lue
w ple se
In
y f
th i s c se theref re by bri g i g
e r t + 1 w ple se w c use the
v lue f P + Q t ppr ch n e r t 1 w ple se
al l

fo r

23, o r , s a

oa

a:

as

as
o

as n a

or a

o a

n a

as

as

as

Th e p r o p os i ti o n s s t a ted i n l as t pa r ag r aph ar e th e f u n da
m e ntal p r i n ci pl e s o i t h e t h eo r y o f th e l im i ti n g ca s e s o f a l g ebr ai cal
7

o p e at i o n

L i m i ts

on

Thi s

i n th e

su b e ct

b e f ou n d

I
P ,,

If

u s ef u l

ch a

pte

co n cl u s i o n s ,

w hi ch

i n W h at f oll o w s

P ,P 2

a l l r ema i n

b e fu r t h e r d e v e l o p e d i n t h e

r
o f t h i s w o rk
t
p
w e d r a w t h e f o l l o w i ng

s e co n d

I n t h e m ea nti m e
w ill

w il l

then

wil l

r em a in

ni te

P,,

ni te

ni tely smal l if one or m or e of the fu ncti ons

P become i nni tely s ma ll p r ovi ded none f the r ema in
P P
i ng ones become i nni tely g r ea t
P wi l l become i nni tely g r ea t if one o mor e of the f nctions P
P become i nni tely g rea t p r o i ded none of the r ema i n i ng
on s become i nn i tel
y s ma ll
II If S P P
then S w i ll r m i n ni te f P
P
P each r ema i n ni te
P

, ,

wi l l become i n

, ,

,,

,,

, ,

, ,

,,

VO L

, ,

L I M ITI N G

322

ni tely small if

CASES

e mu

P , , P, ,

wi l l become i n

P ,,

each

become i n

ni tely small
S w ill become i nni tely g r ea t if one or more of the functi ons P
P
P become i nni tely g r eat p r ovi ded all thos e that become
i nni tely g r eat have the sa me si g n
III Consi der the quoti ent P /Q
both P and Q be ni te
cer ta i nly be ni te
.

,,

,,

, ,

may be ni te if

0,

if

00

0 if

or

r tainly

wi l l

ce

or i

Q
Q

0,

0,

=
l=0 ,

P =l= 00

00

may = 0 if P

r tai nly

w i ll

ce

ON

TH E

00

if

P
P4

O,

oo i

0,

or

oo

= w

oo

f
if

Q
Q

0,

or

may

00

0,

= w

Q
Q

4:

Q
Q

O,

oo

oo

03

C O N T INUI T Y OF F UN C T I O NS M O RE ESPE C IALLY OF

RAT I O NAL F UN C T I O NS
,

We r etu r n
f u n ct i o n s

the i ndep endent

For

t o t h e q u e s ti on

of

the

co n ti nu i t

of

B y the i ncrement
h

no w

e mple
xa

fu nction

vari a ble a

we

corresp ondi ng

r e m e n ts

an

i n cr ement

h)

mea n

the i creme t i (
l/
the i creme nt i
if f ( x )

to

+ h)

ao'

r)

azz

r p s i t iv e o r ne g ati ve acco r di ng
h
t
c i r cu m s ta n ce
T
e i n cr e m e n t o f
ar tl y t o ch o i ce a n d p a r t l
o
p
y
t h e i nd e pe n d en t v a r i abl e a i s o f cou r s e e n ti r e l y a t o u d i s p o a l ;
Th e i nc

m ay be

e i th e

bu t w h e n
as s i g n e d ,

i s g iv e n t o i t, a n d w h en to i ts el f i s a l s o
i n cr em e n t o f t h e f u n ct io n or d epen d e nt v ar i ab l e

any

th e

i s d e ter m i ne d

v a lu e

C O N T INUITY

XV

E mple
L et the fu ct i
xa

PR O DU C T

OR

323

of

A SUM

OF

the n i f

b e l /x ,

on

I f a : 2 , h : 3,

l /oc i s

the c r esp d ing

the i creme t f 1 / i

1, h :

c
c:

3,

in

on

o r

ai

c reme t
n

an d s o o n .

If

be

f u n cti o n

i s i ncr e as e d f r o m
th e

v al u e o f

We
I

a:

w h e n a; i s

p d eno t e i ts i n c e m e n t w h e n a:
h, th e n , by th e d e ni t i o n o f p , P p i s
at,

and

al t e e d

fr o m

c
c

to

a:

p ov e t h e f oll ow i ng p o p o s i ti on s
The a lg ebr ai c sum of any ni te nu mber of conti nuou s fu ncti ons

ca n n o w

fu n cti on

a conti nuou s

is

to

of

rS P Q
i n cr eased by

u s co n s i d e

L et

R,

s ay

I f th e i n cr em en ts

of

h, b e p , q, r , th en th e v al u e o f S ,
w h e n a: i s ch ang e d t o a
h, i s ( P + p )
( Q q) ( R r ) ; and th e
i n cr e m e nt o f S co rr e s po n d i ng t o h i s p
N o w , s in ce P , Q ,
q r

R, w h en

is

R ar e
in

n it el y s m

p
s m all
.

co n t i nu ou s

a ll

fu n ct i o n s ,

w h en

ea ch o f

h b ecom es i n n i t e l y s m all

b e co m es i n n i t el y

+ r

r e m en t s

th e i n c

s m all

w h en

p , q,

be com es

r,

H e n ce

by

7,

It b e co m e s i n n i t ely

H en ce S i s a co nti nu ou s fu n cti o n
Th e ar g u m en t e v id e n tl y h old s f or a su m o f any n umbe r o f
t e r m s p r o v i d e d t h e r e b e no t a n i nni te n u m b e r o f t e r m s
II The p r oduct of a ni te nu mber of conti nuous functi ons i s a
conti nu ou s f n cti on s o long a s a l l fa ctors r em ai n ni te
C o n s id e r i n th e r s t pl a ce P Q L e t th e i ncr em ent s o f P
a n d Q co rr e s p o ndi ng t o t h e i n cr e m e n t h o f t h e i n d e e n d e n t v ar i
p
Th e n w h e n a: i s ch an g e d t o a: h
abl e x b e p an d q r e s p e ct i v e l y
.

P Q is

ch an

H e n ce

th e i n c

p)
e m en t o f P Q

ed

to

P
(

co

q) , t h at i s , to P Q
e s p o ndi n g t o h i s

qP p q
an d
ar e co n ti nu o u s , p a n d q
N o w , s i nce
ni t e l y s m a l l w h e n h b e co m e s i n ni t el y s m a l l

an

w h en
s o,

i
d
r
v
P
o
d
e
p

and

Q r e m ai n n i t e

w hi ch w e as su m e t o

b e the

ca s e

I t f oll ow s t h en th a t P Q i s

C o n s i de r
P QR

now

B y w h at

qP

+ pq

i t fo ll o w s th at p Q
qP
It i s m a d e i n ni tel y s m al l 3

II

pQ

rr

pQ

e a ch

b e com e i n

H en ce by 7 I
p q b e co m e s i n ni tel y s m al l
a t l e s t t hi s w i ll ce r t i nl
y be
,

f or th e

v al u e o f a:

i n q u e s ti o n ,

a co n t i n u o u s

f uncti o n

r
d
u ct o f t h r ee co n ti n u o
o
p
h as j u s t be e n e s tabl i sh ed P Q
a

us

is

f u n c ti o n s ,
a

s ay

co nti nu ou s

324

I N T E G RA L F UN C TI O N C O N TI NU O U S

ANY

f un cti o n, w hi ch w e m ay d e no te by t h e
P Q R = SR w h e r e S a n d R ar e co n ti n u o u s
is

a co n t i nu ou s

f u n ct i o n

n u m be

C or 1
.

is

e s tabl i s h

S3

th e n

th e p

r o p o si t io n

f or

an

cons ta nt, a nd

a conti nu ous

fu n cti on

then AP

fu ncti on

can e i th e

e s ta bl i s h e d

be

r
r em e m b e r e d

i n d e p en d en tl y,

or

co n s id e e d

i
r
t
cu l a r c as e o f th e m i n
p
p r o p o s i t i o n i t be i n g
th a t t h e i n cr em e nt o f a co n s t n t i s z e r o u n d e r a l l ci r cum s t a n ce s
as a

C or 2

wher e

fu ncti on

con ti nu ou s

F or

Ad

t i o n, at

cons tan t, a nd

p os i ti ve i n teg er , i s

va

x a

ri

a bl e

co n ti n u ou s

is

fu n ct io n

A is

a: x a x

th e i n d e p e n d e n t

If A be

a con ti nuous

Thi s

i n thi s w a y, w e
o f f act o r s

r
l
l
e
e
tt
e
g

B u t, by l as t cas e, SR
co n t i n u ou s f u n ct i o n

H ence P Q R i s

Pr o ce ed i ng

ni te

si n

C H AP

a cto r s ,
f
m
)
(

i t sel f

H ence

H e n ce

by C o r

is

a n d a:
,

co n ti n u ou s ,

b e i ng

by t h e m ai n pr o p o s i
1 , Atom i s a con ti n u ou s

C or 3
.

fu ncti on of
va lu e o a
f

E very i n teg r a l

become i nni te f or

is

conti nu ou s

a nd

cann ot

ni te
Fo r e v e ry i n t eg ral f u n cti o n o f a i s a su m o f a ni t e n u m b er
d
N o w e ach o f t h e e t r m s i s a co n ti nu ou
o f t e r m s s uch as A n
H en ce by P r op o s i ti o n t h i nteg r a l f u nc
f n ct i o n by C o r 2
Th at an i n t eg r al f un ct io n i s al w ays n i te
t i o n i s co n ti nu o u s
f o r a n i t v al e o f i ts v ar i abl e f oll o w s a t on ce f r m
7 I
III If P and Q be i nteg al fu ncti ons of cc then P /Q i s ni te an d
exce t su ch as r end er Q
O
con ti nu ou s f or a ll n i te va lu es o
f
p
I n th e r s t p l a e i f Q =l=0 th e n ( e e
7 I I I ) P /Q can o nl y
b e com e i n n i t e i f e i th e r P o r bo th P a n d Q b e com e i n ni te 3 bu t
n e i th e r P n or Q ca n b e co m e i n ni t e f o r a n i t e v l u e o f so beca u s e
H en ce P /Q can o nly b ecom e
b o th a e i nt e g r al f u ncti o n o f cc
i n n i t i f t a ll f o v al ue s o f a: w h i ch m k e Q
0
0 m ak e s P a 0 t h e n P /Q ce r tai nl y
If
v a l u e w h i ch m k e s Q
B u t if s u ch a v al u e m a k s b o th
b e co m e i n n it e f o t h t v al
Q O and al so P 0 th n th e m tt r r e q u ir e s fu r th e r i nv e s ti
a

e,

g a ti o n

ue

N ex t

as

to

l
e t t h e i ncr em e n ts
y

co n ti n u i t

of

an d

co

rr e

C ON T IN U I T Y

XV
s po n d i n

r e m en t

of

th e i nc

t o h,

g
th e i n cr e m e nt

Th en

A RA T I O NAL F UN C T I O N

OF

a nd

be p

'

a,

325

h e r e tof o r e

as

P /Q i s

of

pQ

qP

{I

Q tQ

9)

N o w , by h yp o th e s i s , p a n d q e ach b e co m e i n ni t el y s m all
H e nce p Q qP
w h e n It d o e s s o
Al s o P a n d Q r e m a i n n i t e
.

b e co m es i n n i tel y s m all

P
I t f oll o w s th e n th at ( p Q
q ) /Q ( Q
q)
b e co m e s i n ni tel y s m a ll w h e n It d o e s s o , pr o v id ed al w ays
6 ) t h at Q d o es n o t v a n i s h f or th e v al u e o f a i n qu es ti o n

a so

(s ee

E mple
The i creme n t
xa

cr eme t h f i
h /( w 1 ) ( + h
2
1)
1 /(
N w if
y th i s b ec mes
h/( l + h ) w h i ch cle rl y b ec mes i i tel y sm ll w he I i m de i i tel y
sm ll O the ther h nd i f
the i creme t i h /0h w h i ch i
1
i i tel y gre t
l g hh
l i t tle
y v lue d iff e ri ng fr m 0 by eve r
n

1 /( x

of

c rresp d ing

1)

9c

on

so

\Vh e n
v alu e s o f
a

va

t hi s

p o s i ti o n
If
then,

be

sa

c
c

so

a n d co nti nu o u s

b et w ee n t w o

b, i ts g r aph fo r m s
g r aphi c p o i nts w h o s e

a a n d so

a
;

tw o

d b 3 th a t i s t o s ay, th e g r ap h p as s e s fr om th e
o th e r w i th o u t b r e ak , and w i th ou t
p a s s i ng a n y

p o i n t t o th e
w h e r e t o a n i n n i t e d i s t an c e

F r om

r i abl e

in

ac :

b e tw ee n th e

cu v e

o ne

the

f u n cti on i s fi ni t e

a bs ci s s ae ar e a a n

as a n

as

i ts i n d ep e n d e n t

co n t i n u o u s

to

on

we

can

conti nu ous

d edu ce

from

th e

to

f o ll o w i ng

b,

a:

a nd

i m p o r t an t

if

p,

pr o

f ( b)

q,

p asses thr ou g h every a lg ebra i ca l va lu e between a and b,

a t l ea s t on ce, a nd, if mor e tha n once, an odd n umber of ti mes

a s :23

a ss es

p
thr ou g h

ry a lg ebr ai ca l va l e between p and q

L e t P an d Q be t h e g r p hi c p o int s co rr e s p o n din g t o a a n d
\Ve
b A P an d B Q t h e i r o r d i n a te s 3 t h en AP p B Q = q
h a v e s u p p o se d p an d q b o th p o s i t i v e 3 bu t i f e i th e r w e r e n eg a t i v e
w e s h o u l d s i m p l y h v e t h e g r ph i c p o i n t b el o w t h e a a i s a n d
t h e s tu d e n t w i ll e s il y s e e b y d r a w i ng th e co rr e s p o n d i ng g u r e
t h at thi s w ou l d a l te r n o thi n g i n t h e f o l lo w i ng r e as o ni n g
S u p p o s e n o w r t o b e a ny n u m b e r b e t w e e n p a n d q a n d
d r a w a pa r all e l U V t o t h e ao ax i s at a d is ta n ce f r om i t e q u al
t o r u n i ts o f t h e s cal e o f o r d in t e s abov e t h e ax i s i f r b e
u

eve

i
t
i
o
s
v e,
p

b el o w i f

be

n e g at i v e

Th e

l yt ical f a ct t h at

ana

is

LIMITS

326

i nt e rm e d ia t e t o p
t h at th e p o in ts P

FOR

THE R O O T S

s in ce

mu st

c oss

on

O pp o si te

s i d e a n d en d s o n
or

to

th e

o th e

by t h e g eom e tr i cal fa ct
s i d e s o f UV

it m u st d o

o r s o m e o dd n u m b e

v e t i m es ,

C HA P

ph p a s s e s c on t i nu o us l y f o m P t o
m e di a t e l i n e U V ; an d, S i n ce i t b eg i n s o n

th e g

t h e i n te

AN EQUA T I O N

r ep r es ent ed

d q is
an d Q l i e
an

FIG

N ow,

OF

of

s o ei th e

ti m e s

Ev e ry t i m e th e g r ap h cr o s s e s U V t h e
r ; h e n ce t h e p r o p o s i ti o n i s p r o v e d

o n ce ,

or

it

one

t h i ce ,

r d i n at

be co m e s

e q ua l

C or 1
.

has
r oots,

If

at

l eas t

between

a;

n eg a ti ve a nd

be

f ( b)

be p os i ti ve,

b, p rovided

a a n d a;

then

r of

if more than

one r oot, an d ,

or vi ce ve sa ,

one, a n odd numbe

be

co n
ti nu ous

fr om

a:

wa = b
Th is i s m e r el y

r
o t he r

0 i s i n t e m ed i at e t o
the

p a ti cu l a
an

cas e

of

t h e m ai n p

v al u e s , o n e o f

y two

r o p o s i ti o n

fo r

w hi ch i s p o s i ti v e

a nd

m
u st
as s
e n ce a s 9:
a s s es f o m a t o b
p
g at i v e
p
a t l eas t o n ce, a n d, if m o e t h an o n ce , an o dd n u m be
o f ti m e s
ne

th

r ou g h

the

v al u e

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ax i s

th e

pa

of

ca se ,

p l ay s t h e
t o f t h e pa a l l e l UV
O bse ve , h o w e v e , i n
a:

r e g r d t o th e conv e r s e o f
t h i s p r op o s i t i o n t h a t a
a

FIG

'

Io

functi on
Fo r t h e

may p ass th oug h the valu e 0 wi thou t chan i n i ts s ig n

g g
g a ph m ay us t g a z e t he max i s a s i n F ig s 8 a nd 9

VALUES

XV

C or 2
.

f (a )

If

W HI C H A F UNC T I O N C HANGES SIGN

F OR

327

ha ve l i ke s i g ns, then, if ther e be a ny r ea l

a n d a;
b, ther e mu s t be a n even number,

an

roots of
between a a
be conti nu ou s between a: a a nd a: b
p r ovi ded
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a n i t e v l u e o f i t s v a r i abl e t h e r e s t r i ct i on i n C or 1 i s al w ay s
s at i s e d an d w e see t h at
C o r 3 A n i nteg r al functi on can chang e si g n only by p ass i ng
.

throu g h the

va l u e

P a nd Q be i nteg r l functi on of a a lg ebra i ca lly p r i me

P /Q ca n only cha ng e si g n by p assi ng thr oug h the va lu es

C o r 4 If
.

to

ea ch other ,

or

00

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h i m to

t h e hi n t t h at t h e t h e o

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th e

am

bi g u o u s

d ed u ce C o r 4 fr om C or 3
.

r em

of

r e m ai n d e r s

l e av e t h e

we

ca s e

9c

on

2
:c

or

or

an

Whe n w = 0 y 6 3
4 the r e must l i

an d

e sy

is

+ 1 1w

6x + 1 1 x

he

63

veri fy

to

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a

+ 6

+ 4, y :

ac:

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of

on

n ac:

an

on

the prese t c se th t th i s i re ll y
2 ) (w
th t the r ts i quest i
n

so

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so

it
r
f
o
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the gr ph i the p rese t c se i

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s as

2,

f ll w s
o

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=0
\Vhe
d w he
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.

n a

an

93

6 :c2 + 1 1 x

FI G 1 0
xa

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in

1 ) (w

(w

3
:c

3
a

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an

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d
ce
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3

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- :c3

a3 :

an

on

xa

to

n ac :

r ead e r

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1
i c
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b ec me 0 3 f
0 i b et w ee + 1
p i nt f f ct
d
I
3
b et w ee the l i m i ts i n quest i
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w i l l e nab l e

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an

on

or

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- 1
;

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of

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'

et w ee n

bu t

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na

s i ce
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3 28
:c

no

w hi ch

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be

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w e can

in

an d

to + 1

to g iv e h e

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re

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+2

th e f oll o w i ng pr o
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c onn ect i o n

fu nction of

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an

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00

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by maki ng a: l arg e enoug h we

the same s ig n as i ts hig hes t term
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te m,

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e x p l a i ni ng

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I t w ill b e

we

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(
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ll b ec me 0 lth ugh 0 i i termed i te

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)
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s im pli ci t

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th e n w e h av e

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a
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q
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i s th e

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0,

r
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t o h av e

ig n

r 23,

as

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i

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by m ak i ng

ma
as

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i ng a l a g e

93

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r a;

a:

p
.

l arg e

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we

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s ee

6 , IV ,

t o h av e t h e

'

s a

e n ou g h

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k e q/a
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r a

g n as p
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y to

s zc a s

t h at i s t o

sa m e S i

ca n cau s e

'

s ay,

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s am e

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o bs e

r al

r ve

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pn

if

be

x iv

v al en t

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ca n

fo r m
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i n t hi s

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+ 00 ,
a n d,

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i n te g

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as

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if

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f(

00

eve n ,

r<

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w e h av e th e f o l l o w i n g i m p o ta n t

co n cl u s i o n s

r edu ce

e ve

ry

I I M U M NU M B E R

Cor

i ci ents

E very i nteg ra l

has

l east

at

deg r ee w i th

odd

329
r ea l

if i t has mor e than

a nd

co

one

it

a n odd n u mbe

has

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.

has

rea l

a ny
.

comp l ex

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an

i nteg r al

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r oots a t a l l ,

r i ti e s
d eg r e e

w h at

th e

a ny

s es

ar e

co r

i n teg r al fu n cti o ns

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of

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xa

i n th e g raph s

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i t has

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r e s p o n d in g

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f s u ch
coe i ci en ts if

a n even number o

i ei ents

coe

Th e

at

deg r ee w ith rea l

even

E very i nteg ral equa ti on w ith r eal

r oots, has a n even number of su ch

C or 3

h as

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r eal root

one

R OO T S

O F R AL

M N

xv

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6 oc + 1 1 w
a 4
4

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s ch e m e o f

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on

00

00

0
+

00

00

r t t le st l i es b et w ee
d 0
d
t le st b et w ee
0
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ther w rds there
t le st tw r e l r ts
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I
the ther p s i ti ve
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o ca n a

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r e al r o ots o f a n i nte g r al e q u ati on ar e n o t v e r y

cl o s e t o g e th e r th e
p r o p o i t i o n s w e h v e j u s t e s t ab l i s h e d e n b l e
u s v er
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t h em ;

t io n

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i nt eg r al

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r ox i ma
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p
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nu m e

c o n s i d e a t io n s

r eg ar ding

co n

d m ay b e c o n s i de r e d q u i t e a par t f r o m t h e q u es ti o n
o f t h e i r f o r m al s ol u t i o n b
y m e an s o f a l g ebr ai cal f un c ti on s o r
o th e r w i s e
Th e app l i cat i o n o f t hi s i d ea t o th e app r o x i m ate
d et e r m i n at i on o f t h e r e al r o o t s o f an i n te g r al e q ua ti on w ill b e
t i n u i ty,

an

f ou n d

at

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330

IMA

AN D

M IN I MA

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T ER N A TE

mm

GENERAL PR O P OS I T I O NS REGARDING M A X IMA AND MIN IMA

VALUES OF F UN C T I O NS OF O NE VARIABLE
.

r eas e a nd

beg ins to decr ease, f ( a) is

i nc

i n p assing throug h

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en

beg i ns to i ncrease, f ( a) i s

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maxi mu m

f( )
a

va l u e o

to decrease

ceases

to

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va lue o

mi ni mu m

Th e p o i nt s co rr e sp ond i n g t o m a x im a and m i ni m a v al ues o f

f un ct i o n ar e o bv i o u s l y s u p e r i o r a n d i nfe r i o r cul m i na ting

the

Th e y ar e
p o in ts o n i ts g a ph , su ch as P 2 a n d P ,, i n Fi g 1
a l s o p o i nt s w h e e , i n
g en e a l, t h e t an g en t t o th e g ap h i s p a all el
t o th e ax i s o f a
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.

r
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s en s e th a t a t th e m th e t an en t i s
a ny p o p e
It
g
p a a l l el t o O X
as

an

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also

11

d e ne d

F IG 1 2
.

rved

Fi g

12

h all i n cl u d e b o th m ax i m u m
u n de

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o bv i o u s l y a p p o
p

v a u es as a t

na m e o f

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r ke n cu r v e h v i ng m i m a
p o i nt s ( s e e F i g 1 ) t h e r e ad r w il l o n v i n ce h i m s el f
t r u t h o f t h e fo ll w i ng p r o p o i ti o n s
o f th
co n s i d e

By

r i ng

an

m i ni m a

h
i
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p

r
n
t
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t h a t t h e t a n g e n t m ay b e p a all e l t o O X
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Wit nes s

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F IG
s

II

If

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a , so

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va

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ax

va l ues s u ccee

So l ong

u nb o

a nd

m i ni ma

a l te na tely

b be two

r oots o

ry conti nuously between a:

then, if

a
a and a;

be

b, ther e mus t

C R IT ER I O N

xv

be ei ther
between

at

l eas t

on e

maxi mu m

a a nd a;

T U RN I N G

FOR

l eas t

or a t

VA L

o ne

UES

33 1

mi ni mu m

va lu e o

b e co m e p o s i t i v e i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a
I n p a r t icul a r , i f
a s s es t h r o u h t h e v a l u e a , t h e n t h e r e m u s t be at l ea s t o n e
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g

m ax i m u m b efo r e

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m in i m u m

f r o m t h e d e n i t i on

n a tu e o f

th e g

raph

i n l i k e m ann e r, i f

of

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r n i ng v a l
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u e,

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opp osi te s i des of a tur ni ng va lu e, whi ch sha l l be as n ea r ly

a cu l m i na t i n

tion

on

e u al a s
q

w e p l eas e

These two

than the tu

r ni ng

rdi ng

va lu e acco

the tu

as

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va lu es

rning

l ess

va lu e

or ea ch

is

g r ea te
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r i te r i o n

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l at e r

ch apt e

fu nction

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p w il l b e i n ni te l y n e a ly e qu al to o n e a n o th e
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f p be a ctu al ly equ a l to a tu ni ng va lu e
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u s ed

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have two

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s e en

C O N T INUI T Y AND GRAPHI CAL REPRESEN TA T I O N OF A

F UN C T I O N OF TWO INDEPENDEN T VARIABLES
.

L e t t h e f u n cti o n b e d e n o t e d by
d e n o t e t h e d e p e n d en t

va

r i able

by

A
"

z3

so

t h at

as e

w he

con

fu nction

a nd

re f (w y) i s an
,

pp ose a l l the consta nts to be r ea l,

a nd y
The val u e of s will the efo

we

and

l et

us

i nteg

ral

l/

ne ourselves enti r ely to the c

l Ve

y) ,

su

a nd consider only

r r e be a lways r ea l
S i nce th e r e a e n o w t w o i n de p en d ent v ar i abl es a a nd y
t h e r e ar e t w o i n d p e n d e n t i n cr e m e n t s sa
I
t a n d k t o co n s i d e r
y
H e n ce t h e i n r e m e n t o f 2 t h a t i s
h y + k)
y) n o w
d ep e n ds o n fo u r q u an ti ti e
a
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y h k
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G R A P HI C

332
s ma l l

H en ce

(a

va l u es , s a
y

ous ly

fr om

S U R FA C E

y p ass conti nuous ly from

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b) ,

one va l u e, s ay 0,

i n h an d, i n as m uch

i n w h i ch

a,

f(

to

a nothe

as

s ay 0

re

vari abl es

g i ven p a i r of
p asses conti nu

one
2

y) m ay p as s f o m ( a, b) t o ( a
two
di mensi onal di agr a m to r ep

q u i e no w a
the i ndep endent

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resent

the

re

var i ati ons

L et X OX, Y OY b e tw o li nes i n

FIG

d i s ti n ct p ecu l i ar ity i n th e case

ar e a n i n ni t
o f d iff e r e n t w ays
y

th e

C H AP

y)

a,

as a a nd

Th e r e i s , h o w eve r
now

FO R 2 =

h o r i zo n tal pl an e d r aw n f r o m w e s t to e as t and f ro m s ou t h t o
C o n s i d e r any p o i nt P i n th at pl a ne, w h ose
n o r t h r e s p e ct i v e l y
a bsci s s a a n d o r d i n a te , w i t h t h e u s u a l u n d e r s t an di n
g as to Si g n,
.

ar e a a n

d y

Th e n

w h i ch w e

r r

m ay

g ap hi c e p e s e n tat i o n o f t h e
L e t u s s u p p o s e th a t f or P a

us a

o i nt

p
al on
g

an y

co n ti n u ou s

c o n t i nu o u sl y

f ro m

Th e n

cu

r ve

to

th e

v ari abl es

"

ca l l

a,

b,

i t is

var i a bl e
p oi nt,

(a y)
,

and

b v i ou s

f r om

y f ro m b t o b w ill
to

I t is

al o n

o b v i ou s ,

co

rr espon d

r e fo r e

th a t

c om

pa s s
a

b i n at i o n

co n ti nu o u s

to th e pa s sag e

s o m e co n t i nu o u s cu

th e

if w e
,

of

th at,

a n ot h e

r f r o m P t o P a w i l l v ry
w ill v a r y co n t i nu o u sl y f r o m

b t o b 3 a n d , co n v e r s e l y, t h a t any i m ag i n abl e
co n t i nu o u s v a r i at i o n o f a f r o m a t o a w i th a
t io n

t h a t f or

w h a te v e
and

g iv e s

rve

th e

of

of

va

r ia

i
n
t
o
p

co n ti n u o us

va

ri

a t on

of

C O N T O UR LINES

XV

33 3

r o m (a b) to ( a b ) m ay b e a ccompli s h e d i n an i n ni ty
o f w ays
We m ay call th p ath i n w hi ch th e po i n t w h i ch r epre
s e n t s t h e v a r i abl e s t r av e l s th e
g rap h of the va ri a bles
To r ep r es en t t h e v al u e o f th e f un ct i o n z
f (a y) w e d r aw
th r ou g h P t h v a r i abl e p o i n t r ep r es e n ti n g ( a y) a v e r ti cal li ne
P Q co nta i n i n g 2 u ni ts o f a n y e d s cal e o f l e ng t h t h at m ay b e
co n v e n i e n t u p w a r d s if e b e p o s i ti v e d o w n w a r d s i f z b e n e a ti v e
g
Q i s th en th e g r aph i c p o i n t w hi ch r ep r es ent s th e v al e o f th e
(v
.

y) f

f uncti on

f (a y)

e =

i n th e pl an e X O Y t h e r e co rr e s p o n d s
r
h
i
o i n t , s u ch a s Q 3 a n d t h e a s s e m bl a e o f
r
a
a
c
a hi c
i
o
p
g p
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g r ap hi c p o i nt o f th e f u n ct i o n t ra v el s a l on g

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a p ar ti cu l a r cu r v e 2 o n t h e g r a p h i c s u r f ace 3 a n d i t i s o b v i o us
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3 34

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FIG 14
.

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3 35

E X AM rLE

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1 6 , th e n

fu ncti on

the

r ep r e s e nti n g 5 +

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A SINGL E C O MPLE X VARIABLE

OF

cons tan ts o

Le t

r
g

the

+y

Her e we conne ou rs elves

ei the

rest

17

o n

FI G 1 5

IN T EGRAL F UN C T I O NS

2:

as

or a

or a

sa i d

FI G 1 6
.

to

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conti nu ous ly

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5 var ies
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conti nu ou s ly

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ar e o f co u s e

C O N T INUI T Y

336
an

i n ni t e

n u m be

a cco m pli s h e d

i n w h i ch t h i s

w ays

va

C H AP

r i ati on

m ay b e

S u p p os e
m ay

co n s t an t s

of

C O MPLE X F U N C T I ON

OF

or

h av e

n ow w e

m ay

r ea l

be

not

a ny

i nteg r al f u ncti on o f

ni ) 3
e d u ce d

Th e n w e h av e

w h os e

:1:

r u l es o f ch ap x i i al w ays be r
t o t h e f o r m g + 7 i w h e r e g an d 7 ar e i n t eg r a l f u n ct i o n s o f g
h
os e co n s t an t s a r e r eal
w
an d
s
ay r e al i n t e r al f u n cti o n s o f
7
(
g
N o w by
1 4 5 and
a re n i te an d co n ti nu o u s s o
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l o ng as ( g 7) are ni t e
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by t h e

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ies

:
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7 7 var

conti nuous ly

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the g rap h of the dep endent va ri a ble i s
a bl e i s a conti nuous cu r ve
,
n u m be

a n other conti nu ous cur ve

E mple
L et
xa

FI G

17

a )
+ x/ ( 1

F IG 1 8

s mpl i c i ty w sh ll c e u rselves t v ri t i f w h i ch dm i ts
ly re l v lues 3 i the r w rds w s pp se ) l w ys 0
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f the
is
I
the d i gr m w h ve t ke C A = OB = I 3 th t A d
B m rk the p in ts i the p th f w h i ch the fu cti b egi s t h ve d
ce ses t h ve re l v lue
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If
A C
1 (A B
d (2
ll c i c i de t ) the the p t h f t h depe de t
For i

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II

an

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so

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on

an

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on

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o n

C O MPLE X R OO T S DE T ERMINED

XV

3 37

G RAP II I C AL I X

s b ve ( 2 t gether w i th A O e ch
v ri ble i the w h le f the 7
reck ed t i ver The pi eces f the t w p th c rresp d f ll w s
a

on

ce o

-a x i

293 :3333

an d

I A

t h i s f a ct t o t h e

as

f or

k i ng

f or

s ee

s ee

CD
'

7 b ei n g f u n ct i on s

e ye

of

v al u es

(g
g
of
(

w e m ay

r ep r e s en t

t h at

0 , t h at i s th e

va

r i abl e

co

All th e

rr e

p o n d i ng

l th e p o i n ts t h at co rr e s p on d t o
o n an o t h e r cu r v e T

O , th a t i s , to

ni ,

of

the t wo

cu

of

an d

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r ves S

-n

m u st
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y )

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77

(E

n o f, a re

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( S)

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E
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VO L

s am e

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are

ke 5
m ak e

t h at m a

These

'

al

r s ecti o ns

the S

Th e p oi n t s f or w h ich bo th 5
t h e p o i n t s co rr e s po nd i n g t o r o o ts

H e n ce

xa

v al u es o f

0 , lie

E mple

as

by w r i t i ng

th e i n t e

ar i abl e

an

on

p o i n t s i n t h e d i ag a m o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t
t o t h e s e w il l l i e ( by
1 6 ) o n a cu v e

S i m i l rly

BJ

6
If w e

A C

BJ

tV

AC
CB

D e p en d e n

IA

( T)
Z

3 38

O R N ER S M E THO D

The studen t sh uld h ve n d i f culty i c struct i g these The d i g m

th t results i
o

a ra

FI G

The S curve ( rect gul r h yperb l

T curve ( t w str i ght li es bi sect i g the
The i ter ect i s P nd Q
C rresp di ng t P w h ve
an

on

o a as

on

r}

on

are

h ppe s ) i dr w n th i ck The
gles bet wee the es ) i d tted

it

an

ax

c rresp ndi ng

to

2,

2
2i
It ppe rs theref re th t the r ts f the fu cti
d
The stude t m y veri fy th t these v lues d i f ct s t i sfy the equ ti
a

oo

i x2 + 8 = 0

an

on a r e

2i

on

HO RNE R S M E THO D F OR APPR O X IMAT ING TO THE VALUES

REAL R OOT S OF AN IN T EGRAL EQUA T I O N

O F TH E

I n t h e f oll o w i ng p ar ag r aph s w e s h al l s h o w h o w t h e
i d ea s o f
8 -1 0 l ead to a m e t h od for cal cu l at i ng dig i t by d i g i t
t h e n u m er i cal v al u e o f a ny r e al r o o t o f a n i nt eg r al e q u at i o n
It
.

w i ll

be

l i s h i ng

r s t pl ace to cl ea r th e w ay by e s tab
p r el im i nar y r es ul ts u po n w h i ch th e m e th o d m o r e

c o nv e n i e nt
a

fe w

i n th e

i m m edi atel y d e pe n d s

To deduce from the equation

0

a nothe

e ua ti on ea c
q

whose

roots

i s m ti mes

(1 )

cor r esp onding

r oot

DIMINU T I O N

XV
Let

c
c

be

H ence fr o m ( I )
,

r o ot

a ny

of

If w e m ul tipl y by th e
e q u a ti o n

chang ed

The

whose

equ a ti on

Thi s f ol l ow s

m
t
t / )

The n

g/m

a:

w e d e d u ce th e

e qu i v al en t

r oots

h
t
h
e
w
i
t
I
( )

those

are

sig ns

cal cu l ati on

t h a t th e

by pu tti ng m
o f a n eg ativ e r eal

a t o n ce

We

1 in

r oot

3
( )

of

th u s

a n y e qu a t i o n

r ed uced to th e cal cul ati o n of a p osi tiv e r e al r oot

i
a s l i h tl
d
ff e r en t e qu ati on
g
y
f
1 0 t i me the r espect i ve r t
w h se r t
E mple The equ t i

can

of

ma

is
r

se e

co n s ta nt

r eq u i r ed

w h i ch i s th e e q ua ti o n

C or

w e ha ve

dk )

339

d le t

an

R OOTS

OF

be

al w ays

xa

on

oo s are

oo s o

3x3

is

5oom+ 6 0 00

from

To dedu ce
whose

t he

r e qu ire d

w e d e d uce

e q u ati o n

a t o n ce

rr ang e ( 4 )

w hi ch i s t h e

so

from

If w e

cal cul a ti ng

21

anothe

e qu a ti o n

th e

a,

an d a

each o

r oo t

of

Th e n

I
( )

- 1

acco

r ding

r e q u i r ed

ci ents

co ef

of

t o p ow e

rs

of

+ p ,,

w e g et

t
s
e m a ti c
y

r
ss
o
ce
p

Thi s m ay b e

o bt ai n e

i m pl e

for

as

Si nce 5
<1 )

( 1 ) of

equ a ti on

t h at

I t i s i m p o r tant t o h av e
fo l l o w s

i s less by a than a corr esp onding r oot of

d en o te a ny r oo t o f ( 1 ) 3 g th e co rr es p on di ng

r oots

L et

the

a,

w e h av e, by com pa i n g t h e l e ft -h an d

sides o f

and

APPR OX IMA T I O N

3 40

Th e pr obl e m be for e

E
a
f un cti o n
o
p

H en ce as
r e m ai n d e r

p a t i cul a

r
p o ces s

pl y t o e x pa nd th e
a
+ p ,, i n p o w e r s o f (re
)
ch a
p V , g 2 1 , 9n i s t h e
s im

al e ad y

in

s ee n

i s di v id ed by a a ; qn , t h e r em ai n d e r
i n t eg r al qu o ti e n t o f th e l as t d i vi s i o n i s d i v i d e d by

an d

i s , t h e r e fo r e ,

us

C H AP

w hen

w h en t h e
a

h av e

we

R O OT

TO

on

so

is

cas e

o f ch a

p
I t s h oul d b e
.

Th e

al w ays

13

cal cu l a ti o n
ca

rr i e d

r em

t he

of

of

by m ean s

ou t

ain

der i n

an

y
s ynt h e t i c

th e

obse v e d

th at th e l ast

i s t h e v al u e

coe f ci en t,

of

E mple
xa

dim i i sh the r ts

To

of

oo

5 w3 1 1 w2 + 1 0a2

by 1

We s i mpl y repr duce the c lcul ti

m di ed f m 3 thus
o

of

on

21,

E mple

1 , in

xa

sl ightl y

or

1 1

+ 10

l 2

(1

5
4

He ce the equ ired equ ti

n

23
s ay

If

the

on e o

betw een 0

an

F o r,

if

on

is

r oots

1 , then

the

(1)

r oo t

2 1 be sma ll,

app r oxi ma te va l u e

an

d en o t e t h e

e u a ti on
q

tha t

r oot

is

i n qu e s ti o n, w e h av e,

by
a

H en ce

if

I t is

a?

10

a;

be

e as y

P n I

pn I

s m a ll ,

we

h av e

gn

a n u pp e

to

as s i

pp

ro

i m at el y

'

l i m i t t o th e

rr o r

We

i n fa ct,
in :

w he e
in
t
h
e
b
e
p
g
,

m od

P n /P n I

6:

e <

+ a

7 1,

-2

Pn - I

n u m e i call y

H e n ce

e
r
g

s i n ce 73
.

m od

a t e s t am o n

31

g th e

w e ha e

co e f ci e n t s

p0

h a v e,

xv

I t w o u l d be
i n th e
i nd i

al

ti on 3

pp

xa

w an t e d

ll y

r o i m ati n
E mple The equ ti

th e

f or

ou r

r t b et w ee 0
B y the b ve r ule
a

oo

1 , nd

an d

h ve f

we

:c

'

fa c t ,

th t the ppr i m t i
a

ox

f( )

0 , h avi ng

cal cu l a te

d,

a cco

oo

x <

81 92

0 01 03

the l st d i gi t

1 in

an

/1 6 0 3 6 2 8 8

on

re ll y c rrect t the 4 th pl ce

is

m e t h o d,

ab s o l u t e

b e tw e e n 0
the

i ng t h e

bs id i a r y e qu at i o n , s ay
r o o t l yi n g b e t w e e n 0 a n d 1 0 0

of

a nd

2 0 0 , th e

si

gn

te m

f (2 00)

is

of

and

a bs o l u t e

of

te m

no

a =

r o ot

s am e S i

L et

us

su

pp

t h a t 3 0 i s th u s

os e

su

oo

Th eor y

on o

E qu a ti ons ,

o n e or

on

Al so

s i n ce

of

i s,

t he

l i es
a nd

dig i t

Th e l ab ou

th e

u e

of

th e

of

th i s

of

23

g g e s t e d ; t o t es t w h e th e

d ig i t

O by 2 0 0 ,
0
Th e n

n ex t

d i scussi f the p rec ut i s ecess ry w he

r ts w h i ch c mme ce w i th
m re l i ke d ig i ts see B
F or

one

r o o t l i es be t w een 3 0 a n d 4 0 th e
r o o t o f t h e o r ig i n l e q u t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e 3
l s t p r o ce s i s i n p r acti ce h o r te n e d by u s i ng
a

we

B y e x am i n
g
9 0 , w e d e te m i ne

0 , I O, 2 0,

t h a t thi s

r st

r st

th e

( th at

of

m u s t h av e t h e

for

0 h as

su

a bs o l u t e

Fi

t h at

te m

foll o w s

as

of

Th en w e d i m i n i s h t h e

dec i m ls

H o rn e r s

r st

of

pp o s e t h at w e h av e an e qu ati o n
Th i s r o o t w ou ld b e
r o ot

r o ot s

0 h as

00 0 1 3

p o s i ti v e
di ng to

th e

on

i s t h e r e fo r e 2

o b ta i n

oo

300

d th u s

a s u g g e s ti o n o f

th t r t

to

on

an d

an

a ppr o x i m a

d et e r m i n e , b y ex a m i n i n g t h e S i g n o f

r o o t, an d o nl y o n ef l ying be tw e en 2 0 0
.

ha v e

is

th e

bu t

no

'

Hor ner s M ethod

:2

ox

'

a)

or

an

of

rp o s e

rst ppr i m ti
the r t i quest i

37 2 2 7

e <

so

rro r 3

5 96 9 85 6

th e rr r f t m re th
4 w h ve
s i ce

372, wi

of

o n

II

e <
:

pu

5 9 6 9 85 6/ 1 6 03 6 2 8 8

'

here
He ce
I p i t

on

l im i t fo r th e

8 1 9 2 rc2 + 1 60 3 6 2 8 Sw

h as

k
s u f ci e n cy

th e

e s t i m at i n g

re

l t ha t i s

a cl o s e
n
g

34 1

w h i ch w e s h all m a e o f th e t h e o e m w e

of

m e a ns

as s i

to

e as y

l
i
ca t i o n s
pp

r e ct

O RN ER S P R O C E SS

n an

eq t i

u r ns

ua

id e

on

a nd

t hi s

h as t w o
P a n ton

O R N ER S P R O C E SS

3 42

rre ct w e pr oceed

t o d im i n i s h th e

t o d ed u ce, i n fa c t, th e

s eco n d s u bs idi a

is

co

r o o ts

th e

of

te m

of

f (a )
,

h a ve

r y e q u a t i on

th e

ab so l u t e

t h e ab s ol u t e
of

te m

mu st

I n p r acti ce, i t d o es n o t u s u all y o ccu r ( at al l

l at e r s tag es o f th e cal cul ati o n) t hat t h e dig it

i n the

s u g g es te d

ru l e

b y th e

b e com e

sh ou l d

th e

te m

ab s o u t e

we

0 by 3 0 ,
0
i n ce

u nl e ss t h e d i i t
g n a s th e abs ol u t e t e rm o f
g
I n o th e r w or d s, i f th e di g i t 3 i s t oo l ar g e, w e
aw a r e o f t h e f act by a ch an e o f S i n i n th e
g
g

3 i s t oo la g e
S h al l b e m a d e

v e nt s

of

s am e Si

h av e th e

H e n ce

r o ot s

bee n dim i n i s h ed by 2 3 0 ,

n ow

is f ( 2 30)

cm

of

2 3 i s to o

n ex t

d i g i t w hi ch w o u l d

Th e

s e co n

th e

of

aw a e

sub s i d i a

rr o r

e x ce e d

ry

n d th e t h i r d d i g i t 5
Th e thi r d su b s idi ar y

s m all

on

; b u t , if t h at w e

p r oceedi ng to

re

s o,

cal cu l a t e

e q u a ti o n

is

now

use

be fo r e t o

as

w ou l d g i v e

To

av o i d

th e

i
si n
f
o m d e ci m al
r
r
o i nts w e
g
p
p
m u l ti pl y th e r o ot s of t h e thi r d (an d o f e v e ry foll o wi n g ) s bs id i ry
t

r ou bl e

e qu ati o n

'

an d

o s si

bl e

c o n fu s i o n

by 1 0 3 or, w h a t i s e q u i val en t, w e m ul t ip ly th e s econ d

co e f ci e n t o f t h e e qu at i o n i n qu e s t i o n by 1 0 , t h e t hi r d coef ci e n t
b y 1 0 0 , a n d s o o n ; a n d th en p r o ce ed a s be fo r e, o bs er v i ng , h o w
e q ua ti o n

ev e

t hi s

t h a t, i f t h e tr i al di v i s i o n f or t h e n e x t d i g i t b e m a d e

m o d i ca t i o n

a pp ea

as

6,

of

th e

an d n o t as

'

su bs idi a

ry

e q u at i o n,

6 , be cau se th e l a s t

t hat

af t e

dig i t w i l l

coe f cie n t

h as bee n

m ul t ipl i e d by 1 0 an d th e s e co nd l as t by w

Th e f u ndam en tal i dea o f

o ne s m eth o d i s th e

it -

H r r
r efo r e S im pl y
t o d ed u ce a se r i e s o f su b s idi ary e q u a ti o n s e ach o f w h i ch i s u se d
Th e cal cu l ati on o f th e
t o d e te r m i n e o n e d i g i t of th e r oo t
co ef ci e n ts o f e ach o f t h e s e s u b s i d ia r y e q u at i o n s i s acco m p li s h e d
22
Af te r a ce r tai n n u m be r of th e d i g its o f
by th e m e th o d o f
t h e r o o t h a v e b e en f o n d a n u m b e r m o r e m ay be o b ta i n e d by a
r
co nt r c ti o n o f t h e
o
cess
b
o v e d e scr ib e d t h e n atu r e o f w h i ch
p
w ill be e as il y u n d e r s t o o d fr o m th e f ol l o w i n g p a r ti cu l r ca se
E mple F i d
pp r i m t i t the le st p s i ti ve r t f
,

xa

an a

ox

on

oo

5x

S i ce
7 f (l )
f ( O)
the r t i quest i l ies bet wee
n

oo

on

9,

a nd

f (2 )
3

1,

=
3
)
(
f

+ 2 3,

The rst d ig i t i theref re 2

s

:
E X Ai num

xv

We w d i m i ish the r ts
ru s thus
no

( 1 ) by

of

oo

343

The c lcul t i
a

the c ef c ie ts

on o f

0
0
0

HO
L

o
l

here the pre | i used t m rk c e fc i e nts

The rst su bs i d i ry equ t i i theref r e

on

the t subs i di ry equ t i

of

rs

on

m3 + 8x 2 + 1 593 - I = O

S i ce the e t d i gi t f ll w s the dec i m l p i t

th i s equ ti by 1 0 The result i g equ t i i the
n x

on

3
95

S i ce
f re mult i ply the r ts
oo

of

oo

oo

1 000

is 0

n x

(3)

n x

( 3 ) by

We there

5000 0x

the e t d i g i t suggested i
of

of

an

mult i pl y the r ts

(2 )

we

suggested th t the e t d i gi t
by 1 0
d deduce

2 9 4- 80 0 2 9 1 - 1

S i ce
di mi i sh the r ts

on

2
0
+ 8 x + 1 5 009:

it is

o n

We n

ow

4-80 0

41 50 000

4 836

806

1 54 8 8 6

48 7 2

81 2

1 000 0 0 0

( 06

92 90 1 6
4

7 0 9 8 40 0 0

1 5 9 7 0800

81 8 0

The result i g su bs i d i ry equ ti

n

on ,

fte r the mul ti pl i c t i

a

on of

r ts

i ts

oo

by 1 0 , i s

1 5 9 7 0 8 0 0x 7 0 9840 0 0
a? + 8 1 80x +

( 4i

S i ce
the n e t d i gi t suggested i 4 The
re der sh uld n ti ce th t w i g t the c t i u l mult i pl i c ti n f the r ts
m g i tude much m e
by 1 0 the c efc i e ts t w rds the ri ght i cre se i
r pi dl y th t h se t w rds the left i t i f th i s re s th t the ule f 2 3
d m r e ccur te
the pe r t i n g e
Thus eve t the
b ec mes m re
w uld gi ve c rrectl y m r e th
prese t st ge the qu t i e t
f the f ll w i g d i gi ts
m y b re d i l y ve ri ed
\V
w d i m i i sh the r
ts f ( 4 ) by 4
d d d the e s t the c e ff c i e ts
bef re
n

an

one o

e no
.

an

as

on

as

o s on

as

oo

oo

or

a on

or

n a

an

an

z ro

E X AMPLE

3 44

C H AP
7 0 984 0 00 ( 4

3 2 73 6

6 4 01 4 1 4 4
5

1 6 0 0 35 3 6
3 2 7 52

81 84
4
5

8 1 88

- 6 96 98 5 6000

1 6 03 62 8 80 0

8 1 92 0

Then w h ve the su bs i d i ry equ t i

a

-81 9 2 0x2

on

4-1 6 0 3 6 2 8 800x

6 96 9856 00 0

( 5)

I t w i ll b b served th t thr ugh ut the per t i n f

g ne
it h
the t w esse t i l c n di ti s f i t ccur c y h ve b ee fullled n mely th t
the l st c e f i e t sh ll ret i n the me s i gn d th t e ch di gi t sh ll m
It wi ll ls b bserved th t the n umb er f the
t
t gre te r th
9
gures i the w rk i g c lum s i cre ses much m re r pi dl y th n their uti l i t y
i dete m i i g the d i gi ts f the r t
A ll th t i ctu lly ecess ry f the
suggesti f the n e t d igi t t y step d t m k s
f the ccur cy f
the suggesti i t k w the r t t w
three gures f the l st t w
c e fc i e ts
U less theref e very l rge um ber f dd i ti l d i gi ts f the
ti
r equi red w m y sh rte n the per t i by n eglecti g s me f the gu es i
If f
e mple w d i v i de l l the c efci e ts f ( 5 ) by 1 00 0 w get the
equ i v le t equ t i
e o

an

co

s a

as

ure o

or

or

or

a i ni n

o na

on

r oo

on

r et

xa

or

an

ar as

so

no

an

oo

on ,

on o

Hen ce ,

n n

sa

s a

an

or

on

no

ou

on

ly the i tegr l p rt
n

the c e fc i e ts

s of

we

h ve
a

0 a 3 + 8 1 x2 + 1 6 0 3 6 2 8x

ll b n ti ced th t the esult i the s me i f i ste d f dd i g er s

heret f re w h d cut ff n gure fr m the sec n d l st c e f ci e t t w
fr m the th ir d l st d
+
w h ve f
the n e t d igi t 4 We the n
S ince 6 96 98 5 6/1 6 03 6 2 8 4
d i m i i sh the r ts f
by 4
I the ecess ry c lcul t i n the rst w rk i g
cl m
ce f the c e fc i e t f
w d i s pp e r s w i g t the d i s ppe r
w
h ve i i t pl ce s imply 81 st di g u ltered It i dv i s ble h w ever i
multi plyi g the c tr cted c ef c i e ts by 4 t c rry the ne est um ber f
te s fr m the l st gure t ff ( just i rd i n ry c t cted multi pl i c t i
d f
the s me re s n )
d d i v isi
I t wi

as

o o

s o on

an

oo

o u

n no

ou

o n an

or

a an

na

a o

s a

n o

3
x

ar

o n ra

as

or

an

an

on

'

as

on

I f the re de r d y d i f culty i f ll w i g the b ve e pl t i

f
the c t ct d p r cess he n s ti sfy h i mself f i t v l i d i ty by w rki g t
the b ve c lcul t i n t the d i full nd the n ru ni g h i p thr ugh the
u ecess ry g res
it m y
d i s ble t c rry the c ntr cti n f t
t b
1 I m y
e ch step i here d e We m i g ht f i st ce d i v i de the c e f ci e ts f
Th r esult i g su b s i d i ry equ t i n w ld the b
5 by 1 0 0 nl y
n

o n ra

nn

'

an

as

ca

an

ca s e s

on

e a v

no

h ch w sh uld pr ceed

w i

an a

en

on o
ou

or

1 6 03 6 2 8 856
\xi th

en

as

ef e
or

an

ou

09 6985 6 0 ,

so

ar a

E X AMPLE

xv

3 45

The ne t step theref re r u s thus

x

81

6 96 9 8 5 6
6 4 1 5 82 8

4-1 6 0 3 6 2 8
32 8
6

1 6 0 3 95 7
328

8
n

on

5 5 40 2 8

1 6 04 2 85

The c rresp d i g su bs i d i ry equ ti

o

(4

is

on

81 x 9 + 1 6 0 4 2 8 5 0x

5 5 402 80 0 2 0

(6)

5 5 4 02 8 0
c tr cted
d
The n e t di gi t i 3
the c ef c i e t f
mel y 0 8 1 sti ll h
sl ig ht effect the sec d w rk i g c lum the c lcul t i r u s thus

or,

on

0 232 + 1 6 0 42 8x

an

on

on

as

na

n,

on

as a

(3

554 02 8
4 8 1 2 93

1 6 0 42 8
2

1 6 043 1
2
7

1 6 043 3

i d i ry equ
The resulti g subs id
u ti
n

on a

fter c tr ct i
on

is

on

1 6 0 43x

The r est f the per ti n w c i c i des w i th the rd i ry pr cess f

f the l i e r equ t i
c tr cted d i v i s i
i t r ep rese n ts i n f ct the s lut i
th t i ( see ch p i
the d i v i si f 7 2 7 3 5 by 1 6 0 4 3
The w h le c llcul ti n m 3y b rr ged i pr cti ce bel w B ut the
pre es I & w h i ch i d i c te the c efci e ts f the v ri us equ ti s
m yb
m i tted A ls the rec rd m y b sti ll f rther sh rte ed by pe f rm i g
the multi pl i c t i s d dd i ti s su btr ct i s me t lly d ly rec d i g
the g ures i mmed i tel y bel w the h ri t l l i es i the f ll w i g scheme
The dv i s bi l i ty f th i s l st c ntr ct i n depe ds f c urse the i thmet i c l
p w er f the c lcul t r
o

on

on

e o

xv

a cu a

8 8 8 11

a o

on o

or

n a

an

on

+ 2

h
N
t

o
t

N
0
0

OO

8 1 88

on

on

z on a

n a

as

an

on

a
3

an

na

on o

on

o n

no

o11
a 10

<

10

r o

on

or

ar

on

E X ER C ISES XX II

3 46

ca n

The um b er f dd i t i l d igi ts bt i ed by the c tr cted pr cess i less

b y t w th n the um b er f d i gi ts i the sec d l st c e f c i e n t t th b egi
i g
f the c
tr ct i
O w i g t the u ce rt i ty f the c rri ges the l st d i gi t
i u ce r t i
b t the n e t l st w i ll i
such c se the prese t b b
I f ct by su b st i tut i g i
l t l y c rrect
the ri g i l equ t i i t i e s i ly
veri ed th t the r t l i es b et wee 2 0 6 4 4 3 4 5 3 4 nd
th t the
l st d i g i t gi ve b ve errs i defect by 1 nl y The n umb er f ccur te
gures bt i ed by the c tr cted pr cess w i ll cc si ll y b c n s i der bl y
less th n i th i s e mple ; d the c lcul t r must b
h i gu r d g i st
err r i th i s respect ( see H rn er s M em i r ci ted bel w )
n

on

Si n ce

r o o t s o f a n y n u m b e r s ay 7
r e al r o o t of th e e q u ati ons
,

is

0 93

0 56

0 93

a a n

fou r th,

ndi ng

to

O,

:6

r esp ecti v ely

so

s q u a e , cu b e,

th e

0x

0,

e on

e qu iv al ent

on ,

on a

a o

e x t act i o n o f

th e

na

an

xa

so

nn n

as

on

a n

a n

oo

on

on

a n

on

a n,

u e

ona

0x

it is

t h e p o s i ti v e

0x

0,

obv i ou s

th at

H o r n e r s m eth o d w e can n d t o any d es i r ed d eg r ee o f

h
t
f
an y o r d e r o f an
a
r
x im ati o n
t
e
r
oo
o
o
pp
y g i v e n nu m b e r
w h a ts o e v e r
I n f act t h e p r o ces s g i v e n i n ch ap X i
1 3 f or
an d th e
s qu ar e r o o t
e t r acti n g t h e
p r oce s s v e ry comm o nl y
i
n
i
n
a r i t h m e t i cal t ex t b o o k s f or e tr a cti n
t
h
e cu b e r oot w i ll
v
e
g
g
b e fo u n d t o b e cont ai n ed i n th e sch em e o f cal cu l ati o n d es cr i bed

by

in

H r er s meth d w

rst pu bl i shed i the T n ti f th P h i l

f
d
1 81 9
C s i deri g the em rk ble eleg ce
p h i l S i ty f L
ge er l i t y d s i mpl i ci ty f the meth d i t i t l i ttle surpri s i g th t i t
h
t t ke n
m re pr m i e t pl ce i curre t m them t i c l te t b ks
Alth g h i t h bee w ell e p u nded by sever l E gl i sh w ri ters ( f e mple
D e M rg n T dhu ter B ur si de d P t ) i t h sc rcely y t f u d
rec g i sed pl ce i E gl i sh curri cul O t f ve st d r d C t i e t l te t
b ks w here
w uld h ve e pected t d i t w f u d i t me t i
ed i ly
d ther e i t w
e p u ded i w y th t sh w e d l i ttle i s i ght i t i t
t rue ch r cter Thi s pr b bl y ri ses fr m the m i st ke
t i th t there i
i the meth d s me lge br i c pr fu d i t y
m tter f f ct i t sp iri t i
A
d i t b e uty w h i ch
purel y ri thmeti c l
l y b pprec i ted fter
n
h
used i t i p t i cul r c ses i f th t i descri b bl y s i mple k i d w h i ch
d i st i gu i shes the use f p s i t i i n the dec i m l t t i n d the rr ngeme t
f the s imple rules f ri thmet i c
It i i sh rt
f th se th i gs w h se
i ve t i
w
the cre t i
c mm pl ce F i teresti g h i st ri c l
f
det i ls
th i s subject see D e M rg C mp i n t B i ti h A l m k f
1 8 3 9 ; Ar t i cle
l ti
l
d Ev lut i
P
y Cy l p d i ; n d B d g t
pp 2 92 3 7 4
d
f P

o n

ca

no

on e

a a

as

an

on

on

ox es ,

s,

on

ou
.

an

an

on ,

n no

enn

n on

on

n o

on

e a

no a

an o

one

on

xa

on

nv o u

ca

n n a

on

on

as

x - oo

an

as

or

as

a ra

n a

an

oso

ar

an o n

an

ons o

no

as

o n e, a n

oo

n n

sac

ra

on

or

as

on

as

an

ou

on

oc e

as

an

o ne o

or

a na c

c o az

or

E X ERCISES XX II

xv

347

E XE C
XXI I
[The stude t sh uld tr ce s me t le st f the cur ves requ i red i the
f ll w i g gr ph i c e e rc i ses by l yi g them d w c rrectly t s me c ve i e t
sc le H w ill d th i s p r cess much f c i l i t ted by us i g p pe r ruled i t
sm ll squ res w h i ch i s ld u der the me f P l tti g l pe r ]
D i scuss gr ph i c lly the f l l wi ng fu cti s
R

oo

C struct t sc le the gr ph
ll y the r ts f the equ ti
dec i m ls
S lve gr ph i c ll y the equ ti
on

n o

on

(7

on

na

I S ES

of

"2
a

896 + 9 = 0 t o

on

2
03

f: 9

t g ph i c
le st three pl ces f
and ob ai n

at

ra

96

ti n u o u s

on o

a
s,

n 2,

( np nx

13

1x

x,

"

on

s a

an

on o

as :

ar e o

3
of 2 x

oo

of

an

on o

+ 191 2} + 170

(n

a co n

If
very sm ll d 1 d the i creme t
9
I f equ t i f eve degree h ve i t l st term eg ti ve
re l r ts w h i ch
f pp s i te s i g n s
I ndi c te r ughly the v lues f the re l r ts f
h be

+p n

on

n
n

1 6 x2 + 7 1 x

D i scuss gr ph i c ll y the f ll w i g quest i

G i ve th t y i
fu cti f d es i t f ll w th t i c t i u us fu cti f y
Sh w th t w he 7 the i creme t f i very sm ll the i creme t
a

le st t w

on

76

+ 1 2 93 + 5

i t h as

at

oo

1 0233

Wh t
a

yo u i n

ca n

fer r eg rdi g the r ts

x

5 33

oo

of

Sh w by c s i der t i n s f c t i u i ty l e th t
c
t
h ve m re th n
re l r t i f b dd
If f ( ) b
i tegr l fu ct i n f
d i ff ( )
+ q w he r e
d q
b th sm ll sh w th t m ( g
ppr i m t i t
i
p
r t f the equ ti f ( ) 0
Dr w seri es f c t ur l i es f the f ll w i g fu ct i s i cludi g i
e ch c se the er c nt ur l i e
on

on e

an

are

(18

on

e o

a on

an n o

su

c
c, a n

s an

ox

on

on o

my

oo

on

oo

e an

:c

or

on

(1 9

(20 >

'

3
.

m2 + y2

z_

Is the pr p s i t i f 1 6 t rue f the l st f these ?

Dr w the Arg n d d i gr m f the depe de t v ri ble i the f ll w i g
c ses the p th f the i depe de t v ri b le be i g i e ch c se c ircle f r d i us
u i ty w h se ce tre i f2
o

on o

or

1
y

x.

1 a 3

E X ERCISES

3 48

F i d by H
e ch c se t
n

in

3
a2

3
33

(2 9

er s meth d the p si ti ve re l r ts
t le st seve pl ces f dec i m ls

or n

o a

:c -

oo

1 2 7 6 94 = 0

2 4a: 2

( 31

P
{J

4 6 x2

4 234 + 7 w3

on

86 3

4x 2 0 0 0 2

606 3 + 5a 2 + 3 33

F i d t t w e ty dec i m l pl ces the eg t i ve r t

n

g equ t i s

2x

3 -

4 58 0 + 7 945 + 9x 4

80 3 7 96 39

696

o wi n

xv

'

1 0 00 = O

the f ll

of

9
w4 + x3 + x + w

e mu

X XI I

oo

of

2 x 4 + 3 x3

C ti nue the c lcul t i n p 3 4 4 t w st ges f rther i i t

n
t r cted f rm ; d the esti m te h w m y m re di gi ts f the r t c uld
l e
b
b t i ed by me s f the t ri l d i v i s i
(36

on

e o

an

a n

M o st

an

of

these e erc i ses

M organ s E lem ents of

on

A r i th m eti c

an

on a on

ar e

t ken fr
a

om

s u n co

oo

l rge selecti
a

on

gi

ve

in

De

C H A P TE R X V I
E q ua t i o n s

F un c t i o n s

a nd

t h e Fi r st D e g r e e

of

EQUAT I ONS W I T H O NE VARIABLE

xiv
t
h
at ev e r
t
f
I
o ll ow s by t h e p r i n ci pl es o f ch a p
y
]
i nt eg ral e q u ati o n o f t h e l s t d eg r e e can b e r ed u ce d t o an e qu iv a
l e n t e qu a t i o n o f t h e f o r m
ax
b 0
(1) 3

t hi s m ay th e
s u ch
su

r e fo r e

e q u a ti o n s

r e g ar d e d a s
a
t
i
c
ul r
a
r
p

be

AS

f or t h e p r e s e n t
i n n i t el y s m al l

e
o
s
,
pp

n or

g e n e r al fo rm , i n cl u ding a l l
cas e b m a
b
y e z er o ; bu t w e
a

l eas t, th at

at

is

n ei t h e

=
1: 0 ,

W e m ay w r i t e

i
n th e fo m
1
( )

w h e n ce w e s e e t h a t o n e s o l u t i o n

We k n ow l re dy
6 th t a n i nt g r l q a ti n 2f
H en ce
on e a nd only on e sol u ti on
is

b/a

by th e p r i nci pl es o f ch ap x i v ,
a
,
the l s t d eg ree i n one oari a ble has
w e h av e com pl e t e l y s o l v e d t h e g i v e n e q u a t i o n
.

It m y b w ell t dd ther pr f th t the s luti

L et us supp se th t there
s
t w d i st i n ct s lut i
The w must h ve
a

an o

o a

ar e

on

e u

d a

l)

0,

by

su b tr ct i
a

on ,

we
d

u i que

is

mz

of

a and

de i ve
r

h y p thes i 0 theref e m st h ve
rds the t w s lut i s
t d i t i ct

N o w , by
o

(a

s, a
o

or

on

a re n o

\1 0

on
,

Fr m these
ther w

oo

i n n i tel y g r ea t

S in ce

in

[3

0,

th

at

is,

TWO

35 0

equ a tions

Two

ra l

L INEAR EQUA T I O NS IN
the l st deg

as:
a a

necessa

ab
s ol u t i o n

is

of

(1)

e q u a ti o n s

ry

b/a,

su f ci e nt

and

0,

i
s
4
)
(

=
1 0,
:

ab

or

Obs 1
.

ed

If b

a nd

I n t hi s

O bs 2
.

W h en

abl e ar e co n s i s te n t,
a co n s t an t

d e r i v e fr om

(2)

s ol u ti o n o f

is

co ndi ti o n

1
( )

th at

a nd

(2)

be

In

ab ,

th e

case

t h e 1 s t d eg

O,

a x =

0 3

r ee

in

ri
o th e r

o ne v a

o ne

a x

sat i s

k,

t h en t

lea,

lead

lab,

b( ad

b)

ed ( 2 )

is

b)

l
a con s ta n t

a b and

e ach

t h at

k is

an

i s d e r i v abl e by m u l ti pl yi ng th e
f act, s i nce a =t=0 , i f We al s o s u pp os e b =1=O , w e

th e

h e n ce

be

be com e

by di vi d ing by

( 3)

con di t i o n o f co n s i s ten cy

e qu ati o n s

: 2

e q u at i o n s o f

two

to

co mm on s o u ti o n a

I f t h e n,

0 , th en th e

th e

and

e qu i v al en t

t h es e h av e i n f act t h e

whe e

is

is

so

wi ll i n

n ot

by

ri a ble

S i nce

consi stency

( 2)

an d

n e ces sa

con s i s tent

a nd

va

i n g e n e al be t h e sam e 3 h e n ce th e
w i ll i n g e n e al b e i n co n si s t ent

Th e s e w ill

Th e

ry and sn lci ent condi ti on f or

Th e

b
b

s at i s

one

If the equati ons be

is

in

be i nconsi stent

g ene

the

r ee

C H AP

VARIABLE

O NE

aa

s ay

r ans p os i ng

kb,

n o thi n g

mo

re

or

l ess t h an

Th i s m i g h t h av e b ee n e x p ecte d , f or , t r an s p os i tions ap a r t, t h e
o nl y w ay o f d e r i v i ng f r o m a S i ng l e e q u a t i o n an o th e r p e r f e ct ly
e

u i v al e n t

i s t o m u l t i ply th e g i v e n

e q u a ti o n

by

a co n s t a n t

E X ER C ISES XX III

xvr

E X E R C I S E S XXI I I
So

lve th f ll
e

ow i n

g equ t i
a

1 8az+ 7

ons

2m 1

2x

3 6

7
x

) /2

51

62

333 1

1 2x + 5

29

5
4
ze

6 8 ( 3 2x

nd

so

to

three pl ce
a

s of

+ ) (6

96

a2

se

3 6 94x ,
.

/( 1

b a
2

x - a

b2

age

(h
x

b c

ca

02

b ) a3

w2

b+ a

3:

w2

bx

) /b

- 08

deci m ls

+ b + e 3x

ab a

c_ d

b+ c

'

(x
1

(1 4

3
2

+l

n+

w 2

m 4

z
e 3

az5

11

+4

'

n+

3 2: 5 90

ri m

06

14

2 96

IO

4 56 +
:

2
'

35 2

by

an

1
x

O HAS

3 ( az+ 5 )

1
+

+ 1

oo

n+

+ 2a

2a

4b

2b

21

4ab
2

az

'

4a b

b) ec + e

(a

a
a

+b

273

:e a

ml )

b
z
e

ac

as

a
s

'

+ b

b + x + b c

a+ a

a
e x

b)

b
az b

EQUA T I O NS W I TH TWO VAR I ABLES

A

the l s t d eg

s i ng l e equ a ti on o

6x + 1 7

+2

C H AP

S O LU T I ON S

r ee

i n two

oa ri a bl es

has

f i nni ty of solu ti ons

C on si d e r t h e e q u ati o n

on e- ol d

ac
c+

As s i g n t o y
b e co m e s

We
w hi ch ,
a:

we

b
( ,8

We
y
we

)/

s ee n ,

h as

p l e as e,

we

th e 1 s t d eg

on e a n d

r ee

onl y on e

ob ta i n e d

( 1)

f or

th e

s ay

E mple
the s lut i s
xa

s ol u t i o n

th a t t h e

s ym b oli se d

by

co

i n v o l v e s th e

ar e

( 1)

8 , then

one v a

s o l u ti o n

r i abl e

n am el y,

e q u at i o n
1

h
as
1
)
(

o f s o l u ti o n s

gi ve

2y
n

by
1
x

In

) /a

b
8
,
(
o th e

wo

r ds

0,

of

rbi tra ry cons t n t 8

o n e f o l d i n n i ty ( so m e ti m
one

on

in

s ol u t i o n a

m
a
h
av e an
v al u e w e
r
8
w
h
e
e
3
,
,
y
p l eas e
[
y
h av e f o u nd a n i n n it e n u m b e r o f s o l u ti o ns
th e

s ay

h av e t h us

S i nce
we

h a ve

e =

v al u e

n o w a n e q u a ti o n o f

have
as

co n s ta nt

an y

by +

es

we

h ve

f ll

ow i n

L I N EAR

TWO

x vr

e mple
g s lut i s
fo r

xa

fo r

+1

the

+ 2,

+ 1

+2

+1

+ 1

+ 2

We
xiv

ch a

:
3
(

1,

a:

s o on

35 3

on

{3

An d

E Q UATI ON S I N TWO VARIABLES

s h o u l d e x p ect ,

5 , t h at

d eg r ee i n t w o

va

r i a bl e s

in

a cco

rd an ce

ys t em o f t w o
ad mi t s o f d e

w i th th e p i n ci pl es

e q u ati o n s

ni te

e ach o f

of

th e 1 s t

sol u t i o n

Th e p r o ces s o f sol u ti on co n s i s ts i n de du ci ng fr om t h e g i ve n
s ys t em an e q u i v al e n t s ys t em o f t w o e q u a t i on s i n w hi ch t h e
va

ri abl es

a l o ne

in

o ne

of

m ay

rr i v e

at

t hi s

a ffo

the

sa

y,

e qu a t i o n s

su ch

yst em

an

d y

al o n e

t h at

it

i n th e

s i s te nt
x iv

t h a t i s to

p p ea r s

r
We

o th e

s ep a a t e d

ar e

w i th t he

ne al
e
g

for th e d er i v at i on

rd s

o n e s u ch

If l , l
whi ch

a re su ch

by

i
r
p nci pl e s

we

of

e q u a ti o n s

y m eth od l og i call y co n
h av e l ai d do w n i n ch ap

an

Th e foll o w i ng pr o p o s i ti o n

m e th o d

m be

an
,

r e sul t

cons ta n ts, a ny one o

tha t l m

zer o,

but

0 , then the two sys tems

lm

whi ch ma y be

are +

by

+ c =

a nd

l ( aa:

m( a:c

by
by

)
e)

(a w
ni ( a x
l

by

by

)
c)

( 3)

ar e equi valent

It is

o bv i o u s

b o th

Ag a i n ,
V OL

s o u t i o n of

an

1
( )

an d

2
i
l
w
l
( )

y
fo r an y s u ch s ol u t i o n r e du ce s bo t h
t o z e r o , a nd t h e r e fo r e al s o r e d uces

a nd

s id e s o f

t h at

an

( 3)
y

a nd

(4)

to

s ol u t i o n o f

ze o

( 3)

s at i s fy

( 3)

by + c a n d
t h e l e ft-h a n d

aic +

an

d ( 4) is

o bv i ou s l y a

s ol u t on o

.4

S O LU T I O N BY C R O SS MUL T IPLI C A T I O N

35 4
ih

'

'

l ( ax

{
{m (a re

by

) ( an
l m) ( a o:
l

nz

( 7)

lm=
1 0,

lm

s ol u t i o n o f

a s o ut on o

1
( )

as:

by

s h al l

cau s e

3
( )

'

to

s a

is

a nd c
c

+ a

lm

ab

m, m

t o d i s app e a

r f rom

cb

b) y

to

cb

'

s y s t em

r e du ce s

t o l, l

b,

s u ch v al u es

if w e m ak e

t
h
n
4
e
( )

an d

(ab
(a b
new

r f r om

'

t hi s

v al e nt

r y s o l ut i o n o f
nd
2
i
( )
e v e ry s o l u ti o n o f
( 3 ) and ( 4 )

b,

lm

th at

a nd

ui

ev e

y s t em

O,

acco m pl i s h e d

ar e e

to do is to give

n ow

Th e

8
( )

t h at

a pe a
t
d
i
s
o
y
p

Thi s w i ll be

so

by

a nd

a nd

All w e h av e
as

(4)

an d

by
an d

h av e t h e r e f o r e s h o w n t h at

by

'

a x
V

by

( lm
( lm

r
v
id
ed
o
p

by

'

an d ,

by

( 6 ) r e du ce t o

and

Now

by

7n a:c

ni

(
(a x
a

)
c
)

by

{ (

by

l ( azc

ih

)
c
)

by

C H AP

ca

ca

w il l

be

e qu i

v al e nt

to

(l

2
( )

ro v ide d
a

va

B ut

ri abl e

a n d , s i n ce

a re e ach e q u ati on s o f

a nd
,

'

e a ch

t h ey

'

ab

o n e s o l u t io n, n am e l y

eb

'

ac

do

ab

d b

ab

c
a

he

l s t d eg

h av e

o ne

r ee

in

a nd

o ne

o nl y

XVI

EM ORIA T E CHNI C A

35 5

I t ther efor e fol lows tha t the system

+

ar
'

a a:

has

one a nd only one

deni te

by
by

ab
of

c oss

s ol u t i o n

mu l tip li ca ti on, b ecau se

vided
r
o
p

h 3; 0

j u st

di s cu ss e d g oe s by th e n am e o f
i t co ns i st s i n tak i ng t h e co ef ci e n t

r s t e qu ati on
t h e r e w i th 3 th e n t ak i ng th e coe f ci e n t o f y fr o m t h e r s t e q ua t i o n
m u l tipl yi ng t h e s eco n d t h e r e w i th 3 an d nall y su btra ct ing t h e
t w o e qu ati o n s w i th th e r e s ul t t h a t a n e w e qu at i o n a p pear s n o t
of

y f

ro m

solu ti on, na mely,

'

Th e m eth o d

(I)

+ c =

th e

e q u ati o n ,

s e co n d

m u l tipl yi ng t h e

co nt ai n i n

g y

The f ll w i g m m i t ch i
stude t t rec llect the v lues i
The d e m i t rs
the s me
efc i e nts f nd y thu
o

or a

no

na o

a re

y wi

ll e n ble the
a

na

mel y

'

ab

f rmed fr m the

a h

co

ac a

o f cc a n d

the v lues

for

n ca

the l i e sl pi ng d w fr m left t right i d i c t i g p s i t i ve p r duct th t

f m ri ght t left neg ti ve pr duct
The n umer t r f i f rmed fr m i t den m i t r by putt i g c d c i
pl ce f
d
respecti vel y
The umer t r f y by putt i g c d c i pl ce f b d b
F i ll y n eg t i ve si g s must b f ed t the t w fr cti
A ther w y w h i ch the re der m y p refe i f ll ws
O b se rve th t w m y w i te ( 1 0 ) thus
n

ro

a o

a an

:13

na o

an

bc

here the c mm
t the scheme
o

on

bc

ab

e mi t r
no

an

s as

o ns

323

e a

an

no

a o

na

na o

ca

an d

the t w

c a
-

o n

umer t rs
a o

ar e

m
f rmed cc rd i g
o

I t is

ve

ry

i m p o r tan t t o

l at e r al ly s ymm e tr i cal w i th

H en ce

r em ark

r es pect

to

a,

k now th e v al u e o f a w e
e v e r w h e r e b f o r a a f or b
y

if w e

b y p u t ti n g

t h at

1
( )

ca n

an d

2
( )

s e e ch ap

d e r iv e th e

b for

an d a

a re

iv

c ol

20

v al u e o f

fo r b

In

E X AMPLES

35 6

fa ct t h e

( ca

b a ) 3 an d t hi s i s
v alu e o f y g i v e n i n

w hi ch i s th e
E xa

y th u s d e i ve d f

v al u e of

m ple 1

C H AP

ro m

th e

v al u e o f

q u al t o

in

0
1
i
s
( )

ac

r ceed i g by dd irect ppli c ti

n

h) ,

3x + 2 y

i re c

(a)

on of

we

h ve
a

3
9

2 7 1 5

11
{U

Or

thu s

ulti pl y (

1J

) by

2,

an d

we

'

h ve the equ i v le n t
a

sys

tem

6w + 4 y
w

he nce

by

su btr cti
a

on ,

h ch gi ves
Ag i n m ulti plyi ng (

w i

h ch g i ve

w i

by 3 ,

h ve

we

mple 2

E xa

+ Q=

a:
a

"

M ult i pl yi ng the rst o f these equ at i on s

y
18

'

by

subtr c ti ng

an d

B
,

th e

ec

ond .

we

o b ai n

1
a

th t i
a

Bit

s,

S i nce the eq u ti s symmetri c l i

terch gi g
mely
d )3
an

a an

on

a re

na

7
a

he ce

in

m
we

18
v

w f
- a

get the v lue

a

of

y by

S P E C I A L CA SES

xv:

S om e ti m e s

b e fo r e p r o ce e di ng t o ap pl y th e
t o r epl ace t h e g i v e n s ys t em by

t o i t but

e q u i v al e n t

E mple 3
xa

ab o v e

m e th o d , i t

a no th e

co n v e n i e n t

is

357

s i mp l e

w h i ch i s

2
a x

2 :
b
+ y 2 a b( a + b)

(a )

b3

By

dd i g
n

we

deduce fr m
o

h ch i equ i v le nt t

w i

b) %

an d

(a )

b) y

(a

s ob

2
b
b
(y ) y

v i us th t ( )
d sub tr ct i ng
a

an

an d
,

we

(y )

equi v le nt

are

b?) ac

2a2b

2
ah

b( 2 a

b)

o ri

gi l s ystem i
na

t i c u l ar

cas es

t h e t h eo y

i n w h i ch

i n vol v ed i n t h e t w o

Z:

one or

V i o l at e

the

b a

l as t p ar a g r ap h a v a ri e ty o f p ar
m o r e o f t h e co n s tant s a, b, c, a , b , c

co n d i t i o n a b

'

by

+ c =

all

b4 0
:

Th u s w e h av e th e f ol lo w i ng

in

cases ,

sh o

rt

w h i ch d o no t

admissi ble cases

an d

a nd

a
are

excep ti ona l ca s es

'

b e ca u s e th ey i nv ol v e

ab

an

an

d b

an

an

d b

0
0

'

Th e fol l o w i ng

0,

e q ua ti o n s

ad m i s s i bl e

ar e

ze o

2b

h ve

we

'

of

as: +

b e co m e

U nd e r

b)

(a

s s ym m e t

b3,

(7

M ult i pl yi ng

a nd

b)

:6

S i ce the

(a)

to

He ce

h ve
(

b) 3 ,

It i

a,

b,
f

rom 0

ab

all

bu t

d i ff e r e nt
s u ch

t h at

V
(

'

HO M O GENE O US S YS T E M

358

We

s h al l

cas e s

I n th e

g a i n t o th e
m e a n ti m e t h e

( 1 0)

r e a ll y g i v e

fo r m u l ae
as

r e tu r n

by t h e o ry t h e y

T ke c se
a

xa

r e ad e r
c o rr ect

th e

ou g h t

e mple

for

co n s i d e a t i o n

do

ca n

to d o

of

s h o u ld

th e
ve

so l u ti on

e x ce p ti o n al

r i fy

in

th at

cas e s

th e

t
1
o
)
(

The equ ti s i th i s c se r educe t

on

by + c : 0 ,

The st gi ves y
r

/h

th i s v lue

an d

of

reduces the ec d t
on

bc

d x

w h l ch

ou

It w i ll b

7)

an

t h at d e s e

o n e S p e ci al case

w he e c :

03

p os s i bl e

put

if we

r ves

p a ti cu l a

th a t t h e t w o

so

by
by

b =1: 0 , th e se f o r m u l ae

( 1 0)

a
a

n o ti ce,

e qu at i on s

'

s ol u t i on

If

ab

0 , y O as th e o nly
g iv e a
0 , th es e f o r m u l ae are n o l ong e r

az

re z

wy

ha v e t w o

now

a r e co n s i s t e n t

e q u al

0 3 if

ab

ab

a va

3 , n am e

r ie ty o f

p pers

on

l y,

c o n di ti o n a b

an

Ea ch

or

in

of

b /a

3,

w hi ch

t h em g i v e s

t
h
s e tw o
e
(

only solu ti on o

f ( )

b 4 0 , the

b= O,

b/a,

ree

th e l s t d e g

re

is

a n o th e

co m m o n l y cal l e d

Fo r

of

d y m ay have

is

and

a ny values s uch

0,

that the

b/a
Th e

t i o n,

a
a

r ati o a/y

see

by t h e

If then

q u a ti o n s
S i n ce a b

s am e v a l u e o f

b e i ng

r e ect

as

th e

l
i
abl e ; w h a t t h e n h app e n s w i l l be u n d e s too d i f w e
c
p
p
m ay be w i tten
t h a t, p o v i d e d y + 0 , ( a ) a n d

IVe

ar e

( )

w he

th at,

n am el y,
or

ab

homog eneous,

If

bc

x
h
f u d th t ( 1 0 ) g i ves the s me esult

bc

ves

0,

Th e r e i s
n a m el

w ay

of

rr ang i ng

B ezou t s method,

t h e m e th o d

of

w hi ch

ez ou

is

cc u t f B t meth ds pr pe rl y

the H ist ry f D eterm i nts 3 P

an

r
i n r eal i ty m e r ely

t h e p o cess of s ol u

'

na

r oc.

so

c lled see M u ir s

1 88 6

USE

X VI

A be

If
s

a ny

UND ET ERMINE D MUL T IPLIER

or

ni te

q u a n ti ty w h a tever ,

ons ta n t

th en

an

35 9
s o l u ti on

th e

ys tem

(1)
a s o l u ti on o

is

th e eq ua ti on

th t i
a

s ay , o f

to

s i ce A i t
di sp s l
fr m
the must

N ow ,

s a

ou r

o a

w e m ay

ch s e i t th t

so

oo

sh ll d i s ppe r
a

an d

wi

(3)

ll reduce t
e

an d ,

b/b ,

us i g th i s v lue
n

h i ch grees w i th
The v lue f y m y e t b
d is ppe r fr m
We thus get

deduce fr

om

(5)

bc

bc

we

"

ha

of

Fr m ( 4 ) w h ve A
o

xv

ab

o b ai n

ed

by

so

determ i

ni n

th t sh ll

a;

an d s o o n

ka + a = o

m ke th i s meth d i depe de t nd c mplete the ret i c ll y i t w u l d

d y b t i ed d
p r f th t the v lues f
f c urse b n ecess ry t
dd
d t p i t
d
t the e cept i n l c se
i g e e r l ctu ll y s ti sfy ( 1 )
To

o a

a n o th e

an

a; a n

o n

an

ou

a n

u se f u l

w ay o f p o ce e d i ng , w hi ch

p r acti cal ly

es ti n g a n d s o m e ti m es
s

oo

Th e r e i s
Th e

i s i nt e r

ys te m s
aa

by

+ c =

1
( )
aa + c

and

by

'

d x

ro id d b + 0
th e r s t o f ( 1 ) by

e q u i v a l e nt ,

ar e

d er i v e d f r o m

b
0

fo r t h e

r s t

e q u a ti o n

of

(2)

is

r ev er s i bl e p r oces s es o f tr ans
s i ti o n a n d m u l t ip li ca ti o n by a co ns tan t fa ct o r
o
p
Al s o s i n ce a n y s ol u ti o n o f ( 2 ) m ak e s y i d enti cally e q u al
w e m y r ep la ce y by t h i s v al u e i n t h e s e co n d
to
We th s d e d u ce th e equ i val e nt s ys te m
e q u ti o n o f
th e

l g i c i c cer ed 7\ m i ght b fu ct i f the v ri bles b t

prese t purp ses i t i t ke n t b c st nt A lette r i tr duced i n th i s
te mult i pl i er 3 m re p r pe rly i t sh uld
i dete rm i
y i usu ll y c lled n
c lled
u ndeterm i ed mult i pl i e r
So fa r

f or

as

wa

be

an

on

e a

on

na

on o

S OL U T I O N

3 60

C H AP

S U BS T ITUTI ON

BY

a s:

b
3
( )

N ow,

(
If

ab

r edu ces

ab

r s t

th e

of

th e
a

ab

Th e
an

y
5
( )

e qu ati o n s

d t h e r e fo re t o t h e

th at , if

ab

o n e s ol u t i o n

We

bc

b)

da

ab

(6)

ri g inal

ar e

e q u i v al e n t

s ys te m

(1)

h av e p r ov ed
o n e an d o n l
y

h as

can

t hi s

c a , an d

s ys t e m

H e n ce w e

s t em

b + 0 , th e

to th e

m u s t be, Si n ce, if bo th

( 1)

to

r em ov e th e r es tri ct i on b =1 0 3 fo r i f b
e q u at i o n s ( 1 ) r e d u ces t o an
H en ce (if
c
0

th e

( 3)

an d

an d

b( a b
ca

b c)

b
( c

e qu a t i o n s

a c

t0

bc

bc

I S,

g iv e s

t h at

( 3)

o n e a n d only on e s o l u ti on, na m el ,
y

w
v alu e o f to

b c)

( bc

t hi s

e qu a ti o n s

( 4 ) h as

0,

th e

seco n d o f

b =i=0 , th e

s i n ce

v a l ue

an

of

0 , th e n

d b

9:

r edu ce s

ab

th e

s eco nd

r s t

0 th e

of

O , w hich

0 ) w e h av e
e q uat i on s

of

to

a c
a

w h ich g iv es

m a ing a b
and
y ar e p

Th e

s i nce

cann o t

0) y

r e ci s ely

e x ce pt ed

ca

t io n

ab

cas e

O,

i n th e p re s e nt case be 0 w i th o ut
N ow t h es e v al u es o f a
a nd

t h o s e g i v en by

0 i s th e

e x ce p ti on al ca s e s ex cl u d e d ar e

by

r ef or e

th o se

( 6 ) w h en b

i n cl u de d 3 and t h e only
th at co m e u n d e r t h e co n di

SYSTEM

XVI

Th e m e t h o d
.

r gr

IN a

m
ay b e
h
p
p
di s cu s s i on f o r m s
abo v e
th i s

of

Th e

s u bs ti tuti on

THREE EQUA T I O NS

OF

a a

ca

AND
lle d

36 1

3]

co m p l e t e

by

s o l u ti o n

a nd

Th e
i nd e p e nd ent l og i cal t e a tm e nt o f th e p o bl e m i n h a nd
a ent
s t ai h t fo w a d n es s
s tu d e n t m a , o n a ccou n t o f i t s a
g
y
pp
4
a nd t h eo e t i ca l
i t t o th e m e th o d o f
Si m pl i ci ty, p e fe
.

The d e fe ct

of

of

t h e m eth o d l i es i n i t s w a nt

p r acti cal r e s ul t o f w hi ch i s th at i t
d e tail i nt o t h e cal cu l ati on s

s ym m et

i n tr od uces

o ft en

ry ;

th e

n ee dl ess

E mple
xa

(a)

3x + 2 y

Fr m (
U si g
o

h ve
w r educe ( B) t

we

th t i
a

1-3

76

9x + 2 (
s,

11

v lI e n ce

Thi s v lue
a

of

x reduce

(7 )

15

to
3

11

15

2
5

The lut i
so

o n of

the ystem (
s

an d

is

theref re
o

11
15

Three equ a ti ons

w i ll n ot

be

ab

ree i n

tw o

var i a bl es,

be

( ea

ca

consi s tent i

thi s

ab

cond ition

b)

be

2
( )3

ed

sa tis

for th e p r e s e n t, th at n o n e o f t h e t h r e e fu ncti o n s

b, a b a b , a b
a b v an i sh e s f
Thi s i s e qu i v al e nt to
s u ppos e ,

tha t

ni te

ev e

ry

s ol u t i o n

I f w e t a k e th e
th e d e

b c)

(bc

ra l

su ppo s i n g

m i nat e

the l st deg

they w i ll i n g ene

We

cons is tent unl ess

a

a nd

ni t e

"

p ai r

of

th e th

r ee

e q u a t i on s

h as

d e te r

r s t

tw o

e qu ati o n s

s ol u t i o n

See bel

ow ,

25

as

ys te m , th e y h av e

C ONDI T I O N

362

be

'

x
Th e
th

n e ces s a

r ee

ry

an

e q u at i o n s

e q u at i on

; in

ot

S ince

ab

Th e

r e ad e r

an

on e

ab

ca

a b

ab

s u f ci e n t co n d i t io n

i s th at thi s

ca

for th e

co n s i s t e n c

Of

th e

y
s h ou ld s a ti s fy t h e t hi d

s o l u ti o n

h e r w or ds , th at

bc

ab

ca

ca

ab

e qu i v al ent

b
c
(

b c)

'

s h ou l d

( ca

n o ti ce

ca

to

(a b

b)

di ti o n m ay be w r i tt e n i n
by m e r el y r ea rr ang i ng th e

th at thi s

co n

foll ow i ng for m s

th e

b =1: 0 , thi s i s

of

y
te ms

bc

O F C ON SI S I E N C Y
'

b( e a

b c)

b ( ca

b c)

(b c

b (c a

c a b
(

"

( bc

(b

b( c a

c a b
(

c a

a b)

'

ab c

c a)

be )

ca )

ab )
c a

ab c

4
( )

'

Th e f o r m s

"

"

b c)

b
(

t a i ng t h e

be a

(5)

an d

sol u t io n o f

c a

cou ld

ca

0
0

b c)

)
a b)

b)

ca

ca

h av e be en

th e tw o l as t

b)

'

be a

( b

c ab
(

a bc
(

b ( ca

c ab
(

O bt ai n e d

d i r e ctly by

e q uati o n s a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g

in

rs t a nd by sol v ing t h e r s t an d l as t an d s u bs ti tu ti ng i n th e
s eco n d r e sp e cti v el y
Ea ch o f th ese p r oce s s e s i s Obv i ou s l y l Og i c
th e

al ly e

i
u
al ent
v
q

t o th e

o n e actu all y a d o p t e d ab ov e

Th e f o r m s
co ns i s te n c

Of

as: + a

t h e th

+ a

0,

r ee

C or If the three
.

tions

( 1 0)

of

the

e q u at i o n s

be

by + b

0,

equ a ti ons

( 1 ) be

'

ca

ey

s id e

r e su l t

consi s tent,

'

ree equa

then the th

a re consi s tent

I f the re der w i ll
th t the funct i n
a

n ow

c mp re the p re e n t p r gr ph w ith
o

ab

pl ys the s me p rt f the s ystem

a

c o nd i t io n

th e

as

h av e t h e r e fo r e th e fo ll o w i ng i n te r es ti ng

se e

r e sul t

8
w
o ul d
)
(

or

ax

+ b:

0,

a a

2,

he w i ll

DETERMINAN T

X VI

d es the fu ct i

as

fo r

a bc

the s ystem
n

on

on

"

b( a a

b
,

'

( b

c a

li

b)

the respect i ve s ys tems

t ti s

no a

for

equ

of

on

ab

11

II

G a

no

il

n a n ts o f

e er

ll

c lled the d t m i
O fte n de ted by the

are

a re

3 63

on

These fu ct i s
ti s The y

SYS T EM

O F THE

fo r

ab c

abc

bc a

be

ca

ca

'

The re der sh uld n ti ce

t i O f the 1 t degree i the c nsti tue nts f ny
l t Th t the deter m i
c lum f the squ re s ymb l b ve i tr duced
n
w
f ny
2 d Th t i f l l the c n st i tue ts b c
s i dered i t degree i equ l t the
n um b e r
f equ t i s i the s yste m
A speci l br nch f lgebr i n w d ys dev ted t the th y f d t
th t i t i u n ecess ry t pursue the m tter i th i t re ti se F
mi n t
the s ke O f m re dv ced tude ts w h ve here d there i tr duced results
w y
n t t i nte r fe r e w i th the p r gr ess
f th i s the ry b t l w ys i n such
f such
m y b u cqu i n ted w i th them
The re der m y d the f ll w i g m m i t h i w useful i n e n bl i ng
h i m t remem b e r the deter m i n n t f s ystem f th ree equ t i n s
F
the f r m
o

n an

e ro

or o

one

as

an

Fo r

eor

as

an

e er

or

or ze

ec n c

t o be i n

or

na

on

on

a n s , so

n o

terpreted l ike the s i mi l r schem e i n

the f rm
a

\
here the letters i the d i g l l i es
cc rdi g the d i g n ls sl pe d
rig ht t left
E mple
T sh w th t the equ t i s
w

or

as

ar e

on

4x + 6 y

c s i ste n t
S lv i g the rst tw equ t i s
on
o

to

or

3x + 5 y
are

f rm pr ducts w i th th s i g s
fr m
w nw r ds fr m left t r i ght

ona

v,

xa

'

2 x + 4y

on

we

h ve
a

a
s

These v lue
a

E X ER C I S E S XX IV

364

ca n

r educe 2 + 4 y 3 t 7 + 1 O 3 w h i ch i er He ce the s l ti f the

rst t w equ t i s s t i ses the thi r d 3 th t i the three c s i ste t
We m i ght ls
the ge er l r esults f the b ve p r gr ph
S i ce 3 6 5 4 2 5 2 3 4 2 4 4 2 6 + 4 e ch p i r
h
by i tself
de i te s luti
A g i c lcul t i g the deter
f equ t i
m i t f the s ystem by the rule gi ve b ve w h ve f the v lue f the
determ i t 5 4 1 0 3 2 2 4 1 2 6 0 0 He ce the s ystem i c si ste t
x

on

ons

na n

as

on

n an

+2

XXI V

g
6

'

1 2 3x

'

ve pl ces
+y

1,

+ by :

0,

ax

+ b) m ( a

ar

Fi d A
n

an d

by

la

b) w

0, ( a

bq
n

so

on

ar

)x

(L
y

th t

bam ,
bqaz+2

nf2

m ay be

e ctl y d i vi s i ble
xa

by

a nd

if

x -

(b

b,

a:
a

i-

b h

1 1) 6

C O 11

'

)y

F i d the c d i ti
c s i ste t
n

(a

x - c

(a
(a

s i ste nt h w th t A t V53
I f the s yste m ( b + ) w+
S

3 71 ,

as

m bs
n

a nd

If h =
t=0 ,
,

593 y

'

( P
b

'

52

a:
2

+ 5y = 3 6

b2
33

: x

on

63 = 6 3

'

a s

3x 2 y :
3 3 4,
8 93 3:

deci m l

of

6 85 y

+4

ow i n

or

2 x + 3 y = 1 8,

tw at/ = 6

y to

a: a n d

S lve the f ll

nd

a a

+3

E X E RC I S E S
o

on

a n,

are

on o

o u

n a

s,

o u se

on

c s i ste t the

on

0 , be

th t
a

on

an

by :

c,

( a + b) y + ( b + c)

n a
l

Fy

b3

3
c

a a;

3 a bc
3

by

0
6

be

x vi

S YS T E MS

OF

Fi d

in

ONE

E Q U ATI O N S I N

AN D O F Tw o

365

tegral fu ct i f f the 1 t degree w h se v lues sh ll

the v lues 3 d + 2 respecti vel y
b +9
d + 1 0 w he n
h
F i d i tegr l fu ct i
f
f the 2 md degree such th t the
d w he n
c efci e t f i t h i ghest ter m i 1 nd th t i t v ni shes w he
n

an

an

a:

a
c:

an

on o

on

an

Fi d
n

he n m o
respect i vel y
w

an

a nd

teg l fu ncti
the v lue
h

in

ra

as

o f a:

on

an d

the

of

2 nd

+ 2

he n

degree
x

wh i

ch v

an d

A si ng l e equa ti on of the l s t deg r ee i n three

two
fold i nni ty of solu ti ons

at

shes
+3

va

r ia bles

a dmi ts

Fo r i n

an y s u ch e q u ati o n , say

g n t o t w o o f th e v ar i abl e s any co n s tan t v al u e s w e

t
i
n
eco m es an e q u at i o n
8
s ay y
z
t
h
n
t
h
u
a
o
b
e
e
e
,
,
,
q
y
l s t d e g r e e i n on e v a r i abl e, w h i ch h as o ne and o n ly o n e

w e m ay

pl ease,
of

an i

EQUA T I O NS W I TH THREE O R M O R E VARIABLES

o

c
c o

an

as

a: o

as s i

th e

s ol u ti on , n am el y,

6
(13

(l

th u s h av e th e

sol u t i o n

b,8

S i nce

th e

re

a re

d
y

h e r e tw o

rbi tr a r y

co ns ta n ts ,

e ach

to

of

m ay b e g i v en, w e say t h a t th e r e i s
2
co ) o f s ol u t i o n s
a t w o f ol d i n ni t
A
s mm e tr i c fo r m i s g i v en
y(
y
f or thi s d oubly i n d et er m i n at e s ol u t i o n i n E x er ci s e s x x v 2 7

w hi ch

an

i n ni ty

+ c

v al u es

of

sys em

two equa tions

the l s t deg

i n g ener al of a one-fold i nn i ty
C on si de r th e e q u ati o n s

a bles a dmi ts

We

ppos e th a t th e f un cti on s bc

a b
a ll v ani s h , say a b
0

su

b c,

ca

'

ree i n three vari

s olu ti ons

c a, a b
'

h do

n ot

I f w e g i v e t o 3 any arbi tr ar y con stan t v al u e w h atev e r ,

n i te v al u e s f or a:

h
en the t w o
i
v
e
n
e
u
t
i
n
s
i
v
e
d
e
a
t
o
,
g
q
g
y
We thu s ob tai n th e s olu ti on

say
a nd

366

SYS T EM

II O M O G EN E OUS

bd

bc

bc

h av e h e r e

S i n ce w e
i n ni ty

C or

o f s o l u t i on s

Th e r e i s

bd

'

We th en h

ca

rbitr ar y co nstant

th e

re

is

a o n e-f o l d

an

av e ,

f ro m

bc
a
n

bc

ab

r e su l t can

Th i s

on e a

da

'

C H AP

EQUATI ONS

i mp o r tant p art i cu l a r case O f t h e abo v e th at

0
O an d d
p r a cti ce, t hat, n am el y, w h e r e d

in

O f te n o ccu s

ca

OF TWO

ca

y
b

b e w r i tt e n

ca

ab

7
ab

be

f oll o w s

as

9
!

y
b

ba

7
ca

ab

ca

ab

ab

N o w , 7 b e i ng
i t t h a t y/(a b
a h
)

e
n
b
i
p
g

r ry

we

I t w il l be
a,

y,

a re

e
p

b c) ,

d e p en d

on

th e

a;

E mple 1
xa

: z

( bc

the

as

b c)

cd

solu ti on o

: z:

Hence,

the system,

ca

'

p (a b

b)

'

ca

) (

0,
0,

13 ;

rati os

p, t h e

h av e fr o m

x :

s ay ,0

h
t
h
e i n di v i d u al
g

co n s t ant

2 56 + 3 y 4 3 :
3x - 2 y 6 z :

g i ve

al th ou

w e pl e a se,

d e t e r m i ne

cz

n am e l y, w e

ca n s o

rbi tr a ry

v alu e

d i s p o s al , w e

63

p ( ea

rfectl y d et e r m i ne d

an

ha ve,

th at,

ou r

ob s e v e d

ab

by
by

a a

h av e

b
e
p(

s h al l

as:

enti el
y ar bi t a

e n ti el
at
y

ab

( 4)
a

b)

'

v al u e s o f

o f a,

y,

S YS T E M

xvi

o r,

h i ch i the s me th i

10
p,

cc :

e g y q u t i ty w h ts ever
E mple 2

p b in

an

an

xa

y = 2 4 p,

2
( L 96

(
z
a
b
(
ca

z:

c
c:

here

In

) /d

2
0 a

ca p c

ri ables

: z

sys tem

c a
b
)/
(

three

the h ve

y,

a nd

z:

a a

b) /c,

the

l st deg

a , sa

) /h

we

ab c

Th e t h r ee

) /b ( a

a s:

by

os

by

r ee

i n thr ee

bc

co e f ci e nt s c, c , 6

th

ree

a cas e al e a dy co n s i d e e d

in

u s su

t h at

pp o s e

c : 1:

c aa
( :

by

ax

n es s , w e

'

ca

ca

al l

qu a t i on s

c a :e
(

v a n i s h , o th e

i n tw o

va

ri

+ cz

by

cz

by

s ys t e m

d )
d

e z

0
0

M at t e r s

an d

to

A
A
w e m ay w

ri te

ae

a o,

ac

a c,

th e

s ys t e m

bc

bc

6
( )

an d

b c,

b c,

(7 )

A s:

By

we

abl e s , a a n d

an d

i f, for

pu t

r w is e

by

di sapp ear s f r o m

can n o t

c a rc

e q u i v al e n t

t h at

d)

by

o bv i o u sl y

rrang e d

d)

cs

0 , th e n th e f oll o w i ng
a s:

'

p r ovi ded

bc a

e z

a s ys t e m o f

hav e

Let

equ a ti ons

by

one a nd only one sol u ti on ,

s h o u ld

s ay

c
a c

a bp a

is

by

a c

)
a)
b)

an

y,

bcp( b

rbi tr ry
ther w rds w h ve
is

has

b20 ) p =

a bep

(b

a
c

va

repl ce

w e m ay

1 3p,

0,

)p
2
a b)p

oo

367

z:

b2 y

gi ve
y

by

a s:

I f w ch se

I N a) ,

ng ,

T HRE E E Q UATI O N S

OF

as

'

C
C

dc

dc

fo ll ow s

c,

c,

a re
sh o

so

rt

G E N ER AL

368

Now

ro v ided

(7

and

AB

h av e th e

S O L U TI O N

u ni q u e s ol u t i o n

y
v a l u e s o f a an d
a
'

(B C

AB

AB

CA

CA

AB

AB

b( CA

e qu ati o n s

1
b
ein
1
( )
g

( l ot

t o d e i ve f

C A)

a( AB

u ni

A B)

'

11

A B)

e q u i val e n t

ro m

to

t h at i s ,

s ol u ti o n o f

qu e

t he t h

re e

g i v en

r em ai ns

o nl y

It

A
B
(

co ns ti tu t e

BC

to

e n ab l e u s

B C)

a nd

A R 0

BC

These

t h at th e

Sh o w

to

8
( ) is

co n di t i o n

e qu i val e nt

to

We
AB

h av e

A RE

H ence

"

be a

8
i
( ) s

+ 0,

s i n ce 6

b c)

( ac a o) ( bc

c ab e
ab c
(

ao

be

e qu i v a l e n t

) ( bc

a o

ca

b c) ,

ca

b)

to

A lth ugh i pr ct i ce the ge er l f rmul e very r rely used

i terest the stude t t see the v lues f
gi ve by
y
We h ve
p d d i te rms f the c efc i e ts
o

an

'

B C) E

(B C

(dc

a a re

x,

ye t i t m ay
( 1 1 ) ex

"

) ( bc

( dc

b c)

) ( bc

b c)

w
C mp ri g w i th
th t ( B C B C) d i ffers fr m AB A R
merel y i h v i g d wri tten everyw here i pl ce f ( the d shes b ei g
t n d u n ltered ) He ce
i m gi n ed t
o

( BC
So

th

at

o s a

s ee

db

bc d

bc d

cd

r te

w e m ay w i

d(b c

9c :

a
,

'

) + d (b

b c ) a (h
c

"

(b

We bt i n the v lue
respect i vel y n mel y
o

/I

s of

ba

be )

by i n

an d 3

( bc

b c)

terch gi ng
an

and

d (a

"

b( a d

(b a

)
)

ba )

ba )

a o
,
a c

'

d( b

/I

(a c
b (a c

d (b a

c (b a

ac

ba )

ac

ba

'

(ac

b (a c

a c

( ba

( ba

b a)

ba )

b and

a and 6

S YS T E M

I I O M OG ENE O US

x v:

Wri tte n i determ i

n

nan

t n t ti
o a

at
96

cl

a
a

12

I n th e

e qu at i o n s

"

ll

s p eci al

3
( )

by

ab

mor e

e a s i ly

b) , do

c
c

'

ll

re

0, d

0, d

0 , th e

cz

by
as,

f rom

we

namely, a

from

s ee

1
5
( )

an d

If the deter minant does

e a

y, 3
the sys tem,

not vani sh,

by

follow

a c
e

h o m og e neou s i n

If the determi nant of

+ 63

a c
c
are

l as t pa r ag r aph be com e

of

an

w h i ch

w he

ca se

a
a

Cl

(l

a
:

369

these w uld bec me

c
b

on

T HREE E Q U ATI O N S

OF

)
(
( 1 1 ) ( or
se ct i on ) tha t

11
th e

of

b c)

( be

sa m e

ea

ea

0,
conclusi on

thi s

vani sh,

does

not necessa

r ily

I n fa ct, i f w e w i te

i
n t he f o m
3
( )
a;

a
z

2/

+ e

Q)
a

[I

"

r eg ard d /e

a nd

y/z

Q)

an d

II
c
0

va

as

r i abl e s

th ese

e q u at i o n s

are

co n

s i s t e n t, s i n ce

a
an

an

( bc

y tw o

of

b c)

b ( ea

ea

t h e m d e te m i n e t h e

ab

h)

r ati os ee/z y/z 3

,

so

th at w e

h av e

b c

be
'

be

VOL I
.

: ca

be

z ea

ea

: ab

za b
a b,

- ca

a h,

e a

e a

EX AM PL E S

3 70

The s e d iff e r e nt

ca n

ra tio s a re i n ag r e em e nt by v i r tue
Of
a s t h e s tu d e n t s h ou l d v e r i fy b
y a ctu al cal cul at i on
H ence the determina nt of a system of thr ee homog eneous equa
tions of the l st deg r ee i n {13 y z vanis h the va l ues of a) y z are inde
ter mi nate ( ther e bei ng a one fold i nn
i ty of solu ti ons) bu t thei r rati os
v al u e s o f

the

determinate

are

K now i ng ,
of

ti on s

d eg r ee i n

th e 1 s t
an d

s ol u t i o n

m eth o d

mo

no

t
h
e
g

a,

th e p

rally

pl a n

m ay

u s e fu l

3
( )

i t i s pu t, s ol ve by i n sp e c
e m ay carr y ou t, i n th e

1 1 3 th i s i s p e h ap s t h e m ost g en e
m ay s ol v e by s u bs t i tuti on
4
e
( )
m
i
5
a
d
e
e
ve f om th e g i v en
y
( )

We

B e zo u t s m eth o d

a n o th e

t h e d e iv e d

w h i ch

s ys t em

pl e r, and th e n s ol ve
fol l ow i ng e x ampl es i ll u s tr at e t h e s e
si m

h app en s t o be

Th e

e qu a

as

of

u se

s
t
e
m
y

r ocess

r ee

s p eci al cas e,

th

y,

m a y g u e s s t h e s o l u t i o n , o r,
v e r if i n
y g if n e cess a ry
(2)

t i o n,

re

a s y s te m o f

h as i n g e ne r al one d e ni te
w e m ay t ak e a ny l og i ca lly a dmi s s ibl e
s ol u t io n th a t h a
e n s t o b e co n v e n i e n t
pp

o f O b tai n i n

( 1 ) We

d o, t h a t

w e now

as

d i ffe r e nt m e th o ds

E mple
xa

(b
=
A gl ce sh w s us th t thi s system i s t i sed by
y b
s i ce the s ystem h
ly
s luti
th i g m re i requ ired
an

o ne

as o n

mple 2

Ex a

( a ) by

a nd

( 6 ) by

(a )

( y ) by

a nd

) by

he ce
U s i g th i s v lue

su btr cti
a

4,

an d

subtr ct i g
n

17

putt i

The s lut i
o

ng

an d ,

z in

k)
we

we fi n

on o f

in

3 1,
'

the system (
as

a
:

Ob t ai n

su btr ct i g

( e)

we

o n,

21

1 02
of

h ve lly
a

d
9

an d,

z= c

(a )

82 3 2 0

1 43

M ult i pl yi ng (

75

an d

3,

4y
o

a,

3x + 6 y

Fr m

on , n o

3x + 5y
4x + 8 y

M ult i pl yi ng

:J
c:

(a )

we nd

(y ) i s

,
'

4,

3 1,
'

theref re
o

na

E X A M PL E S

xv:

E mple 3
T k i g the equ t i ns
substi tut i
f ll ws
Fr m ( )
xa

o n , as

l st e mple

of

( a ) (B) ( y )

xa

we

m i ght pr ceed

by

Thi s v lue

redu es ( B) t

o f a:

20

h ch i equ i v lent t

w i

37 1

2
Z
+
3
3

28

+
y

1 4z + 3 0

Sub st i tut i g the s me v lue

a

o f a: a s

ef re i
o

(y )

we

deduce

gi ves
d th i s v lue

4 y - 1 4z + 1 7 :
n

k)

N ow
an

of

reduce

y =z + 1 ,
to

1 03

21

0,

hen ce
2 1
The v lues f y d
n n w b
b t i n ed by u i ng rst
n d the n
E mple 4
T k i g ce m re the equ ti n s ( )
(y ) f E mple 2 w m i ght p
t meth d
d by B
I f A d b t w rbi tr ry mult i pl i ers w deri ve fr m ( ) (B) ( y )
z

an

xa

e o

a: ca

on

'

ezo u

cee

an

xa

7z
3
x
5
+
(
y

or 2

ro

re

8z

Supp se th t w w i sh t d the v lue f

We deter m i n e
sh ll c nt i n n ei ther y n
We thus h ve
o

o a

an d

th t
a

u so

8 A+ 6 u + 5 = 0
4

(g )
3u = 0

2 + 3A

I f w s lve (
o

an d

we

O bt ai n
A

'

The l st equ t i
a

th t i
w he n ce
The v lues
E mple 5
a

thus b ec mes

on

'

'

as

of

an d

z m ay be obt ai n ed

2
a z
e

and

we

h ch pr v i ded

w i

ca n n o w ,
and

556

'

0 3
4
'

by

s i m i l r pr ce
a

ss

ax +

Fr m (

s,

xa

(a )

(3

We

1,

if we

deri ve
b

by

0, i s

by + cz = 0

b2 y
a

dd i t i

(b

( B)

b)

on ,

e q ui v le t t

ple se repl ce
a

c z:

(a)

w+ y + z = 0

(a )

an

( B) by

(M
.

the equ i v le t s i mple r p ir

a

E X A M PL E S

372
N ow

by

( s ee

v irtue

of

and

(a )

a;

If n ne
a

on

(b

U s i ng (

ti

the three

of

ec

w e ca n

om

s i ce
h if
,

es

a ni s

bc

ca

a, a

b,

{ a

c, c

an i

b2 ( c

c
2

epl ce y/(

(b

)+ (
c

b2 ( e

an d z

/( a

r te (7 ) i the f rm

w e m ay w i
a

b) E

(a

s a

on

(b

c, a nd ,

xa

) (e

2
c d

b)

(a

the l st equ
(

f ll w s th t

it

h ch d es
o

n ot

a, z = a

n o b ai n

ed

at o n

ce by i nspect i

on

2
0 3

w + ey

Fr m the i de t i ty

3
c

( see

ch p
a

iv

h ve

here

b c,

b) ( Er

a bc

3
b
b
+ q + p +

+ cq

It ppe rs theref re fr m
a

is

(a)

we

b) ;

b) , w i

) (a

)+

an d

bg ( e

c
,

2
b
+ (c

s mmetry y
n m
ht c ur e h ve b ee
by y
ig
of

(b

an

b c

He ce b
Thi s s lut i
E mpl e 6

b) by w/( b

prev i u ssumpt i s b gr ted

ou r

c
c:

a 2 ( b
b) }
b

sh
_

b) L

a:

h ve

we

an d ,

a so

lut i

on o f

(a )

i n thr ee

ay

He nce s i n ce (
,

) h as

a bc,

a
c:

Thi s result m

th t

be

on

ly

on e s o
z:

ge ner l i ed
a

an d

e te nded i n
x

lut i

on,

th

at s o

luti

on

is

b c

v ar i o u s

O bv i o us

w ays

A system of mor e than three equ ati ons of the l s t deg r ee

var i a bl es w ill i n
g ener al be i nconsi stent To secu r e consistency
.

must i n g ener al be sa tised f or every equa ti on beyond

Th i s m ay be Se en by r e ecti ng t h at t h e r s t t h r ee e qu a

one condi tion

r ee

th

riabl e s and that

t h e v al u e s th u s fou nd m u s t s a ti s fy e ach o f t h e r e mai ni ng e qu a
Th u s i n t h e ca s e o f f ou r e qu ati on s t h e r e w ill be one
t i o ns
Th e e qu ati on e x p r es si ng th i s condi tion
c o n di ti o n f or co n s i s te n cy
cou ld e as i l y be f ou n d i n i ts m o s t g e n e r al fo rm 3 b u t i t s e x p r e s s i on
w ou l d be cu mbr ou s a nd pr a ctical ly us el es s wi th o u t th e u s e Of

t i o ns w i ll i n g en e

r al

u n i q u el y

d ete r m i n e t h e

va

G EN ERA L

X VI

L IN EAR SY S T E M

TI I EO RY F OR A

3 73

d ete rm i na ntal o r o th e r a bbr ev i a ti v e n o tat i o n T he r e i s h ow

e v e r n o d i fc u l ty i n w o rk i ng ou t th e r e q u i r e d r es ul t d i r e c tly i n
a n y s p e c i al c a s e
E m pl e
D ete m ine th num eric l con t nt 1
th t the four equ tion
.

xa

3 y + 5z = 1 8,

2x

2, s o

s a

4x + 2 y z z
3 )z = 7 6

3x

( 10 + 1 ) x +

h ll b con i ten t
f
I f w t ke the r t three equ tion the y deter m ine the v lue
=5
n m ely
y= 3
T he e v lue m u t ti fy the l t equ tion h
w m u t h ve
s s

sa

hich i equiv len t t

Hence

s o

s,

as

x,

y,

2,

e n ce

9p = 5 4

c ou r se of r eason
i ng th r o u g h w h i c h w e h av e l ed hi m i n th e c as e s o f e qu at i o ns o f
th e l s t d eg r e e i n o n e tw o a n d th r ee v ar i abl es r esp e c t iv e l y h e
w i ll s ee t h at t h e s p i r i t o f th at r eas on i n g i s g e n e r al 3 an d th at
by p u r s u i ng th e s a m e c o u r s e s te p by s t ep w e sh oul d a rr i v e at
t h e foll o w i ng g en e ral c o n cl us i o n s
I A sys tem of n r equa tions of the l s t deg r ee i n n va ri abl es
ha s i n g ener al a s olu ti on i nvolvi ng r ar bi tr a ry cons tants
i n other
words ha s an r fol d i nni ty of di er ent solu ti ons
I I A system of n equ ati ons of the l st deg r ee i n n va ri ables ha s
a u ni que determi na te soluti on p rovi ded a cer ta i n fu ncti on of the co
ei ci ents of the sys tem whi ch we may ca ll the d etermi nant of
the
I f th e

r e ad e r w i ll

no w

r e c on s i d e r

th e

not va ni sh

does

system,

III

sys tem o

r al

wi l l i n g ene

T here

be i ncons is tent

To

di ti ons mus t i n g ener al be

e r ee i n n var i a bl es
d
f
g
secu r e cons i stency r di hrent con

the l st

equ ati ons o

ed

sa ti s

ould b no gre t difcu l ty i n l ying dow n rule f c lcul ting

tep by tep the function poken f bove the determ in nt f y te m f
equ tion f the l t degree i n n v ri b le b t the n l form in w hich it
E perie ce
w ould thu b o bt ined w ould b neither eleg nt nor lu m inou
how n th t it i b etter to e t b l i h independently the theory f cert in
h
n d then t
cl
ppl y the propertie f
f f unction c ll ed deter m in nt
the e f u ction t the gener l theory f equ tion f the l t d egree A
b rie f ketch f thi w y f proceed i ng i given in the ne t p r gr ph
nd
w ill b quite inte l ligi bl e t t ho e cqu inted w i t h the ele m ent
f the theory
f de term in n t
w

as s

o a

s, a

or

s a

as

a ss o

s o

s o

a a

s o

G ENE RA L

374

G ENE RA L

SO

SO

L U TI ON

OF

C HA

L IN EA R SY STEM

LU TI O N O F A S Y STE M O F L INEAR E QU ATI O N S

B Y ME A NS O F D ETE RM I N AN TS
.

C o n s i d e r th e

s ys t em

Ul

au z
e,

cl

U2

a , ,a ,

02

r
r are
d e ter m i ne th e m
w h e e th e e

a n zm
z

an l wl

n va

r i abl es

a nn xn
xl

an

( )
n

n e q uat on s

to

Let
AE

al l

12

a2 1

d l e t A, , A2,

r ep l a c i ng
r es pe ct iv el y

by

th e

se t cl

co -fa

d e no t e d

A be

as u su al

c on st i tu ent s

by t h e

Al s o l e t th e
&c

d eno t e

A7 ,

c to r s

a2n

( 6712

a ?
an

i n

ar m
.

d ete rm i nan ts obtai ne d fr om A

th e l s t 2 md
nth c ol u m n s

th e

of

c2 ,

cn

of

am,

by A , A1, ,

Am ,

am

A2 , ,

Am , & c ,
.

T h en

by th e th eo ry

of

a l l Al l

as i Ae i

a l 2 A1 1

d 2 2 A

d e t e r m i n a n ts
s

we

a n i Am

a ne

ha v e
A

An i

( )
a

a i n An

l zrt

6 1 A
an

ce

an n A

Aei

ni

Cn Ar m

d ete r m i n nt A w h i c h w e c all the d e te r m i nant o f

o f e q u at i o n s d oe s n o t v a n i s h t h e n A
A
al l v an i s h
L et u s su pp o se th a t
Th en

s t em

c a nn o t
c hap x i v
.

2,,

1 0 , th e

iv al ent

to t h e

t he

Am

by

y s t em

U, = 0
e qu

A1 1U1
is

Azi

so on

I f th e
s

+
,

A2 1 U2

U,

s ys t e m

A4 L1 Un

0,

( )
n

If w e

c o l lec t

the

BY

xv i

c oe fc i ents
e qu a t i o n s

an

v a r i abl es

th e

of

M EANS

a tt e n

D ETE R MI N AN TS

or

a,,

d t o th e r e la t i o n s ( )
a

e q u va l e n t

A1

A, A

a,

i m i la r r easo n i ng
Hen c e

An/A

( n)

t h at

eq u

to

'

B y e x a c tl y

r s t o f t he s e
at i o n r e d u c e s t o

i n t he

a,
,

Ad ;

Si n c e A dF 0 , th i s i s

37 5

c o u l d h o w t h t a)
so l u t i o n a n d t h e o nl y

the

we

A,

s o l ut o n, o f

(l)

is
Al /A,

c
c,

Al th ou g h, f ro m t h e

An/A

Ag /A,

.0

c o n d u c te d t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n
i t i s n o t n e c essary t o v e r i fy t h at
d o e s i n fact s ati s fy
n
e
t
t
h
r
d
r
l
d
sa t i s f
h
i
m
f
s ti tu
e
a
e
s
h
ou
se
l
su
b
e
b
( ) y
y
y
t i o n t h at th i s i s r e al ly t h e c as e
We have thus shown tha t a system of n equ a ti ons of the l st deg ree
i n n va ria bl es ha s a u niqu e determi nate sol u tion p rovi ded i ts determi n
a nt does no t va nis h
w ay w e

ha v e

N e x t, l e t

an + l

th e

l
,

( MA

x1

ys te m o f u +

i n c o n s i s t e nt
The
sol u tion

dd i ti o n to
r n a m el y

pp ose t h a t, i n a
abo v e, w e h ad a n o th e ,
su

us

e qu a t o n s

n
,

Tn

i d

th u s

e qu a t o n s

an+ 1

th e

o b ta n e

+1

i ll

(n

0;

i n g e ne

r
a nd s u i ci ent cond i ti on f or cons i s tency is
y
s
of
the rst n s ha l l sa ti sfy the n + 1 th namely

tha t the

a ,, i

A2

u ,, h

an

an

a, l

y,

A 4=O,

O, th at i s ,

A
cl

am

(7 )

0
un i

an s
an

e u a t ons
q

s u pp o s e

us

e1

0,

be

n e es a

L a stl y

r al

l et

t h a t,

Cu

un + 2 n (
,

+1

c o n i d e r th e p a r ti cu l r case f n homog eneous

I n o th e r w rd l e t
l s t d eg ree i n n v r i a bl es
i n e qu a t i o n s
( n) b v e w e h v e

us

the

a nn

s,

C O N D I TI O N

37 6

l st
A,,

Su p p o s e

i
v
g es

O,
2ud

We

C ON S I STEN C Y

OF

S upp o s e A

m ay w r i te th e

an l

a,,

O,

i n th e f o r m

e q u at o n s
332

xn

xn

a,

x
;

x7}

x1
a712

x2

a nn

Th ese m ay be r eg a rd e d s a s ys te m of n
d eg r ee i n th e n 1 v a r i abl es
A
t h ey ar e a c on s i s ten t sys tem
Us i ng

e q u at o n s o f

an

th e 1 s t

d,

i c

s n e

t h e l a st n

o nl y

of

0 , A,

A,

53 1

a2 1

M OG EN E OU S SY ST E M HA
now

s n e

0,

0,

a,

an

i c

0 , th e n ,

HO

th em , w e n d

am

aee

a2

-1
,n

2 1

2 2

a2 n i
,

an

3 2

am1

a ai

ass

am1

mi

am

an s

xn

ann a n z

an

1)

A11

An

An

Ai n

In

a s

i m i la r
m/Qv

w ay w e p

r o v e th at

Al s/A m

an

Ann - l /Ai ru

xn - l xn

Hence we have
.

wn

by p a i ty

a nd,

f r eas oni ng

Al l

re r

2,

Am

n, a s w e p l ease

3,

A1 n $

x , : 932 :

w he

w :

other

In

wo ds, the

ratios

ri a bl es are deter mi nate bu t thei r actua l valu es ar e

fold i nni ty 0f di rent soluti ons
d eter mi nate ther e bei ng a one
f

the

va

'

EX E R CI S E S XXV

olve th follo w ing

(L

c
o

y/

s ys

te m

c
c

1 0,

a:

l g

in

x vi

X ERC I S ES

3 3a3 2 5 y
o0 3 y
3 ol e = 0 1 3 ;
of
ma s

'

'

c lcul te w
a

Ol a:

'

z to f our pl ace s

y,

If

'

deci l

x
x

37 7

X XV

+ 1)

4,

ai

z= 6

Bx + C

+ z

+a + 1

determ ine the num eric l con t nt A B C

F ind line r function f x nd y w hich h ll v ni h w hen

d l o w h en
d w hich h ll h ve the v lue + 1 w hen
y=y
y=y
a

an

ll

93

an

'

an

as

b+ c

z
b c

degree v ni he w hen
nd the f unction
2

ud

at :

+ a = b,

2d

the 2
w hen

2,

=
z
a,
+
y
y

of

c+ a

+
c

+ yz

a
s

2 6

+b

+
a

26

integr l function f f the 2 d degree t ke the v l ue A B C

w hen
h
the v lue b c re pectively nd the function
S olve the f ollo w ing y t e m
An

a:

as

s a,

x o

+ b c) x + ( b + c

If

c+

/3

bg z

a be

( bc

ab

ca

25

b + li

1
1

v
-d
b
i
l

1/

+ l3

'

then
2

a:

-e

) y + (c + a
c a

53

b) z = 0 ,

63c
.

bc( b
a

12

II I

A n integr l function f x
the v lue
d w hen
3
d h
S olve the f ollo w ing y te m
x

"

an

a s

y z i/t

s a

z
a
b
( l

3a bc

(m

e+
u c

l)y + ( l

(n

m )e z

l at + m y + u s :

0,

(n + l ) y +
9

Z56

ho w th t ( b
con i tent
S

0,

a re

s s

c :c +

by

m y
c2

n z:

(c

19

) y + cz

ax

= 0,

(a

b) z + a a:

by

EXER C I S ES

378

ca n

b
no nite
ho w th t the y tem y b
n
y h h
in n i te nu m ber f
olution unle f + bg + h = 0 i w hich c e i t h
olution
F ind ym m etric l for m f the i nde term in te olution involving
rbitr ry con t nt
Sol e the f ollo w ing y t e m

XXV

ss

de

e :

as

as

an

as

s a

or

o ne

3x

3y + 3z 2 u = 0 ,

cz z r s ,
q,
b, c, d , c, f , g

I f a x z p r , by = p s ,
q p + g ,
z in
ms o f a ,

nd

ter

42 + a

3 u + az

5u+ m

2y + m

1
9

by = 1 ,

asc +

om+

da = l

ez

+f u = 1 , yu + h u :

Prove th t w ith cert in e ceptio the

a

an d

AU

nV

0, N U

O, N U

'

em

s ys t

n,

1,

u.

"

U = 0, V = 0 ,

ar e

W= O

equiv lent
a

If
+ by + d u ,

ax

zz

a 9e

ho w th t
d

c z

"

s,

0 w

ill b

tem
equiv lent

s ys
e

by

"

bc

a
a

ab

caz+ c

"

the

of

as

here
meeting

a,

x
s

If

an

'

v,

ad

y:

ad

am

be

em

con

'

<
<

12
+q
b

s a

ely
z

B v,

(b

+q

O,

to

a s

rbi tr ry con t nt
a

d
_

3a
-

a re a

s ys t

bc

a:

a nd

0,

'

bc

onl y n

a re

here p

cz

i f th e

d ac + d y

0,

v ri ble
equiv lent
d nd th t equ tion
ho w th t
x

'

o ne

v a re

by

em

y,

a a:

s ys t

ho w th t the three equ tion

a nd

be

a al

+y+m

ac :

0,

'

onl y t w equ tion

"

"

ove t w condition reduce to

S

ho w th t in the e e
x

as

to

if

by

a re

b = 0,

'

bar

0,

i tent th t i
,

th e

by

s s

the

z,

then

ao
c

= az
c + by +

C C C
i ngle line r equ ti on con
"

'

v,

x vi

QU ATI O N S R E DU C I B L E

L I N EAR S Y STE M S

TO

s
'

p ( bc

5c :

=
y p ( ca

here p

is

'

{ (c
{ (a

)
b)

an a

'

rb itr ry con t nt
a

s a

c)
c)

)d

b( c

ho w th t

(b
(c
(a

)d
a )d
b )d
c

'

ca

y (a b

{( b

b c)

b( c

{a ( b

'

379

b( c

(
c( a
c( d

)
)
)

c a

'

)
b)

L UTI O N I S E FFE CTE D B Y

E QU ATI O N S
We h av e s e en i n ch ap x iv th at ev e r y s ys tem of
al e br a i c a l e u at i o n s ca n b e r e d u c e d t o a s ys te m o f r a t i o nal
q
g
i nteg r al equ at i o ns s u ch t h at e v e ry s ol u t i on o f th e g i v en sys tem
w i ll b e a s ol u t i o n o f th e d eri v e d s ys te m a l th o u g h th e d e r i v e d

w h i ch d o n o t
s ys te m m ay a d m i t o f s o l u t i o n s c all e d
e x tr a n e o u s
sa t i s fy th e o r i g i n al s ys t em
I t m ay h app e n t h at t h e d e r i v e d
s s t e m i s l i nea r o r t h at i t can b
y
y th e p r o c e s s o f fa c tor i sati o n
be r e pl ac e d by e qu i v al en t al te r n at i ve l i n e ar s ys tem s
I n s u ch
c ases all w e h av e to d o i s to s olv e th ese l i near s ys tems a nd th en
s at i s fy o u r se l ves
e i th e r by s ub s t i tu t i on or b
y e x a m i n i ng t h e
r ever s i bi l i ty of th e s t eps of th e pr o c ess w h i ch if any of th e
s ol u t i o ns
o btai ne d ar e e x t r an eo u s
Th e s tu d en t Sh o u l d n o w
r e ex a m i n e t h e ex am l e s w o rk e d o u t i n c h a
p
p x i v nd w h e r
all t h e s o l u t i on s of t h e d e r i v e d e u a t i o n s
e v e r h e ca n
an d
q
e x am i n e t h e i r a d m i s s i bi l i ty as s o l u t i o n s of t h e or i i na l s ys t em
g
We g i v e t w o m o r e i ns tan c es h e r e
E m ple 1
E

QU ATI O N S W HOSE
M EA N S O F L I N E A R

X AM PL E S

SO

OF E

xa

( Po s itive

v lue to b t ken f l l the qu re root

I f w r tion li e the t w deno m in tor
n the le ft
equiv lent equ tion
a

F1 0 m

th

at

g in

th t i
a

to

s o

qu i ng b oth ide
ar

2 x + 2 V {x 2

we

s,

2 x + 2 = 2 9c3 + 2

equiv lent to

"

i s , to

2
w
V(

e
'

(7 ) is

N ew

(3) W6 d el i Ve, by

s,

Vl

or a

th t i

a?

O,

a: a:

( 5) i s
s ay,

equiv len t to the ltern tive

i ts

olu tion

s ar e

a:

a
c

93

+ I

deduce f ro m ( ) the
a

3 80

X AMP L E S

ca n

ince ho w ever the tep fro m (B) to ( 7 ) i irrever ible it

e m ine w hich f the e olution ctu lly ti fy ( )
N w = 0 give
V
th t i ( ch p ii 1 7 E m ple
S

xa

s ee

s a

hich i correct
Al o m 1 o b viou l y
ti e (
1 give 2 t = 0 w hich
B ut
s

(a )

sa

ple 2

E xam

is

a s

is

no t

olu tion

ince the r t f the e equ tion

y te m ( ) i equiv len t t

true hence
,

1 is

ao:

not a s

olution

th e

of x

the ligh tl y differen t equ tion

of

olution

y,

2 x + 3y

is

equiv len t
a

(a)
to

(x

y)

o,

an d

2 x + 3y 1 =

an d

2x + 3y 1 =

- 1 2 0 i s w= 1 5
=
:
0
2
x
3
+
,
y
,
y
y
/
-1
2 x + 3y
is x : 2, y :
H

of x -

+y

0 , th e

(x + y

(a)

tion

1 + 13

a
o:

no w

R e m rk th t

to

ssa

of

nece ry

is

xa

o2

sa

1
w

the olu
o ution f

1 /5 ; an d
th e s l

ence

s o

ar e

18

Th e

l i n e ar s ys t em s i s s o me t i mes fa c i l i tate d
o f A uxi li a ry Var ia bl es, or, as i t i s so m e t i m es

s ol u t o n o f

by t h e i n tr o d u c t i on
c
n
t
h
h
n
u
t
b
a
i
e
,
p
g g
y

ri a bles T h i s a r ti c e som eti m es enabl es u s

t o ab r i d g e th e l abo u r o f s ol vi ng l i n ear s ys tem s an d o cc as i on al ly
t o u s e m eth o d s a pp r o p r i ate t o l i n e ar s ys tem s i n s ol v i ng s y s tem s
Th e f oll ow i ng ar e e x am pl es
w h i c h ar e n o t th em se lv es l i nea r
E m ple 1
va

xa

ac a

(
)
3
a
h
( + )

Le t

93 +

T hen

b = z,

th t =
y b w ritten

( a ) ma

so

an d,

2 a b

+ a + 2b

fo r

we

hor tne

2c

F ro m

derive
(

)(

c)

+c

(z

2 c) ,

ss ,

l et

c= a

+b

'

C HAN G E

xvi

th t i
w hich i equiv lent to
a

V AR I AB L ES

OF

s,

25 63

2 2 36 ,

N ow

38 1

unique olu tion

( 7 ) h a s th e

ence

b, t

E x am

ple

at

oc = a

i s,

hich evidently
onl y nite olu tion

z =c

/2

b) /2 , i s t h e

i e

s at s

of

(a )

(a )

(a)
Let

then the

y,

N ow

( a ) is

ine r
a

s ys t

e m in 5
'

epl cing 5

an d

n by

the i r v lue
a

bc

F ro m

by

ple 3

bc

b c+

cd

2 (a b

cd

ca

_
_

a b

ab

'

bc

ca
2
J

cd

hen ubtr cting

b)

4,

ab
a b

'

by

'

h ve

we

s,

ritten

'

an d

a
'

x
E xam

r t dding
s

h ve

we

ca

bc

ab
a b

) m ay be

a n d 77, a n d

bc

ab
a b

m+ y

te m (

bc

sy s

'

o bt in

we

bc

ca

7
a

ca

2 (a b

b)

cy

D ividing by b by
f ollo w ing equiv lent for m

ca , a n d

e,

by

w e m ay w

a b,

rite the given

s ys t

em in the

W)
a:

:5

5 7,

SC

N ow, i f w e

ad d

the equ tion

a

c
th at

an d s

a nd

(7 )

u btr ct

we

= b+ c

h ve
a

a,

a:

2 = b + c a ;

i s,

CL

hence

-6 - 6
m
0
(

a
a:

er

By symm t y, w e

h ve
a

= b( c + a

b) /2 ,

= c( a + b

) /2

v i rtu ll y reg rd w/ y/b /

the v ri ble
not t ken the trou ble to repl ce the m by n w letter
Here
a

we

a,

z e as
e

s.

s,

lthough w h ve
e

3 82

X AMP LE S

pe4

E xa m l

C H AP

(a

,0
l ac + my + nz = d

R epre en t e ch
s

the t hree equ l function in (

of

(x
w

hich

are

(y

) by

T hen

we

we r

educe ( B)

h i ch w ob t in
e

m(b

v lue

9p )

an d

( 5)

we

lp

rp

d,

l mq E
z

nc

- ur

h ve n l ly
a

mb

la

m( a q

T he value s

n c
a

F rom (7 )

z = c+ r

the u ili ry p

of

no

by )
Z
]?

n ar

) +p d

cp

mq

nr

im il rly found
they n
dow n t once by con idering the ymm etry f the origin l y te m
E m ple 5
of

an d

be

can

xa

or

it en

be w r t

ca

x -

2 y + 3z = 0

(a)
(l3)

3 y + 4z =

2x

4x3 + 3 y3 + z3 a3yz = 2 1 6
a

a nd

( B)

we

h ve
a

/l

x
an s o f

( 5)

10

( s ee
x

ove )

=
2
y/

deduce f ro m

we

ab

/1 = p

y = 2 p,

p,

sa

(7 )
2 7p = 2 1 6 ,
3

hich i equiv lent to

N w the three cu b e root

32

p
s of

ence the olution

s

s of

p:

ence

by

we

2,

2(

2,

to

for th e

=
y b + gp,

=a +
p p,

l ( a +p p)

ence
By me

h ve

U i ng

F rom (

(2

equiv lent to
x

fo r w

( B)

( e)
p

ar e

( see

ch p

VSi )

x ii

2(

2 0, E xam

V373)

ple

1)

are

= 2(

V3 i )

p= 2(

ob t i n the three follo w ing olution

s

2(

2( 1

V3 5)
V3 5)

V3 I5)
s of

( ) ( B) ( y )
a

'

XVI

X E R C I SE S XX V I

3 83

ince by ch p i
on l y three olution
6 th
y te m in que tion h
w h ve o b t ined the co m plete olution
b ho m ogeneou function
f the
N B I gener l i f
l t degree in n v ri ble
d
ho m ogeneou function f the n th degree in
the m e v ri ble the olution f the y te m
S

x v

e s

sa

u]

s , an

o,

uz z

s o

v a

s,

s,

ug ,

as

= 0,

un_ 1

uz

e ected by olving y te m f 1 line r equ tion in n 1 v ri ble

in thi connection 1 6 b ove
d then e t r cting
th oot
S
E m ple 6

m ay be ff
an

a s

an n

xa

reg rd
ob t in

If w e
d we

+ by

( bc

I V ( bc

: :

a a

a
o ne

s,

T he s e

tw o q

b) ,

V( ca

as

em

b)

of

the o the

a:

/ae and l /y
'

bc

bc

'

ab

= 0, y :

of

the

t wo

equ tion
a

by

y
as

hich w h ve
e

the v ri b le
a

o vin g f ro m thi

S l

a:

cd

cd

ab

a:

'

b c) ,

ab

We h ve thu found t w out

no m ore n i te olution
s

of

y:

'

(a b

ca

the four olution

s

s of

E X E RCI S E S XX V I
S

b)

1
+ by

a re

s yst

hich i line r i f w reg rd

point f vie w w o b t in
a

o;

go w ith either
ol ution

m ay
s

fo r w

ith l i ne r
a

e u tion evidently h ve the olution

ide w m y divide e ch
S etting the e v lue
We thu deduce the y te m

do w

'
=
( ca
y

h ve t

we

h) ,

xa

ry
c

s,

ince either f the

p ir f dou ble ign
p ir w thu obt in the full nu mb er f 2 2
E m ple 7
S
,

the v ri ble

as

hereto fore

as

a = o,

ac a n d

H ence

ee

ax

an

olve the follo w ing by m e n

a

s of

line r

Vax + \ / b

a
i
n
V
Vb
Vac + 4 m
Vic + 3 n

s ys

te m

s :

\ /a + \ / b

Vb
r 2m

V
-n
ta
l
V
c

the given

sys t

e m T here
.

E X ERCI S E S X X V I

3 84

(5

(6

x/ ( x

(7

W w s)

V( a

C HA P

W
1

re

ea

r wv

p r+ v v
a2

(9

)} + a
=

acr

Pl

V3

= a Ih,
v
n

by

a re

na )
bone

mac 1y
b)
lm (a

ea )

(b

a bs

ca y

ny

c)

mn ( b

lz

na:

nl c

0,

2
c

)(

me

cs

) (a

+y

z w
+
y

+h

Ea (b

2 (b
Ec

l mn

z+ x

b+ c

es

mn x + n l y + l m z = a + b
z

b2 )

Zoe/( b

c)

O,

23

/( b

mi )
y+z+u
3/w

mi )

as

ma )

+u

+x=a

733%

456 + 7 y = 1 xy

12

1
x + 5

as
y=11

og
t
/

9x

+1

+ x + y =d

EXER C I S E S

xvr

b
(
y) + b(a
2
5
as
y)
a

31

b2

oc

93

2
c

a,

b
)(
y) ,
93 ) ( b
y)

= 6 2 (a

ber m y

ho w th

( 1 + noc) ( 1

cy

l ac) ( 1

nz a re n ot

thi condition
olution f y d z

an

or

ay

ar e

sa

G RAP HI CAL D I SC U SS I O N
The g r ap h

st ai g ht

)=1

agz

la

(1

+ moe) ( 1

by)

1 + 7722 ,

ss

) b/m + ( a
then a (c/n
1 /l

z:

OF
TWO
a

yz
bzx + cx y = zcyz

OF

my

b/m ) /( b

l /a ,

my

s s

ti ed

+
2
c

any :

+b

b2

2
c

con i ten t unle

c a

be

bzx

) /l + ( c

(b
If

2 a:
a yz +

(1

at

b+

zac

yz
a yz

z
2

385

xxvi

a nd

p rticul r
a

L I N E AR F U N CTI ON S
V AR I AB LE S

OF

ON E AN D

l i nea r

fu ncti on of

var i a bl e

one

is

li ne

C o n s i d e r t h e f un c t i o n
= atc +
y

b
.

To

nd

p o i n t w h e r e i ts g raph

F IG

th e

u ts

OY, th at i s , t o nd th e
f or w h i ch

p o nt

h av e

we

c
c:

0,

m e a su r e

to

rd s
d own w ar ds a cc o rd i ng
b i s p os it i ve o r
as
n eg at iv e ( F i g s 1 an d
c
cax i s
L e t O M r e p r e s ent
r esp ond ing v al u e o f y
OB

u pw a
,

Fm 2
,

Th r o u g h

dr aw

l i ne p ar all el t o th e

an

y p

os

i tiv e

v al u e o f

c
c, a n d

M P th e

V OL I
.

cor

386

THE

G RAP H

OF d a + b

CH AP

a
B y th e e qu at i on t o th e g r aph , w e h a v e ( y b)
N o w , s i nc e
=
i
i
+ OE
+ MN n F g 1 ,
O B = M N i n F i g 2 , w e h av e
.

y
y

Hen c e

we

PM MN

h av e i n b o t h

OM

BN

P N i n Fig
i n Fig

1,
2

c a s es
PN

PN

no th er w o rd s t he r ati o f
e l m en t ar y g e o m et ry t h e l o c

c ons tant 3 h en c e
u s o f P i s a s t ra i h t l i n e
If
a
by e
g
b e p os i t i v e t h e n P N a nd RN m u s t h av e th e s am e Si g n a nd t h e
l in e w ill s l ope u pw ard s f r om l eft t o r i g h t a s i n F i g s 1 an d 2 3
i f a b e n eg a ti ve th e l i ne w i l l Sl op e d ow n w a rd s f rom l eft to
r ig h t as i n F i g s 3 an d 4 Th e s tu d nt w i ll eas i ly c o mpl ete th e
d i s c u s s i on by c o ns i d e r i ng n eg at i ve v al u es o f a
I

P N to BN i s

FIG

20
of a ,

A,

FI G 4

So l on g

t h at i s ,

in

an d

so

as

l ong

o ne

raph i c l i ne i s no t p ar all el to th e ax i s
0 i t w i ll m ee t th e a xi s i n o ne p o i nt
I n anal yt i c al l ang u ag e th e e qu ati on

th e g

as a

ly

on

r oot and o ne o nl y
Al s o s i n c e a s t rai g h t l i ne h as n o t u r n i ng p o i nt s a l i near
f n c t i on can ha v e n o tu r n i ng v al u es
I n o th e r w o rd s i f w e
i ncr eas e a: c on t i nu ou sly fr o m
to
ax
b e i th e r i n creas es
c o nti nu ou sly fr om
to
o r d e cr e as e s c on t i nu ou s l y f r om
t
er
l
a
t
h
f
h
n
i
s
t
e
t
h
r
r
a
o
i
i
v
to
t
e
o
m
e
a
n
s
w
h
e
s
e
e
3
p
pp
w h e n a i s n eg a t i v e
Si n c e aaH -b pass es o nl y o n c e th r ou g h e v e ry v al u e b etw een
b

ar
e

O has

o ne

00

00

co

co

co

co

G R AP H

THE

x v:

o r aoc +

3 87

t
h
o
u h th e v al u e 0
c
r
We h a v e
y
g
e
b 0 h as o nl y o n e r o o t
th u s a n o th e r p r o o f th a t t h e e q u at i o n a r
A pu r el y an al yt i c al p ro of th at av + b h as n o t u r n i ng v al u e s

L
e t t h e i n cr e m e n t o f o: b e h t h e n t h e
i
a
f
l
l
o
w
s
o
e
n
s
a
b
e
v
m y
g
i ncr em ent o f are b i s
00 an

oo

o nl

i t can p as s

on e

h)

{(

a r

b}

{are

b}

ah

i nd epend ent o f a and i f h be pos i ti ve i s al w ays p os i

t i v e o r al w ays n eg ati v e a cc o rd i ng a s a i s p os i ti v e o r n eg at i v e
He n c e i f a be p o s i t i v e are b al w ays i n cr e as e s a s a: i s i n cr eas e d 3
b al w ays d e cr eas e s as a i s i n cr ea s e d
a nd i f a b e n eg a t iv e are
We m ay i nv est i g at e g raph i c ally th e c ond i t i on th at th e
b a oc b s h al l h av e th e s am e r o ot 3 i n ot h e r
t w o f un c t i o n s are
b 0 dz
b
w o rd s t h at t h e e q uat i o n s ax
0 Sh all b e con
e + b by y a n d y r es e c t iv el
D eno t e acc + b and a z
s i s te n t
p
y so
Y
th a t t h e e q u a t i o ns o f t h e t w o g r aph s
is

ah

N ew

are

b, y

'

an

f u n c t i on s

a a:

h av e t h e

I f bo th

s am e

r oot

th e

r
aph s m u s t m eet O X i n t h e s am e
g
i
nt A
o w i f P M P M b e o rd i
o
N
p
0
n a tes o f th e tw o g r aph s c o rr e s p o n d i ng
t o t h e s am e a b s c i s s a O M a n d i f th e
g r aph s m e e t O X i n t h e s am e p o i n t A
i t i s obv i ou s th at th e r at i o P M/P M
F
5
i
i s c o n s ta nt
Co n v e r sel y f P M/P M
i s c on s tan t t h en P M m u s t v an i s h w h e n P M v an i s h es ; t h a t i s
t h e g r a ph s m u s t m ee t O X i n t h e s am e p o i n t
Hen ce th e n e ce s
s ar
n
d
s u f c i e n t an al t i c al c o n d i t i o n i s t h a t a x
a
b
y
y
)
(
S h all b e c o n s ta n t
h s ay
I n o th e r w o rd s w e m u s t h a v e

IG

'

a oc

From

th

is

h(ax

b)

i t f ol l o w s t h a t
a

an d

ha,
b = lab,
ab
a b
0

T h es e

r es ul ts ob tai ne d abo v e i n 2
B y m ean s o f th e g r aph w e can i l lu s tr a te v ar i o u s l i m i t i ng
c as e s so m e o f w h i c h h a v e h i th er to been e cl u d e d fro m co n
s i d e r at i o n
a

g r ee w i th th e

G R AP HI C AL D IS C U S SI ON

3 88

a =
i=0

L et b = 0 ,

w th O 3 t h a t i s t o

F IG 6
.

He r e

an d

0 is

aa:

0,

a:

r aph

OB

asses
p

and

0,

th

r ou g h

F IG

r aph m eets
Sh o u l d b e

it

OX

at

O,

e mu

c o i n c i d es
s ee F i s
g
(
.

an d

r oot

th e

of

c a s e t h e e q u a t i o n t o th e
w h i ch r e p r ese n ts a l i n e p a ra ll el to t h e cc a i s ( s e e
I n th i s c as e t h e p o i nt of i nt e r s e c t i o n o f th e

b,

and

a =

I n th i s

- x

FI G 8
.

r
a h w i th
g p
a r ee t h a t
g
c as e s b e a:

the g

s ay ,

c as e

the g

as

I I L et b 0
g r a ph i s y
F i g s 8 an d

I n th i s

L I M I TI N G C A S E S

OF

FI G

i n n i te d i s tan c e an d OA = 0
If w e
t h e so l u t i o n o f th e e qu at i o n a w + b = 0 Sh al l i n a ll
0 th i s w i ll g iv e a:
b/a th en w h e n b 0 a
i n ag r eem ent w i th th e c o n c l us i on j u st
d er i v e d by c on s i d e r i ng the g raph
T h i s c as e w i ll be bes t u nd er stood
by app r oa ch i ng i t both g eom e tr i c
X
all y a n d
a n al t i c al l
a l imi t
as
y
y
OX is

at a n

00

FIG

10

Let

us

th a t

to

0
0
1
0
0
0
/

= aJ
y

is

is

ve

ry

t h at b

1,

and

s m all ,

T h en the g raph c o rr espond

er e
w
h
i
0
l
i
k
F
so m e t h i n
e
1
g
g

s ay

i ng

s u pp ose

th e
of

R O OT

IN I NI E

XVI

i nt e r s e c t i o n

B L w i th t h e

of

389

ax s o f a:

r l y p a r al l el
e q u at i o n

O 3 th at i s t o s ay, BL i s
O n th e o t h e r h a n d , t h e

v ery

is

to O X

n ea

r ig h t

far t o t h e
.

x
1 00000

i
g v es

ke

ma

1 0 0 0 0 0,
th e m o

g r e at e r w i l l
a:

re

ve

l a rg e

case

cted

we

obtain

re

cons tant

s m al l e
an

the l s t deg

a n equa tion o

whe

the p a

b
where b i s

Th e

we

d th e

an

exp e

rly w i ll

If , ther efor e, i n
was to be

of

v al u e

B L b e c o m e p ar al l el to O X ,
r oot o f th e e qu ati on as: b 0

n ea

b e th e

ry

radoxi ca l

ree

in

equa ti on

0,

d ca tes

thi s i n i

tha t the

r oot o

the

equa ti on

has

become i nni te

i to th e g r aph be c o m es y O
Th e g r ap h i n th i s c a s e
wh i c h r ep r e s en ts th e ax i s o f is i t sel f
c oi n c i d es w i th O X and i ts p oi nt o f i nte r se cti on w i th O X b e c o m es
i nd e ter m i nate I f w e t ak e th e anal yt i c al s olu ti o n o f as: b 0
b/a i n al l c a s e s i t g i v e s u s i n t h e p r es en t i n stan c e
t o be at
a:
an i n d ete r m i n at e fo r m as i t o u g h t t o d o i n a cc o rd an c e
w i th th e g raph i c a l r esu l t
111

If

0, b

0 , th e

e q u at o n

Th e g r a ph i c su r fa c e o f a l i n e ar f u n c t i o n o f t w o
= ax + b + e i s a
n d e n t v a r i abl es a: an d y, sa
e
z
l
an e
,
y
p
y
p

It

d i fc ult t o p r ov e th i s bu t for ou r p r es e nt pu r
We sh all c on ne ou r s el v e s t o
p o s es i t i s u nn e c es s ar y to d o so
a d i s c u ss i o n o f t h e c o n t o u r l i n e s o f t h e f u n c t i o n
The contou r l i nes of the fu ncti on 2
ate
by c ar e a s eri es of
p ar a ll el s trai g ht li n es
F or if k b e a ny c on s tan t v al u e o f z t h e c o rr es po nd i ng c on
t ou r l i ne h s f or i ts e qu a t i o n (s e e c h ap x v
1 6)
w o ul

i nd e

be

not

ax +

N ow

( 1)

is

e qu

iv al ent

by +

c=

as

w e h av e

l i ne , w h i c h m e e ts t h e

to

k c
te +

But

19

abo v e ,

r epr es ents

ax e s o f a; a n d

y in A

an d

s een

in

B,

so

r ig ht

st a

t h at

C ON TOU R L I NE S

3 90

lc

OB

OA

FIG

r v al u e
y
c ontou r l ine i s

L e t h be

o th e

an

s p on d i ng

of 2 ,

by

O F are

Ic C

11

t h e n th e

c orr e

to t he

e q u at on

or

He n c e i f
,

th

r e s p e c t i v el y

is

c d c o ntou r l i n e

s e on

le c

0A

He n c e

OB

Th e

in A

an d

OB

r al l el t o
of z
aaz

r c o n t ou r l i n e

as:

r i g h t l i n e d i v i d es

st a

OA

i on

Th i s

ax es

t h a t AB i s p a

ze o

OA

i ch p r ov e s

m e et th e

w e h av e

OB

hc

wh

ca n

by

AB

by

i s g i ven by th e

e qu a

r e g i on s s u c h
any p o i nt i n o ne of

t h e p l an e X O Y n to t w o

c orr esp ond in g to

t h e m r e n d er as:
by c po s i t i v e an d th e v al u es o f a: and y cor
r espond i ng to any po i nt i n th e o th er r en d e r are by c neg at iv e
L e t u s c o ns i d e r th e ze r o c o ntou r l i n e s L an d L o f
by
Si nc e
ar;
by c and z
a a:
tw o l i n e a r fu n c t i o n s 2
th e co ord i nates o f e v e r y po i n t o n L sat i s fy th e eq u at i o n
th at th e

v al u es o f a: an d

ac
c+

by +

c=

G RAP HI C I LL U ST R ATI O N

X VI

O F I N IN I

TE

SO

L U TIO N

391

ry p o i nt o n L sa ti sfy th e e quat i o n
a a:
by c
0
i t foll ow s t h at th e co o rd i n at es o f t h e p oi nt o f i nte r s e c t i o n o f L
w i ll s a t i s fy both ( 1 ) an d
i n o t h e r w o rd s th e co
an d L
o rd i n at e s O f t h e i nt e r s e c t i o n w i ll be a s ol u t i o n o f th e s ys t em
co
o

th e

an d

rd i na tes

of ev e

r ig h t l i nes L and L in th e s am e pl an e hav e

o n e a n d o nl

n i te p o i nt O f i n te r se c t i o n p r o v i d e d L a n d L
n
e
o
y
b e n e i th e r par all el no r c o i n c i d ent
He nc e w e i nfe r t h at th e
l i n ear s ys te m
h
2
as i n g en e r al o n e an d o nl y o n e s ol u t i on
)
(
I t r em a i ns t o e x am i n e th e t w o ex c ep ti on al c as es
I L et L an d L ( Fig 1 1 ) be p ar all el and l e t th em m e e t th e
ax e s o f X an d Y i n A B an d i n A
B r esp e c t iv e l y
I n th i s c as e
t h e po i nt of i nt e r s e c t i on p as s e s t o an i n n i te d i s t an c e and both
i ts co o rd i nat es be c om e i n n i te
Th e n e c ess ary an d su fc i e nt c o n d i t i on th at L and L be
c b
= c d
a ra l l el i s
w
A
B
N
o
O
O
p
/
/ 3
an d O A
OB
Hen c e th e n e c es s ar y and su f
c i ent c ond i t i on f or paral l el i sm i s b/a
th a t i s a b
a b
0
We h av e th u s fall en upon th e e c e pte d c as e o f 4 an d 5
I f w e a ss u m e th a t th e r es u l t s o f th e g en er al fo r mu l ae O bta i ned
N ow ,

tw o

any

st a

'

'

'

for th e

eas e a b

n am el y,

0,

bc

bc

h ol d
ne

al s o

i th e r

s ay ,

w hen ab

of

i nes

AB , A B

tw o l

s u pp o s e

ab

0, w e

bc

'

b c,

ca

ab

see

ca

b
/

0 , t h en

n u m e at o s

bc

th e

bc

ah

ca

'

'

p r esent c as e
v a ni s h
F o r if,

t h a t i n th e

c a , can

t h a t i s, O B

r d y p a r a l l el

a l ea

w oul

O B 3 and th e
c o i n c i d e , w h i ch i s no t

I t foll ow s, th en, th at
bc

(I:

bc

oo

:I/

ca

00

r e es w i th th e g rap h i cal
I I L e t L an d L be c o i n c i d e nt th en t h e i nte r s e c t i o n be c om es
i nd ete rm i n ate Th e c o nd i t i ons for c o i n c i d enc e ar e

a nd

th e

a n al

yt i

c al r esul t

ca

ag

3 92

IN

D ET ER M I NAT E S OLU TI ON

OA

T h ese g i ve
w h i c h a g a i n g iv e
We th us
th i s t i m e
ca

ca

i s case

on e

w th t h e

If w e
th

h av e

0,

ca

r e th e
add i t i onal

/b

ab

'

O,

cd

mo

'

bc

bc

c d

OB

/b

w h en e

OB

OA ,

'

c ept ed cas e of
p e c u l i a r i ty th at bc

an d

ex

5 , bu t

bc = O

and

ass e

r t t h e t r u th

al so,

th e g e n e

of

lyt i c al

in

ou g h t

to

s ol u t o n

ana

w e h av e

0
x

t h a t i s , th e

ral

v al u e s o f a; an d

i n d e t e r m i na te

ar e

as

th ey

cc o rd an c e w i th th e g raph i cal r esu l t

S i n c e t h r e e s t ra i g h t l i n e s ta k en t r and om i n a pl ane
h a v e n o t i n g en e r al a c omm on p o i nt o f i nter se c t i on i t fo l low s
t ha t th e th r ee e q u a t i o ns
b e, i n

i n g en e r al a c omm on s ol u t i on
s ol u t i on th e i r t h r e e g ra ph i c l i n e s ,

ha v e

n ot

c omm on
c o mm on i nter se ct i on
t h i s t o be

'

abc

In

o ur

ca s es
a

a
c

re

bc a

of

th

of

y o ne

a b , v a n i s h es

i nv es ti g ati on

whe

We

an

f ou nd th e

c a

th e t h

r ee

we

ha v e

yt i

cal c ond i t i o n

'

ca

l ef t

fu n c t i ons ,

hav e

a n al

ca

i s c on d i t i o n

W h e n t h es e

L L L w i ll

ou t o f

ab

f or

cc o unt

b,

the

b ab

We p rop ose n e w to e x am i n e g r aph i c al ly th e ex c epte d c ases

F i rs t w e r em ark th at i f t w o o f th e f u n ct i ons v an i s h the
t he
t h i rd w i l l a l s o v an i sh 3 s o th t w e n ee d o nl y c o n s i d e r
c as e w h er e tw o v ani sh
t h e c ase w h e r e o nl y o ne v a ni s h es
.

ab

'

0,

ab

T h i s i nv ol v e s tha t L and L ar e p ar all el and that L and L are

r
al l e l ; s o th t a l l t h r e e L L
L
a
ar e p ar all el 3 a nd w e h av e
p
i n add i ti o n t o th e t w o g iv e n c o nd i t i ons al s o a b
a b
0

'

X VI

Hen c e,

X C E PTI ONA L S Y STE M S

i c

s n e

c a

it

c o n d it i o n

th e

b)

t hat th e g ene

is

sat s

s ol u t o n

i ed

c a

a
s
e
pp

OF TH EE E

3 93

m ay be w r i tte n

a n al

ab

r al

QU ATI ON S

(ab

b)

i c al c ond i t i on

yt

0,

f or

c o mm o n

Th i s ag r ees w i th th e g r aph i c al resu l t for th r ee p ar all el

s t r a i h t l i n es m a
n i n te r se c t i o n
r
rd
d
a s h av i n
a
c
m
m
o
b
e
a
e
o
e
g
g
g
y
a t i n ni t
y
I n th e p r es en t c a se i s o f c ou r s e i nc l u d e d th e t w o c ases w h e r e
t w o o f t h e l i n es c o i n c i d e o r all th r e e c o i n c i d e
Th e c o rr e
s o nd i n
p
g anal yt i c al p e c ul i ar i t i e s i n th e e qu at i ons wi ll be obv i ou s
t o th e r ea d e r
,

11

ab

i rd L
to e i th e r
th

is

of

at

i n es

t h e thr e e l

c o inc i d e

th e g

re

r g r ap h i cal ly w e s ee th at i n th i s c as e
c ann ot h a v e a c omm on i nte r se c ti on u nl es s L a n d

th a t i s ,

lc i s

L et

t h e m atte

s om e

us

r esu lt as i t
Si n c e
,

s ee
ou

u nl e s s
a

w he

L o o k i ng

raph i c l in e s L an d L a re p ar al lel an d th e
s upp o s e d t o be n e i th e r c o i n c i d e n t w i t h n or p ar al l el

He r e tw o

lea,

h
t
t
o do
g

ab

Hen c e

th e s e
a

0,

h,

s ay

of

al so

i r tu e

w e h av e

Ice,

c o n s ta n t
w h e th e r t h e c o n d i t i o n ( 2 )

N o w , by

leb,

lea ,

lt b

r e sul ts ( 2 ) r ed u c es
,

( bc

b c)

b ( ca

to

0,

0,

kc)

0,

ca

th a t i s , t o
a

( bc

hbc)

b ( clca

ca

th a t i s , t o

(
wh

i ch g i v e s S i n c e
,

ab

)(

ab =
t=0 ,
"

c
th a t i s ,

kc

0,

kc

br i n g s

o ut

th

is

EXER CI SE S XX V I I

3 94

Hen c e th e ag r e em en t b et w een

c o m p l e te

th e

a n al y s s a n d

t h e g e om e t y i s

*
.

w ou l

It

l ea d

t oo far i f w e w e

us

re

to

at te m

t
h
e
p

re

r ap h i c al di s cu s s i on of l i near fu n ct i on s of th r e e
We sh ou l d h av e i n fa c t t o g o i nto a d i s cu s s i on of
v ar i abl e s
th e d i sp o s i t i o n o f pl anes an d l i n e s i n Sp a c e o f th r e e d i m en s i o ns
We c ons i d e r th e su bj e c t s o f r as w e h av e pu r su ed i t an
e ss ent i al p art o f th e al g e b r a i c t r a i n i ng o f th e s tu d e nt
I t w ill
h el p t o g i ve h im c l e ar i d e as r eg ardi ng t h e g en er al i ty and
c oh e ren cy o f anal yti c al exp r ess i on an d w ill e nabl e hi m at the
s am e t i m e t o g r asp th e f u n d am e nt al p r in c i p l e s O f th e app l i c at i on
Th e t w o s c i en c e s m u tu al ly i ll um i nat e
o f al g ebr a t o g e o m et r y
e ac h o th e r j u st a s t w o m en e a c h w i th a l ant e r n h a v e m or e l i g h t
w h e n th ey w al k t og eth e r th an w h en e a c h g oes a s ep ar at e w ay
to ta

ke

cx x p

up

th e g

'

E X E RC I SES XX V I I

Dr

to

aw

c le th g ph
e

s a

ra

y = zc + 1
y

the foll o w ing line r f unction

a

y = 2x + 3

x 1
ra

n s o

o s a

2 ,

z:

z:

e s

s o

3y + 1 ,

+ 1,

a nd

a nd

523 + 7 ;

by

o
c

1,

D r w the ero contour l i ne

f the m ol ve th
by m e n
y te m
a

%x
5

3x

s,

s o

s of x :

3 x
=
(
y

D r w the g ph f the t w function

n f them olve the equ tion
5=5 + 7
D r w t c le the contour li e f = 2
a

me a

s of

+2

z:

o f z = 5x + 6 y

corre pondi ng to

an d z

= 8x

an d

9y + 1 3

59c + 6 y

8x

ell to w rn the re der e plicitl y th t he m u t b c e ful to

the i it i ng c e w hich w h ve n w i ntroduced into th theory f
equ tion w ith proper reg rd to cco m p n ying circu m t nce T ke f
in t nce the c e f the p r do ic l equ tion b 0 t f w hich w m nu
line r eq tion by w riting it i the form 0 + b = 0 3 d t w hich
f t
d
ccordingly w
igned n innite root N othing in the equ tion it el f
m e W y into
prevent
qu dr tic equ tion
f ro m conve rting i t in th
nd
ch p viii 5 ) th t it
f
m ight w ite it
w
y (
B e fore w m ke y uch
ertion w m u t b ure
h
t w innite oo t
qu dr t i c other equ t i on w gener lly
be foreh nd w hether l i ne r
pe k ing to b e pected T hi m u t f cour e b decided by the circu m
t nce f e ch p rticul r c e
I t m ay be w
l m

u se

s a

as

s a

or a
s

as

ou

an

s ee

as s

or

or

sa

an

s o

e sa

s.

us

s a

ar

ua

a a

e as s

or

as s

as

a c ur e

as ,

e s

EXER C I S E S XX V I I

xv:

3 95

l o ho w th t the tw contour line divide the pl ne in to four region

uch th t in tw f the m ( 5 + 6 y 3 ) ( 8 9y + 1 ) i l w y po i tive d i n
m e f unction i
th other t w the
l w y neg tive
I th
y tem
A

o o

c
c

s a

or

2x + y - 1

d y,

c i n order th

of

con i tent
Prove g phic lly th t i f
w hich con t i t ute the olution
s s

am

tem

then the inni te v lue

of
'

a ae +

/y ( bc

ca

If

be

ab

b= 0,

ca

independent

ca

bc

0,

o f ic an d

y,

o o
s

s ar e s

ra

as

how th t

b c= 0 3

th t tw f the e condition
u f cient
I llu tr te g phic ll y th re oning i n th l tt e p r t
precedi ng ch pter
6
E pl in g r phi c ll y th l e din g p ep s i ti on in
a

s o f a:

ely

cc

a nd

an

y + 1 = 0

th e s ys

at

ab

h ve nite r tio n
(13

a
o

a x + by + c = 0 ,
a

0,

ra

an

s s

m ay be

6x

ncon i ten t ?
D eterm ine the v lue

s s

s a

s,

3x

con i tent

a:

sa

e s

of

of

th e

w hi ch is eq u i v al e nt to

Henoe the

= 0,

roo ts ar e 1

II

b= 0

The eq ua ti o n

( 1)

no w red u ces

to
0,

az x z =

w hich , s i nce

Hence th e
fro m I

ly

on

roo ts o f

II I

also

be

d ed uced

an

are

two

co n v e n e n t,

r oo ts

q ua l

( 1)

red u ces

in

o rd e r

to

m ai ntai r

si nce

to

is

o f co ur s e sa y t ha t t h e e

t he

t h a t i s,

m ig h t

p re po s i t i o n re g a rd i ng t he nu mbe r o f t he
in teg ra l e q ua tio n o f t he nt h d e g ree i n o ne v ar i a ble,

e q ua ti o n

i ch

mi g h t

bu t i t is m o re

of

tha t the re

say

wh

Th is

We

ro o ts a re e ua l
q

o ne ro o t ,

The

t he g e ne ral t y

to

eq u v al e n t to

roo t s ar e

He re th e
is

=
4: 0 , i s

to

e q u i v al e n t

to
C

a
C

Hence
th e

th e roo ts

roo ts

ar e

J(

a re

eq ua l,

bu t

of

Op

pos i te

z
s

J(

ig n

If

/)

c a

be

3 t hat i s,
ne

at v e ,
g

C HAP T ER
E q u ati on s
E

QUATI O N S

OF

Ev e r y
in

one

va

r i abl e

of

SE O N

can

D D E G REE

of

be

r edu ce d

e q u a t on

t h e S e co n d D eg r e e

TH E

X VI I

th e 2 n d

to

IN

VARI AB LE

ONE

d e g r ee ( Quadra tic E qu ation)

an e q u i v al e nt e qu at i on o f

th e f o m
9

aa

Ei th e r

or

b o th

of

c anno t ( ex c ep t

we

p r e s e n tl y )

e q u at o n

su pp o s e

bx

+ c=

c o efc i ents b an d 0 may v an i sh 3 bu t

as a l im itin
c
a s e w h i c h w e s h all c o n s i d e r
g
a = 0 w i t h o u t r e d u c i n g t h e d eg r e e o f t h e
th e

B y th e g en er al p r op os i t i on O f c h ap x i i ,
2 3 , w h e n a , b, c
e n , t w o v a l u e s of a: a nd n o m o r e ca n be f o u n d w h i c h
i
v
g
.

ar e

c v an i sh 3 t hat i s the equation

or
a lways two r oots a nd n o mor e
1
h
a
s
t
a
u
a
l
r
T
h
e
oo
s
m
b
e
e
q
( )
y
u n e q ual r e al o r i m a i n ar
cc
rd
i
c
i
rc
n
c
s
a
n
t
o
u
m
s
t
a
e
o
g
y
g
Th e g e ne r al th e o ry of th e s ol u t i on o f q u adr at i c eq u at i ons i s
th u s t o a l ar g e ex t en t al r ead y i n o u r h an d s
I t h ap p e n s
h o w ev e r th at th e formal solu ti on o f a qu adr at i c e qu at i on i s
al w ays obt a i nabl e 3 s o t h at w e can v e r i fy th e g e n e r al p r o p o s i t i on
by ac tu ally n d ing t h e r oots as cl ose d f un c t i ons o f th e c oeffi c i e nts
a b c
We c ons i d er rs t th e foll ow i ng p ar t i cula r c ases
I
c O
Th e e q uat i on ( 1 ) r ed u c es t o
Sh all

ma

ke

c i on

th e f u n t

are

bic +

ax +

brc = 0 ,

C H AP

R OOT S E QUAL

XVII

i c

th at i s ,

AN D O F O

i ch

SI

3 97

GN

O,

s n e a

0,

a
:

as:

wh

PP O SIT E

i s eq u i v al en t t o

a:

= 0

a +

Hen c e th e
II

r o ot s

b/a

9c

Th e

0,

ar e a

1
( )

e q uat on

r ed u c es

n ow

0,

i ch s i n c e

He n c e th e
fro m I

e q u v al e n t

=
1: 0 , i s

r o ot s

are

0,

to

O,

an x a:

wh

a:

to

Th i s

m ig h t

al so

d e d u c ed

be

We m i g h t of c ou r e s ay th at th er e
i s nl y on e r o ot bu t i t i s m o r e c o nv en i en t i n o rd e r t o m ai nt ai n
t h e g en e r al i ty o f t h e p r e p o si ti o n r eg ard i ng t h e n m be r o f t h e
r oo ts o f n i nt eg ral qu at i o n of th e n th d eg r ee i n on e v ar i bl e
t o say th t th e r e are t w o e q u l r o ots
He r e t h e

r oots

ar e e u al
q

111
Th e

e q u at o n

1
( )

re d u ce s

ar
e

i c

S n e a

i ch

is

0,

=
k 0 , to
18 +

wh

to
2

t h at i s ,

e qu val e n t

O)

to

c
a

Lb

Hen c e
th e

th e

r o ot s

r oots

are

are

e q u al ,

bu t

of

o pp os

J(

i te S i g n

If

/)3

c a

be

th at i s ,

n eg at v e ,

G ENERAL CA S E

3 98

C H AP

r oots w i ll be r eal ; i f e/a b e p os i t i v e bo th r oots w ill be

i mag i nary and w e m ay w r i te th em i n th e m o r e app r op r i ate form

bo th

a
s

Th e g ene r al c as e, w h e r e al l th e t h r e e c oe f c i ent s are

d i ff er ent f rom ze ro, m ay be tr eate d i n v ar i ou s w ays 3 bu t a l i ttl e

w ll

e x a m na t o n

to

r ed u c ing

Sh o w

th e

s tu

an e q u v al e nt

f o rm ,

rc

bx

A)

a x

+ c=

bx

of

+ cs

h en c e t h e

am o u nt

1
( )

rag r aph
d i r e c t m eth o d i s
c hap v ii 5 We h a v e
4 ac
b+
b
(
l
.

r eated l i k e

th e

to t a

k e ad vantag e

aa +

ds

i d en ti ty

th e

t h e m e th o

0, w h i h i s t

a s e 1 1 1 o f l as t
a
pa ti u l a
p
l s t M ethod Th e m o s t
of

all

e q u at o n
aa

r c

t h at

th e

to

d e nt

t
l a

4 61 6 )

2a

e qu at o n

(1)

is

to

W)

"

e qu v al e n t

a( r

2a

4 ac)

2a

t h at i s , t o
x/

4 a o)

(b

2a
N/

4 a c)

(b

2a

The

1)

r oots

ther efor e

are

.
3

4 a c) } 2 a ,

an

/ (b

We m y

comp leti ng the squar e We

2 nd

M ethod

d o pt th e o rd i nar y p ro c ess o f
m ay w r i te ( 1 ) i n t h e e q u i val en t form
l

a so

o
c +

cc =

Cl

r end e r

( b/2 a)

b
(

an d

x/

th e l eft h an

t o bo t h

i d es

g
Cb

d S i d e o f ( 2 ) a c om pl e te squ ar e by a dd ing
We th u s d e d u c e th e e qu iv al ent equ ati on
I:
2a

E
4a
2

0
,

4ao
4a

3
$

( 3)

VAR I OU S M E THOD S

xv n

Th e

e q uat on

(3)

OF S

OLU T I ON

3 99

is

O bv o u s l y

b
c
c+

2a

b
a +

f r om w h i c h w e

d edu c e

a:

as

2a

bef o r e

a:

ch ang i ng th e v ar i abl e w e can al w ays m ak e

( 1 ) d ep end o n an e qu at i on o f t h e f o r m as d 0 L et u s
a s s u m e t h at so
z h w h e r e h i s e nt i r el y a t ou r d i sp osal and z
i s t o b e d e te r m i ne d by m ean s o f t h e d e r i v e d e qu at i o n
T h en
3 rd M ethod B y
.

by

w
e h av e
l
,
( )

c O
I t i s o bv i ou s th at th i s e qu at i o n i s e qu i v al e n t t o
r
v
i
d
e
d
a
:
o
p
be d e t e rm i n e d i n t er m s o f 2 by th e e q u a ti o n a z h
N o w ( 4 ) m ay b e w r i t te n
az
( 2 ah b) z (ah bh c) 0
S i n c e h i s at ou r d i s p osal w e m ay s o d e te r m i n e i t th t 2 ah
b 2a
w e m ay p u t h
h
+ b = 0 3 t h at is
T
e q u at i o n ( 5 )
/
th e n be c o m es
h)

a s

b( z

h)

iz

ae + a

2a

th at i s,

as

F r om ( 6 )
Hen c e

a =
as

q u o te
all

we

d edu c e z

i c

s n e a
:

b e fo r e
In

b + (b

4 a c) / 2 a
e,

we

a =

0,

/ (b

4 ac) /2 a

h av e

J(b

-b

s ol v n g

an

th e fo m s

c a s es

/ (b

b/2 a

4a
,3

+ c=

4 a0

a n d su bs t

pa

bi

th e s tu d en t m ay e i th e r
i
/ ( b 4 a o) }/ 2 a w h i ch g iv e th e r o ot s i n
th e v al u e s w h i c h a b c h a pp e n t o h av e
e q u at o n

i t u te

r c u l a r c as e

i n th e pa ti

rt i cul ar

or

h e m ay

wo

rk

th

rou g h

th e p

ro c

e ss o f

D I SC RI MI NA T I ON

4 00

ill

O ft en

be

ROO TS

C HA P

i n t h e p ar t i c ul ar c ase
Th e l atte r
f ou n d th e m o r e c o n d u c i ve t o a cc u rac y

t h e 2 nd m eth o
w

O F THE

a l t e na t ve

d i st i ng u i sh i ng t h e v ar i ou s cases th at m ay ar i se w h en
th e c o ef c i en ts a b c ar e r e al r at i o nal n um be r s w e h a v e m e r el y
t o r ep e at t h e d i s c u ss i o n o f c h ap v i i
7 o n t h e n atu r e o f th e
fa c to r s o f an i nteg ral q u adrati c fu n c t i on
We thu s s ee that the r o ots o f
In

bx

ax

( 1 ) W i ll
2
ll
W
i
( )
( 3 ) W i ll
be

n e g at v e

0,

r eal and u ne qu al if b 4 ao b e p os i t iv e
be r eal a n d e q ual i f b
4 ac 0
b e tw o c onj u g ate c o m pl ex nu m be r s i f b
Th e appr opr i at e ex pr e s s i o n s i n t h i s c ase
2

be

lz

d ( 4 ac

4 ac
are

i x/ ( 4 a c

r o ots w i ll b e rat i onal if b 4 ac b e p o s i t iv e an d th e

s q u a r e o f a r a t i on al nu m b e r
B
Th
e r o o t s w i ll b e c on j u at e s u rd s of t h e fo r m A :
5
J
( )
g
i n th e c as e w h e r e b
4 a c i s p o s i t i v e bu t n o t t h e s qu a r e O f a
r at i onal nu mbe r
t
6
I
f
h
e c oeffi c i en t s a b c be rat i on al fu n c t i on s o f a n y
( )
w
ll
h
r
i
o r w i l l n ot
n
u an t i ti e s
r s
t
h
n
t
e
oo
t
s
i
v
e
e
g
q
p q
4 ac i s or
a cc o rd i ng a s b
b e r at i o n al fu n c t i o n s o f p q r s
i s n ot th e s qu a r e o f a r at i o n al fu n c ti on o f p q r s
I t Sh ou l d be n ot i c e d t h at t h e c on d it i o ns g i v e n a s c h ar ac te r i s i ng
t h e abo v e c a s e s are n ot o n l y s u ffi c i ent bu t al so ne c e s sa ry
Th e c as es w h e r e a b c ar e e i th e r i rr at i o n al r eal n u m b er s or
c o m pl ex nu m ber s of th e g en e r al fo r m
i ar e n o t o f su fc i ent
i m po r tan c e t o r e qu i r e d i s c uss i on h e r e
E m ple 1
T
h
4
e
( )

xa

2 x2

By

in p ection w
E m ple 2
s

xa

e see

th t th root
a

3x

s are

3/2

2 x2

T hi s equ a tion i s equiva lent to x

ple 3
T he equ tion i equiv lent to
E xam

ho e oo t
s

35x 2

2x

2
9"

2
_

35

1
x

35

s ar e x

2i ,

2 73
.

EXAM P LE S EXER C I S E S X X V I I I

x v: :

th

at I s,

to

a
:

30

35

Hen c e
H

40 1

35

ss

l i 6

ence

T he roots
E x am

there fore

a re ,

ple 4

35

a nd

T he r oot s are
E x am

V3

ple 5

and

V3

2x

16

0,

3x 2 + 2 4x +

T he given equ a tion

equiv lent to

is

th t i to
H ence
th tt i
E m ple 6
T hi i equiv lent t
a

8x

s,

xa

to

sa

: 2

the tw roo t

y, th

s are

e ch equ
a

al

to

th t i to
H ence the root
E m ple 7

s,

xa

4x

4x

s are

V3 i

3i 2

V3i

3,

T hi s equ ation

g
az

is

2 (p

q)

2p

9 2

1 2p q

2 g"

2294

l 2zin?

equ i v lent to
a

{w

10
}

Q T,

(v
Hence

the oot
r

s a re

(p

q)

(p

g)

9
g

t,

(p

"

+ q)

(p

q) i

E X E RC I S E S
(1

+x:

(x
D
(

2 5 5x 2
x

VO L

40 2

(
)(
(x
x
(
i
(x
2
x + (b
x

QUAT I O NS R EDU C I B L E
x -

2 ) (x

2)
(
x

tH
x

a bx

b)

(
(
b x2
a
)
(
(c + d
g
a
(
2
2
2
x
(a
c x
b
(
)(

C H AP

(b

+ 4 ax :

+l

)(

QU AD RATI C S

TO

2)

b2 ) x

v l u te

4
c

b4

b2 e2
b

) (x

2 2
c a

QU ATI ON S W HOSE

9 2

2 a bc( a

c)

) (x

oo

LU TI O N C AN B E E FFE C TE D
QUAD RATI C E QUATI O N S

SO

BY

M E AN S O F

Redu cti on by f

i n te g r a l

ctori sa ti on

on e

r oo t

of

an

r
e q u i v al e n t t o

w he e

He n c e ( 1 ) i s

r em ai n d er th eor e m w e k no w th at
i s l ow e r i n d eg r e e by o n e t h an

t h e n, by th e

ea)
Th e

k now

e qu a t o n

f (x)
s ay x

If w e

(1)

s o l u t o n of

d ep en d s

n ow

( l
9

th e

on

dr

s ol u t o n o f

3 (a )

It

c c ase
r du c e

m ay h ap p en th at gs( r )
0 i s a qu a at i e qu at i o n, i n w h i h
i t m ay b e s o l v e a s u s u al 3 or, i f no t, w e m ay be abl e t o e
.

i d(x) 0 by g u e s s i ng a no th e r r o ot 3 a nd SO o n
E m ple 1
T o nd the cu be root f 1
L et b y cub e root f 1 then by the deni tion f cub e root
1
We h ve there fore to olve the equ tion
m u t h ve

th e

e q u at o n
xa

s o

e an
a

We kno w
root
equiv lent to
o ne

of

thi equ tion n

a

am

+ 1)

1 3

th at i s , t o

T he qu adra tic x 2

olved

as

x + 1

u u l g i ve
s

we

ely
c

the equ tion in f ct

a

is

T G R ALI SATI O N

X VI I

IN E

ence the three cu b e root

gree w ith the re ul t lre dy
T heore m
E m ple 2
H

of

R AT I ON ALI S ATI ON

AN D
1

(1

1,

a re

t ined in ch p

Ob a

40 3

(1

by m

x ii .

en
a

h i ch
f D e m oivre
w

xa

7 x3 1 3x 9 + 3x +

T hi s equ a tion

is

obviou l y ti ed by
sa

2
x
7
(

the qu dr t i c 7
root f the origin l cu bic
T he root s

of

6x 3 )

ence it i equiv lent t

ar e

I t m ay h app en tha t w e ar e abl e by

i nt eg r al equ ati on i nto th e fo rm

WW
7

V30) /7 ( 3

(3

(x

6x
1,

are

s o

s om e a

r ti c e

ence the t hree

t o th

r ow

an

0
,

PQR

ar e all i n t e g r al fu n c t i o n s o f x o f t h e 2 n d
r P Q R
d eg r e e Th e r oot s o f th e e qu at i on i n q u e s t i o n ar th en fou nd
by s ol v i ng th e qu a dr at i c s

whe e

P
E x am

ple 3

T hi s equ ation

is

hich c

an

2
d
q( x

ex

roo t

s ar e

the four root

olved in the u u l w
s

I nteg r a li sati on

a nd

+ bx +

the t w qu dr t i c

s of

d x/ Q
( bs /p
2
C
1
3
(i s/ 9 )
+ ( bx/20

( /r
(a x/p
s

+f

{Vp ( a x

be

o b viou ly equiv lent to

ax

Hence i ts

bx

{Vp ( a x

+f x/ q )
(
) x + ( cs/ v

e)

Ox/ 10

I
I

0,
0.

Ra ti onalisati on

We

h av e

in

s een

c h ap x i v th at ev ery al g ebr ai cal e qu ati on can be r ed u c e d to an

i n teg ral e qu at i on w h i ch w i l l be s at i s e d by all th e n i te r oo ts of
th e g i v e n e qu a t i o n b u t s om e o f w h o s e r o o t s m a y h appe n t o be
ex t r an e o u s t o t h e
Th e s t u d e n t sh ou l d r e c u r t o
g i v en e qu at i o n
t h e p r i n c i pl es o f c h ap x i v an d w o rk o u t t h e f u l l s ol u ti o n s o f
a s m an
I n th e e x er
y o f th e ex e rc i s es of t h at c h ap te r a s h e can
c i s es th at f oll ow i n th e p r es en t cha pte r p ar t i cul ar atte nti o n
s h ou l d b e p a i d t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e en s ol u t i o ns w h i c h ar e
and s ol u t i o n s w h i c h ar e n o t e x t r a n e o u s to th e g iv e n e qu a t i on
Th e f oll ow i ng a dd i t i o n al e am pl es w i ll s e r v e to i ll u s tr ate th e
p o i nt j u s t al l d e d t o a n d t o e em pl i fy s om e o f th e ar ti ce s th a t
ar e u s e d i n t h e r e d u c t i o n o f e u at i o n s h av i n
q
g sp e c i al p e c u l i ar i t i e s
.

X MP LE S

404

E A

ple

E x am

C H AP

1
+

+b

co m bine the r t d l t term

derive the equiv lent equ t i on
If we

as

s , an d

2x

2x

an

a b

l o the

tw o m

a s

iddle term

we

s,

.3

If we

now

ultipl y by

2
2
b
x
+ ) }{

2 x {2 x 2

2 (a 2

deduce the equ tion

b2 ) }

0 3

th t w introduce e tr neou ol u tion

u ed i function f
T he equ tion l t derived i equiv le n t to

an d

it

b) 2 } w e

m ay b e

s a

s s

s, s

ince the

x
x

=0

ence the root f the l t derived equ tion 0

N w the root i f
( + b)
y in t roduced by the f ctor {
l (
b)
H ence none f the three root
m u t b i ( + b)
the l t derived equ tion
in the pre ent c e e tr neou
E m ple 2
as

s o

an

s,

or : :

xa

ar e ,

the left

s on

ter m ultiplying b oth ide

r tion l in w bt in
af

by

T he root s

qu ri g
a

(a + x )i
a s
an d

qu ring
a

of

(e)

ar e

an d

)3

3 x Va

s,

(a
,

we

t im e
a

2 V3

V3

r n po i ng
a

)3
h a v en ally

th e

term

the in t egr l equ tion

a

th t d oe not concern
) i concerned ) nd i V3/2
root f ( )
w
t h t l V3/2
s,

bu t

2 :1:

V3

V3
3 + V3

us so

fa r

e s ee

2+
T

: : a

a re

root

hich i not t rue

H ence the onl y root f ( ) i m o
w h ve e t bl i hed no theory reg rding the nu m b er
F
uch
l equ t i on
i r ti
s

al l

deduce

we

s a

1 +

3a ?) x 4 :

th t i provided

tr n po ing

(d l

x , an d

3d x

( rep ea ted f our

s a

or

t ined f ro m

h ve

we

by
x

the origin l irr tion l equ t i on (

0 i
It i
t once o b viou th t
If w o b erve th t
prov i ded
f
a

tr n po ing
2
4
x
(

as

e O

x,

by

F ro m

an

b) 3 }

2a

(B)

a re

}{

oi

s Ob a

as

w n )
r tion li e the deno m in tor

F ro m

F ro m
th t

V(a

I f we

ar e

as

ultiplier

as

o na

as s

of

the root

s Of

EXAM P LE S

xvn

E x am

ple 3

405

vo w )

)
35

(a )

proce l m o t identic l w ith th t follo w ed in l t e

f ro m ( ) the equ tion
By

ss a

4x

sa

ti

root

s of

( B)

are

an d : h a

0,

orig in l equ tion

m ple 4

s fy

th e

3a

V3/2

(a )

Exa

V(x

4x +

T he g i ven equ a tion

2
2
x
V(

deduce

we

2
x

3 bu t

( B)

it w ill b found th t none

Of

the e
s

as

by

5x

2
2
V( x

2x + 3)

V(

2
2
x
V(

2x + 3 )

V(

qu ring
a

3x +

V(

F ro m ( B)

2 1x

qu ring

root

an d

of

ence the root

(7 ) i s
s of

5x +

2 x + 3 ) ( x3

+5

(7 )

an d

tr ans li o s in g

5x + 2 ) ,

1 2 x3

1 7x

l 9x + 6 )

rej ecting the f ctor 2

a

( B)

we

deduce

2
2x

(7 )

equiv lent to

is

l i

a nd

are

an d

1,

I
2
x
V(

4)

l 9x

O ne

2 x4

by

7x

3x

(a )

3x + 4 )

deduce

we

V(

hich i equiv len t t

equiv lent to

is

1)

4x

F rom thi l t

ple

V( 2 x

x am

Th e

as

V5 )/2

o bviou ly ti e ( ) W e
ho w th t the other tw
root f ( 7 )
e tr neou to ( ) 3 f i f h ve e i ther f the v lue
+l
then +
there fore
U i ng thi v lue f
w
reduce ( ) to V(
4 +
T hi l t equ tion involve
1
the truth f the equ tion 6 + 3
4 + 5 w hich i
d
ti ed b y
not by either f the v lue
(
N B A intere ting point i n thi e m ple i the w y the ter m
f ( )
di po ed b e fore w qu re f the r t tim e
E m ple 5
N ow
s

a re

or,

s x

or

s sa

xa

af

+ 35)
eu
L
2
7
2

90 )
x/ ( 1
y um

an

an

an

s o

v0

(a )

x
,

a nd

and

we

(1
2

{B

Multiply b oth ide

s

of

the l t equ t i on by
as

{1

V( l

M ult i ply the nu m er tor d deno m in tor on the le ft by 1 V( l

n u m er tor
d deno m in tor on the r i ght b y V ( l + )
V( l
)
t in the equ i v lent equ t i on
a

1 +

as

e s

xa

can

ar e

sa

VI

an

d we d

educe

th e
Oh

EXER C I S E S XX I X

40 6
If 1 ,

co,

(0

ch p

( s ee

equiv len t to

x xx

ca n

the three cub e roo t

2 0 ) be

of

+ 1,

the

( B) i s

V( l
V( 1

1
1

( v)

1 NM1

By

r tion li tion w deduce fro m ( y ) the three integ l equ tion

a

sa

ra

l ox2

6x

2
2
1
w
9
x
( +
)

6 wx
6w

9 w ) x2

(1

T he root s o f the s e equ a tion s ( 5) a e 0

0 6 w/( l + 9 w
T he s tudent w ill h ave n o di fcult y in s ettl i n g w hich

'

origin l equ tion

(a )

2
w
0
6
3 ,
/( l + 9 w)
of

the m

4
x

+ 2 (x

2 x

'

3 x 3 + 4x2

4
2

Ir

6x 5 + 1 0x 2
'

5x ( x2 x

1 2 x + 36 )

E X ER C I S ES XXX
ax

b+ x
2x

b
+

1
2x

3x

+b

( x
x

'

16

7x + 9

cx

+b

2c

cx

) i x a
x

4x + 3

2 ax + d

x x

cx

+b

l 2x + 3

+b

8x 3

2x 3

ax

+b
+

7x

12

4 ac 2

9x + 5

ax

(4 )

+x

x 1

3a bc:

cd

bc

2 x3 - x 3

s fy

3
x

4
x

ti

sa

E X E RC I SE S X X I X
5

48

b
6

+a + b

11

ax

x
a

c)

I)

bx
b

0
~

2 cx
x -c

"

the

EXER C I SE S

x vu

10

b c

407

+ h 2 c

+ b+

(11 )

x d

+x

9
~

a 2

g
0
~

) (x
b

x a

c d

2x + 2x + 3
~

+l

2x 3 3 3

a3

2x + 3x
2x

(1

XXX I

x xx ,

3a

93

'
x -

"

+ 2x

2x
2x + 3a

b) 2

) (x

) (x

E XE R C I SE S XX X I

( l )

lI
e

b) ( x

x x

WM
x

2)
w2

6x (x

bx ) V( a 2
1 3

?
c

) (
V { 3 (x

)
x/ ( x
V222 )
( 1 + x ) V( 1
(x
(2x

z:

bc) V( a 2

2 (x

x/ w)

x/ x )

bx + b

2x

2x + l
2
x

V( + 6 x + 1 )
2
2
a
b
x
b
V(
) V( + a x ) 3 ( a b)
2
9
a
b
x
a
b
b
a
V{ (
x
b
)/ } V { (
)/a }
:

C on ider m ore e peci lly the c e w here

s

v<
2 x V( x 2
x+

4)

u<m
a

2 x V( x 3

Tw o
x

as

V(

+a

b?) :

ol ution

s, x

2x V

b9

an d a

nother

C H AN G E

40 8
=V

V(
(22"

+x

ax

V(

va

V + V(
m V( a x )
a

(x
t

an d s

) (x

V( m

2/ (

olve 2 V (
9

)}

{V( x

c)

3a x )

e m x)

) f/ (

V( x

)}

nb + x

2
.

= b+

wh

a n e qua t o n

( 93 +

Reducti on

V(

Wm

va + V( a + w)

V(

+ x)

R t i on li e
a

V(

3a x )

we

C H AP .

V( 2 a x )

VAR I ABLE

OF

i ch

E quati ons by chang e

is

r ed u c i bl e

I f w e h av e

Vari a bl e

t o th e f o m

( )
a

th en, i f w e p u t

w e h av e t h e q u a

d e te r m i n e g

to

M( p

f ( x)

ob ta n

we

Hen c e

( )

f or

e q u v al e nt

is

e q u at o n

Sol v i ng

: :

+ 29

drat i c

l (P

th e

v al u es

to

d 0?

(7 )

4 9)

If th e f u n c t i on
e

ua t o ns
q

ill

be

( y)

ro ots

be

ca n
of

be

( )
a

of

s ol v e

th e

2 md

l st

or

a nd

at o n e

all

d eg r e e i n x t h e
th e r o o ts O bta i ne d
,

d
l
i
n
e ar
( y)
o r q u adr at i c e u a t i o n s i t m a
q
y h app e n th at t h ey ar e r e d u c i bl e t o
s u c h o r t h at s o l u t i o n s c an i n s o m e w ay b e obt a i n e d a n d t h u s
o n e o r m o r e so l u t i o n s w i ll b e f ou n d f or t h e o r i g i nal e q ua t i o n
I n p r c t i c e i t i s u nne c e s sa ry t o a c tu a lly i nt r o d u c e th e
We Sh ou l d S i mply Sp ea k o f ( ) as a
u i l i r y v r i abl e
an d p r o c e e d t o s o l v e f o r
acc o rd i ng l y
q ua drat i c i n
m ple 1
E
E v e n w h e n th e

e q uat on s

ar e

n o t, a s

t h ey

s t an

xa

9
x 1 ?

We m

ay

r i te thi equ tion

s

in

?
4x 1
12

the for m
4 (x P /7 )

12

xvn

I t m ay

there fore b reg rded

e

{p p /9

F ro m the r t
ence i f 1
v lue f

-1

( up

to , 0 ,

sop /q

i f g be

6, we

w
w

6 q/p

'

ple 2

E xam

'2

h ti
a

-1

we

nd

s of +

1 , we

nd th fol lo w ing 1

o bt in
a

even the p v

i f g be

wp

-1

6 p /9

al u s

6 q /p

'5

6 q /p

the p th root

are

s of

-l

sq/p ,

33

T hi s equ a tion

6 q /p

the p v lue

o dd ,

olving

here

the p th roo t

be

like m nner from

an d ,

mp h

+ 2,

zap /9

or a;

In

the e w h ve

of

40 9

qu dr tic equ tion in

as a

X AM P L E S

m ay be w

2
=
3
2
x
+
V(

ritten

2x + 2

s,

{V(

h i ch i qu dr tic in Am 2 +
S ol ing thi qu dr t ic w h ve
s a

V(

\Vh e n ce

th t i
T he root
a

a
c

2 = 1,

2x

as

( a:

s,

s of

Ex am

th i l t equ tion
s

ple 3

as

1, 1,

a n d as :

sa

ti e
s

th e

orig in l e q u tion
a

\Ve m a y w

a re

rite thi equ ation

s

as

32

ollo w

s,

th t i
4) (2
H ence th given equ tion i equiv le t to
a

s,

T he rs t

of

olution

{I}

E x am

ma

the e
s

3
'

h a s for

o ne

re l olu tion

the econd
s

h as th e

re l
a

( m+ a )

oci ting the tw e tre m e nd the

follo w
y w rite th i equ tion

Ass
we

ple

( 2a

3 b)x

as

t wo

interm edi te f ctor on the le ft

a

s,

( 2 64

3 b)

b)

2 b) }

R EC I P R O C AL B I QU AD R ATI C

410
If 5

(2a

ca n

the l t equ tion m

3 a b) ,

as

(E

2 b?)

y be w

ritten

th t i
$ 26 5 b b
H ence
5
T he or i gin l equ t i on i there fore equiv lent to the t w qu d tic
a

s,

q u adrat i c s by th e m eth o d w e
C o ns i d e r t h e e q u a t i o n s

at

re

6x

are n o w

0x

i l lu s t r a ti n g

bx

th e

en

Th e s e

a re e u v a l e n t
q

and

th e i

II I

ar e

r r oots be

q ua

8,

e q ua l ,

e q u al

q u a t i on s

or
a re

to th e f o m s

+ c=

+ c=

an

6 w+
b

in

d y, 8

2a = 0

+ c-

dr t i cs

a,
,

i th e r

to

are e

Su ch

ds

co e i ci e n ts ,

c o e fc i en ts e qu i d i s tant fr o m th e
or
i n th e c ase o f th e s e c on d a n d f ou r th
n u m er i c al l
y e q u al w i th O pp o s i t e s i g n s
call e d
If w e d i v i d e by 95 w e r e du c e ( 1 ) and

Recip rocal E qua ti ons A v e ry i m p or tant c l a s s o f e q u a

of
t h e 4 th d e g r ee ( b i q u adr at i c s ) can be r e d u c e d t o

i o ns

w he

a ra

( IIL )

a n d {I}

a:

r e sp e ct i ve ly

r e s p e c t i v e ly I f
i
s e qu i v al e nt to
3
( )
.

th e n

{I }

$ +

e q u tion w hich i q i
lent to
lo
Hence i f 5 b
i
y root f
oot I n other w ord t w f the four root f ( 1 )
the reciproc l f the
re m ining t w I like m nner it m y b ho w n th t tw f the root f
the reciproc l f th rem ining tw w i th the ign ch nged
If

in equ tion ( 1 ) w
a

rite

B
E
=

for ac, w e

get

are

s,

a s o

e s

s a s

u va

s e

a s

a re

s o

e an

an

s o

o o

R EC I P R O C AL B I QUAD RAT I C

G E N E RALI S EI)

xvu

41 1

t ha t i s , t o
g

x
35

Si m i l a r l y , I I I i s

equ

iv al e n t

to

iv

lI

(I V )
'

Th e fou r

r o o ts o f t he t w o q u adr a t i c s ( 4 ) or ( I V )
o f t h e b i q u a dr at i c
( 1 ) or ( I )
Gener a lts ation of the Recip r oca l E qu a ti on I f
e n e r al b i u adr a t i c
g
q
i n th e

s am e

w ay

we t

as

r ea te d

e q u at o n s

1
( )

are

th e

we

an d

r oo ts

r e at

we

th e

redu ce

i t t o th e f o r m
a

N ow , i f

(l

e a

h
i
h
t
s l as t
,
/
e

+ c=

a +
'

e q ua t o n

m ay be w r i t ten

bx

ad

0,

dr
d
a t i c i n a;
b
z
c
q
/
C or I t s hou l d he n oti ced tha t the fol lowi ng r ecip r oca l
of the 5 th deg r ee can he r edu ced to r ecip roca l biqu a dr a ti cs
therefor e be solved by means of qua dra ti cs namely
wh

i ch

+ 1
)

is

ua

e u a ti ons

r i n th e am bi g u i ti es
l o w e r s i g n s t og e th e r

the

pp e

c an

and

th e

w h e e,

an

r s ig ns

go

t o g e th e

F o r th e

a bo v e

a o
c

fr o m w h i c h i t

m a y b e w r i t t en
i 1)

pp e a

rs

br ( r i 1 )
3

th at

i th e r

ca

x +

r:

1)

or a

0,
1 is

f ac to r

on

d s i d e After t h i s fa c to r i s r e m o v e d th e e q u at i o n
b e c o m es a r e c i pr o cal b i qu adr at i c w h i c h m ay be s ol v e d i n th e
Th e r o o ts o f th e q u i n t i c are e i t h e r
m anne r al r ea d y e x p la i n e d
1 a nd th e f ou r r o o ts o f t h i s b i q u adr a t i c
1 or
t h e l e ft-h an

412

In

r
g
w h ere

an

n
e
pp

of

e n e al s o l u t on

t h ey

ca n

d ix

be

t o th

is

X AM PLE S
i s g iven a
a nd b i u a dr a t i c ,
q

v ol u m e

c ub i c
s ol v e d by m e an s
th e

ple 1
f +1
L et x b
T nd t h ft h roo t
olve th equ tion
H ence w h ve t
E x am

ca n

d i s c u s s i on
a nd

qu a dr a t i c s

of

of

of

the

th e

cas es

s o

o s

e a ny

fth root

of

hen m

s=

T h i s i s equiv al ent t o
w

T he l atter equ ation i s

reciproc l b i qu dr tic
a

an d

m ay be w

rit ten

c
c

A ft

e olving t h i equ t ion f

r s

or 28

x
qu dr t i c

{U

T he s e g i ve

th e tw o

nd

+ l /x , w e

V5

a:

1
a
c

m2 +

T he s e again give the follo w ing f our v alue s

(1

for

2 V5 )/4,

a:

2 V5 ) /4 ,

(1

the e together w ith 1

the ve fth root
gree w ith the re ult ob t ined by u ing ch p
E m ple 2
s

ar e

xa

s of

xii. ,

T hi s w ill

19

T hi s equ a tion

m ay be w

9c + a

b) 4 :

l 7(a

ritten
17

+1

ro m w hich

by

dividing by (

we

+
+1

( 33 +

deduce

l7

{x
o:

+ 1)

or

here
g
T hi equ tion in g i reciproc l
s

a nd

b)

m a y be w
35

He nce

5+

g g

1
5+ 3

'

0 1

F ro m thi l t p i r w deduce
s

as

a
.

7 :t

ritten t hu

be f

ound t

R ATI O NAL I SAT I ON

xvu

Hence

h ve the four equ tion

we

+a

+ b

F ro m the e four v lue

s

a nd x

2b

ME ANS

BY

=b

2a

_
_

or A

U X I L I ARY V AR IAB L E S

+a
+ b

s o f a; ca n

+a

E B A/ ( 1 5 )

+ b

once

at

deduc ed

be

T he re a l v alue s

i ntrodu ci ng auxi li ary vari a bl es we can

I RR ATIO N A L equ a tion i n one va ri a bl e dep end on

RA T ION A L

a l ways

equ a tions

are

By

an

413

in

one or

mor e

va

ri a bl es

system o

e x a m pl e ,

F or

make
if w e

h av e

d w e p ut u
d e d u c e th e r at i o nal

an

xa

ch

= 9c + a
,

r a n s fo r m a t i o n w i l l
p e nd s o n th e s p e c i al c i rc um s t an c e s o f
f oll o w i ng i s an ex a m p l e of th e s u cc ess
E m ple
su

th e n

We

s ys t e m
u

W h e th e r

= 5c +

b,

w =

a + c

f a c i l i ta t e t he

s ol u t on

de

Th e
y p a r t i c u l ar c a s e
o f t h e a r ti c e i n q u e s t i o n
an

We m

ay

rite the given equ tion thu

a

He nce

deduce

we

+ az

+1

( 2a )
L et

DO

we t

hen h ve

y+ 1

(
y H fa
;

( 2a )

an

2 7) ;

m
b
(

ho w th

at

2 50 ( H

9 1/ 4 0 q

.4

b?

we

an s o

a:

i
x /p

XXX I I

s of n
o

is

g
a

there fore b olved by m e

f
deduce the v lue f by m e n

bon cm

ca n

EXE R CI SE S
x

b (y

hich i
rec i proc l biqu dr tic d
qu dr tic H ving thu determ ined y
f the equ t ion (
) y
s

2 d (v
w

F ro m the l t equ tion w deduce

as

1
33 /q

the

su m

of

th e t w o

e v lue

r al

E X E R C IS E S

414

(g y

2 (3

a :

x x

3 x+1

+3
1L

+l

2 23 3

C HAP

X XX I I

=n

(1

c
c

(1

6 x4 3 1 a 3 + 5 1 9c2

6 a4 + 5 oc3
2 x4

7x3 + 7 ac2

8x

+ bx bx a
2

3
aa
ax

a
x

w +

+bx

+ 9x

7w

1 2 x5

2 a bx3

c2 :

2
3

996

5
a

+x +

96

+1 =0

bx3

4
use

ca:

3
0
1
9
6
+

dx
b2 )

s,

3
+ bx bx a = 0

2 1 3x
zc

s o

7w

Sho w th t the b i qu dr tic

provided
f qu dr tic
by m e n
a

e:

can

be

ol ved

1 5 0c +

3
w
q) +

q)

=0

7 90 + 3 )

V( 1

az

(ac

7m
i
7

how th t

ac
o

3
x

im gin ry

th e

2x

( 534

2x

+ p ac+ c) = 0

7 th
96

root

of

here

a,

the root f
the root

a re

,8 ,

ar e

'

( 53 5

i)
-

(a

2
{12

"

70

2 ac

8x + 1 = 0
,
,

ao
c + 1 = 0,

f the cu b i c

(x

( a: +

i
f
: g

b) 5

G l/( 1

)}

Vac

Y STE M S W I TH M O RE THAN O N E VA R I AB LE W HI C H
S O LV E D B Y M E AN S O F QU A D RATI C S

C AN B E

A cc o rd i ng t o t h e
x iv

6 , i f w e h av e

ru le

s ys t e m o f

s t at e

w th ou t p o of

c h ap

th e l th

e q u a t on s o f

tw o

in

a nd

d eg ree s r es p ec t iv el y i n t w o v ar i abl s a an d y th at sys tem

Hen c e i f w e el im i n ate y an d
h a s i n g en er al lm sol u t i o n s
d e d u c e fr o m th e g iv e n sy te m an e q u ati o n i n al o ne that e qu
t i o n w i l l i n g ne r l b e o f t h e l m t h d e g r e e s i n c e t h e r e m u s t i n
mth

:2;

XV

II

M OST G EN ER AL SY STE M

be

en e al

g
the

HA I N G TWO S O

d i ff e r ent v al u es o f a: as
s stem s
e s h al l S eak of
W
p
y
m an y

as

r i g i n al

Resu l tant E qu ati on i n a

I n l i k e m ann e r , i f w e h av e

th e

th

L U TI ON S

re

is

4 15

ar e s o l u t o n s o f
e

q u at i on

as

th e

r e e e qu at i on s of
t h e l th mt h a n d nth d eg r e es r esp e c t i v e l y i n t h r ee v a r i ab l e s
a 7
z th e s ys t em h as i n g e n er a l l mn s ol u t i o n s ; a n d t h e r e
s u l t an t e q u at i o n i n a: obta i n e d by el i m i na t i n g y an d 2 w i ll b e o f
and s o o n
t h e l mnt h d e g r e
F r o m t h i s i t app ear s th a t the only p erfectly g enera l case i n whi ch
the solu ti o n of a system of equa ti ons will dep end on a qu a dra ti c equ a ti on
i s tha t i n w hich a ll the equati ons bu t one are of the l s t deg r ee a nd
,

s ys t e m o f

th

'

that

is

one

the 2 nd

I t i s q u i t e eas y t o obt ai n th e s ol u t i on i n th i s c as e, an d th u s
v e r i fy i n a p a r ti c u l a r i n s tan c e th e
e n e r al r u l e fr o m w h i c h w e
g
All w e h av e t o d o i s t o s ol ve th e n l
h a v e b e en a r g u i n g
l i ne ar e q u at i o n s , an d th e r e by d et er m i n e n
1 of th e v a r i abl e s as
.

l i n ear f u n c t i o n s

r i abl e On subs ti tut i ng th es e

i n t h e n th e q u at i o n w h i c h w e s u pp ose o f th e 2 md
v al u es
d eg re e i n al l th e n v ar i abl es i t be c om es an e qu at i on of th e
We thu s obtai n tw o val u es
2 n d d eg r e e i n th e nt h v ar i abl e
o f t h e nt h v a r i abl e an d h e n c e t w o c o rr e s p o n d i ng v al ue s for e a c h
1 v ar i abl es ; th at i s t o s ay w e obt ai n t w o s ol u
o f t h e o th er i t
t i o n s o f th e s y s t e m
E m ple 1
of

th e

nt h

va

xa

lac + m y + n = 0

ax

+ 2 h x y + bi

equiv lent to

( 1 ) is

lx + n

thi v lue

an d

of

P 2
a m aJ

th t i
a

am

( 2 ) to
n)
b( l a

2 h m o: ( l oc

2 ( g m2

2t

v lue
F or e
a

s ys

fo r

x am

reduce

m
n

2f m ( la3

2 g 7 n2a:

em

2f m n

em

0,

s,

T he or i gi n al
tw o

3]

fo r

ple the t w
,

be

bn l

l m )a

?
b
u
(

there fore equ i v lent t

N w ( 4 ) g i ve
e ch f the e ( 3 ) g i ve corre ponding v lue f y
equ t i o

(2 )

x , a nd

ill b found t
e

te m

hm n
is

ns

equ i v lent to
a

:r

s a

SYS T EM

4 16
Hen ce

the t w olution
o s

s of
8

E x am

T he

sy s

ple

s ys t

4 +

I
I

y
2

the

J Q
E

V A R I A BL ES

I N TWO

em

ca n

are

V5
3 N/ 5

V5

3x + 2 y z :

tem i equiv lent to

s

1,

3z = 2 ,

w+ y

2
z
+

+y

=L

5z

c
c:

T he s olution s

y = 8z + 5 ,

3,

90z2 + 1 1 0z +

are

L1
53

the upper ig go i ng together

i si

the lo w er together
F o r th e s ak e o f c o nt r a st w i th th e c a se l as t c ons i d e r e d
an d as a n i ll u s tr at i o n o f an i m p o r ta n t m e t h o d i n e l i m i na t i o n l e t
u s c o n s i d e r th e m os t g ene r al s ys t em o f t w o e u at i o ns o f th e
q
2 u d d eg r ee i n t w o v ar i abl e s nam e l y
s

a nd

ns

aa
'

2 hxy + by
'

2 h ay

a a:

\Ve m ay w r i te th ese
2

2g

'

f )y (a a
'

2g

by

S ay

W
r

2 ( ha

f)

If w e m u l t i pl y
su

btr a c t,

r ct

su bt a

O,

'

0,

we

'

0
0

&c

r espe c t i ve ly
q r es p e c t i v el y

by b

a nd

by b

m u l t i p l y th e m by q

a nd

by

an

'

and al s o

2 gx

a re

+r

w he e p

)
c)

2 gx
?

c=

2f y

'

(a

2f y +

i n t h e fo r ms

e q u at o n s

2 (h x

by

by

2 (h5c + f ) y

by
'

'

2 gx

and
an d

d ed u c e

we

(19 5

'

(M

69 %

p q )r

4
( )

and
b q 0,
( 4 ) w i l l b e e q u i v al e n t t o
pr o v i d e d bq
bq = 0
an d
I n g e n e r al , t h e v al u es o f a: w h i c h m ak e bq
n o r w i ll th e v al u e
w i l l n o t be l o ng t o t h e so l ut i o ns o f ( 3 ) an d

an d

0 b el ong to t h o se

n
a
l
e
e
,
g

the

s o u t o ns

'

in

205

6933/

e q u v a l en t

an

(v q
'

v9 )

a nd

to

Ag a i n , i f w e m u l t i p l y

r e s pe c ti v e ly

w e m ay s ay t h at,

s y s te m

(
is

He n c e

r ct

s u bt a

(bq

W)

"

by b q

a nd
,

bq

an d

d edu ce

we

(290

( 10

rq )

by p b

'

p b

O RD E R ( 2

o r THE

xv u

r
v
i
d
d
o
e
p

an d ,

h g =t=0 ,

bq

an

2)

41 7

w
l
l
5
b
e
( )

eq u

iv al e nt

to

a nd

He n c e

n al l y arr i v e

we

c o n c lu s i o n

th e

at

th a t, i n g e n e

al ,

th e

s ys t e m

c)

2 9x

b( a

2g

f)

b( h a

4 {b (hee + f

c)

2 99:

h
z
c
(

)
g

f) ( a x

2g

o
c

c)

2 gx

b( a

'

2 y s:

f ) (ar

c)

2 gx

(ha; + f ) ( a ac

2g

'

a:

is

e qu

i v al en t

to

1
( )

an

r s t o f t h es e i s a b i qu adr ti c g i v i ng fou r v alu es for r

an d s i n c e ( 7 ) i s o f th e l s t d e g r e e i n y f o r ea c h v al e o f a w e
We h av e th e r e fo r e fou r
ob ta i n o n e a n d o n l y o n e v al u e o f y
so l u t i o n s a s th e g e n e r al r u l e r e qu i r es
I n g e n e r l t h e r e s ul tan t b i q u adr a t i c ( 6 ) w i l l n o t b e r e d c i bl e
I t m ay h o w e v e r h a pp en t o b e s o r e d u c i bl e i n
to qu adr at i c s
a es
T
f
w
r
t
i
c
ul r
c
h
e
ol lo w i n
f
o f th e m o r e i m
a
r
e
e
p
g
or t n t
p
I I f fo r e am pl b /b f /f c /c t h e n ( 6 ) r e d u c es t
Th e

2g)

e,

b(a

'

4 (b h

o
c

f) (

as
h
(

f ) (ace
h
c
) (

'

a ic

2g

2g)

'

0,

r o ots a e z er o the o th e r t w o b e i ng d e te r m i nabl e

by m e n s o f a q u dr at i c e q u at i o n
II A g a i n i f d /a b /b h /h i t w i ll b e f ou n d th at t h e t w o
h i g h e s t te r m s d i s pp ea r f r om
He n c e i n th i s c s e tw o o f i ts
ro o ts b e c o m e i n ni te ( s e e ch a p
an d th e r e m a i n i ng
t w o ca n b e f ou n d by m e a n s o f a q u a dra t i c e qu a t i n
III I f f
0 g
0 g
0 i t w i l l b e fo u n d t h t o n ly
e v e n p o w e r s o f :1; o cc u r i n
Th e r es u l ta n t t h e n be c om e s a
q ua dr at i c i n w
I V Th e r e s u l tan t b i q u adr at i c m a y c o m e u n d e r th e r e c i p r o c al
c l ass d i s c s e d i n 8 abo v e
M o s t o f t h e s e ex c ep ti o nal c a s es ar e o f i n ter es t i n th e t h eo ry
o f c o n i c s b e c au s e t h e
l
t
r
e
a
e t o ca s e s w h e r e t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t w o
y
o ni e s ca n b e c o n s t r u c t e d b
m
e
a n s o f t h e r u l e r a n d c om
y
p s s es
al o n e
Th e g en e r l th eo r y i s g i v en i n t h e App e n d i x t o t h i s v o l
tw o

of

w h os e

'

u s

VOL I
.

418

ple 1
T he y te m
i equiv lent to 1 2 y
T he olution f w h i ch
E x am
s

X AMP L ES

1 4x 2

s o

ple 2

80

2 ,

+ 1:

1,

ere the elim in tion i e

in y \V deduce fro m it
H

My

l(1

a s y,

m( 1

2 5v)

ec u e the r t equ tion

a

2 93v)

is

of

the

degree

1 st

na:

e( u

T h i s r educe s the s econd equ ation to

2

l)

n n oc

8 n:c l oc

hich i equiv lent t

s

(
If
w

2 v)

are

= + 2,

y:

2 ocy + 5 y2 = 5 ,
6 92 9c2
1 6 00

E xam

C H AP

4 l m ) a:4

I,

here =

4m ( l a:

4nza ( l oc

)(

um

l ),

m n ) a3

4 ( 2 l2

1 8n l x 2

thi b iqu dr t i c i reciproc l

a

(l

4 ( 2 n2
an d

m)

4( 2 l

i ts

l m ) ze

( 8m

2
l
(

4 mn )

olution depend upon

s

2 ot) z O,

1 /ac

I n g e n e r al, if w e h a v e a n e q u at i o n
a n d y t o g e t h e r w i t h a n e q u at i o n o f t h e

of

t h e 1 st

d eg re e

in

so

d eg r e e i n 93 an d y
t h e r e s u l t an t e q u at i o n i n a: w i ll b e o f t h e nth d e g r e e
I n p ar
t i cu l ar c as e s o w i ng t o t h e ex i s t e n c e o f z e r o o r i n n i t e r oot s
o r f or o th e r s p e c i al r eas o n s t h i s e q u a t i on m ay b e r e d u c i bl e t o
q u adr at i c s
E m ple
+ y = 49 1 4
+ y=18
i equiv lent to
n th

xa

T he s econd

a:
=
1
8
,
y

of

+ (18

the e tw l t equ t i on reduce

o

as

2
93

ence the n i te olution

s

s of

s , as

1 8x + 1 7 = 0

the give

n sy s

te m

it h ppen
a

s,

to

are

1, 17

ry i m p or tan t c l ass o f e qu at i ons ar e th e s o-called

Th e k i n d t h at m o s t c om m o nl y o cc u r s i s
Homog eneou s Systems
t h at i n w h i c h e a c h eq u at i o n c o n s i s t s o f a h o m og e n e o u s f u n c t i on
Th e a r t i c e u su l l y em
o f t h e v a r i abl e s e q uat e d t o a c o n s t an t
l
o ye d f or s o l vi ng s u c h e q u a t i o n s i s t o i n tr o d u c e as au i l i ar y
p
v r i abl e s t h e r at i o s o f al l bu t o n e o f th e v ar i abl e s t o th a t o ne
T h u s fo r e x am pl e i f th e v ar i bl es w e r e a a n d y w e Sh ou l d p t
x an d t h e n t r e a t v a nd a: a s th e n e w v a r i abl e s
v
y
A

ve

HO

x vn

E x am

ple

2
x

F rom the e tw

c
cy =

1 2,

acy

1 2,

(1

(1

1 2 x2

is,

2v

5
) 1

0,

the given

of

s no s

?
2v

(v

evidently fford
olution
y te m i equiv lent t
0

33 2

l 1v + 1}

2
2
4
v
{

?
c
c

ince
orig in l

21

4 19

derive

we

at

X AMP L E S

the t w equ tion becom e

x

th

vx , an d

P ut y z

M O G EN E O U S S Y S TE M S

s ys t

em

th

w e see

the

at

(1

2 4v?

1 2,

1 1v + 1

olving th qu dr tic f
w nd = 1 /3
C orre ponding t = 1 /3 the r t f the l t p ir f equ tion give = 9
i 3
th t i
C orre ponding t = 1 /8 w nd in like m nner
Hence b e ring in m i nd th t y i derived f ro m the corre ponding v lue f
i n the equ tion y = w h ve f
b y u ing the corre pond i ng v lue f
the co m plete t f olution
S

s, x

2
s a2

ple 2

u z,

li in ting
a

ac :

vx ,

or

s,

3,

3,

y= + 1,

1 ,

a
s:

E m

se

:c z

as

L et

o v

E x am

or

a:

or v ,

o v

+ 2 yz = l ,

2
a

2 v) z2

l,

h ve ince

we

2,

then the equ tion

vz,

+ 2 zx = m ,

it u

l (1

2 v)

0 f

+ 2 xy z n

eco m e

2 n ) z2

2
v

z:

2
z

m,

2 u v) 3 2

(1

orm i n gener l no p rt

2 u v) ,

m (1

2u )

n v

o f an y s

2 u v)

olu tion

We h ve lre dy een h w t tre t thi p ir f equ tion (

11
m ple
T he y te m h in gener l f our di fferent olut i on w h i ch
obt ined by olving b iqu dr tic equ tion ( educi ble t qu dr tic w hen
a

Ex a

be
n =l)

as

ca n

s,

see

the e olution the equ tion

give
t w v lue
T he rel tion
f
t hen give n v lue f
nd
y=
v lue f y corre ponding t e ch f the tw v lue f
We thu o b t in ll the eight olution f the given y te m
T h er e i s ano th e r c l ass o f e q uat i on s i n th e sol u t i o n o f w h i c h
t h e a r t i c e j us t e x em p l i e d i s s o m e t i m e s s u cc e s s fu l n am e l y
th at i n w h i c h e a c h e qu at i o n c o n s i s t s o f a h o m o g e n eo u s f u n c t i o n
o f t h e v a r i a bl e s e q u at e d t o a n o th e r h o m og e n e o u s f u n c t i o n o f t h e
v a r i abl e s o f th e s am e o r o f d i ff e r e n t d e r e e
g
E m ple 3
T he y te m
If we

t ke

s o

of

an y o n e

s x

s,

vz,

u z,

s o

s o

a: a

o ne

xa

an

equiv lent to

is

hwy

dx

cy

ey,

a x

'

b oey

'

'

(1 )

(2 )

(a

here y

oz
e.

bv

ev

)x

(d

cv c
c,

(a

'

bv

c v

(d

c v ac

X MP LE S

420

E A

F ro m thi l t
s

ys
bv

as

{(

hich i equiv lent

s

tem w derive the

e

e
ev

(d

ch p

( see

ev

xiv

tem

bv

g
e v

1 1 ) to

sy s

C H AP

) (d

cv

long w ith

ob erve th t
o y=0 i
olution f the y tem
d keep
ccount f i t ep r tely d ob erve further th t v lue f w hich t i fy b oth
th t the y te m ( 1 ) i equi v len t t
( 4 ) nd ( 5 ) d n t i n gener l e i t w
I f we

a a

a3 z

long wi th

s a s

an

"
cv

bv

x s

(d

e s ee

c v

m= 0 ,

a nd

T he s ol u tion

'

bv

y: 0

s o

2
cv

sa

an

) (d

(6)
(7)

ev

the gi ven y te m n w depend

the cu b ic
T he
three root f thi cu b ic u b tituted i n ( 7 ) give t hree v lue f
d y=
give three corre ponding olution f
T hu count i g
0 y= 0 w
h ve ob t i ned l l th four olution f
T he cu bic ( 6 ) w ill n t b reducib le t qu dr tic e cept in p rticul r c e
d 0
e m ple w hen d
f
0
F
e m ple the y tem
s o

of

or

or

xa

is

equiv lent t
a

oc:

vx

s o

as s ,

'

or cc

2 xy

2
1
v
1
1
(

(3

of v are

an d

0,

3,

=
y 0,

2,

2 312 :

3963/

ogether i th

be

9c, an

s o

s,

3y2 = x + 1 2 y,
6 x2
oe = 0 , y = 0, t
w

T he v a lue s

3x

on

xa

as ,

us

2x

2 9y,

2 v + 3 v2 ) x = 1 + 1 2 v

ence the ol tion

s

s of

the

s ys

te m

a re

Symmetr i ca l Systems A s y s t em o f eq u a ti on s i s sa i d t o
s m m e tr i c al w h e n t h e i n te rc h a n e o f a ny p a i r o f t h e v ar i abl es
y
g

d e r i v e s f rom

th e g

m+ y =

a,

i ve n
a

s ys tem an
2

i d ent i c al
3

b;

ys t e m

= a
,
y

F or

+ x = a

ex a m

p le ,

r i cal s ystem s
T h er e i s a p e c u l ia ri ty in th e sol uti o n s o f su ch s ystem s w h i ch
L e t u s s u ppo s e i n t h e r s t p l a c e
ca n b e fo r e s e en f r om t h e i r n a tu r e
t h a t t h e sys t em i s s u c h t h at i t w oul d i n g e n e r al h av e a n e v e n
If w e t ak e h alf th e sol u t i o n s s ay
nu m b er o f s ol ut i o n s four s ay

ar e all s ymm e t

a2 )

7
/
.

t h en ,
a nd

i c

s n e
a re

th e

e q u at o n s

i nte rcha ng ed

8 1 ) [82 ,

i l l sati s e d
r em ai ni ng h alf

ar e s t

th e

[8 1 )

a ,, a2

82 )

w h e n th e
of

the

v al u es o f

s ol u t o n s are

SYM M ET R I C A L S Y ST EMS

xv n

I f t h e w h ol e
fou r

nu m be

of

s o u t on s

421

re

we

o dd ,

ve

th e n

s a y,

d be rr ang e d as a bo v e an d th e fth

i
n i t e w h i c h i n m any c as es i t w o u l d n o t be ) m u s t b e su c h
f
(
o th e r w i s e th e i nt e rc h a n g e s
th t th e v a l u es o f a a n d y ar e e qu al
o f t h e t w o w o u l d p r o d u c e a s i x th s ol u t i on w h i c h i s i na d m i s s i bl e
l
i f th e s ys t em h av e o nl y v e s ol u t i on s
Th e s e c ons i d er at i on s su g g es t t w o m eth od s o f s ol v i ng su c h
e qu at i o n s
l st M ethod Repl a c e th e v a r i abl es by a n ew s ys tem o f v a r i
a bl es c on s i s t i n
o
f
n
s
a
a o f t h e f o r m e r an d th e r at i o s t o i t
o
e
g
y
a n d o bta i n
u
v
E l i m i na t e a v
o f t h e o th e r s
s ay
a n e qu a t i o n i n u a l o n e ; t h en th i s e qu a t i on w i ll b e a r e c i pr o c a l
e q u at i o n 3 f or th e v al u es o f u ar e
i

th e

of

w o ul

s o u t ons

ae

(1 2

a1

&c

a n da I t

m ay be i

u =

a2

c h r o ot th e r e i s an oth e r w h i ch i s i ts
r e c i p r o c al The d eg r e e o f th i s r esul tant e q u at i on ca n th er efor e
i n all c as es b e r e d u c e d by a dj o i n i ng a c e r t a i n q u adr a t i c j u s t a s
i n t h e c as e o f a r e c i p r o c al b i q u a dr at i c
by an e q u a l
2 nd M ethod Re pl a c e th e v a r i abl e s a y z
E
a
sy
s ay b
n u m be r o f s ymm e tr i c f u n c t i on s o f a y z
y
s ay, a l on g

tha t i s t o

w th e a

&c ,

Exyz,

an

Th e

s o l ve

L et
if

i ts

us

fo r

pu t u
w hi ch

c
c

Af t e r

a =

p a at i n g t h e s o l u t i o n s ,
e p l a e t h e g i v e n s ys t e m b y a
n o w , by
e
h i s sym m et i al

my
m ay

y, w e
s s t e m e a c h e u a t i o n of w h i c
y
q
a n y,

d e ta i l s an d th e r eas o n o f i ts
th e c a se o f t w o
u n d er s too d by t ak i n g

cc ess w i ll be b es t
v a r i abl es a an d
y
su

f or t h e s e

t h e m e th o

of

na tu e

se

rc

W k

r al th e ory o f symm et r i c fu n c t i o ns ( s e e c h ap v iii

e v e ry i nt e r al s m m e tr i c f u n c t i o n can be e x p r e ss e d
g
y

th e g e n e

that

We

as

an

the olution ( e cept

in the c e f
=y f
n
d d y te m ) =
I t m y ho w ever h ppen th t
n
m ore
t=y
olution Such olution c nnot b p ired w ith other ince interch nge
f v l ue doe not produce
olution T hi peculi rity m u t lw y
n w
ri e in y te m w hich
w hole b t n t ymm etric l in the
ym m etric l
ind i vidu l equ tion A n e m ple w m y t ke the ym m etric l y te m
=
three f w ho e olu tion
uch th t
+
+y=
y

a,

a.

f or

al l

a,

s a
o

or

as a

oc

s a re s

as

or

an

s, s

xa

are s

one

a3

ha

ve uppo ed th t

42 2

i nt eg r al

t an s f o

fu n c t i o n of

rm

mo

no

re 3

s ol u t o n s ,

Hen c e i n

s t em

into

ys b e p os s i bl e t o
e q u iv a l e n t s ys te m i n u a n d v

an

w ll

al w a

v al u e s o f

b u t t h at t h e

a,,

an

,,

c o rr e sp o n d i ng

an d v

=
ch a s x =
y B
th e c a s e o f s ym m et r i c al
su

th e

u
at o n s
q

to tw o

ar e

a,,

n um b e

of

q u al

sol u

m u s t i n g e n e r al be l ess th an usu al
a,
C o rr e s po n d i ng t o any p ar t i c ul a r v al u e s o f u an d v, s ay u
3, w e h a v e th e q u adr at i c sys tem a: y a , my ,8 , w h i ch g i ves

i ons o f

th e

ys t em i n

u a nd v

th e t w o

s o l ut o n s

w=

I f w e h ad
a s s u me u

th e
th

i v en

He nce i t

u an d v

y
e o b s e r v e f u r th e r t h a t , i n g e n e r al , i t a n d v w i l l e a c h h a v e
m an y v a l u es a s th e r e ar e s ol u ti o n s of t h e g iv e n s ys tem , an d

as

th e g

YMM ET R I C AL SYS T EMS

is

"

s ys t em

yz

L et

3 t h en ,

(S

icy,
a,

m
2
es /
n

v ar i abl es

ex
u

o3,

aye,

8 w

, ,

d
a n d a tte m t to s o l v e
p
b
e a ny s ol u t i on o f
y
y,

s,

then w e

s h ou l

i c

s n e

th at th e th

s ee

2, v

u , v,

we

i n th r e e

a s ys tem

in

s yst em

a)

> E

(S

r ee r o ots

of
2

3
/5 r

c o ns ti tu te a s ol u t i on o f th e o r i g i n al system a n d S i n c e t he
e q u at i o n s ar e s ymm e tr i c al a n y o n e o f t h e s i x p e r m u ta t i on s o f
t h e se r o o t s i s al so a s o l u t i o n
I n th i s c as e th e r e fo r e t h e nu m be r
o f so l u t i o n s o f t h e s s t em i n u v w w o u l d i n
y
g e n e r al be l e s s
t h an t h e c o rr e s po n d i ng n u m b e r f o r th e s ys te m i n a y z
Th e s t u d e nt s h ou l d s t u d y t h e foll o w i ng e x am pl es i n th e l i g h t
f th ese g ene r al r e m a rk s
E m ple 1
A
+ C ( + y) + D = 0
D 0
y ) B y C ( w y)
11
I f w put y =
d then eli m in te
by the m ethod e m plo yed i n
the re ult nt eq u tion in i
,

xa

voc, an

a
o

here ( D A ) t nd f D A D A ( D E) f D B DE nd
T he b i qu dr tic ( 2 ) i o b iou l y reciproc l d
there fore b ol ved by
me n
f q u dr tic
T he olution
then b co m pleted by m e n f the equ tion
'

s o

s a

or

'

or

'

an

s o on

can

e s

can

s o

+ v) = 0

X VI I

EX AM

in t nce f th i
olut i on f the y te m
As

an

s a

42 3

ethod the tudent hould w ork

P L ES
s

2 ( n"3

2 ( a)

3 333/

y)

39

W e m y tre t the b ove e m ple by the econd m ethod

p r gr ph follo w T he y te m ( 1 ) m y b w ritten
a

xa

as

2A r
)z y +

A
y) + ( B

'

Au

th t i
E li m in ting r t
a

of

the pre ent

O,

(x + y )

4x y +

a a

i n full the

out

s,

A u + (B
2

)x y

(ac

0 3

+D =0

s ys

'

(A B ) v

D 0
deduce the equiv lent

we

= 0,

'

v,

y)

) v + Cu
2A )v C u

then

an d

it

+ ( B 2A

2A

( A C) u

(A D)

te m

( 5)

=0
w

here
T he

&c

s ys

h ve the

te m ( 5 )

e m e n i ng
olution

s am

h a s tw o

as a b

ove

s,

'

cor e ponding to w hich w nd f the origin l y te m

4m
/2
{ i
{ b V(
}/2
v { M /(
{ wx/ (
in l l four olution
T hi m ethod hou l d b te ted on the nu m eric l e m ple given
m + y = 82
E m ple 2
+ y= 4

4 y(
We h ve
6 6 31
+y
( + y)
y )

sa

y,

a :

s ys

s ys

te m

{ (w

of it

4u 2 v

v)

4x v

te m i equiv lent t
s

a
c

2 v2

82 ,

e s

32 v + 87 = 0

is

2 xv}

ar e

ove

6 06 21

9
,

given by th econd equ tion

thi qu dr tic

ab

2 222 :

xa

4a 2 v

72
of

c
e

T he root s

ac

a n

=n+ yr

U i ng the v lue

ence the given

'

xa

or

and

29

we

reduce the fi r t to
s

ence the olution

s

the

of

4, 4 ,

v=

3, 2 9

F ro m + y = 4 y = 2 9 w derive ( w y) = 1 0 0 th t i
t
y
co m b i n i ng th i w ith + y = 4 w h ve 2 1 5 i
F ro m + y = 4 g/ = 3 w nd 3 y 1 ; = 1 y = 3
Al l the four olution h ve thu b een f ound
=m + y
E m ple 3
y = m+ m y
L et put y =
then rem oving the f ctor i b oth equ tion
noting the corre pond i ng olut i on
y = 0 w h ve
x

; sc

oe

av

xa

us

voc

are

: :

e q uiv lent to

3
a3

= m + n v,

i ;

so

= m + n v,

a
c

s , az

T he s e

4
x

u, v

4 3
v a

= n + mv

s,

an d

424

T he s econd

the e m

of

y be w

1 ) + m v ( v3

there fore equiv lent to

is

1)

v
4
22

1 = O

+1

+1

1=0

v+

the e i reciproc l biqu dr t i c H

ll the ve root
f ( 3)
b f ound w ithou t olving ny equ tion f higher degree th n the 2 n d
T o the roo t = l corre pond the three olution

T he s econd
can

C HA P

rit ten

n v5
an d

X AMP L E S

of

s a

s o

e n ce a

s,

= y = (m

i th
the origin l y tem w here
e l v lue f the cu b e root d
w
the i m gi n ry cub e root f unit y
f (1 )
ob t ined f e ch f the re m in
I like m nner three olution
=
ing four root f
H ence counting
y 0 w o b t in ll the i teen
olution f
T he re der hould w ork t the det il f th u m eric l c e
of

(0

a re

e r a

s o

an

s o

s o

are

or

s x

s o

ou

w4 = 2 x + 3 y,
an d

to

c lcul te
a

the re l root
pl ce f decim l

all

o ne o r

E xam

two

ple

s o

a s

as

3 oc + 2 i

s , an d all

e n

s o

th e

coei ci e n ts

in

the com ple roo t

x

s,

yz( y + z )
2

(y

yz

zoc z

put

If w e

x y a3

w = a3ye,
2 6,

v:

1 62,

3w:

no

5 38

the

2 c)v

ab

uw

ove

= 5 38

w = 1 890
ence
26
3w = 1 6 2
26
26
ence
81
2 83 5 0
=9
T he root f th i qu dr tic
d
We thu o bt i n f the v lue f
w 9 26 24
H ence w h ve the t w cu b ic
1 59

H
H

s o

u,

em educe
r

to

an

ar e u

or

s ys t

v,

2 6,

an d

31 5

T welve

the root f the origin l y te m con i t f the i perm ut tion

f the
f the r t cu b ic together w ith the i per m ut t i on
f the three root
root f the econd cu bic
e ily
T he r t cu bi c evidentl y h the roo t
d the other t w
3
found t b 3 n d 4
olution
Hence w h ve the f ollo w ing i
of

s o

s o

s o

ther

s o

s i x a re

s x s

m= 2 ,

2,

3,

3,

4,

y z gr

4:

4:

2:

2,

4 ;
3 ;

3,

2,

4,

3,

o are

an

as

of

ar t i ces

th

t h at

i s c h ap t e r
ar e

w th

s u g g e s te

as

to b found by olving the econd cu bic

u

pl es

s x

s x

s s

We c o ncl d e
e x am

f e w m i s c el l a neou s

m er el y by th e p e cu l i

X II

M I S C ELL AN EO U S E X AMP L E S

4 25

r i cu l a r case Som e o f th em h av e a s o m e w h at
m o r e g e n e r al c h ara c t e r a s t h e s t ud e n t w i l l nd i n w o rk i ng t h e
e e rc i se s i n s e t x x x i v
A m od e r at e am ou nt o f p r a c ti c e i n sol v
i ng p u zl e s o f t h i s d e s cr i p t i o n i s u s e f ul a s a m e n s o f c u l t i v a ti ng
m an i p ul at iv e S k i ll 3 bu t h e s h o u l d b ew ar e o f w as t i ng h i s t i m e
o v e r w h at i s af t e r all m e r el y a c h ap t e r o f a cc i d e n t s
E m ple 1
ar i ti es o f

th e pa t

xa

by
b+ y

ax
a

the

L et
s ys

+w

(
a

a -h b c

+ b+

+y=c

te m then reduce to
s

T hi s aga in i s equiv alent to

- a

ence w h ve the olution

T he olution f the origin l
t w ice over
E m ple 2
H

s o

b) , r) : b/( a
f
s y s t m ar e

b) t w

there ore

ice over
/( a

a
n:

bc/( d

b) , y

ac

b)

xa

um

2=
2=
2
d
a
x
b
x
b
o
c
+
+ c y+ y
y + cy

T hi s s ys te m i s equiv a lent to
(

b) oc2 + ( b

a
2
a re

T he equa tion
w

here p
S ince

a nd 0

'

( 2 ) ( s ee ch ap

x vi

equ i v lent to
a

( ca + 1 ) ( b0

(a o

1)

'

2
.

2a

ence w deduce
: b
T he r t f the e t ken in conj unction w ith
e

s ay ,

tw o

13
.

olu tion

p(

3/

We n

gay

ore olution
T he y te m
in 1 2
s

as

give

s a2 = y

be)

5)

bc

T h is

h en ce

an d

Pf

0
d

be

ca n

of

we

nd

bl2

Q -

bc

done

by

ub tituting
s

w:
s

(l

be)

deduce f ro m ( 6 )

two m

( 5)

t ke the econd v lue

2
c- a
2

p/( a

ow

If we

d (a
c
(

here i t rem in to determ ine p/(

in
\V thu nd
a

/d

s of

ec

th t i to

undeterm ined
w m u t h ve

a re

'

)y

9
cy =

bocy

9) i s

=o

(a

d / (a
: l:

ao

ca

ac

ab

1 2
a al /

ab
a

s ys

a s

be

a bc

y = zt

the origin l
( 3 ) could l o

s of

ca

te m
olved very i m ply

&c 3
.

by

putting y

vx ,

M I S C E LL AN EO U S E X A MP L E S

426

ple 3
T he e equ tion give

E x am

C HA P

yz

b3 ,

2 9c

g
c

xy

2 a: x

62

my

ye

x 6

z 2

bc

th t i
H ence
a

s,

l t equ t i on f the orig i n l y te m then give

i
t
b/
b
T he upper i gn go together d the lo w er together 3
/
th t w h ve onl y o bt ined t w t f the po ible eight olution
E m ple 4

so

the

ca

z:

T hi s

as

tw o

xa

be

ca n

reduced to l t b y olving f

ple

as

ss

T hen

ence p

: :

or

yz,

my

2x ,

L et
V(

an

the three equ tion

a dd

if we

c)3

b2

h ve

d we

: : e

ple 6
nd the re l olution
E x am

h ve

we

s,

V( a
To

an

o ou

E x am

+b

s of

a( z + x ) +

ts= ca

(61

F rom

an d

th t i
E ver y olution
a

(4)

deduce

we

(E

s,

1J3

i i i/

the g i ven y te m m u t ti
ll po itive provided
( f5
l l re l olution w m u t h ve
f ollo w th t f
H ence f ro m the ymm etry f the y te m w
of

ar e

or a

wi

By m

ence

e n
a

s of

( 8)

by E x a m

ple 5
i

F ro m

( 8)

we

we

now

reduce
we

"

yzi

{
E

( 7)

N ow ,
z,

s fy

as,

sa

g r93%

( 9)

to

h ve
a

i b2

: :

: z ca

e
a

hab

re l it

u t h ve

derive
: z bc

al l

yz )

(3)

i nce ( 5

E 77 f be
77 { 2 ,

M IS C E LL A NEOUS

xv n

E X A M P L ES

427

ke ccount f
th t the upper ign m u t go to
(6) w
gether throughout d the lo w er together throughout 3 th t w f nd onl y
t w re l olut i on
E m pl e 7
If w e t a

an

xa

so

i f w e pu t

ind the

der i ve
m y b w ritten ( p
f the y te m w h ve

etry

we

) = 92v

2 z

y)

a:

"

2/

by, w

'

(13

a oe

hich
H ence b e ring i

+ y + z)

b
)y

s ym m

b) = zw,

a( y

F ro m the r t tw equ tion

x x

e s ee

here p d h ve t b deter m ined

F ro m the r t equ t i on f ( 1 ) w h ve
an

'

R e m oving the f ctor

nd
a

we

b) ( p -

o
I

el i m in te

e n ow

an

b) ( p -

) (p

b) ( p -

a,

a,

a,

O,

O,

b,

0 3
03

z:

0,

0,

b,

ss

s,

hich give
b

ea

i:

on e

We thu s deduce
p

( 4)

o b erving th t in the proce w

w hich corre pond t
t hree olution

) (p

F ro m ( 3 ) d ( 4 ) w

reject the f ctor

p
n m ely
a

to w hich w ill corre pond the olution

or,

i il rly w nd

S m

) /E a

We h ve in
a

fa

ct

( be

(a b

ence ( 2 ) give

ore olut i on

s
0

( ea

)(

ab

3 a be

etry w h ve t w corre ponding v lue f y d

Th e
ple i w orthy f no tice n cco nt f the ymm etri c l m ethod
w hich i u ed f
tre ting the given y te m f equ tion T he olution m ight
b o b t ined f ull y
e dily by putting = g =
in
n d proceeding
1 3 E m pl e 3

an d,

b y s ym m
i s x am
s

or

r a

oc

u z,

an

or

r e, a

as

E X E RC ISES
=
y 3 0,

ccy = 2

2
+ y = 5 8,

veg
/

x+
2
x
x

as

xa

+ 2y= x

2
,

i =at
w +y

16

2w+ y :

(e

= 21

X X X III

3,

w + y = 8,

+y=b

9
+ y = 65

3 x2

E X E R C ISES XXX III

428

vu

qy,

(w
+ by = e,

ax

by = l

If ax

an

dy

eoe

que
tion
i
the
olution
in
d
2x

34
x + y=2

a3y :
5
+
y
2

3ocy = 1 ,

a e,

s ze :

h ve onl y

1,

then
olution

o ne s

c+

b /d = 1 ,
g

oe

b) ?

i )
=1,

(w
r
(o
w+ 3

B
2 (a

123 3

3 (x + y )
3
g
az - y = 2 0 8,

3
x

oc

y+

z
ey

2
az

+y

/p

'

6 9cy = 1 6

+y

2 43

4
x y

= 3 0,

4(

y = 4

r
oe

(x

2 xy = 2 7 ,

2y + 3

ocy = 1 2

2 m+ 3

y) ,

=
b
a
+ xy + y
2

2
x

3
x
x

= 97 ,

+y

+y

72

4
x
.

=
y 5

oc +

m+ y = a

4
=
a
+y
,

5:

31

+ y=b

3 3,

3
x

(oe
x
x

x
x

i/

=
a
y
/

my,

2
x

n)

+ a3 y + y = 4 9

my

2
=
b
oe

/w)

v)
2

on

902
)(

v ) at
4 2 = 84
,
+y
y

a2

4
3

+yz 5

+ y + x y zz 8 4
2

an

n)

w+ y = 2 3

( 45 )

i
x

a 2

( 49

ow e

a
t:

(51

"

b
m
2
)
( y
b( a - y )
.

) (y

m (acy

My

x +y = y

'

H:

( a:

"

4a

ab

ai +
7J

m "
n
a e
x

e,

a(x

na v

2
00

a: a

(50

) (y
b

+ w+

b
x

( b2c

ay

2
.

X II

X ERC I S ES XXX I V

E X E R C ISES

- a

E a 3x3 = 3 H ( b e )

Zax = 0 ,

0,

Ea :

)(

X X XIV

.
i

-x

42 9

) (y

2 2x + 3 yz z 2 x y

yz ,

(6

=
2
1 53,
z
x
+
y
2

(y +

2 ( x2

yz

Zbex :

thi

31

2
=
a
)
)

by =
2

yz

2 ( z2

Ex = 1

yz

= (a2

xy

2
e

b2 7

2
,

a nd

the

t wo

equ t i on derived from

a

x i/ z
a bc

me = l + l

ac

ac

(x v

(2 06

( oz

2x

interch nging

by

s one

2 a oe

Za yz :

0,

2 ez,
-

+y

c a
:

yz

+ 2 xy = 1 2 8

b( z + oe

2 by,

a nd

:e

the

)/

l /x yz

c z

derived there f rom

two

by

inter

ch nging
a

(23

= a (2 x

2r ) :

2 y)

b( EJe

( Zoc

2z)

Q
.

(y

(x
) u (v

(z

(v
x(u

r( u

If
s

ho w th

3 ( yz

at
l

i
w

here

=
z
a
y

z-

al l

zce :

e erc i e

the re l olut i on
a

b2 ,

hen

= 72,

b= 75,

s a
a s,

s s et O f

or

a
,

and

s s

c=

69

a nd

II (b

) (b

re fer t three letter onl y 3

t nd f ( b ) ( ) ( b) d not f ( b c) (
b) ( c b) (
)(
trictl y pe k i n g it ought to do
In

thi

F ind

II

an

or

E X E R C ISES

430

li in te
f ro m the

E m

E X ER C I SES

xx x v

XXX V

C HAP

x vn

a:

s ys

tem
b

ao
e+
co
e+

my

l a:

y f

an d

w+ d

a oc +

+h
b

bm

+b

rom
2
=
y + a2y b ,

2
=
+ 9ey a ,

a2

y,

9e,

m+ b

y fr o m

x an d

z fro m

2
=
c
w +y

wvz = d 3

x,

y,

ac,

an d S

y,

z fro m

x + Q2

ZAx

how th t the re ult i

s

z f ro m

= 0.

= 0,

<
33

EA x2 = 0 ,

( AB )

CA

ss

an

0,

CA

&c

ho w th t the follow ing y tem

=
unle
3 q
d th t they h ve
p
cond i tion b fullled
3

( CA )

3
r

Za x = 0 ,

2 1/

here

equ t i on in y z incon i tent

innite nu m ber f olution i f thi

of

an

a
c,

s s

are

2 x3

3x yz : p 3,

E yz

Ex

r.

li in te

E m

a: an d

a - x

)(

:c,

{I},

b
(

+y

y,

y,

) (b

z = a

y,

w1 x2

+ yz = be,

w)

(a

3
3
3
+ y a = o ,

myz = a 3

by + zoc= ea ,

ez + x y = a b,

= a be

acyz

z fro m
z fro m
s ys

2
=
k
+ y1 y2
1 9
2

e i ther h no olution
s

3
3
9e = q ,

)(

- c

= r 4,

3
ocyz = s .

m
b) ( y
(

) (m

te m
x1

as

w b
)(

z fro m

(y

T he

3
x

+y

2
at,

z fro m

ax
ac,

rom

y,

c
e

y f

yl
,

T he e l i m i n ant

:
t yer
3
/

962 963
2

$2

or

it h

is

in

y2

as an

al

76 3 ,

2
71

yn

i nnite nu m b er

c e to b
as

93a

e a

of s

yn yl
a

2
:

olution

r tion l integr l equ t i on

a

CHAP TE R

X VI I I

G en e r a l T h e o r y

Of

I n t e g r a l F u n ct i o n s , m o re

p a r t i cu l a r l y

Of

Q u a d ra ti c

F u n ct i o n s

R E L ATI O N S B E TW EE N THE C O E FF I C I E N TS O F A F U N C TI O N A N D
R O OTS S Y MM ETR I C A L F U N CTI O N S O F THE R O O TS

I TS

r em ai n d e r

By t he
th at if

a,,

a, ,

th a t i s t o

th e n

p ore

1a3a

N o w w e h av e

a9

whe e

c h ap

s ee

iv

d e n o te

i t f ol l o w s

i n t eg r a l

th e

a:

a,

fu n c t i o n

b ec om e s 0 ,

v al u e

we

(a

1 0)

th e

n -1

su m s O f

k en 1 2
d iv i d e bo th s i d es
ta

a, ,

Hen c e, i f

Pa
P ,,

a,,

f or w h i c h i t s

a:

( se

P , , P, ,

q u an t i t i e s
s e ct i v e ly
p
th e

Of

a:

r o o ts

v al u es O f

r em ( ch

i d e n ti ty

t h e n w e h a v e th e

be th e

a ,,

s ay,

t h eo

'

th e p

r o d u c ts

n at

Of

an
Po

Po

P l /P o

Po
n

Sin c e ( 3 ) i s

'

r
e

an

i d e n t i ty

P1:

r cu l ar

I n pa ti

if p o

w e m u s t h av e

P2 ;
1,

SO

inn /P o

th e n

P,,

1 ) Pn
n

c ion

t h a t w e h av e th e fu n t
.

P2 ,

p
,

the

t me

pn

re

w e ha
2
b
0
,
)
p
y
(

i d e n t i ty
g

Of

ve

SYMME T R I C F U NC T IONS

432

Hence, if

consider

we

the

wha t omes to the

or ,

+ p , :c

+ pn ,

the equ a tion

thi ng , the

same

r oots o

then p , is the su m of the n roots p , the sum

the oots , taken two a t a ti me ; p , the s u m of

r ee at a
Th us

ar
c

if

be

an

r o o ts

d ,8 be th e

bx

e
e qu at o n ac

v al u es

Of

of

rd c

wh

c
c

th e q ua

i ch

b/a,

s at s fy

of

cu b i c

the

s2 , 3 3

h p ow ers

w e can exp ess

I n th e

r st

s2

f u n c t i on

th e q ua

dr at i c

-b a
,

If

drat i c

c a

r oots

Ag ai n, i f a , ,8 , y be th e
d, th en
co:

ri

a ll

0 , th en

e
a

3 r d,

the p r odu ts of
a ll the p o u ts, taken

th at i s, t h e

0,

,,

and so on

ti me,
,

th

c
c

C H AP

the fu n ti on

roots o

V AR I ABL ES

O F TWO

s ta nd

3,

the

f or

the

roots a and ,8 o

as

c
ac

bx

= d a
8
, y
/

su ms

the l s t, 2 nd,

the qu adr a ti

fu ncti ons of

i ntegr a l

pl a c e , w e h av e, by

fu n c t i on

c equ ati on

a nd

p,

Ag a i n

p,
2 a ,8 ,

To nd

r o o ts

of

(l )

33

w e m ay p

w e ha

r o c ee d

fo ll o w s

as

Si n c e

an

d ,8

ar e

ve

M u l ti pl y i n g th ese e q uat i o n s by

an d

r e sp e c t i v el y

an d a

dd i n g

w e o bt a n
33 +

Si n c e

p , s,

+ p ,s l

i nteg r al f un c t i o ns O f p a nd p ( 5 ) d et erm i nes

f u n c t i o n O f p an d p
We ha v e i n fa c t

3 , a nd 32 a re

s, a s a n

i n teg ral

33

P I( p 1
'

Pl

2232 )

327 1292

, ,

X III

YMM ETR I C F U N C TI ON S

Si m i l ar l y, mu l ti plyi ng t h e
an d a

dd i ng

we

e q u a t o ns

an

m ay be

34

s o on

4
b
)
y
(

an

d ,8

43 3

r e sp e c t i vely

d ed u c e
s, +

He n ce

V AR IAB L E S

O F TWO

e x p es s e

p , s3
a s an

i n t e g r al

fu n c t i o n

of

p1

an d

p, ,

We can now e p r e s ny symmetri c i nteg r al fun ti on wh tev r of

the r o ts of the qu adr a ti c ( l ) a s a n i nteg r a l fu ncti on of p a nd p
su m o f
m
S i n c e ny ym m et r i c i n teg r al fu n c t i n i s
y
f n ct i o n i t i
u fc i e n t t o p r o v
m et r i c l i n teg r al h om og en eo
h o m og e n e ou
th i s p r o p os it i o n for
ymm e tr i c i nt eg r l f n c t i o n
Th e m o st g en e r al s u c h fu n c t i n o f t h e
o f t h e r oo t
and
r th d e g r e m y be w r i t t e n
x

us

s,

A(a

2.

s s

s at
a

'

"

'

i s to

th a t

sa

y,
As,

A, B , C

w he e

Hen c e
sh ow n

th e

th a t

f u n t i o ns

Of

p1

c o e f c i e n ts i nd epe nd e nt O f and
r
o
o
s i t i o n fo ll o w s at o n c e f or w e h a v e al r e ad
p p
y
ca n al l b e e x p r e s se d as i n t e r al
g

are

and

p2

i m po r tant to no ti c e th at S i n c e an d 8 m ay be any
t w o q u a n t i ti e s w h at s o e v e r t h e r e s u l t j u s t a rr iv e d a t i s r e a lly a
n e r al p r o o s i t i o n r e g a rd i ng an y i n t e r al s y mm e tr i c fu n c t i o n O f
e
g
p
g
t w o v a r i abl e s n am e l y t h a t a ny symmetr i c i nteg r a l fu nc ti on of two
va ri a bl es
x r essed as a r a ti ona l i nte r al fu ncti on o the two
a
3
c
n
b
e
e
/
p
g
f
I t is

a,

ry symm etri cal functions p

(
T h er e ar e t w o i m por tant r e m a rk s t o
e x p r es s o n
el emen ta

l st

If

al

l the
al l

c
c l c u la t i o n

su

A, B , C ,

e f c e n t s

VO L

th

is

i ci ents of the g i ven i nteg ral symmetr i c functi on

the coe i ci ents i n the exp r ess i on f or i t i n ter ms of
.

r em ark

cc ess iv e
of s
d i r c tl y i nteg ral v al u e s p r ev i o u s ly
p o ss i b i l i ty o f i ntr o d u c i ng fr a c t i on s
th e

r eg ard i ng

coe

p , w i ll also be i nteg e s
h i s i s at o n e O b vi o u s i f w e

an d

be m a d e

be i nteg er s, then
p1

d p,

an

, ,

th at

at e

v e ry

&c , we

33 ,

i d SO

O bta n e

w ou l

t h at

s te

p in

su b s t

i tu te

th e

o n ly

be t h r o u g h t h e

in
2 F

co

E X PRESS I O N

434

2 nd

Si nc e

a ll

T E R MS

IN

the

e qu a t o n s a bo

OF

v e w r i tte n

h o m og e neo u s t h r ou g h o u t, w h e n f or p ,
a n d a 8 r es e c t i v el ;
v a l u es
a +
,
p
y
(
'

d p2
term of

d e g r ee

2 nd

th e

of

an

function of

a ny

in

an

a nd

AN
D
p1

a nd

p2

C H AP

be c om e

i d ent i t i es
s u b s ti tu t e t h e i r

p2 we

i c

an d s n e

p , is

Of

th e

whi h

re

resents

the

l st

ry

d ,8 , i t f o ll o w s th a t i n

eve

va lu e

r i c fu ncti on the sum of the si w

i ixes of the
s must be e u al to the de r ee of the symmetr i c fu ncti on i n
a nd
p
q
g
T hu s for e x ampl e i n th e e p r e s s i on ( 6 ) fo r 3 th e su m O f th e
s u f
t h at i s
i s 3 and i n th e t e r m
e s i n th e t e r m p
p p p
homog eneous

symmet

, ,

al s o

3p ,p 2

Th i s

, ,

r em ark

l as t

d o wn at
pres s i o n

i s i m p o r tan t, b e c au se i t e nab l es u s t o w r i te
l
a ll t h e t e r m s t h at ca n
oss
i
b
p
y o cc u r i n t h e e x

on e

rc
r d c

All
y g i v en h o m og e n e ou s s ym m et i f un t i o n
w e h av e t o d o i s to w i t e
ow n e v e y p o u t o f p 1 a n d p , , o r
O f p o w e s O f t h e s e , i n w h i h th e s u m o f th e s u f x e s i s e q ua l t o
the
e g ee o f t h e g i ve n f u n t i o n

for

an

c
c

d r
E m ple 1
fp
d1
T c lcul te
+ B in ter m
T hi i ho m ogeneou ym m etri c f unct i on
the rule j u t t ted w m u t h ve
xa

; an

s o

92

s a

An

a re

13291 10 2

so

m
4

(a

[3

(1

P2

W e m u t then h ve

E( u

erv i ng th t the ter m doe not occur on the le ft

h ve th v lue 4
1 w
L tl y p utting B= 1 th t
2
Hence

Ob s

as

s am

so

4191 192

pf

ple 2
C lcul te + B + 8
T h i i c lled t h

2 82

we

th t B

see

2122

ollo w
0

41

W e h ve
a

W A291
21

th t C = 2

e see

lre dy c lcul ted

n(

E xa m

+ 10 1 8 ; +

s o f $ 2 a n d .9 3 a

as

a s

s.

e re ult m ight l o b o bt i ned

ence u ing the v lue

,

12

84

T he

Hence , by

here A B C
coe fcient t b determ ined
th t p
I the r t pl ce let
H ence A 1
A
t h ident i t y
W e n w h ve
,

the 4 th degree

of

s s

s a

we

h ve
a

2P 2 ) ,

pg

(1

H i g he r A l g ebr a ,

56

we

in ter m
ig ht
f the

s Of

pl

a nd

ym m

p3

et ric function

l on

See S a m

NE WT O N S

T H EO R EM

x vm

We h ve

4 35

Putti g
d putting

an

Since

an

+5

f (a

);

I t fo l l ow s f r o m t h e

d i v i s i bl e

by

a s ymm e t

is

pl

i n t eg ra l

fu n c t i o n

)
2f (
a

th a t i s ,

r em a i n d er

o f a , ,8 , s ay

i nte rc h an g ed

He n c e if

we

a, a

th e o

re m

f(

t h at

ut

at

B=53

at

i t fo llo w s

8
,
a

is

a,

=
,

we

exa

T h en g (

ric

T h er ef o r e f (

L e t t h e qu o t i e n t b e g ( a
=
f u n c ti o n O f a ,
F o r g (a ,
f (a ,

th

527 1310 2

a n d ,8 ar e

a,

s ee

l t e r n at i n g

we

r el y c h an g es i ts S i g n w h en
t h at w e h a v e f (
a

con idering the ter m

nd C
6
H ence

me

h av e f (a ,

Cp l p za

Ap l s

1 ;

= 8 = 1 , we

(L

nd A

we

a s:

c tl y
8)

a,

an

h
a
t
i
t
s
;
n
f
<
a
one )
a )
e)
a a /(c ) r< a/(
He n c e a ny al te r nat i ng i nt e g r al f u n c t i o n o f a n d
g (8 )
g(
=

/3

ca n

be

fu n ti o n

ex p e s s e

as

th e p

r odu c t

Of

an

s o m e s ym m e t

Hence a ny a l terna ti ng functi on of

O f a a nd

the p

ex
p

xa

a.

r essed w i thou t d iffi cu l ty as

a n i nteg r a l fu n cti on o
f p a nd p
E m ple 3
T o e pre
8 i n term f p
We h ve
be

roduct of

a.

ri c

an d ,8 ca n
a nd

3:

,.

ss

"

(1

s O

02
1 a nd 3

5=

c<

(a
i

E v e ry
p

r es s ed

Of

as

mg

m a) ( a h a )
2

/(

10 1

427 2 ) { v1 v2 ( v1

rc r

a t i o na l f u n t i o n
ym m e t i
t h e q u o t i e n t O i t w o i nt e g a l
s

Of

a nd ,8 , a n d ca n

p1

th e

r e fo r

be

ex p es s e

21

and

m
}
.

ca n

be

ex

ri c f u n c t i o ns O f
r at i o n l f un c t i o n

s ym m e t

as

a nd

E x am p

le

+2

8
2
83
a 8 + on
0

fa
a
fa i )
a

713
7

292

f u n t i on s
s ym m e t

Th e g e n e ral p r o p o s i ti o n e s tabl i s h e d f o r s ym m e tr i c
o f t w o v a r i abl e s c a n b e e x t e n d e d w i th ou t d i fc u l ty t o

ric

fu n t i o n s

Of an

nu m b e

S ee

77, f

Of va

ootnot

ri

a bl e s

NE WT ON S T H EO R EM

436

IVe

Sh a ll

r s t p rov e

T he o r e m th at the
i nteg r al equ ati on

su ms

ca n

i n i ts m o s t g e n e ra l f o r m , N e w t o n s
the i nteg r al p owers of the r oots of any

+ pn =

be

ca n

exp essed

i ei ents

a ll

ar e

L et th e
w hos e
d l ,

r o o ts

as

i nteg

i nteg

ra l

ra l functi ons of

the

p 7, , w hose

p ,, p, ,

cc

numbers

r oo ts of ( 1 )

ar e

be

sa m e as

a,,

an d

a, ,

th o s e

l e t th e

of

e qu a t o n

w t h th e e x e pt o n O f

be

al so

l e t th e

w hos e

e q u at o n

w t h t h e e x ep t o n O f

a, ,

r oo ts

ar e

th e

th o s e

as

Of

be
+

an d s o o n

s am e

n -I

T he n
+

(
by

c h ap

He n c e

13

a,

a,

pn

p ,a l

e q u at ng

c o e f c i e nts

w e h av e

S i m i la r

v a l ues

r o f an d
T a k i ng th e ( r

i n te m s

i d

be

ca n

a,

p lyi ng by

a,,

1 ) th

p ,, 2p , , 2p,

a nd s o o n

i n th e

a2
1 - 1

a2

p laJ

pn

s ys t e m

"

Si m i l ar l y
and s o o n

e q u at o n

a,

h av e

we

fo r

o bt a n e

+ p r I a 2 ;

and

mu l ti

N E WT ON S T H EO R EM

xv m

Add i ng th e

i d

n e q u a t on s th u s O b ta n e

43 7

ha v e

we

s,

i s th e

N ow

su m O f

l q u a n ti ti es

a,
,

qu a n t

th e

cc u r s ;

of

t me

O ft e n a s

t mes

a,
,

th e

re
He n c e
th e

on

so

a, ,

c o n ta i n s

a nd

r o d u ct s

q u a nt

ll t h o s e p r o d u c ts
He n c e o n t h e l e ft

i ti es

a re

l e tt e r s i n

t he

e qu a t o n

TP r = 3 r +

is the

a ll

(1 1

ch p r o d u c t

the

sum ,

of

th e

Si m i l ar l y

t m e in w h

r o d u c ts r
O cc u r ea c h

th e p
a ,,

su

t me

r at a

a,,

a ny

Of

t me

at a

l l t h os e p ro d u c t s r a t
a , , w h i c h c o n ta i n

He n c e

Of

te m

n ex t

a,

i ti e s

t he p

a3 ,

iv e S ig n

w t h t h e n eg a t

all

th a t i s t o

i ch
at
as

s ay, r

b e c om es

( 4)

3
1
P r-

'

'

P r 13 n

or

T h i s w i ll
We h av e

h o l d for
the

v al u e o f

an

y
th e

r e fo r e
3, + p

r fr o m

p ,s l

33

p ,s2

i c

is

r oo t

a,

Si m i l ar ly

a,

a nd

SO

on

2p 2

3p 3

,sl

(n
a

i n c l u s iv e

s,

s n e a,

1 , b o th

s te m

s, ,

Ag a i n ,

1 to

Of

we

h av e

O3

"

If w e

r s t

dd

th e s e

m u l t i p l y t h em b y a , ,
2
by
a ,,

a,

it

n
s
u
a
t
o
q

a ,,

r e sp e c t i vel y

a nd

ad

and a d

they

as

s tan

th en

d, t h e n m u l t i p l y t h e m

d,

an

s o o n,

w e o b ta n

up "

+
su + z l
'

an

SO o n

Th e

p l sn

Sp

P 1 3n + 1

32

e qu a t o n s

5
( )

an d

( 6 ) c o n s t i tu t e

N ewton s F or mu lae fo r

I N T EG RA L

438

ca l c u l at i ng a s
o b vi o us t ha t s
func ti ons o f
p
i n teg ral n u mbers
A l i t t l e c o ns i d era t i o n
, ,

&c

3 ,

F U N C TI ON

M ET RI C

i n te r m s

Of

d e te r m i n e d
i n w h i c h al l

a re

,,

pm

, ,

, ,

as

mm

p
ra t i o na l

It i s

i nteg ral

c o e fc i en ts

th e

a re

ion
exp ress -

fo r m u l m w i l l

the

the

s um o

the

or s ,

of

i
xes

the p

c an

po s s

sn

t ha t i n the

S ho w

in

ea

ch ter m wi ll

be

He nc e
ha v e

nd

to

i m pl y

to w

l l t h e t e rm s t ha t

r i te d o w n al l

p , , i n w h i c h th e

pl
T o nd t h
E x am

s um of

th e p

th e

ro d u c ts
is

su f x e s

i bly o cc u r

of

in

o
w
e
f
s
o
p

s,

we

p,,

e sum of

the

cu be
x

We ha v e

s g l s l

s,

the oot

s of

rzx

33

2,

s2 :

ca n n o w S h o w

s3

equ tion

th e

2 x9 + 3x + 1 = 0

l i en e
\VO

s of

2 92 + 3s l
13

+ 3

i nteg ral

t h a t every

fu ncti on

s ymmetr ic

37 the oots ca n be exp essed a s a n i nt eg a l fu n tion of p , , p , ,

The te m s o f e v e y s ymm e t i
fu n t i o n ca n be g rou p e

'

rc
c
d i nto
t y pe s e c h t e r m o f a ty pe be i ng d e r i va bl e f r o m e v ry o t h e r O f
t ha t typ e by m e r e ly i nt e rc h a ng i ng t h e v ar i ab le s
All t h e t e r m b el o ng i ng t o t he am e t yp e
( se e c h p i v 5 2 2
h v e t h sa m e c o e f c i e n t
I t i s s u f c i e n t t h e r e fo r e t o p r v e t h e
a b o v e p r o p o s i t i o n fo r s m m e t r i c f u n c t i o ns c o n ta i ni n
o nl y o n e
y
g
t yp e o f te r ms
S u c h s ymm e t r i c f u nc t i o ns m ay be c l as s e d s
s i n le
d o u bl e t r i ple & c a cc o rd i ng as o ne t w o t h r e e & c
g
o f t h e v a r i abl es
a
T hu
p p ea r i n e a h t e r m
Emp
l f
d
u bl e
t
r
i
l
c
a re
s i n le
o
e
&
&c
p
g
s m m e t r i c f u n c t i o ns
y
Fo r th e s i ng l e fu n c t i o ns w h i ch ar s i m ply s u m s o f p o w e rs
\Ve can m ak e the
th e th e o re m h
l r ea d y be e n e tabl i s h e d
d o u ble fu n c t i o n d e pe nd n t h i s c as e as fo l lo w s
C o n s id e r t he d i s t r i bu t i o n o f t h e pr o d u c t
,

a,,

a, ,

a ,,

a,,

a, ,

as

a,

Ter ms

of

tw o

d i ff e re nt

(
t yp e s ,

an

of

tw o

o nly, can o

cc u r

na me ly,

xv

'

l ro ni

th a t

d e ri va bl e f ro m

to m s

a l

l u

I IL HC U

Eu l

Bu l

Now

1,

ca n

p
l l c ro w c h a v o

su

d o cs

Tho
o

b u ti o n

(
o

OX

aml

to m s

rc s s c i l

is t

i n t c g r a l f u nc t io n s

as

r uo

If p

of

Bu l

th on

i u l

of

t hc to r l n

l u l

e as o n i n

g
ca n b c

f t r i p l o f u nc t i o n s
a n d s i n l c f u n c t io n s i n
g

1 1 1 21 t

to

s i m i la r

w ay

l c pc ni l

th a t

on

I n th o d is tr i

an

2p

n o t a ll cc t o u r

s a l no

lp

o s ci

'

H IP

v ry t

va s e o

f d o u b lc

a p

Bi l l p fi uq

'

ll bo

th is

pp
a nd w o h av e

t w ie r ,

p l q

l iu q

l l c ncc t h o

3 ,

w i l l o cc u

is ,

43 9

ha v c i n fa c t

8 8.
P )

but

w mu n r

O RD ER AN D

er

m is

l i ll c rc n t ; 13m l
p a r t i c u la r t c r i n
,

f th e fo r m

"

s uc

th a t

ca n

o cc u

a n
)

12"
r

( L p tl qu
u
v

two

on e

a l

w hom

eq ual ;

a rc

o nly

11 ,

'

3 i l,

if p, q

'

ll

a ll

l s t,

a re ,

A ny
q ual
a l l u ne u a l
q

ho

l l u n co w c h a v c
-I
l
]
u p

ha s

I n th o la s t

c s s ci l a s a n
r
p

be

can

t ho

i n te g

of

\Vc

l f u n c ti o n

Bu l l u

w ay

y to

rn

c x co

a l
t
B
l
p

aj

'

ca n

bo

l l c n c c Ba l

l u

cx

r
aa

i s tr uo

t io n l a s t w r i ttc n
an

p rc s s oi l
or mo e

same

c vcr

so cx

I f tw o
t o wn

blO l l

C ( l l il

w ill
of

c c ur
i

c c r ta n

b e c q ua l , t he n c ac h
I , q
a p r t icu l r n ni nh c r o f t i m os ; a nd
of
th o o t h e
to m s i n t h o e q u a

n u m be s

f tho

B u t t his d o c s

no t

'

a ll cc t

th e

co nc u s io n

in

m ak e th o

f q u ai l r u pl o s ym m c t r ic f u nct i o n s
d e pe nd o n th o c as c s a l rca i l y c s tabl is h cd ; a nd s o o n
l I c ncc th o
o
o s i t io n i s g o nc ra lly tr u e
p p
ca n n o w

ca s c o

I t is

b v i o u s , fro m t ho

f ro m w h a t h a s b oo n

c cs s , a n d

th a t
deg
so

n a tu ro o f

i n the

s to p

a l e a dy
r

i n th o
fo r

h o v o p ro

s ., s3 , s 3 ,

p rrs s i ovz f o r ( m y honwg mw o ws s ym metr ic fu ncti o n of

s u m of the s uf xes of the 2 s wil l be 7
1
f or ea ch te m

( tx

'

ree 7 the
th a t w ca n a t
'

e a ch

o n ce

w r i te

d o w n a l l t h e te r m s

'

th a t ca n

po s s ibl y

GEN ERA L STA TEMEN T

440
o ccu
an

th a t

in

the n

e x p ess i o n , an d

OF

THE ORY

ca n

the

d e t e r m i ne

co e f ci en t s

y m eans th at m ay h app e n t o b e co nv e ni en t
I t i s i m p o ta nt t o em a
th a t th e deg r ee i n

by

the

equ al

te m

12 ,

to

of

h i g he s t

d eg r ee

p,

17 1 a , , w h e

a,,

we

th a t

s ee

the

p f pz

lk

w il l i n t

a2 ,

a,,

rk

pn

ln

te m s

no

F o r, l e t

392 , & c

w he n

do

h ig he r

r
e s ul t i n g f r o m
o
r
r
w
e
p

of

te ms

L A

pn

ln

w i th

ther e
i f the

s i n ce

th a n

d eg r e e

in

e x p e s s ed

th e p o w e

s i nce

n o t co nt ai n

N ow ,
of

the n

re

r o d u ce

p2,

be

co e f ci e n t

ar e

p2,

f or Ea f a g q a ;
i n ter ms of
the hi g hes t of the i ndi ces 17 , g , r

ex r essi on
p

must be
th e

r ag ai n i t m u s t o ccu r s th e hig h est

a d i ff e r e n t t er m o f t h e s am e d e r ee
3 th a t
g
i s t o s ay i t w il l o ccu r w i th a di ffer ent co ef ci e nt a n d cann o t
d es t r oy the fo r m e r t er m
H ence t h e i nd e x o f the h ig h est
p o w e r o f a ny l ette r i n the s ymm e tr i c f u n cti on m u s t b e e qu al
t o the d e g r e e o f t h e h ig h es t t e r m i n i ts e x p r e ss i o n i n t e r m s o f
po w e

o ccu

29H

p u re,

A l th o u g h , i n

th e l eading th e o

e s t abl i s h i ng

rem

of

t hi s pa

ra

g aph , w e h a v e u s e d the l an g u ag e o f t h e the o ry o f e qu a ti o n s,

th e
es u l t i s
e al l y a f u n d a m e n t al p i n cip l e i n t h e cal cu l u s o f
e a so n th a t w e h a v e
a l eb a i ca l i d e n t i ti e s ; a n d i t i s f or thi s
g

r
r

i nt

r o d u ce d
L et

i t h ere

ry

m ay s t a t e

r i c fu ncti ons

Then w e ca n

a,,

a2 ,

s ymmetr i c

thes e

f
fu nctions

va

as

fu ncti ons ;

r ia bles

an

ex
p

of

i nteg r al

the

a s a ra ti ona l

r esu l t

f ol l o w s

as

the

th e

ress

r efor e

a nd

the

2 5131332933 ,

symmet

a , , ae ,

We

2 a , , Za ne ,

cal l

us

el emen ta

of

s te m

y
a ny symmet i c i nteg

fu ncti on of

a ny

ra ti onal

fu ncti on of

the

the

va

riabl es

ra l function
n el emen tary

symmetr i c

n elementa

function

ry symmetri c

On

The y

are ,

in

x xx

o n,

r eat

i m p o r ta nce w e g i v e

f ct the fu nct i ns
a

E erc i ses
vi 51
High
l S lm
x

i ts g

acco un t o f

er

A l g ebr a ,

58

of a3

a3

a ,,

f
o
o
r
p

de fi ed
n

in

of

th is

See

x vm

P OO

r
s i t i o n n o t d e p e n d i ng
o
o
p p
m e r e l y a pa r t i cu l a r
Let
th e

of

Err1:1 2

x i x?

d e n o te t h e
i s,

2
n

91

xl

e l e m e n ta

s ym m e t

th a t

a2 ,

91 , l L l q2 !
s y m m e t i c f u n ct io n s o f a , ,
y

'

is

It

to

is

i s i t s el f

w hi ch

e l e m e n ta r y

91 - 1

a n}

x, ,

O,

75
.

the

d eno t e

441

Th e o r e m

N e w to n s

on

qn
v a r i a bl e s

T H EO R EM

f un ct io n s

th a t

G ENERAL

OF

a2

r ic

s a y,

I Qn

-l

a, ,

th a t

o b v i ou s

n -1

91 ,

ge

q 1

111

7L 1L

- l qn

r es p e ctiv el y

i nv ol vi ng m o r e
f un cmon s

be

an

The n
a,

th a n

xQn

s ym m e t

ti - 1

a nL -

r
g a l ly

s s ion
r
e
p

f un cti o n

ll

l }

riabl es

L et f

n -i

of

92 ,

th e n

x
n

2 ,

L e t th i s

th a t ( t) i s

so

ex

k now n

as su m e

d) (nQn

h<

+ 1
s i n ce

fu ncti o n
s

va

{Bu - 1 a

xn

N ow

Th e n,

vn $ 2 :

- , g2
-1

a
r i abl e s a
0 ) i s a sym m et r i c i nt eg r al fu n ct i o n o f
t h e r efo r e by h yp o th e s i s b e e p r es s e d

be

r ic i nteg ral fu n ct ion s n o t

ca n b e e p r es s e d a s i n t e g r a l

s ym m e t

ct i o n
fu n e

a n d ca n

te m s

ln

va

92 )
al

an
,,

ii - i

r i c i n te g r

eg ,
r

i nt e

th a t

u s no w a s su m e

Le t

o f a , , a2

an ,

a(

x a ,

is

2,

x1 a 552

92 ,

gh

wn - 1 ;

xi i

is

55 2

wn - 1 :

-1

qn

n -1

c i nt e
m
i
m
e
t
g
y

m
t
i
m
e
c i nt e
y
g al fu n ct i o n o f th es e v a i abl e s
If w e p u t a,,
0 o n bo th s id e s o f th e i d e n ti ty

f (w

-1

r al

o bv i ou s l y

th e n

92 y

mg ,
x2 ,

by

a(x

fu n cti o n

Th i s pr f
oo

{Ln
reg

x2

t ak e n fro m

is

Ma th S oc f or 1 889

1 , 0

b(a 1 91

p pe r
a

n -i

by

Mr

ge a

E A ll rd i ce
.

P r oc E d i u b
.

442

PR

p ow e

of

OO F

OF

We

r
e,

932

o n accou nt o f

3 h e n ce,

s ay

SL03 1 ;

G ENE RA L T H EO R E M

din

-1 a

m a y th e
wn
,

r e fo r e

f (x
l

i ts

ca n

s ymm e t

a so

by

pu t
x2

l 7

wn 1 ;

r f i s a s ymm etri c i n teg ral fu nct ion O f

l o w e r d eg r ee th a n
We can n o w d eal w i th f in the sam e w ay as
f 3 a n d s o o n We sh a ll t h u s r esol ve f (w a
i n to a cl o s ed e p r ess i on o f t h e fo r m
w he e

ry

a ,, o f

we

d ea l t w i t h
a,,

2,

<)

ef

t.

w he r e

'

952

l ik e

ar e,

gn
e fo

If, th e r

re

th e i n t e g

r al

ot

al l

( ),

o r e l s e co n s tan t s

'

k no w n

om

fu ncti on s

Of

i n q u e s ti o n b e p oss ibl e
i abl es

e x p e s s i on

r iabl e s i t i s p os s ibl e f o r n v ar
N O W e v e ry i nt eg r al f u n ct i o n o f a s i ng l e v a r i abl e a
is a
s m m e tr i c
f u n cti on of th t v a r i abl e an d can b e e p r e ss e d
y
i nte g rally i n t e r m s o f g w h i ch i s s i m pl y a
H en ce i t follow s
by i n du cti o n th a t e v e ry s ym m etr i c i n teg r al fu n cti o n o f n a r i abl es
ca n b e e x r es s e d as a n i nt e r al f u n ct io n o f t h e n e l e m e n ta r
p
y
g
s ym m e tr i c f u n cti o n s
Co r I t fol lows a t once by i ndu cti on fr om the for m of ( 9) tha t the
f or

va

,,

,,

3.

f or a ny symmetr i c i nteg ra l fu nction

x
a
i n terms of
are i nteg r al
f(
ng
g
functi ons of the coe ci ents of
I n p ar ti cula r if the coeiei ents of f
be i nteg ra l number s the coei ci ents of i ts eap r essi on i n terms of
ici ents of

the

coe

,,

exp r essi on

, ,

n 2,

We

g iv e

n ow

w il l

of

be i nteg r a l

e x a mpl e s O f

f ew

f u n ct i o n s i n t e r m s

a lso

th e

e e m en ta

ran s fo r m ati on i n e s t bl i shi ng

E mple 1
I f B y b the r ts f the equ t i

thi s t

xa

a,

th e

ry

ca l cu l at i o n o f s y mm e t

f un cti o ns ,

i de nti t ie s

an

a nd O f

d in

th e

ri c

u se o f

e l i m i n at i o n

oo

e press 5 7 {37 7 % y
Here w h e p z 1
h igher degree th n th 3 d
3

av

a,

on

3 x
x

nu mber s

'

pla

+ p ar

=
0,
p
3

B i n terms o f p l 192 , 1 73
22
2 043 p g
a y
Remem b e ri ng th a t no term O f
3
ca n o ccu r i n the v a lue O f Za w e see th a t
3

E XA M P L ES

x vm

13171

here A B C
Supp se y
,

a re n

th at

i s to

n ow

L et

=7 = 1,
B

Za 3,8

191

13171 1 73

10 2

We the n h ve
a

27

91

Ex a

3B

18

217 22

291 223

2
Z
( a) 2

mple 2
h w th t

2
E
2 ( a f3 )

By Za

)(

yu ) ( x y

zoo

en

( yzu

m y

zu a
c

x yz

oeyzu a
c

The left h d s i de f ( 2 ) i s ymmetri c fun cti n f

l te i t v lue i terms f 1 2 p = 23 y p = 2 y
S i ce the degree f H( y m ) i n y
i 6
i 3 we h e
an

3c,

r
z

a,

z,

y, z , i t
=
azyzu
4
p

x,

z,

a nd

z u)
L et us
2

cal cu

the degree i

l e

n or a o n

av

5w

Ar 1 2r 4

02223

1317 1 222 273

E295 3

DP 2 274

3)

the n
z y p
w he r e the su f
p
y
u nde r the 2 me s th t ly three v ri bles y
s i dered If
t b c
e f the m me t these m e n i gs the n ( 3 ) b ec mes the i de n ti ty
2 1 h
I f we

put

0,

an

pl

21

s
3

s a

ecu

yz

na

( 1 ) b ec om es

Ca B

He n ce
B
1
The ref re lly
1 3
I n the r w rds w e h ve the i de n t i t y
o

t h at p 1 = 3 ,

so

To

@ 013

A= 1,

h ve

and

0 3

A( a

3
3
[ 5 A( a

+ 6 , p 2 = a B, p g

s ay,

He ce
We

13191 193

17 2

um b ers w h i ch w h ve t determ i e

the n 101

443

22 ,

73

av

on

P3 3

He ce
He nce

I I (y

acu

let
y
The n ( 4 ) b ec mes
N ow

z=u

a nd

O = 0,

ac,

so

z,

z , ar e

on

E1932

R= I

2
E:- Ap 1 p 4

017 23

1317 1 10 2 273

B = 0,

or

c
ga

p4 + 1 3

th at

pg

2 ,

p42 1

2D

Hen ce
We w h ve
I th i s put
no

D
I I ( yz

ecu

a nd

2
1
13 .

h ve

we

1 6A + 1 6

He ce
He ce lly
II ( y
w h i ch est b l i shes the i de t i t y
E mple 3
sh w th t
n

na

xa

mu ) 5 1932

191

194 ,

+y

11

x3

+y

3
z
+

8
x

+y

+z
_

+y +

l Vol sten h ol me

2
z

E X A M P L ES

4 44

If p = 2
p r ve th t
1

p 2 = 2 x y, p g z

x,

x yz, 3 2

2 x2 ,

ca n

2 9c3, & c

33 :

the n w

requ i red t

e a re

83 5 2

18

11

We k

th a t s u

no w

an

d we

We thus h ve

eed

(5

r t i l fu ct i f 1 1 1
ly w ri te d w th se terms w h i ch

is
on

8 33 8

ona

on o

91

02

23

the p rese t c se

In

do

n o t co

n t ai n

111

p ro v nl e d a: y
m ay b e

A1 72 4p 3

81 1

1329217 33

m st s i mply determ i ed by putti g

b th s i des f ( 6 )
fu ct i s f
d y d i v i d i g by my
c efc i e ts f We thus nd A 1 1
We h ve theref re

as

on

a: a n

th i s l t equ t i
as

say x

l ke m
i

ann

w e m ay

on

2, y :

er w e h e

gi ve

v lues c si ste t
We thus get B 1 1 He ce

a,

y,

an

on

wi

th

1 1272 2733

( 7)

av

A1924

rst

on

a nd

the n

a nd

1,

1,

2, y:

82
o

81921732

83

Fr m

Bp g p 32

2292 4
s s = 3p s

3
9
3 1722 3

1 IP 24P 3

31 1

utt i g i th i s e q u t i
1 we d A = 2 B
He ce
We ls fi nd

1 110 2 4293

88

an

ou

811

In

rt g t
d c mp ri g the
w i in

z:

In

( 1 0)

217 2

w e deduce

( 1 0)

3 388

3
33 32

18

= r s (r 2 4
4

1 72193

10 2 20 3

3
,

311

11

h i ch i the requ ired equ t i

d
S i ce w h ve f ur equ t i s ( 7 )
l y t w qu ti ties
t el i m i
te w
i fi i ty f d i ffe re t r el t i s
f c u rse O b t i
p 1
such
l l the e w i ll h w eve r b equ i le t t t w i depe de t equ
ti s y t
d
9
4
72
E mple 4
El i m i te y fr m the equ t i s
w

93 ,

e ca n o

on

sa

na

as

on

on

an

a n an

xa

va

82

9c,

+y +

7
z

8 38 3

on

t ti

no a
33

o n as

3193 ,

in

l st e mple w e
xa

5172213 ,

85

ca n

192

37

sh

na

na

2 an

23

3r 3 = a ,
ca n

be

d ne
o

at o n

ce

510 2 273 4

The esult i
r

2 1 53

on

7r 2 273 = m
9

2 5 ac = 0

th a t

133

ow

el i m i t i n pr blem i the ref re reduced t the f ll

T el i m i te p
d 1 fr m the equ t i s

Th is

U s i ng the s ame

O ur

an

na

an

88

b,

on

o wi n g

on

XV

E X ER C ISES XXXV I

III

E X E C I S E S XXX V I
n d B b e i g the r
ts f the equ t i n
terms f p d q
R

a a

i ng i n

oo

(L )

(6

the ro o ts

of

the equ t i
de te the
If
the n the e q u ti n i
B3 , n d

on

r ts
oo

a re

ow

h)

be

2
3
/ + (1

the

an d

Br

e
.

sum

the i r

of

the

p wer

n th

the ro o ts

s of

the r ts O f

be

B
(B

oo

qu dr t i c

of a

h)

S n +1 3 n
l

su

the equ ati o n

nd

h se
o

2
.

r ve th t the r ts
oo

3 72

an d

(a

Sn Sn
Z

(1

qu dr t i c

of a

s u m of

no

If

07

e
n

e pre s the f ll

ws
I f the sum

cu bes

5
8
+7

an

445

w?

of

( 2r

q)

+p

Q -

2=
0
+
rq q

e g the i m gi ry cu b e r ts f 1
1
I f B b the r ts f + + 1 pr ve th t
cc rd i g
i
mult i ple f 3
i
t
F i d the c d i t i th t the r ts f + b + = 0 m y b d d
by dd i g the s me qu t i t y t e ch r t
i ble fr m th se f
+
I f the d i ffere ces b et w ee n the ts f + p + q = 0 d + t + p
Wh t pecul i ri ty i
me h w th t e i the r p q p + q +
0 b the
the r e w he
C lcul te the f ll w i g fu nct i ns O f B 7 i ter ms f p = 2 p = Z B

a re

meg , w

19 +

+ wq,

as n

s no

s or

c
z

on

sa

or

an

r oo

2
a sc

oo

3
a a

oo

na

on

b in

oo

a,

an d ( 0

uc

oo

an

or

90

P 3 = a t37

a,

a,

(15
?

( ta
74 13

(16
(18

Ed

If

ow in

5 be

on

90

-3

r ts
oo

10 1

ow

are

"
:13

l g

Ti in

91

c + 122
1z

n a,
(1 2

192

a o,

B7

th a t p

(a

a
.

(a

of

the eleme nt ary

E a sy

T2

7
2

0,

ar e

g l ee

Q2

B+ 7 6
:

the roo ts

f ( P qm
?

er

3
3
c
c + p l rc + p zr
c + 2233: + 19,

Bo

E at

sh

0,

c
rl z

+ r2 :

0, b e

of

P 1 P2

ow

0,

=0

91 92

th a t the equ a ti o n w h o se

) (

?
a
c

B)

b) ( a

B ) (a

) (a

oo

'

terms

6 in

a,

I f B b the r ts f
0 e p ress the f ll w i g i n te r ms
,

B 7 be the ro o ts o f
3
a
i
s
x
a
a + B7
+
+
7
B
B 7
I f a B 7 be the ro o ts o f
a

sh

Br )

If

are

Za QBe

oo

a,

B) (3
of a
B

the roo ts o f the bi qu adra t i c

oo

(a

g fu nct i ns

the equ t i w h se r ts
If the r ts f p
3 7
3
B respect i vel y the
a

a,

nd

)(

C lcul te the f ll
s ymmetri c fu ct i n s
a

(a

'

+ p l cc + y g = 0,
of

an d a

p,, pg ,

322

'

the r ts
oo

of x

+p l

+p 2

'

C HAP

E X E RC ISES XXXV I

446

[The

'

e)

a r

'

d
ue e )
e ne

result i n th i s c se i

MP 1

5
0
0
1
2
(1 2

2p z p 1 20 1

( 2202

20 1 70 2 )

'

( 29 1

4292 )

ts
str i ght l i n e w h se d i st ces
fr m ed p i n t 0
th t l i n e (ri ght
left cc rd i g the lgebr i c
v lues p s i ti ve neg ti ve )
the r t f the equ t i

A A
,

on

or

f ur p

are

are

B B

an d

oi n

on

or

oo s o

a re

an

as

on s

'

a a:

If
ow

an d

th t
AA

if

th a t

2 ca

a,

2 0x + d = 0

If

73

the

ar e
.

2c aa

ro o

'

a r e and

bb

'

'

BB

AB

'2

ab

of

0 3
0,

bb

92

2 ax + b

sh
b? ) ( c9

an d

0,

'

d2)

(ac

or

of

oo s

th at

ow

the r t

l st e erci se f m the equ t i

in

as

'

ts

B be in g
BB a B a B
a,

'

BA

'

2ca

2 ca

on

h se r ts
o

oo

I f the r ts f + b + = 0 b the squ re r ts f the r ts f

sh w th t b +
Sh w th t w he n tw r t O f cubi c
equ l i t r ts
l w ys
qu dr t i c equ t i
b Ob t i ed by me n s f
12
45 O
87
E empl i fy by s lvi n g the equ t i
b equ l t the
I f n f the r ts f the cu bi c + 1
1
sum f the ther t w s lve the cubi c Sh w th t i n th i s c se the c efc i e t
must s t isfy the rel t i
oo

2
ax

oo s

are

3
x

on

2
9
0
91

an

e mple

of

xa

oo

o, S

ca n a

oo

n s

+ p 2 23 1

3
93

+ p 2 x + p 3 = 0 be

+ 17 l

o ne o f

o are

171 22296

As

8193

417 1292

o ne o

0 2 93

I f the squ re f
f the r ts f the cu bi c
equ l t the pr duct f the the tw h w th t
gi ve b y the qu dr t i c
d th t the the r t w

an

oo

on

3
96

PI

on .

o,

oo

oo

e o

a n

the ro o ts

is

221 %

th i s c ase s o lve the cu bi c

3
x

9x9

6 3x + 3 43 = 0

If t w r ts f the bi qu dr t i c m + y + 1 + p +p = O b equ l
sh w th t the repe ted r t i c mm r t f the t w equ t i s
o

oo

oo

4x3

If the th ree v ri bles

ow

as

th at

If
If
If

h
sh
S

=0

0,

as,

H2 oc/ ( 1

2:

y,

be

3
o
c
l

oo

o nn

2 x4 = 0

3x

Ex z

xyz,

on

+ p 3x + 374

+ p l a +17 22

ected by the rel t i

a

on

3
a

92 3

th t 2 2 = 7 y 2
= 2(2 y )
w th t 2
8
( th r ee v ri bles ) the n
ow

4 ( Za 3 ) ( Eu

If

lx

/( l

Er

on

2192 96 + 123 :
a

sh

s a

( th ree v ri b les ) h
a

2 2
y 2 2

yz
3
2
b
( (

ow

th t
a

s
c

3
3
Z
a
b
(
/(

2 x 5 + x yz { ( y

)(

r
.

D I S CR I M IN ATI O N

X VI II

R O OT S

OF THE

QU AD R ATI C

OF A

how th t
911 ( y
Under the h ypothe i f l t e erc i e ho w th t

If

9:

0,

s s o

7 1 03 2t

re

l i in te

E m

:c,

t
Zr a
o

y,

3/ s

in

as

m (a

et w een the

y)

uz a

2 x3 = d 3

1
g

xii

03y n

4myza

e qu atim

E x g yg z

ho w th t p = p
w here p
p

S
2m

y)

ri g
/ n

yz n

3
3

77 1 a 8

=
8 2) r
p
,

h ve the

12 1 ,

sam

e m e ning
a

s as

C IAL P R O PE RTI E S OF QU AD RATI C F U N CTI O N S

D i scr i mi nati on of Roots \Ve h av e al r e a d y s e e n ( c h ap
x v ii
4 ) h o w w i th ou t s ol vi ng a qu adr a t i c e qu at i o n t o d i s
t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n c as es w h e r e t h e r oo ts a e r e al e q u al o r i m ag
i nar y
T h e r e e a v ar i ety o f o th e r c as es t h a t o cc u r i n pr act i c e
fo r w h i c h i t i s c o n ve n i e n t t o h av e cr i t e r i a
T h es e m ay b e t r eate d
by m ean s of th e r el at i o n s b et w e e n t h e r o o t s a n d t h e c oe fc i e nt s
If
o f t h e e q u a t i o n g iv e n i n
8 be
1 o f t h e p r e s en t c h a p t e r
th e r o o ts o f
SP E

ar

a,

b5c +

ac
c +

the n

ive
s i ns ;
g
.

c a

h
a n d a 8 ar e
i
i
8
b
e
os
t
e
t
h
n
b
o
t
a
8
v
e
,
,
,
,
pos i
p
C o n v e r sel y , if a ,8 be p os i t i v e, a a n d ,8 m u s t h a v e l i k e

I f bo th
t

b/a,

c=

an

an d

d if

8 be

al s o

p os i t iv e ,

ea

ch

of

th e t w o

i g ns

m u st

be p o s i ti v e ; b u t if a + ,8 be n eg at i v e , e a c h o f t h e t w o s i g n s
m u s t b e n eg at iv e
He n c e the n ecess a ry and sa ci ent cond i ti on that
.

both

be p osi ti ve i s tha t b/a be

f (1)

r oots o

n eg a ti ve a nd c a

o
i
t
ve ;
s
p

ry a nd sai ci ent c ondi ti on that both r oots be n eg a tive i s

tha t b/a be p osi tive a nd c/a p osi ti ve
T h i s p re s u ppo ses of c o ur s e
t h at th e c o n d i t i o n f or t h e r e al i ty o f th e r o o t s b e f u l ll e d n am el y

an

d the

ne essa

4 ac

Real i ty b e i ng p re su pp o s e d , the necessa ry and sv cient cond i ti on

tha t the roots have opp osi te s i g ns i s obvi ously tha t c/a be n eg a ti ve
The n ecessa ry and s a i ci ent condi ti on tha t the two r oots be n umeri c
.

a lly e na l ,

g
If

th e n

o ne

at

bu t

opp os

i te sig n

r o o t v a n i sh

l e as t

one o f

is

th en

t he t w o ,

8
,
,

[3
O;

0 , that i s , b/a
an

8 , m u st

c o n e r s el y i f 8 0
v an i s h H nce the a cces

d,

v
.

(1

448
sa
a

NF I N I T E

ROOTS

C H AP

ry and sa icient condi tion f or one zero r oot i s c/a O

b e i ng su pp ose d n i t e
I f b o th r o ots v an i s h th en 8
0 and
8

that i s,

0,

v ers el y,

th e

if

r s t

an

0 , th e n b o t h

/8

r e qu i r es t hat ei th e r
s e c o n d g i v es 0
8
O th a t i s
i

e qu a t o n

then t h e

a n d ,8

0 ; for
0 o r ,8
0 , s ay a
0
als o
8
0
Hence the
,

an d , co n

ry and sa ci ent condi ti on f or two zero roots i s c/d O b/a 0

0 b O
tha t i s a b e i ng s u pp o se d n i t e c
Th e t w o l a s t c on c l u s i o ns h av e al r ead y b een arr i v e d at i n
ch ap x v i i 2 P e rh ap s th ey w i ll b e m o re fu lly u nd er sto o d by
c on s i d er i ng th e c as e as a l im i t L et u s s upp os e t h at th e r o ot
r e m a i ns ni te and th at th e r o ot 8 b e c om e s v e ry sm all T h en
oa ch es z e r o as i t s l i m i t w h i l e
c
m
s v er
s
m
all
a
n
a
r
b
e
o
e
d
8
y
pp
,
as i t s l i m i t
I n o th e r w o rd s c/a b e c o m e s
+ 8 ap pr o a c h es
v e r y sm al l an d b/a r e m ai n s n i te b ec om i ng i n th e l im i t e qu al
t o th e n i t e r oo t o f t h e q u adr at i c
8 an d
a n d 8 b e c o m e i n ni t el y s m al l t h e n bot h
I f bo th
8 th at i s t o s ay b o th
b/a and c/a be c om e i n n i tel y s m al l
I nni te Roots I f th e qua dr a t i c ( 1 ) h av e no z e r o r o ot i t i s
e q u iv al e n t t o
necessa

a.

a +

tha t i s, if

Th e

to

of

2
( )

os,

r oots

b/c, 1 /a ,8

ar e

Let

a o

+ c

a nd

us

and

s u pp os e

th at

h ave

we

of

one

th e t w o ,

a,

, ,

i n n i tel y g reat w h i l e th e o th e r
r e m a i n s n i te
t hen 1
b e c o m e s i n n i t e l y s m all a n d 1 / 8 th at i s a/c b e c om e s
i n n i tel y s m al l w h i l e 1 / +
t h a t i s b/c app r oa c h e s th e
n i te v alu e l / Hen c e th e n e c e s s a ry an d s ufc i e nt c ond i ti o n
O 6 be i ng s u pp o s e d n i te
t h at o ne r o o t o f ( 1 ) be i n n i t e i s a
I n l i k e m ann e r th e c o n d i t i o n t h at tw o r oot s o f ( 1 ) be c om e
i n ni te t h at i s t hat tw o r o o ts of ( 2 ) be c om e z e r o i s a O b = 0
If ther efore i n any case WH E R E A QU A D R ATI C E QUATI O N I S I N
QU E STI O N w e obtai n a n equa ti on of the form bzc c = 0 or an equa
s ay ,8 ,

be c o m e s

0,

a.

tion

the p ara dorci ca l f or m

0 , we

conclu de

that

on e root o

the

T AB LE G E N E R AL R ES U L T S C U B I C

x vm

449

dra ti c has become i nni te i n the one case a nd tha t the two r oots
ha ve become i nni te i n the other
Fo r c o n v e n i e n c e o f r e fe r e n c e w e c o ll e c t th e cr i te r i a f or d i s
cr i m i nati ng th e r oo ts i n th e f oll o w i ng tabl e
qu a

R oot re l
R oot i m gin ry
R oot equ l
R oot equ l w i th
p po ite i gn
B oth root po i tive
s

b
b2
b2

4a o 0
4a c 0
4a c = 0

B oth root s neg tive c/d

R oot f o p po i te
i gn
O
root 0
O
Tw root
root
O
Tw root
s

c a

b 0
b/a

ne

r ea d e r

b o d i e d i n t h e t abl e

Thu s

f or

e x am pl e,

sh ou l

n ot

i ce

0,

b:

0,

00

Th e

ne

b/a

t h at

00

=o

r es u l ts e m
eas i ly g e n e r al i s e d

of

s om e

th e

l as t p ar a g r ap h can b e
i t can be r ea d i ly s h o w n th at if i n the equa tion
of

1
( )

the l ast

roots
r oots

i ci ents

a nd

rst

if the

a ll

coe

lei ents

eoe

'

then the

van sh,

al l

equa t on

vani sh

r zero
i nni te

wi l l have

i t wi ll have

'

Ag ai n , if p ,
an d s o o n

O, th e

r ic

al g e b a

sum of

r o o ts w i ll

t he

be

ze o

d i fc u l t t o nd t he c ond i t i on that t w o r oots o f any

e q u a t i o n b e e q u al
We h av e o nly t o ex p r e s s by th e m eth o d s
x l a i n e d th e s m m e t r i c f u n c t i o n H
o f th e r oo t s
al r e a d y
p
y
(
a n d e u at e t h i s t o
i n ter m s o f p
er o
F o r it i s
gi
q
o bv i ous th at i f t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e s qu a r e s o f all t h e d i ffe r n c e s
o f th e r o o ts v a n i s h t w o r oo ts a t l eas t m u s t b e e q u al and co n
I t is

n ot

a ,

n,

o,

v ers el

F or e

xa

ple in the c e

of

as

the cu bic

+ p 1 5e + p g ac + p 3 = 0
3

'

ho e root
s

s are a ,

(5

W7

T he cond i tion

f or

we

B)

nd
?

equ l root
a

4P 1 3P 3 + 10 12P 2 2

is

there fore

2
2
J3 + p 1
4P 1 3 Z
p2

F urther
po itive

417 2 3

2 71139

al l

an

of

ar e

s o

VO L

o ar e

a re
a

'

iu

an

sa
a

2 717 32

the cu bic b re l ( 13 y ) ( 7 ) ( B)
d i f tw
f the m b i m g in ry
y {3 7\ + a i
4e l ( K
) + } th t i (t3 7 W
7
neg tive Hence the root f ( 2 ) re l d une q u l h th t t w
equ l or uch th t tw
i m gin ry ccording
if

the root

41723

1 813 1 17220 3

- a 2 a

2
a

s,

su c

i,

ill b
then

BI i s

o at

as

2 G

le t
as

QUAD R AT I C S C ON D I TI ON

TWO

450

4191 310 3 + 17 1 2n

po itive ero neg tive

T he f th pur uit f thi
t i on

is

iu

or

er

OF E

QU I VA L EN C E

4172 3

1 810 1 292 273

C H AP

2 717 32

ma

tter b elong

t o th e

higher theory

of

equ

If the two qu a dra ti c equati ons

be equi valent, then b/a
b /a
e a c h b e a a nd ,8 , t h e n

b/a

a nd c a

r oot s

F or, if t h e

(a

c a

of

c o nd i t i on i s obv i ou sly su fc i ent

Th e abov e pr op os i ti on l ea d s t o th e f oll ow i ng : A qu a dr ati c
function of a: i s comp l etely d etermi ned when i ts roots are g iven and
a lso the va l ue of the fu nc ti on corr es ond in
g to a ny va lu e of a whi ch i s
p
not a r oot
Th i s w e m ay pr ov e i nd ep en d entl y a s follow s L et
t h e r o o ts o f th e f un c t i o n y be
a nd 8 3 t h e n y
A (x
)
an

d th i s

N o w , if V b e t h e

Th i s

v al u e of

n
w
h
e
y

d et er m i n es

e q u at o n

n ally

A,

a:

th e

of

th e n w e m u s t h av e

A,

an d

We h av e,

o
e
m
o
V

a m o

t
u l ar c a s e o f t h e
r
i
c
p
the n th deg r ee i s u niquely deter
f o l l o w i ng
mi ned when i ts n
1 va lu es V V
correspondi ng re
o i ts
a r i a bl e a are
1 val es A A
sp ecti vely to the n
f
To pr o v e t h i s w e m ay c o n s i d e r th e c as e o f a q uadr at i c
g i ven
fun c t i o n
L e t t h e r eq u i r e d f n c t i o n b e azc
be; c th e n by t h e co n
d i t i o n s o f t h e p r o bl m w e h a v e

Th e

rr iv e d at i s
A n i nteg r al fu ncti on of

I
( t

r e su l t

s ay,

v al u e

"

th u s

, ,

,,

o nl y a

3,

aA

bA3

+ c=

Vm

T h es e c o nst i tu te a l i ne r s ys te m t o d e te rm i n e t h e u nk no w n
c o efc i ents a b c T h i s s ys t em c ann ot h av e m o r e th an o ne
d e n i t e s o l u t i o n M o r e o v e r t h e r e i s i n g e n e r a l o n e d e ni t e
n c o n s t r u c t s yn th e ti c ally a f un c t i o n t o s a ti fy
s l t i o n f r w e ca
t h e r e qu i r e d c o n d i t i o n
n a m el y
a

o u

s,

L AG R AN G E S

T R P O L AT I ON F O R MU L A

xv m

A2 )

a:

A, )

V2

A3 )

A2 ) ( A1

(A

45 1

IN E

A, )

(
A) (A

re

A
( :

A3 )

a;

V3

A3 )

M) (a:

A2 )

A2 )

A
( s

(2)

r eas on i ng

Th e

th e

th e

o bt a n , a s

a nd

s o lu t o n o f

c i on

t e g r al f u n t

of a of

We
bv i ou s l y g e ne r al
c o rr es p ond i ng p r obl e m for a n i n
i

s yn th es s are o

th e

d eg r ee

nt h

th e

(a

EV

( A mot
c alle d L ag r a ng e s

ll

(A

( 3)

T h i s r e s ul t i s
I nt e r p ol at i o n F o r m u l a
E m ple 1
f w ho e root
F ind the qu dr tic equ tion w ith re l coe fcien t

xa

5 + 6i

o ne

ince the coe fcient

requ i red equ t i on i
a

th t i
th t i

is

s,

s,

re l

s ar e

other root

th e

ut
s

be 5

5 + 6i )

:c

c
c

6i )

Hence

the

o,

( ac
1 0w + 6 1 = 0

oc

ple 2
Fi nd th qu dr tic equ tion w ith r t ion l coe fcient
.

V7

is 3

6i

E x am

o ne o f

ho e root
s

i nce the coe fcient

r tion l it follo w th t the other root m u t b
V7 H ence the equ t i on i

s a re

a
c 3

3
c
c
7
V )(
2

lo w e t degree w ith r tion l coe fcien t

of

V3

V2 + V3

ence the equ tion i

a

of

ch p
a

V2

ho e
s

V3

it follo w th
mu t b
root
*

e a

e ch f th qu ntit i e
f the required equ tion

at
o

V2 + V3 ) (x + V2

4
x

pe4
C on t ct qu dr tic func tion f
1 2 3 re pectivel y
the v lue f

s r u

s o

V3 )

s,

E x am l

V3 ) ( :c

V2

( :c

s on e o f

ple 3
F in d the equ tion
root i V2 V3
B y the principle

h ti

s,

E xam

V2

th t i

ac ar e

ac

ho e v lue h ll
a

be 4, 4, 6 , w

hen

h ve n t e pl i citl y proved b t w
e t b l i h by re on i ng
i mi l r t th t e m ployed in ch p i i 5 C 4 th t i f + p b root f
f
nd i f
d b
d l o ll the coe f cient
f f ( ) b r t i on l
i
l o r oo t f
Vp i conce rned then
p
T hi s

we

a an
,

an

e ca n

a s

or

s o

s a s

s a

as

e a

so

ar a s

Tw o

4 52

QU A D RATI C S C ON D I TI ON

T he required f unct i on
(

th t i
a

tw o

s h al l
of

ac

3)

2
93

c on d i t i o n

r oo t i n c om m o n
i n t eg r al f u n c t i o n s
ha v e

)(

az 3

3x + 6

i s th e

y is

c o mm on
fa c t o r o f

c o mm on

'

cy

1
2
o
e
)(
)

c o n d i t i on

th e

NOW

an d

cy ,

as

e qua t o n s

s am e a s

l i n e a r f a c to r i n

'

ca n

t h a t th e t w o

one

and

2
)

C O MM ON R OOT

is

s,

Th e

ha ve

FOR

'

ay

an

th at t h e

c om m o n

fa c t o r

d e n ote ac d o by
& c a c omm o n fa c t o r o f
c
ac ) o
b
c as
an d
ac 3
(
( )
( )
e i s n o t a c o mm o n fa c t o r o f y an d y u nl es s c
0
since r
0 any c omm on f a c to r o f y a nd y i s a c omm o n fa c tor o f

t h at i s , i f w e

'

t h at i s ,
a nd e

'

( a b ) 5c

and

N o w , if th es e t w o l i nea r f u n c t i ons h a v e

d eg r e e i n a t h e one m u s t
c o n s tan t f c to r
Hen c e the required condi tion i s

the 1 st

( )
a
(
n
o
a
c
a c
b
) (
b
c
( )

'

ao

or

Th e

be t h e

c om m on fa c t o r o f
o t h e r m u l t i pl i e d by a
a

c o m m o n r o ot

of

'

ae

th e tw o

bc
93

'

b c)

e q u at o n s
'

be

ac

a c

i s,
'

ah

b)

c ou r s e

of

ao

a o

ab

B y th e pr o c es s h e r e e m p l oye d w e c oul d n d t h e r c ond i t i o ns

th at t w o i n t eg r al e qu at i o n s s h ou l d h a v e r r o o ts i n c o mm o n
.

I t i s i m po r tan t t o not i c e t h at th e p r o c es s u s e d i n t h e d em o n
s t ra t i o n i s s i m pl y t h a t for n d i n g t h e G O M o f t w o i nt eg ra l
r o c es s i n w h i ch n o i rrat i on al op e ra ti ons o cc u r
f u n c ti o n s a
.

Ii

en e e

x vm

Co r 1
.

i nteg r al

If two

X ERC I S ES XXXV I I
equ a ti ons

453

r roots

have

thes e

comm on,

in

roots of an i nteg ra l equ a ti on of the r th d g e whose co

i
eri ts of the g i en e
i
i
c
a
ons
e lci en ts ar e r a ti ona l fu nctions of the coe
t

q
I n p ar t i c u l a r i f th e c o e fc i e n ts O f t h e t w o e qu at i o n s be r e l
r a ti o n l nu m be rs th e r c o mm o n r o o ts m u s t b e th e r o ot s o f a n
e q u t i o n o f t h e r th d e g r e e w i th r t i o n al c oe fc i en t s
F o e m p l e t w o q u adr a t i c s w h o s e c o e fc i e nt s a re al l r at i o n l
c nno t h av e a s i n g l e r o o t i n c o mm o n u nl e ss i t b e a r at i o n l r o o t
two i nteg ra l equ a ti ons whos e
C o r 2 \Ve m ay a l so i nf e r t h a t
coei ci ents a re r a ti ona l ha ve a n odd nu mber of r oots i n common th n
r oots

the

a re

e r e,
v

xa

l east

one a t

these mu s t be

rea l

X X XVII
D i cri m in te the root f the follo w ing qu dr tic equ tion
E XE RC I SES

s o

he m

433 8013 4-3 2 0

9x

ithout olving

9x w 1 2 w

4w2

4 9cw 4x

4x + 8x + 3 = a
2

2)

3)

( :c

how th t the root f ( b 4 c ) + 4 ( + )

lw y l
d nd the condit i on 1 th t b oth b po i tive 2 th t the y h ve oppo ite
ign 3 th t they b b ot h n eg tive 4 th t they b equ l 5 th t the y b
equ l b t f oppo i te ign
=0
f
Sho w th t the root
i m gin ry
+
f
S ho w th t the root
S

an
s

s o

s o

i m gin ry
S ho w th t the root
a

a re

2
2
a
{

2 bc + b

s rca

are a

c x

=0

s of

)(

oc

b) = 0

th t the y c nnot b equ l unle

b=
b)
T he root f /(
c ) O re l
d c nnot b
) b/(
/(
equ l unle either t w f the three b
ero el e b =
Fi nd the cond i tion th t the cu bi c + qw + 0 h ve equ l root
S ho w th t the cu b ic 1 2
52
36 0 h
+ 75
equ l root
d
olve it
I f tw
f the root
cu b ic b equ l d i t coe fcient b l l
f
r tion l ho w th t l l i t root m u t b r t i on l
Fi nd the condition th t tw root f the b iqu dr tic + d + = 0
b equ l
If
h ve p i r f equ l root
b i equ l to c
then e i ther one f the qu ntitie
el e 1 / + 1 /b
d
Prove l o th t the root
then
b O
b
O

a re

re l

2
o
c

s,

are

s o

an d

s o

ss

JU

ss a

re

o o

a,

z
c

a;

an

or

a re

e , are z

c.

as

an

an

o o

a s

0, 0,

4
a cc

or

s o

or

are

or

a,

a,

or

s,

45 4

EX E

W rite do w n
1, 0

an d s

RC I SES XXX V I I

i m pli fy the equ tion

a

ho e root
s

3+

( + Vee

s a re as

V2

V2

ol l o w

+ ,8 i

{7

1 +

( R e ult
( R e ul t

2+

V( ar )

F ind the equ tion

V2

an d

F ind
-3
ay V

bp 1 3

'

1 +

an

hich

V3

V2 + i V3

6 9c
l 5we

8 7x 3

the

of

1 +

9
9c

V(r a)

V( rv)

'

V
x

(2 7

or o ne

s :

ind the equ tion f low e t degree w i th re l r tion l coe f cient

h ve re pectivel y the follo w ing f
root
F

degree

6 th

tw o

of

ho e root
s

a re

equ tion w ith r tion l coe fcient

a

of

on e

ho e root
s

is

ence ho w h w t nd th gre te t integer in

w ithout
e tr cting the cub e root
F orm the equ tion w ho e root
p + q p + g
the im gin ry ( 2 + 1 ) t h root f 1 how i ng th t
w here
d nding the gener l term f t h equ tion
the coefcient
ll r tion l
C on truct qu dr tic funct i on w ho e root h ll b equ l w ith
oppo ite ign nd w ho e v lue h ll b 2 3 d 6 7 w hen
5
d w hen
6 re pectivel y
C on truct cubic function y corre ponding t th f ollo wing t ble f
v lue
H

a2

s are a

a1

ag

s o

an

an

an

s :

2 5,

3,

y:

6,

8,

'

ti

other root

h ve
a

2
o f ac

+ ,8 x

+ 7 x r

VAR I ATI ON

OF

co m m on root then their

,

the root f + p 0 b B d y
t h en the equ tion w ho e root
d

an d

d the root
d {3 i s

18

1 5,

If
a. an

4 ;

bx + ca = 0

I f w + a w + be 0 ,
e
ab
s s a s fy w
658

an

ar e

s, a

a3 :

are

a1

0 be 7

an

s o

9
93

ax

a,

an

s a re

QU A D RATI C F U N C TI O N S
O F TH E V A R I AB L E

FOR

R E AL VA L U E S

Th e q u a dr a t i c fu n c t i o n
y

m ay b e p u t i n

o n e or o th e

as;
of

be:

th e t h

y
y
y
a

cc ord i ng

as

i ts

r o o ts

0.

{(
a a3
{(

an

l)

l)

l)

8
,

r ee

fo r m s

m}

ar e

in

r ea l ( s

Mm

V AR IAT I ON

x vm

Vi n)
i

e qu a l

Vi n)

OF

l),

l , ,8

an d

(say

are

m i s p os i t i v e
Ea c h o f t h e s e th r ee

2
u se

b ot h

bi ;

455

i m a g i n a r y (say
l
i Jm
e ss e n t i a lly r ea l q ua n ti t i e s a n d
or

cc o rd i ng

c a ses

i s p o s i t i v e or
a ll t h r ee c a s es w h e n

In

as a

m ay be fa r th e r

n eg a t
5c

is

iv e

ve

d pos i t i v e
He n c e, i n all th r ee
i n n i te , a nd i t h a s th e s a m e s i g n as

an

all

In

d i m i n i sh e s

th

re e

tw o,

l ) i s v e ry g r ea t
r y g r ea t
ca ses y i s i n n i te w h en a: is
2

c i o n w i th i n

t h e fu n t

cas e s

d i v i d e d i n to

th e

cr ook e d br a ck e t

r i c al v al u e w h en a; d i m i ni s h es s o l ong a s
:c
l a nd h as an a lg ebr a i c all y l e as t v al u e w h e n a: l 3 for (:c
t h e o nl y v a r i abl e pa r t b e i ng es s en t i al l y p o s i t i v e c a n n o t be l e s s
th an z er o
l)
W h en a i s d i m i n i s h e d beyon d th e v alu e cc l
c o nt i nu all y i n cr ea s es i n nu m er i c al v al u e
We c o nclu d e t h e r e for e th a t i n all th r e e c as es the quadra ti c
functi on y has an a lg ebr ai cal mi ni mum or max imum va lu e when :c l
a ccord i n
g as a i s p osi ti ve or neg a ti ve ; a nd tha t the functi on has no
other tu r ni ng val u e
I n Case I wher e the r oots ar e r ea l a nd unequa l y w i ll have the
same s i g n a s a or not a ccor di ng as the va lu e of :c does not or does l i e
>

al

in

e
a
b
g

between the

:c

r oots

F o r y a (x a )
3 an d (a:
be a l g ebr a i c all y g r eat e r t h an bo th

) (:c

an

i ll

b e p os i tiv e i f
t h en cc
a
a nd

d ,8 , f or

bo th p os i ti v e 3 and t h e s am e w i l l be t r u e i f a: b e a l g e
br a i cal ly l e s s th an b o th a an d 8, for th en w a a nd a3 ,8 ar e
b o th n e g at i v e
I f a; l i e b et w e e n a a nd ,8 , th e n o n e o f t h e t w o,

5c

ar e

a:

8 , i s po s i t i v e
Cases I I and I I I

c
c

In

an

d th e

o th e

r e the roots

whe

ne

at

iv e

i ther equa l or i mag i nary

are e

the fu n ti on y w i l l have the s ame s ig n as a f or a ll va lu es

F o r i n t h es e ases th e f un t i o n w i th i n t h e
oo

h a s c l e arl y

c
po s i t i v e

v al u e

fo r

a ll

cr k e d br a ck ets

r eal v alu es o f :c
m ay b e r e a c h e d
.

c on c l u s i o n s
b ut e qu all y i ns tr u c t i v e m e th o d a s fo ll o w s
L et u s t r a c e th e g r ap h o f t h e fu n c t i o n
Th e

a bo v e

y
an

d, for th e p r e s ent ,

ax +

su p p o se a

bx

+ c

i ive

t o b e p os t

by

d i ff er ent

G R AP H

4 56

QU A D R ATI C F UN C TI O N

OF A

cm

To nd th e g e n e r al c h ar a c te r of th e g r aph , l e t u s i nq u i r e
w h e r e i t c u ts a p a r al l e l t o t h e ax i s o f 5c, dra w n a t a ny g i v e n
'

d i s ta n c e y f r o m th at ax i s I n oth er w o rd s l et u s s e e k fo r th e
ab s c i s s ae o f a ll p o i nt s on th e
g rap h w h o s e o rd i nat es ar e e q u al t o y
\Ve h a v e
.

as}

y
t h at i s ,

ar

be:

be

c,

(c

y)

a ti c
m
n
t
h
dr
i
d
r
i
e
ua
t
o
n
t
e
t
e
e
e
o
q
q
a b s c i s s ae o f
H e n c e t h e p a r al l el c u t s t h e
p o i n ts o n t h e parall el
i
n t w o r e al d i s t i n c t
r
h
g p
p o i n ts i n tw o c o i n c i d e n t r e al p o i n ts
o r i n n o r e al p o i n t a cc o rd i n g as th e r o o ts o f ( 2 ) ar e r eal a n d
u n e qu al r eal a n d e q u al o r i m ag i n ar y
w
S i n c e a i s p o s i t i v e i t fol l o w s t h at w h en v
3
y
o
a n d w h e n a:
M o r eov e r th e q ua dra ti c f u n c t i on
y
y i s c on t i n ou s an d can o nl y b e c om e i n n i t e w h en cc b e c om e s
i n n i te Hen c e t h er e m u st b e one m i n i m u m t u rn i ng p o i nt on
t h e g rap h
T h e r e c ann ot be m o r e th an o ne for if th er e w e r e
i t w ou l d b e p o ss i bl e t o dr a w a p aral l el t o th e :c ax i s t o m eet
t h e g r ap h i n m o r e t h a n t w o p o i n t s
Th e g r aph t h e r e fo r e c on s i s t s o f a s i ng l e f est o on beg i nn i ng
a n d e nd i n
g a t an i n n i te d i s tan c e ab ov e th e ax i s o f ac
Th e m ai n c h ar ac t er i s t i c p o i nt to b e d et er m i ne d i s t h e
m i n i m u m p o i nt
To o bta i n th i s w e
h av e o nl y t o d i m i n i s h y u nt i l t h e
p ar all e l UV ( Fi g 1 ) j u s t c e as e t o
m ee t t h e g r a p h
At th i s s t ag e i t i s
o bv i ou s th at t h e t w o
n t s U a nd
i
o
p
V r un t og eth er 3 th at i s t o s ay th e
t w o a bs c i s s ae c o rr e s p o n d i n g t o y
b e c om e e qu al
He n c e to n d y w e
h a v e s i m p l y t o e x p r e s s t h e c o nd i t i n
t h at t h e r oo t s o f ( 2 ) be e q u al
Thi s
Em
c o nd i t i o n i s

I Ve h a v e,

th e

r e fo r e

ua

co

00

O
I

4 a (c

He n c e

4 ac

4a

( 3)

T HREE F U N D AM E NT A L C ASE S

xvm

45 7

c o rr esp o n d i ng v al u e o f a; i s ea s i ly obtai n e d i f w e n o t i c e
n d t h at
t h at t h e su m o f t h e r oo ts o f ( 2 ) i s i n al l c a se s
b/a
Hen c e
w h e n t h e t w o a e e q u al e a c h m u s t b e e q u l t o
b/2 a
th e a bs c i s sa o f th e m i n i m u m p o i nt i s g i v en by
Th e

Th ere
I

bv i o us l y t h r ee p os s i bl e c as e s
v al u e of y g iv e n by ( 3 ) m ay b e n eg at i v e

are o

Th e

is

t
i
4
a
s
o
s
i
i
o
i
iv e
s
w
l
h
a
n
w
h
e
n
b
l
e
p
p
pp
I n th i s c as e t h e m i n i m u m p o i nt A w i ll l i e b el o w t h e a x i s o f
r a n d th e
g r ap h w i ll b e l i k e th e f ul ly dra w n c u r ve i n Fi g 1
He r e th e g ra ph m u s t cu t t h e :c ax i s h e n c e t h e f u n c ti on y
m u s t h a v e t w o r eal an d u ne q u al r o ot s n am el y a:
O L a: 0 M 3
a nd i t i s o b v i o us th at
s i t i v e o r n eg a t i v e th a t i s h as th e
i
s
o
y
p
s am e s i n a s a o r t h e o
g
pp o s i t e
a cc o rd i n
g as a; d oes n o t o r d o e s
su

se
o
pp

os

i t iv e

Si nc e

th

l i e b et w ee n 0 L
II

by

Th e
w

4ao

ill
0

an

d OM
of

y g iv e n

ze o,

r
v
i
d
d
o
e
p

v al u e

be

F IG 2
.

I n th i s

A f al l s

on

c as e

th e m

th e

ax s

inimum

of

as,

an

g raph w i ll b e l i k e t h e fu l l y
cu r v e i n Fig 2
.

He r e th e

o
n
t
p

d th e

draw n

r o o ts o f th e fu n c t i o n
a r e e u al n a m e l
q
y ea c h i s eq u l t o O A
I t i s obv i ou s th at h e r e y i s al w ays
th e s m e s i g n a s a
p o s i t i v e th a t i s h
I I I Th e v al u e o f y g i v e n by ( 3 )
w i l l be p o s i t iv e p r o v i d e d b
4 ao b e n eg a tiv e
I n t h i s c a s e t h e g r ap h w i ll b e l i k e t h e f u lly dr a w n c u r v e i n
two

as

F ig

45 8

He r e

r aph d oes no t cu t
n o r eal r o ot s
Al s o
s i n as a
g

th e g

fu n c t i o n h as
h as t h e

X AMP L E S

th e

of

ax s

al w ays

y is

s am e

C H AP

a
c,

t h at t h e

so

p o s i t i v e, th at i s ,

d c

r c d

i s u s s i o n p o ee s
pp ose a t o b e n eg at i v e, t h e
ex a tl y a s be fo e, e x e p t t h a t f o r
p o s i t iv e w e m u s t s ay n eg at iv e,
a nd f or m i n i m u m m ax i m u m
Th e typ i al g aph s i n th e th ee
If w e

su

c as e s

i ll

f t h os e

a; o

l i n es i n

L M

i d by tak i ng th e m i rr o r i m ag es i n th e ax i s o f
al r ea d
T h e se g r aph s are i nd i cated by d otte d
y g i v en

be

o bt a n e

F ig s

1 , 2, 3

im pl i c i ty w e h av e s u ppose d
A t o b e p os i t i v e i n al l c ase s

F or

th e

bs c i s s ae

of

th e p o

i n ts

c our s e happen i n
c er tai n c as es th at o n e or m o r e of th es e ar e n eg at iv e The cor
r esp o nd i ng g u r es are O bt ai ne d i n al l c ases s i m pl y by s h i fti ng
t h e a i s o f y t h r o u g h a p r op e r d i s ta n c e t o th e r i g h t
E m ple 1
T o nd f w h t v lue f the function y 2
1 2 + 1 3 i neg tive
d
to nd i t tur ing v lue
We h ve
6
9) 5
y 2(
,

N,

I t w il l

of

xa

2
:c
'

or

s o

ac

an

2
c
c

9c

V3) } {93

2 w

Hence y w ill b e

5c

neg tive i f lie b etw een 3 V( 5/2 ) d 3

nd w ill
b po it i ve f
l l other v lue
f
Ag in it i o b viou f ro m the econd for m
f the f unction th t y i
lge br ic lly le t w hen (
H ence
m ini m u m v lue f y
5 i
corre ponding to 3
E
m pl e 2
T o nd the t urning v lue
8 + 1 5)/
\V h ve
8
y
e

xa

ze

oc

F ir t uppo e x to b po itive then w

s

s a

x:

s o

s,

as

an

a:

or a

m ay w

rite

hich i t ppe r th t y h
th t i w hen

N e t let
b neg tive
5

ro m

s + 2

ic

a s

a:

s,

15

V1 5

say,

as

then w

1
5
V

inim u m v lue

8 - 2

V1 5

Vg

m ay w

rite

8 + 2 V1 5, w

hen

xv

MAX I M A

M I NI M A

AND

459

ro m w hich w
th t 8 2 V1 5 i m i m u m v lue f y corre pon d ing to
V 1 5 th t i to
VI 5
E m ple 3
d y b b oth po it i ve then
If
f my corre pond to the
d l e t v lue
If
+ y b g i ven the gre te t
le t d g e te t v lue f ( y) 3 th t the m im u m v lue f 3/ i
obt ined by pu tting y i f th t b po i ble under the circu m t nce f the
pro ble m
f w + y corre pond t t h
d le t v lue
I f y b gi ven th gre te t
gre te t d le t v lue f ( y) 3 th t the m inim u m f + y i ob t ined
f t h pro ble m
by putting w y i f th t b po i ble under the circu m t nce
T he e t te m ent follo w t once fro m the identity
f

xa

ax

a an

an

as

a
c:

s,

s a

e s ee

r a

a3 :

an

:c

as

ax

so

s a

ss

93

s o

ic

an

s a

F or

if

ac +

An d , i f

scy z

s o

s a

(x

( as

4a m

4 933
/

then

d z,
'

so

ss

then

e,

as

y:

an

a:

s o

as

y)

a:

2
.

y)

ence the conclu ion follo w i m m ed i tely provided w nd y nd there fore

d + y b b oth po itive
y
T he e re ult m ight l o b rrived t by el i m in ting the v lue f y by
f the given rel t i on
T hu i f w + y = then
me n
2
H ence mg i m de
l rge
po ible by m king
( /
)
ne rly /2 po ible nd
M any i m po r tan t p r obl em s i n g eo m e t ry r eg ard i ng m ax i m a
an d m i n i m a m a
y be t r eat e d by t h e s i m pl e m et h o d i llu s tr a te d i n
H

an

so

oc

c
c

E x am p l e 3

s,

ss

- a; 2

c,

so o n

as

a s

as

ss

as

c
c as

ple 4
T dr w through
point A w ithin circle chord uch th t the
the qu re f i t egm ent h ll b m i m u m or m i n i m u m
L et b the r diu f the circle d the di t nce f A fro m the centre
f the eg m ent
f the chord
y the length
T hen by w ell -kno w n geo m etr i c l propo ition
E x am
o

'

s o

s s

s s

s a

s o

U nder th i condition w h ve t
s

m ax m m
o

a: a nd

ot

(1

ke

+y

ma

i u or m inim u m
N w i f w denote
d y
w h ve
q u ntit i e ; nd by

sum o f

my :

ax

e a

s o

s o

an

a n d 77,

then

S an d

are

t wo

po itive
s

by s

'

d e) g

Sn

ence by E m ple 3
i
m i n i m u m w hen
d i
m im u m
7
w hen ( 5
i m de
gre t po i ble I f w di m in i h n it follo w by

t h t if incre e
H
gre t
po ible by
(E nP wi l l b m de
m king 5
gre t po ible
H

xa

as s

as

as

as

e n ce

ss

as

ss

an
s

as

ax

s,

as

ss

G EO M ET RI C AL M AX I MA

460

AN D M IN I M A

C HA P

ence the m f the qu re n the egm ent f the chord i m i ni m u m

w hen it i b i ected
m i m u m w hen i t p
nd
e through the centre f
t h circle
E m ple 5
A
d B
point
the di m eter f circle P Q chord through
tw
B T nd the po it i on f P O f w hich th re AP Q i m i m u m
m ini m u m
L et 0 b the centre f the circle T he re O P Q be r to the re A P Q
the con t nt r tio O B AB H ence w h e m erel y t nd the turning
v lue f the re O P Q
L et O B
denote the perpend i cul r fro m O on P Q T he i f
d let
wV(
n denote the
re O P Q
f
i po itive
\V h ve there fore t nd the turning v lue
S ince
thi i the m e thing nding the t urning v lue f
N w
H

su

s o

s o

ax

s a

ass s

xa

an

a re

on

or

e a

s a

or a

ax

s a

s o

a s

av

9c

a , an

n,

s o

it

it

as

sa

s o

:c

c e t con ider Fi r t u p po e
/V2 T hen ince
0
d
the le t d gre te t v lue f llo w ble under the circu m t nce
w
h ve conning our elve t h l f evolution f the chord bout A
three turning v lue I f w put
0 w g ive to ( /2 ) the gre te t
v lue w hich w
give i t by d im ini hing belo w /V 2 Hence m o give
m ini m u m v lue f O P Q
I f w put
/V2 w give (
/2 ) i t le t po ible nu m eric l v lue
m im u m
H ence f
/V2 OP Q i
give ( /2 ) the gre te t v lue w hich w n give
w
If w p t
m ini m u m
it by incre ing beyond /V2 Hence t m= corre pond
v lue f O P Q
Ne t
uppo e
/V 2
/V2 I thi c e w c nnot m ke
m ini m u m
H ence corre ponding to
w
h ve
b e fore OP Q
B ut
H ence f
incre e up t
n w (
/V2 ) di m ini he cont i nu ll y
OPQ i
m imu m
R m k T h i e m ple h
b een cho en to illu tr te
peculi rity th t
d m i ni m
very o ften ri e in pr ctic l que t i on reg rding m im
n m el y th t ll the theoretic lly po i ble v lue f the v ri ble m y not b
d m i i ble under the circu m t nce f the proble m
E m ple 6
G iven the peri m eter f right ngled tri ngle to ho w th t the m f
the i de cont in i ng the right ngle i gre te t w hen the tr i ngle i i o cele
L t
d 3
ide 1 the given peri m eter T hen the
] denote the t w
h ypotenu e i p
y 3 nd w h ve b y the condi t ion f t h pro ble m
T here

an

as

a,

t wo

ar e

as s

o r ac:

oc :

as

a <

s a

ax
s

ss

as

e ca

as

o a

as s

33

or >

cc :

as

or

xa

s s

as

ss

s a

xa

as

ss

ax

s o

an

a,

ar

a,

2
:c

c
c

:c

an

s ar e

a,

ax

s a

re

g
az

s a

e ca n

a >

a a

s o

o
e:

-a

an

o:

s,

oc

su

{r
Hence

T hi s again

i cy
p ( ac

y)

ri en

21
2

m ay b e w tt

7)

(v

u) =

(1)

M AX I M A

X VIII

Under the condition

a

M INI M A G EN ER AL M ET HOD

(1 )

h ve to m ke

we

a:

n p
z

h ve

y, w e

77

h ve to m ke
im u m 3 th i i t m ke
i
m i n i m u m w hen

we

m ax

s,

inim u m
H ence + y i

Th e m e t h o d
of

dr at i c

qua

s a

p o i nt s

(2 )

an d

46 1

i u
I f w put

m ax m m

AN D

sc

em p l oye

in

10

f u n ti o n i s m e

FI G 4
.

r m e t h o d i n d i c at e d
f u n c t i o n w h a teve r say

r el y

ax

s a

e x a m pl e

an

of

th e

c h ap

in

g en e al

under the condit i on

i m u m w hen 3]
m
f o r n d i n g t h e t u r n i ng
N ow,

xv

13

C on s i d e r

an

1
( )

L et A be
abs

cis

s a an

m ax i m u m t u

rd i na te

ar e a
c an

r n i ng

d y

If w e

i t s g r a ph , w h o s e
dr aw a pa r al l el to O X
on

r aph i n a c e r tai n n u m be r
of
Tw o of t h e s e w i ll b e i n th e n e i g hbo u r
p o i nts T UVW s ay
h o o d o f A l e f t a n d r i g h t o f AL
I f w e m o v e th e pa rall l u p
w ard s u n t i l i t p a s s th r ou g h A th e t w o p o i n ts U a nd V w i ll r u n
t og e th e r at A an d th e ir t w o ab s c i s sae w i l l b e c o m e e qu a l
If w e
m o e t h e p ar all el a l i ttl e far th e r u p w a rd s w e l o s e t w o o f t h e
r eal i nt er se c t i on s al tog eth e r
Hence to nd y w e have si mp ly to exp r ess the condi ti on tha t the
roots of the equ ati on
2
O
a

l i t t l e b el o w A , i t

i l l i nter se c t

nt
o
p

th e g

f,

( )

46 2

be
a

equal,

exa mi ne

then

a nd

mou nt, we lose two

X AMP L ES

whethe

C HAP

we i n

crease

If we do, then

r ea l roots or not

y by a smal l
y i s a max i mu m

va lu e

If i t app ears tha t two r eal r oots ar e l ost,

di mini shi ng y, then y is a mi nimu m valu e

by i ncr easi ng bu t by

not

ple 1
nd the turning v lue

Ex a m

To

s of

3
=
x
y

T he v alue s

9x + 2 4x + 3

corre pondingg to giv

given ordin te y

of x

in

9x 2 + 2 4x + ( 3

3
x

y)

a re

given by

D denote the productt f tthe

qu re f the difference f the root f thi
h
q
cub ic then l l i t root w ill1 b re l t w root w ill b equ l tw i m g i n ry
ccording D i po itive ero neg tive
U ing the v lue f D c lcul ted in 6 d putt i ng p 9 p = 2 4

=
3
y w nd
p
D 2 7 ( y 1 9) ( y
turning v lue f y I f w m ke y l i ttle le th n
Hence y 1 9 y 2 3
bi
lo t H ence 1 9 i
1 9 D i neg t i ve th t i
f the
t w re l root
li ttle gre ter th n 2 3 D i g i n
m ini m u m v lue f y
I f w m ke y
neg t i ve 3 h
23 i
m i m u m v lue f y
If

as

e s

ua

no

or

s o

s o

s o

or

an

s,

s a

h ve
a

the th i rd root
,

by

s a

ax

c a re

we

+ 2a7

24

ence
a

cu

s o

ss

1,

2 a + 7 = 9,

F IG 5
an

en ce

s o

are

6a

hich g i ve

0,

01 a

=4

FIG 6

ill b found th t 4 corre pond to th

th t = 2 corre pond to the m i m u m y 2 3
It w

ax

ini mu m v lue y
a

19 3

an d

X VII I

X AMP L E S

463

T he above m ethod i s o b viou s l y

ppl ic ble t y cu bic integr l

nd w
th t uch function h in gener l t w
function w h t oever
turning v lue w hich the root f cert in qu dr tic equ tion e ily oh
f the f unction D
t i
bl by m e n
f thi qu dr tic b re l n d unequ l there
I f the root
t w di tinc t
m i m u m th other
turni g point
m ini m um
point w hich m y b reg rded
n
I f the root b equ l w h ve
m i m u m point w it h
m ini m u m w hich i
o m et i m e
m lg m tion f
c lled m i m u m m ini mu m point
re l turning point
I f the root b i m gin r y the f unction h
b po itive the gr ph in the r t t w c e h ve
I f the coe f cient f
the gener l ch r cter ho w n in F ig 5 nd 6 re pect i vely
E m ple 2
f
T di cu
t h turning v lue
Rema rk

a s

s , on e a

ax
a

as

as

ar e

ax

as a

a a

xa

as n o

3
x

s s

ss

T he equ ation

s o

for th e

v lue
a

corre ponding t

s of x

o any

given v lue
a

of

ac o

the turning v lue

a

s of

s of a

V608 {u

are

V( 6 0 ) ,

{u

s a

60 =

y is

L et D b the function b 4 f 5 w ho e ign di crim in te the root

qu dr tic I the pre ent i n t nce w h ve
Hence

as s

ax

s o

o an

s o

see

s o

ar e

s,

a na

an d

V( 6 0 )

v lue b e tw een
the e D neg tive nd the
root f ( 1 )
i m gin ry
Hence the lge b r ic ll y le
f
the tw n m el y 8 V( 6 0 )
m im um 3
i
nd
the
lge br ic lly g e ter n m el y
m ini m u m
8 V( 6 0 )
T he v lue f
p nd
t once o b t ined
i ng t the e
f ro m the equ tion
(y
If y h as
s ,
is

an y

o,

s o

x corr e s

a re a

ar e

Th ev

ss o

r a

ax

ar e

a nd

V( I 5 )

re pectivel y
T he re der hould e m ine
c refull y the gr ph f thi
d i con
f unct i on w h i ch h
=0 (
ch p
ity w hen
ti
corre pond i ng v lue
V( I 5)

x:

xa

s ee

nu

H ence

oo
ao

xv

1,

0,

we

00

24

+ 0,
,

the gr ph i repre ented

a

h ve the follo w ing erie

a

F IG 7

as a

by

00

+ 3,

0,

Fi g

<
a

5,
0,

>

5,

00

00

G EN E R AL D I S C U SSI ON

464

ple 3
T o di cu gener ll y the turning v lue

E xa m

C HAP

ss

ax

y is

(a

L et

y) x

( b b y)
2
4a
(b

Ag

T hen w e h ave

T he turning va lue s

of

'

)y

iven v lue

2 ( 2a

By

3
b
(

bb ) y

2ao

4a c) ,

s ay

( b b y) t \ / D
3
a a w

there fore given by the equ t i o

a re

(c c y) 0
y) ( c c y )

o an y

4(a

b y )x

'

corre pond i ng t

of x

(b

the function

s of

+ bx + c

T he equ at ion w hich give s the v a lue s

of

OF

A y2 + B y + C :

thi equ tion w ill h ve re l unequ l root

d there
w ill b t w re l t urning v lue
fg
I f A b po it i ve then f
re l v lue f y c nnot lie b et w een the root
f the equ tion
m
i m u m d the gre ter
Hence the le root w ill b
m i ni m u m v lue f y
If A b neg t i ve then f
re l v lue f y m t l i e bet w een the root f
Hence the le
root w ill b m i ni m u m d the g re ter m i m u m
v lue f
4 AC 0 the equ tion h
no re l root d D h l w y the
I I If B
m e ign
A
I n thi c e the ign f A m u t f nece it y b po i t i ve ;
f
i f it w ere
corre ponding to ny
t there w ould b n re l v lue f
v lue f y w h tever
re l v lue f corre ponding t
H ence there i
y given v lue f y
w h tever 3
d y h
t urning v lue
m e gener l re oni g
in C e
4 AC O w m y ppl y the
III If B
T he pre ent c e h ho w ever
peci l pecul i ri ty w h ll
II
im
m edi tel y
T he cr i teri f di tingui hing the e three c e m y b e pre ed i term
w +b +
d
f the t w f unction
8 nd
f the root
,8
very u e ful
d i n thi for m they
W e h ve
4 ) (b
4(b
2
bb )
B
4 AO 4 ( 2 d c
I

I f B2

4 AC > 0 ,

s o

or

x,

s o

an

ax

e a

ss

s , an

or

ss

s o

us

x,

s o

an

ax

as a

<

sa

as

no

or,
a

as

an

ss

as n o

sa

as ,

as

o an

an

as

as

as

as

e s

as

s ee

or

are

s a

as

s a, ,

an

ss

c an

'

'

4a

12

a o

22

at

4a

1 6a

2a

a s

{2 m
2
(a

W}

( a B)
( a I?) ( a

I33 }

Ik

(a

'

'

B) ( a
B 2 043 ( a + 5 )
2 a c ( a + e) ( a + B )
a ) (B
a ) (a
B)

Hence i t ppe r th t the i gn

a

(a

2 a /3

ao

a -

of

B2

E Ha

4 AO

WH

depend

erely

on

the ign
s

of

9)

xvm

bx

c)

bx

465

c
l l re l th
root f
c d f
b
b
c i f i m gin ry m u t b conjug te i m gin r i e Hence by
re oning in 6 w
th t if the root f 1 + b + or f
+b +c
or f b oth b i m gin ry E i po itive
T he m e i t rue i f th root f either or f both f the e func tion b
S

ince

a x

b,

a,

as

sa

are

s o

e s ee

b,

as

ax

ar

c,

an

a x

e q u aL

C on ider ne t the c e w here B 8

l l re l
d l l unequ l
S ince t h
i gn f E i t ltered i f w interch nge both w ith
d B
w i th
or b oth w i th 8 d w ith w m y w i thout lo i g gener lity
uppo e th t i the lgeb r ic lly le t f the four B
d th t
i
lge br i c lly le th
If w
rr nge the four root in cendi g
w
order f m gn i tude there j u t three po i ble c e n m el y ,8

the
r
t
c
e
I
B B
8 8 h ve
B;
8 B
ll neg t i ve ign 3 i the econd t w h ve neg tive i gn
d t w po itive 3
d one the po i t i ve i gn
in the third three h ve neg tive i gn
It i
there fore i the th i rd c e lone th t E h the neg tive i g T he pecul i
i ty f th i c e i th t e ch p ir f root i
ep r ted to m gnitude b y
one f the other p ir IV h ll de crib e thi by ying th t the t i t
l c
L tl y uppo e E 0 I thi c e one t le t f the four f ctor
mu t v
i h 3 th t i to y the tw funct i on w b c
8
B
[3
roo t d there fore t le t one line r
d
m u t h ve t le t
+b +
f ctor in co mm on
Hence in thi c e ( 1 ) reduce to
s

as

e s

s no

a,

ss

an

a,

ar

as

a e

e s

an

a a

as

sa

'

s , an

a,

as

an

an

as

as

s,

as s ,

a,

s n

ss

as

as

an

ar e

ar e a

e no

an

a,

s,

I oo s

n er

as

an

a x

'

as

as

sa

on e

as

an s

s,

s a

an

as

as

(w
f
Ct ( 03
(

y:
s ay

Hence

h ve

we

:c

i - d a

a (x

a (x

)
)

F ro m ( 6) it ppe r th t y h
di con tinuity w hen m
p i g fro m
the v lue + to or the rever e
p e through th t v lue ; b t
th t f ll other v lue f y either incre e or d ecre e cont i nuou l y
incre e H ence g h no re l turning v lue in th i c e unle w choo e
i
to con i der the v lue
to
i mu m
w hich corre pond
m
m in i m u m v lue
T he gr ph i n thi c e uppo ing /
to b both po itive i
d
l ike Fi g 8 w here OA
To m p
f the f nction
C e 1 occur w hen the root f e i ther
f b oth
i m gi n ry or equ l
d w hen l l the root
+b +
re l b t not in terl ced
C e I I occur w hen the root f both qu dr tic function
re l d
interl ced
a

a s

00

oo

or a

as

as

as

a a

re :

as

ss

: z oo

as

as a

ax

an

a,

e,

a re

as

or

an

ar e

an

the c e w here the y h ve t w l i ne r f ctor in co m m on

con t nt c e too i m ple to requ i re y d i cu ion
In

as

s a

V OL

as s

as s s

as s n

as

su

x,

as

are

3
a re

as

as s

as

an

ss

reduce
H

to

46 6

bx

ax

c)

bx
'

C H AP

C e I I I occur w hen the t w qu dr tic funct i on h ve

b oth oot
in co mm on I thi c e y reduce to the quotient f t w line r funct i on
to con t nt d h no m im u m m ini m u m v lue properly c lled
I the bove di cu i on w h ve
u m ed th t neither
v ni h 3 in
other w ord th t neither f the t w qu dr t i c f unction h
innite oot
T he c e w here inn i te root occur
ho wever re ll y covered by the b ove
as

or

s a

as

an

as

as s

a n or a

a re,

FI G 8

as an

s,

so

ass

or

o n e or

ax

ss

s,

t te m en t
b
een e i ther by con idering the m lim it
by w ork
i ng t the e pre i on f B 4 AO in ter m f the nite root in the p rticul r
i n t nce in que t i on
t ting the bove conclu ion
gener ll y thi the tudent m u t
I
f the turning v lue m y either b eco m e innite
re m e m b er th t
corre
innite v lue f 3 other w i e he m y nd h i m el f t lo i
p n d to
cert in c e t ccoun t f the p p rent d i ppe r nce f turnin g v lue
i ncluded under th gener l c e f
A gre t v r i et y f p rt i cul r c e
0
thi e m ple I f w p t
in t nce w h ve the peci l c e
0 f
f E m ple 2
o bject here i m erel y to illu tr te m e thod it w ill b u fcient to
A
give the re ult in t w m ore p rticul r c e
E m ple 4
T o tr ce th v ri tion f the f unc tion
s, as

s a

ss

ou

xa

a a

s a

ss

or

are

or

sa

as s

s,

as

or

so

o a

xa

on e o

as s

s o

an

s, o r

n s a

as

or

s a

e s

as

as

s our

xa

s,

as s

e s

3
x

y:

T he qu adratic

fo r

in ter m

s of

y is

(7

y)

(1

7x

8x

6
15

l 5 y) = o

8 y) x + ( 6

l l e nce
D = (7

ence

s p ect i vel y

8y) 2

V6

an d

v) ( 6

V6

1 5y ) = 4 { y are

i u

max m m

T he corre pond i ng v alue s

{y

( ir

o f x a re

an d

i ni mu m v lue

g i ven by

s of

re

G RAP HS

X VII I

P ART I C UL AR C ASES

F OR

467

re pectively We ob erve f rther th t y i

cont i nuou w hen
3
d w hen
y
3 th t w hen
f
w h i ch y
d th t the other v lue f
1 i
W h ve thu the f ollo w ing t b le f corre ponding v lue

an

a re

2 V6

an d

2 V6

dis

'

an

an

or

0,

oo ,

+ 1,

+ 3 0,

0,

00

+ 1,

31 :

or

00

oo

00

+ 5 9,

3
1

111 11

= + 5 0 ,

T he grap h

00

00

+ 6,

+ 9,

0,

+ 1,

+ 1 39

m ax

the
gener l for m i ndic ted in
F ig 9 w hich i not
dr w n to c le b t d i
t t d in order to b ring
t
m ore cle rl y t h
m i m u m point B
a

s a

or e

ou

ax

ple 5
T o tr ce the v ri tion
f the f unc t on
E x am

F IG
x

y
T he qu adratic
Here

we

for

c
c

8x + 1 5

(1

y)

(5

8 y) x + ( 4

D = 4 {( y

there no re l turning v lue

T he gr ph w ill b
ar e

is

nd

Hence

5x

FI G 1 0
.

l 5 y)

00

+ 1

h as

1 3

M AX I M A

468

M I N I M A M ET HOD

AN D

ple 6
T nd the turning v lue
We h ve i n ce
b y
Ex am

CRE M ENT S

C HAP .

ax

of

eg

z=x

+y

z
z
e

WW

9:
b
x
c
+
y+ y

g u bg w

no

a t ax

here E= /y
W e h ve w to nd the turning v lue
T he qu dr tic f Ei
x

given th

1,

OF IN

con idered
s

as a

unction

of

E
.

or

s of 2

(ax
H e n ce

th t i
a

the turni g v lue

n

s of

g i ven by

are

g z :
bz

by

2
4a c z

(v

T he re s ul t thu s arrived

4 ( as

( oz

1)

4(a

c z

con titute n n l ytic l olution f the w ell

know n pro ble m to nd the gre te t nd le t centr l r dii ( th t i the e m i
e ) f the ellip e w ho e equ tion i
+ b y+ y
to
R m k T he rt i ce u ed in thi e m ple w ill o b viou l y en b le
nd the turning v lue f f ( y ) w hen ( y )
prov i ded f ( y) d
f
d y w ho e degree doe n t e ceed
( y ) b ho m ogeneou f unct i on
the 2 nd I ndeed it h
gener l pplic tion to ll c e w here f ( y) d
ho m ogeneou funct i on ; the only diffi cul ty i in di crim in ting
( y)
the root f the re ulting equ tion
at

ax s

x,

as

ar e

s o

c,

us

an

x,

as s

an

s,

x,

xa

as

s ax

x,

x,

ar

an

x,

Th e r e i s
cr
n
t
e
m
e
5
f
y e t an o t h e r
m e t h o d w h i c h i s v e r y u s e f u l i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e v a r i a ti o n o f
i nt eg ral f n c t i on s Su pp ose w e g i v e x an y s m all i n cre m ent
h t h e n t h e c o rr e s p o n d i ng i n cr em ent o f th e f un c t i on
is
I f th i s i s p os i t i v e t h e fu n c t i on i n cr e as e s w h en x
f (x h)
i n creases 3 i f i t i s n eg at i v e th e fu n ct i o n d e cr eas e s w h en x i n cre as es
Th e c on d i t i o n t h a t x a c o rr e s p on d s t o a m ax i m u m v al u e o f
i s t h e r efo r e th at a s x p a sses th r ou g h t h e v al u e a f ( x h)
s h al l c eas e t o b e
p o s i t i v e a nd b eg i n t o b e n e g a t i v e an d for a
m i n i m u m s h ll c e as e t o be n eg a t i v e a nd be g i n t o be p os i t iv e
Th e p ra c t i c al appl i c a t i o n of th e m e th o d w i ll be b es t u n d e r
s t oo d by s t u d yi n
i
t
h
f
l
l
o
w
n g e x am p l e
o
e
g
E m ple
T o nd the turn i ng v lue f
E xa mi na ti on

the I n

xa

s o

9x 3 2 4x
=
x
+
+3
y

h,

L et I denote the incre m ent

f 3 then

of

corre ponding to
s

a v

ery

s ma

ll incre m ent

c
c

-h

( 3x

l 8x

2 4 ) /L

( 3x

9 )h

3
3

3
s
e
9
x
+
)+

"
.

-2 4x

X RC I SES XXX V I I I

XV II I

46 9

E E

i ce

our pre en t purpo e it doe not m tter h w m ll I m y

b
w
m y m ke it
m ll th t ( 3 9 ) h + h i
m ll
fr ction f
1 8 + 2 4 )h
w
ple e Hence f
determini g the ign f I i
(3
concerned w m y w rite
N ow ,

e,

fo r

s n
a

so

as

as

as

ar a s

1 8x

2 4)h

2
3
x
(

uppo ed po itive hence the ign f I depend m erel y on the ign

p e
f 3
H ence I w i l l ch nge ign w hen
d onl y w hen
through root f the eq tion

ere I

so

is s
s
1 8x + 2 4

an

as s

ua

1 8x +

ence the turning v lue

M oreover w h ve
a

T here fore

hen
little gre ter th n 2
=2 i
m im u m
I like m nner w
m ini mu m
w

ax

s a

and x

3 (x

2)

4 )h

(x

I is

l i ttle le th n 2 I i po itive ; d w hen i

neg tive Hence the v lue f 31 corre ponding to

m ay

ss

an

s a

is

y corre pond to

s of

ho w th t the v lue
a

of

y corre ponding to
s

4 is

X ERCI SES

F ind the lim it w ithin w hich

y b neg tive
T r ce the gr ph f
s

ma

X X VIII

X
x

u t l i e in order th t 8 (
s

x 5x + 6

4x 2 + 2 0x

25

6 5x a

3x + 1 2 x 6

Fi nd the turning v lue

im d m i n i m
a an

m ax

s o

of

the follo w ing 3

d i cri m in te bet w een

and

x
- x

the follo w ing nd m rk in p rt i cul r the point

w here the gr ph cut the
d the point w here y h
e
turning v lue
T ra ce the graph s
a

of

ax s , an

as a

7x +

(1 0

y:

7x +

8x +

8x +

6x +

(
(x
2
x
(
2
x
(
(x
2
x
(
x

l 0x +

8x +

y:

8x +
l 0x +

l 0x +

1 4x +

9x +

2x

5x +

3x +

2
=
2
x
+x
y (

ho w th t the lgebr i c ll y gre te t

a

+ 3x + 5 )

of x

5x

a re

V ( I 2 /1 1 )

an d

V( 1 2 / 1 1 )

le t v lue f ( + 2
d nd the corre ponding v lue

an d

an

as

9
93

s o

prov i ded (

ho w th t
a

ho

b?)
w

2
c

th t
a

(ax

b) ( d x

d2 )

ax

) ( cx

d ) m ay

h ve
a

all

re l v lue

s,

v lue

if

bx

bx

is

c p ble
a

of

al l

470

X E RCI S E S XXX V II I

C H AP

xvm

tw
th t there
v lue b e tween w hich it c nnot lie i f
n d th t there
t w v lue b e t w een w hic h i t m u t lie
if b
4
( W ol tenhol m e )

i
4
(23 If
p b then the tu rning v lue f (
)
/ p(
p b)
F ind the turning v l ue f the f ollow ing ; nd di cri m in te m i m d
m ini m
a

are

are

ac

<

ra >

ax

s o

s a

ra

a an

ax

a :

l ( ax

(a

g i ven
g i ven /
by,

ac

x y,
ax

) (x
b) 2

/V (x

xy

b)

x
2

(a

9 2
a x

biz/y2

2n

By

b y9,

3
.

( 2x

given y
y given y

given A

byi ,
2

'

2 hx y
2

(x

1 ) ( 3x

(x

4)

g iven m+ y
given qu re th qu re f m inim u m re
T in crib e in
T circu m cri b e b ou t
given qu re the qu re f m im u m re
T o i n cri b e in t ri ngle the rect ngle f m i m um re
point n t w g iven p r llel tr ight line P Q
P nd Q
tw
ubtend right ngle t ed poin t 0 T nd P d Q th t the re
m inim u m
PO Q m y b
righ t n g l ed trian g le P m ov b le point i t h ypotenu e
AB C i
th t the m f the qu re f the perpendicul r fro m P n the
T nd P
ide f the tri ngle m y b m inim u m
tw
circle the i o cel e t r pe iu m f m ini m u m
T circu m cri b e b out
re
t rt from given poin t n tw in ter ec ting tr igh t
Tw p rticle
d
line
long the t w t r i ght line
d m ove w ith uni f or m veloc i tie
Sho w h w to nd the in t nt t w hich the di t nce b et w een th p rticle i
le t
t w given tr ight line 3 A B ed poin t on O X 3 P
O X CV
T o nd P th t A F + E F h ll b m in i m u m
m ov b le po i nt n O Y
gi ven circle
T nd the rect ngle f gre te t re i n cri bed in
t ngent to given c i rcle w hich h l l f orm w ith tw given
T dr w
perpendicul r t ngent the tri ngle f m inim u m re
G iven the perture nd thick ne f biconve len to nd the r d i i
m in i m u m
ur f ce w hen i t volu m e i m i m u m
f i t tw
qu re heet f c rdbo rd by cutting four
t f
i m de
A b
equ l qu re t f the corner f the heet d then turning p the p
f m i m u m c p cit y
S ho w h w to con t ruct in thi w y the b
F ind the cylinder f gre te t volu m e in cribed i n given phere
F ind the cyl inder f g e te t ur f ce d f gre te t volu m e i n
cribed i given right circul r cone
F ind the c ylinder f m ini mu m urf ce the vol um e being given
F ind th cyl inder f m i mu m vol u m e the urf ce b eing given
c

e a

so

o s

su

s o

ax

ax

a.

a.

an

a.

so

e a

on

s o

a s

s,

as

s a

s u an

an

s a

v a

o s

s a

are

o s

ox

s ou

s a

ou

n a

s,

an

ax

an

a.

or a

r a

ox o

e a

s o

ax

a s

ss o

so

a a

-a

s a

s o

ar e

s a

e s

ax

C H A P T ER XIX

S o l u ti o n

of

A r i t h m e t i ca l
by m eans

Th e

a nd
of

G e o m e t ri ca l P r o b l e m s

E q u a ti o n s

i s o l a t e d a r i th m e t i c a l a n d g e o m e t r i c a l
o f c o n d i t i o n a l e qu at i o n s i s o n e o f t h e m o s t
a m a th em at i c al t r a i n i n
T h i s s pe c i e s o f
g

s ol u t o n

of

m
m
e ns
r
o
bl
e
s
b
y
p
i m p o r ta n t p a r t s o f
e x e rc i s e ca n b e t a k e n a n d ou g h t t o b e t a k en b e fo r e t h e s t u d e n t
c o m m e n c e s th e s tu d y o f al g ebr i n th e m o s t g en e ra l se n s e I t
i s c h i e fly i n th e appl i c at i o n s o f al g eb r a t o th e s ys t e m at i c i n v es t i
g a ti o n o f t h e p r op e r t i es o f s pa c e th at t h e fu l l p o w e r o f f o r m al
All t h at w e n e e d d o h e r e i s t o i ll u s t r ate o n e o r
al g e b r a i s s e e n
t w o p o i n t s w h i c h t h e r e a d e r w i l l r e a d i l y u n d e r s t an d af t e r w h a t
h as be e n e pl a i n e d i n th e f o r eg o i n g c h ap t er s
Th e t w o s p e c i al p o i nt s t h a t r e qu i r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n
s ol v i n
g p r o bl e m s b y m ean s o f c o n d i t i o nal e qu at i on s ar e th e
choice of va ri a bles and the d iscuss ion o r i nterp reta ti on of the s olu tion
W i th r e g a rd to t h e c h o i c e of v a r i a bl e s i t s h o u l d b e r em a rk e d
t h a t w h i l e t h e s e l e c t i on o f o n e s e t o f v a r i abl e s i n p r e f e r e n c e t o
a n o t h e r w i ll n e v e r
l t e r t h e o rd e r of t h e sy s te m of e q a t i o n s o n
w h ose s ol u t i o n a n y g i v e n p r o bl e m d e pen d s ye t a s w e h a v e
al r e ad y h a d o cc a s i o n t o s e e i n fo r e o i n
t
a j u d i c i ou s
c
h
ers
p
g
g
se l e c t i o n m a y v e r y g r e a t ly d i m i n i h t h e c o m p l e x i ty o f th e s ys t e m
a n d th u s m at e r i a ll
y a i d i n s u g g e s ti ng s p e c i al ar ti ces for i ts
s ol ut io n
W i th r eg a rd t o th e i nte r pr e t at i on of th e s ol uti on i t i s i m
p o r tant t o no ti c e th at i t i s by n o m ean s n e c e ss ar i ly t ru e t h t
a ll t h e s o lu t i o n s or e v e n t h a t a n
y o f th e s ol u t i o n s of th e s y s t em
o f e q u a t i o n s t o w h i c h an
t
h
r
e
l
m
l
a d s ar e so l u t i o n
o
f
o
b
e
e
y p
a

47 2

I NT ER

P R ETATI ON

OF THE S O

L U T I ON

ca n

E v ery a lg eb r ai c al s o l u ti o n fu r n i sh es n u m ber s w h i c h
p r obl e m
s at i s f
y c er ta i n abs t ra c t r eq ui r em e nt s 3 b u t t h ese nu m be r s m ay
.

i n th e m s el v e s b e

su

ch

th a t t h ey d o

c o n st i t u t e

n ot

i
i m ag i n ary

a so l u t on o f

c o n cr et e p r obl em Th ey m ay fo r ex am pl e b e
w h e r ea s r e al nu m be r s ar e r e q u i r e d b y t h e c o n d i t i on s of t h e co n
cr e te case 3 th ey m ay be n eg at i v e w h er eas p os i t i v e nu m b e r s are
d em an d e d ; or (as c on s tan tly h app en s i n a r ith m et i c al p r obl em s
i n v ol vi ng d i s cr e t e qu an t i ty) th ey m ay b e fra ct i on al w h er eas
i n t eg ral s ol u t i o n s al one ar e ad mi ss i bl e
I n e v e ry c on cr et e c ase an ex m i nat i on i s n e c es sar y t o s ettl e
th e ad m i s s i b i l i t y or i n ad m i s s i bili ty o f t h e a l g ebra i c al s o l u t i o n s
Al l th at w e can b e su r e of a p r ior i i s th at i f t h e c o n cr et e
r
m
h
av e an y s ol u t i on i t w i ll b e f o u n d am o n g t h e al g eb r a i c al
bl
e
o
p
s ol u t i o n s 3 a n d t h at i f n on e o f t h ese ar e a d m i s s i bl e th er e i s n o
s ol u t i o n o f t h e c o n cr e te p r obl em a t al l
Th e s e po i nts w i ll b e i l lu s t r at e d by th e f o ll ow i n g e x am pl e s
F o r th e s ak e of s u ch as m ay n o t al r ea d y h a v e h ad a su fc i en cy
w e a pp en d t o t h e p r e se n t
o f t h i s k i n d o f m e n t al g ym n as t i c
ch apt er a c ol l e c ti o n of ex e rc i s es for th e m o s t p ar t of no g r eat
d i fc ul ty
E m ple 1
T here
three b ottle A B C cont ining mi ture f three u b t nce
P Q R in the f ollo w ing proportion
th e

xa

ar e

s a

s o

s,

s :

s,

A,

bP

bQ+ b R 3

c Q
c R

C P
I t i required to d w h t proportion
B C i order th t i t con i tution m y b
c

'

n i r cr s a l i s

L et
m i ture i

x,

ence w

s of a

st

dP

re m u t b t ken fro m A
d R ( N e w ton A i th xi

xt u

'

nu

ea

y,

be

the proport i on i n q e tion ; then the con t i tut i on

u

the

of

( m:

by

cz

u t h ve

)l

(d

by

cz

)Q

(d

b y4

e z

)R

by + cz : d ,
m of
a

ax

T he

ch p
ver ed
a

x vi

ys
.

te

11,

equ tion to w h i ch w
thu led i th t d i cu ed
le d i fference th t the ign f d d d
w i th the
s

ar e

so

ss

a re

in
re

w
there fore b
h ll ob t in
un i que n i te olut i on U nle ho w ever the v lue f y l l co m e out
po i tive there w i ll b no proper olution f the concrete pro ble m I t i i

l f,

ss ,

:c ,

xi x

X AMP L ES

473

c o bviou p r i i th t there
re triction ; f it i cle rly i m po i ble
in t ce to o bt in by m i i ng f ro m A B C ny m i ture w hich h ll
f
cont in one f the u b t nce in proportion gre ter th n the g e te t in w hich
it occur i n A B C
E m ple 2
cert in nu m b er f o en ( f e q u l v lue ) f 35 0 H
A f r m er b ought
lo t 5 d then old the re m inder t a dv nce f 6 he d on the ori gin l
price H g i ned 3 6 5 by the tr n ction 3 h w m n y o en did he b y
L et b the nu mb er b ought ; then the origin l price i pound i 3 50/
5 w
T he elling price i there fore 3 50/ + 6 S ince the nu m ber old w
m u t there fore h ve
fa t

or

s, a

s an

or

xa

r a

n a

an

ss

s a

or

or

a re

sa

or

as x

T hi s equ ation

ac 5

f g

equiv lent to

is

6x2

1 750

395x

0,

hich h the t w root = 7 0 d

T he l tter nu m b er i i
d m i i ble b oth b ec u e it i neg tive d b ec u e it i fr ction l hence the
onl y olution i
70
E m ple 3
A OA i
li m ited tr i ght line ch th t
P
point in
in OA produced uch th t O P p T o nd po i nt Q in A A uch
0A
th t P Q A Q Q A D i cu the d i fferent po ition f Q p v rie f ro m 0
to i t gre te t d m i ible v lue
denoting po i tive or neg tive qu ntit y ccording Q i
L et 0 Q
i ght or le ft f 0
T hen P Q i ( p )
AQ
d w h ve
;
in l l c e

as

ss

s x

xa

an

or

ss

ss

x, x

18 a

su

an

s o

as

: :

as

an

as s

x2

ence
) O
p

T he root f ( 2 )
1
ip )
T he e root w ill b re l i f p 2 3 th t i to y conning our elve to
po it i ve v lue f p i f p V2
F rom ( 1 ) w
th t in l l c e w here i re l it m u t b nu m eric ll y
le th n
H ence Q l w y lie b et w een A
d A
When
the root f ( 2 ) m V2 ; th t i t y the t w po ition f
equidi t nt f ro m 0
Q
S long
f ( 2 ) w ill b
d the root
) w ill b neg tive
p i
&( p
f oppo ite ign ; th t i to
f Q w i ll lie on oppo ite
y the t w po ition
ide f 0 S ince the m f the t w root i
i f Q Q b the t w
po it i on f Q the rel tive po ition f the point w ill b in F ig 1 w here

s o

a re

s o

s a

s <

an

sa

su

s o

sa

are

a,

s o

o sa

s o

as

as s

s o

ar e

2 <

<

e s ee

ss

;a

an
o

s o

s o

e as

0 Q2 = P Q.

( 22 0
F IG

When p
w

a,

If p > a,
() n

here

Q 3 m ove s

up to
then b oth root

Ol P

O,

up to A
po itive nd th point

an d

a re

PQIA

Q1

ill b

e as

in F ig

2,

E X AMPLES

47 4

C H AP

FIG

I f O B = V2 the B i the l i m i t i g p s i ti f P f w h i ch s lut i n f

the prob le m i p ss i ble Whe n P m ves up t B Q d Q c i c i de t C
( 0 0 b e i g O B )
E mple 4
T n d f ur r e l p s i t i ve um b e rs i n c
ti ued pr p rt i n such th t their
sum i
d the sum f the i r squ res 6
L et us t ke f v ri b les the rst f the f u r n u m bers y
d the
c mm v lue y y f the t i f e ch n um b er t the preced i g The
my y
the f ur umb ers
He ce by
dt
n

a,

1 an

or

o n

on

sa

ra

ar e a
c,

to

our

2 2
2
+ x y + w y4 + w2 y6 2
x

as, a n

sa

s a y,

on

s a an

or

th t i

on o

xa

a a,

62

2 =a
l
1
+
+
(
y) (
y )
2

) (1
2
+ y) ( 1
+y

Fr m ( 1 ) w deri ve
d fr m ( 2 )
d
w deri ve
o

an

rej ect i g the f ct r

an

h ch

cle rl y irrelev t

is

y + 1, w i

an

The equ t i n ( 4 ) i rec i pr c l bi qu dr t i c i y w hi ch n b s lved by the

meth ds f ch p vi i 8
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be

an

f
y u ncti o n

of

w h a ts oe v e

the

f u nct io n

( 1)
is

cal l e d a s e
'

l
f(

is

is

cal l e d

ri es

ca ll e

th e

F or t h e

d t h e rs t ter m ;

g eneral , term
p r e s ent w e co n s i d e r

th,

or

seri es

s econd

new

s o

xa

an d

ki nd

o nl y s e

ri e s

fu nct i

of

o n,

let

n i te

the n w h ve the
e

/ /( Z Mn )

x n

an d s o o n

It is

an d

2 V1

1
+
a

ca n

'

w h i ch h a v e

h ve the seri es

we

a nd

let
let f (

te m, 85 0

r n of t er m s
e mple f th i s

n um be

As

the

we

+ bn

h ve the seri es
a

Vn

V9t

V2 +
2 2
V

o bv i o u s

w i te d o w n

t h a t w h e n th e nth te m

a se

h o w e v e r , th a t w h e n t h e

r s t

all

t h e te m s

r ies

i s g i ve n w e
by s im p ly subs ti tu ti ng for n 1 , 2 ,
of

s u ccess i v el y

3,

Thus

if

the nth term b

e n

+ 2 n,

the seri es i

or

It is

no t

ru e

f e w te r m s

ar e

emu

MEANING

xx

i
v en w e
g

SUMMAT I O N

OF

481

i n g e ne al n d t h e nth t e m , i f n o thi ng i s t ol d u s
Thi s i s s u f ci en tly obv i ou s
e g a di ng t h e f o m o f th a t te m
f o m t h e s e co n d fo m i n w h i ch th e l as t se i es w a s w i t t en ; f o r
ca n

r r
r

i n the

ea

r l ie r

all

te ms
so m e

If w e h a v e

race
ne r al
t

of

t h e l aw

f o r m at i o n i s l o s t

of

d e scr ip ti o n

t h e nt h t e m , i t m ay

of

r tain cases be pos s ibl e t o nd i t f ro m th e val u es o f a cer tai n

I f for e am pl e w e w e r e told th at
n u m be r o f p ar ti cu l a r t e r m s
th e nth t er m i s a n i n te g r al f u n ct i o n of n o f th e 2 n d d e g r e e
th en by ch ap x vii i
7 w e co uld d e te r m i ne th at fu n cti o n if th e
v al u es o f th r e e t e r m s o f th e s e r i e s o f k n o w n o r d e r w e r e g i v en
I f w e r eg a r d t h e s e r i e s
in

ce

f(1 )
as a

fu ncti on

sh a e d

by

i ts

va

M)

o f n, an d call

it

fu n cti o n

t ha t w e h av e

t h at the

nam e l y,
va lue o

no

of

r of terms i n

n u mbe

r iable

F or

S h ow

i
e
cu
l
a
p

ri ty

ye t f u ll y d i s cus s e d ,
the fu ncti on ( t(u ) dep ends on the
as

3,

2,

r
s
n
t
l
e
e
p
y
1

r ig h t w e
t er m s i n
a cl osed

t h at

O n t he l e ft

t hi s

of

h av e

an

f u n cti o n

e q u ati o n

l Vhen,

1)

t h e nu m b e

r di nary i nteg r al

of n

1 ) (2n

n n

w hi ch i s i n d ep e nd en t o f n,

f u nct i on
a nd

of

te m s i s n ;
o f n,

w h i ch

the

on

n u m be

i s t h e r ef o r e

th e

of

cal l ed

qu oted, we can nd f or the su m of a

i es an exp re ssi on i nvolvi ng only known fu ncti ons a nd cons t ucted by
xed nu mbe of ste s, then the se i es i s sai d to admi t o s umma ti on
p
f
/

i n the

as

r
a

exa mp l e

and

the

cl osed

evcell enee, o

an

r i k i ng

I t h app en s i n cer tai n cas e s t h at an e x pr e s si o n can b e fou nd

d) (a ) w h i ch h as n ot t hi s p eculi ar i ty ; for e xampl e, w e sh al l

fo r

se

st

examp l e,

1
a nd s o o n

it has

ea r essi on

the

ries

se

in qu es ti on i s sp oken

as

the

su m,

p ar

Th e p r o pe r ty o f h av i ng a su m i n t h e se nse j u s t ex pl ai ne d i s
e x ce pt i o na l o n e ; a n d t h e s u m
w h e r e i t e x i s t s , m u s t al w a s
y
,

be fou n d by

W ha t

th e

V OL

s om e a

r ti ce

d epe nd i ng

s tu d en t s h o u l d e n d e av o u

on

t h e na t u

re

t o do i s t o g

of

r i es
t o g e th e r
2 I

t he

ro up

se

ARI THME T I C SE RIES

482

b e - s u r e t h at h e

C H AP

r eco g n i s e al l th e s e r i es th at can be
su m m e d b
Th i s i s n o t s o d i f cu l t a s m i g h t
y an y g i v n r ti ce
b e su pp o s ed for th e nu m be r of d iffe r n t ar ti ce i s by n o m ean s
v e r y l ar g e
I n t h i s ch apt e r w e s h ll d i s c s t w o v e ry i m p o r tant c s e s
l e v i n g th e co n i d e r ati o n o f s e ve r l g e n e r al p r i n ci p l es a n d o f
s e v e r al i nt e r e s t i ng p ar ti c l ar c s e s t o t h e s e c n d p a r t o f th i s w o rk

a nd

can

SE RIES WHO SE

ce

is

T ERM IS AN IN T EGRAL F UN C T I O N OF

nTH

An A i thmeti c S e i es,
o ft e n call e d ,

is

se

rie

A r i thmeti c P r og r essi on,

an

or

i n w hi ch

ea ch

te m

e x ce e ds

as

it

t h e pr e

d i ng by a x e d qu a n t i ty, cal l ed t h e comm o n d iffe r en ce

Let
b e t h e r s t t e r m , an d b th e co m m o n d iffe r e n ce t h e n th e t er m s
.

are

a +

a,

b,

a and

d b

an

i n th e d e

th e

o bv i o u s l y

t h e nt h t e m be ing

e b ai ca l

u an t

q
g
n i t i o n b e i ng t a

al

nt h

r i es
s er i e s

is

t e m m ay b e w i tt e n

ar e co n s tan t s ,

se

we

i t i e s w h at s o e v e r ,

k e n i n th e al g ebrai

d i n thi s

Th e

u s u al

d e n o t e th e
a

we w

23:

If w e

s e c ti o n

+ (n

Si m

ca

of

of

ple st

n
of

bn, w h e r e

th e g e n e

r al

cl ass

of

su m m in

an

AP

is

as

t o be

fo l l o w s

co n

Le t

te m s , t h en

{a + ( n

{a + b }

th e t e m s i n t h e

n o w a dd,

s um o f n

1 b
) }

ri th m eti cal
u ch a
r
e
e
S
g

an

th e l s t d e

of

m e th o d

r it e

i n t eg ral fu n cti on

an

b)

t h a t t h e nt h t e m

s ee

i s t h e r ef o r e t h e

s id e r e

If

S i nce

3 b, & c

b m ay b e

e x ce e d

a +

H ere
th e w rd

an

2 b,

l )b

s en s e

a +

re v er s e o rd er

w e h av e

{a + ( n

{a + ( n

t a i ng t h e p a i

rs

of

te m s i n th e

s am e

ve

r tical

l i ne t o g e t h e r , w e n d
2

{2n + ( u

H enc

e,

s i n ce

{2 n +

1 ) b}

th e

re

are n

1 )b}

1 ) b} -L

te m s,
it

Thi s g i v e s 2 i n te r m s

2a + ( n

o f n, a ,

l ) b}

{2 a + (n

1 ) b}

E X AMPL ES

XX

If w e d e n o te th e l a s t t er m
l

= a +

a +

En

v e n ie n t

in p

r act ice

su m

To

se

r i es

by l , w e h av e

l as t ter ms ,

a nd

AP

an

is

r op o s i t i o n

ti mes the

w hi ch

is

co n

an

t o 1 00

terms

He re

9 4 00

E mple 2
T d the sum f the rst
The n th d d i teger i 2
xa

th e

terms

mple 1
sum the ri thmeti c l seri e
2
d b
He nce

E xa
=5

r st

the

the

s ay,

a ve a g e

of

H en ce

1 )b

Th at i s t o

4 83

tegers
He ce

i t odd

in

+ (2n

2n

n
n

2
2
.

It ppe rs the ref re th t the sum f ny num b er f c secut i ve d d i tegers

i g w i th u i t y i the squ r e f the i r
b egi
umber Th i s pr p s i t i w
k n w n t the Greek ge meters
E mple 3
Sum the seri es 1
F irst supp se t b
t n te r m
eve = 2 m y The n the seri e i
a

nn n

xa

sa

4 +

e ch l i e there
The sec d g i ves

+ (2m

ar e

on

the
\Ve

2 m

1 ) 2 m ,

as

for i ts

by Ex a

mple 2

s,

sum m
He ce

o dd ,

=2m

be

uv

e t supp se n t
The w h ve
x

terms The rst l i e h

m ( 2 2 ) /2 th t i
m (m

as

result

on

Z:

To n d

n,

In

on

1,

s ay

su m

4+

in

th s
u

thi s c se
a

al l

we

+ ( 2m

h ve
a

t o d o i s to

ad d

2 m to

our

f rmer
o

nd

m : m,

2m
1

Th i s result m ig ht b bt
th g i ve se ri es i p i rs
e o

ai n

ed eve n m re s i mpl y by ss ci t i
o

ng

the term

of

C HA

GENERAL IN T E G RA L SERIES

4 84

rm

of a

th a n t h e l

st

r ti ce o f 3 w ill n o t appl y t o th e cas e w h e r e t h e

s e r ie s i s a n i n t e g r al f u n ct i o n o f n o f h i h e r d e r e e
g
g
We p r o c e d th e r efo r e t o d ev elop a m o re g en eral

Th e
n th t e

m e th o d

L et th e

of

te m

nt h

th e

se

ri e s be
+ 19,

p o, p , , p , ,
p , ar e i n d e p en d e n t o f i t
A n d l e t u s d e n o t e t h e s um s o f t h e
s t , s e co n d, th i d ,

w he e

r th
n s,

p ow e
;

rs

of

the

r s t

r
n u m b e rs

i n t eg r a l

by

n 8 2 , n s, ,

th a t

so

+ n

2
,

+ n
a nd s o o n

I f 3 d e no t e t h e

su m o f n

of

t e ms

th e

se

r ie s

w h o s e nth t e m

w e h a v e,

is

"

+ p0n

H en c e

a dd i n "

in

v e r ti cal co l um n s

Fr o m thi s f o rm u l a w e

g e n e al

te m is

thi d,

Th es e
p

ro ces s

su ms

as

we

To

o nl

n, a:

can

y we

be

ca cu a t e

s h all n o w s h o w

ca l cu la te n s ,

cou ld su m

It +

f th e

ri e s w h o s e
r s t s eco nd

se

s u cce s s i v e l

y by

u nif o

rm

2,

th e

( 2:

I f i n t h e i d en t i ty
2

tha t w e

lrav e

k n e w th e s u m s
p o w e rs o f t h e r t n i nt eg e r s

1
if
)
(

it h

s ee

we

l)

2x

1 , w e ha

7Z

- n

2 7b

ve

1 w e pu t
t h e f o l l o w i ng
+

1,

2 (n

1,

s u cce s s i v e l y

e q u at i o n s

SUMMA T I O N

xx

If w e

dd

d es t r o y

a ll

t he s e

e ach

a nd

v
i
g e

o th e

wi

th o s e

th

on

e x ce p t i o n

of

r ig h t

th e

485

t h e l e f t m u t u al l y

th e t e m s

th e

on

e q ua t i o n s ,

"

tw o ,

dd e d i n

ve

w hi ch

r ti cal

ve
i
g

co u m n s ,

H ence

(n + 1 )
F r om

or

t h i s w e h av e

(
z (n

(n

n n +
u31

)n

r e su l t

w hi ch w e

o b t ai n e d

m ig h t h av e

b y t h e m e th o d

of

3,

for

C or
i n teg

The

r l fu ncti on of
a

To

su m

r s t

the

the

n o

ca l cu la te n 3 2

r of

p owe s
2 nd deg r ee

H e n ce
U s i ng

in

d di n g

( 1 ) the

1) n
3

3x

x
a

n +

2,

an
z

3n

it

3 2;

pu t

w e ha

3n

3 (n

e q u at i o n s ,

(n

v al u e al e

we

2
n
{(

ad y fo u n d f or

g um

hav e

3 ,, s,

1,

s u cce s s i v e l y

1,
l

l l th ese

an

ve

i nteg ers i s

rs t

I n t h e ide n ti ty
a; = n, t

the

we

h av e

(n

3n

n +
o
4

(2n

H ence
(

71 n
7 18 2

Co r

The

functi on of

1)

(2)

su m o

n o

1) (2n

the squ ar es

the 3 rd deg r ee

the

rs t

it

rs

i nteg e

is

an

i ntegr a l

SUMMA T I O N

48 6

ca l cu la te

To

(a:

or

Us i ng

w e n d,

x =

2,

(
n u +
(
n n
(

4x
1;

a dd

1)

6 ,,s2
an d

n s,

(n

1 pu t

s u cce s s

e q u a t i o ns

t he n

so

n,

1)

v al u es o f

n u

4x

(n

4 ,,s3

C H AP

b e fo r e,

as

th e

c
c

t = n, d = a
c

o bt ai n e d, a nd

"

n 33 .

I n t h e i d e nti ty

i ve l y

or 1

,, s 1

al e a

3)

3n

4 ,, sl

dy f ou n d, w e h av e
1 ) (2 n

n n

2 n (u

1)

1)

2n l

H e nce

1)

n n
u se

(2)

Cor 1

C or 2

The

(
an

1)

d f r o m thi s
Th e

the

in

as

we

cu a t e d

th a t

k n o w i ng

we

os e ,

6n

9n

+ n

co nt i n u e d

i nd e ni t el y,

h ad

i n f act , t h at

Th e n,

cal cu l at e

ca n

is

j ust

as

1)

5 -8 , w e d e d u ce th e

in

al l

an

th e

d th e
o th e

be en

ca l

q u at ion

n3,

&c

w he e

ar e

t h e bi n om i al

ci ents of

co e f

t he

1 th

Th e

e q u a ti o n

Ge r 1
.

n .9,

is

1
( )
an

e n abl e s u s

i nteg r a l

tha t we ma y w i te

a nd

i nteg ers i s the squ a re

cal cu l at e d o n e a f t e

r
o rd e r

rst it

can Sh o w

f u n ct i on s
p

the 4 th deg r ee

Thi s p r oce s s m ay b e
up

the

n o

(l ) ;

n n +

e qu a t i o n ,

r es ult

cu bes o

r rs t p owers

Ex a ctly
n +

i nteg ral fu ncti on

an

sum o

thei

su m o

the

is

n3,

i t i s obviou s f om

(1)

tha t

to

ca l cu l a t e

functi on of

f the

n o

1 th deg

ree

so

I N T E G RAL

S UM o r AN Y

xx

go
.

f or thi s i s t
t

ru e

fo r

(
an

ru e

w h en r

1,

1)

n u

2,

tha t w e may w i te

so

3,

1)

d u ci bl e t o

1 ) i s d i v i s ibl e by

We

s um

no w

can

an

h e n c e i t m us t be

i nteg ra l fu ncti on

the

f
o
f

ter ms
r th

of

0 3 n 33

ri es

whose

By

deg r ee i s

cz n se

a nd s o o n

any s er i es

n u

se

i n te g ral f u n cti o n

an

w e see t h at the s u m o

the

'

5 , for w e h av e

'

i s d i vi s ibl e by

48 7

Co r 2

S E I ES

an

nt h

te m i s

a nd

9, C o r

rm

w hos e nth te

i nteg

re

is

ral fu ncti on of

1,
an

n o

1 th deg ee
e m ay , t h e e f o e , if w e ch o o s e , i n s u m m i n g
"+1
n
su
c
h
s
e
i
s
u
m
a y
e , as s
e t h e s u m t o b e An
K;
a
a nd d e t e m i n e t h e co ef ci e n ts A, B ,
K by g i v i ng p a ti cu l a
r

v al u e s

te m s
ch a

If

to

of

the

v i ii

SH

S2 ,

se

r ie s

th e n i t i s

7 , t h at t h e

1)

Th e fol l o w i ng

su m

be t h e

ob

v i ou s

f ew

by

e x am pl e s

{a + ( n

The 2 d te rm i
The l t term i
He ce
n

(a
(a

b)

nb

b)

(n

(a
(a
(a

b)

2b

b)

1b

(a

f u nd i
o

1)b

b) n
b) n

(n
w as

L ag r ang e s

as

1 , 2,

(
s 2
(
)
a re a

su m s o f

bn s l
b

n n

1 ) b},

1)

r 2
Th e o r e m
,

is

E mple 1
T sum the seri es
The th term i
The 1 th ter m i
xa

2)

4 88

E mple 2
The th term i
He nce
xa

X A MP LE S

to

(2n

4n

4n

4n

C HA P

erm

4n

+ 4 (n

+1
+1

Hen ce ddi ng i n vert i c l c lum n s

a

we

h ve
a

n,

( 2n
3

Ex a

mple 3

to

The nth ter m i

Hen ce

+ 1)

+ 2)

6 n9 + 1 1 n + 6

erm

s.

m8 3

2:

i(

3 57i

5 07i )

ple 4
A w edge -sh ped pi le f h t st ds n r ect gul r b se There m
si des f the l w est ect gul l yer m 1
n d n h t r e pect i vel y i n the t w
i de
f the n e t r ect gul r l yer
d
1 i the t w
d
n the uppe r
F i n d the w h le um ber f sh t i n the
m st l ye r b e i ng s i gle l i e f h t
pi le m b ei ng gre ter th n
The n m ber i the l w est l yer i m i the e t (m 1 ) ( 1 ) i the
l
nd
the
um
e
r
the
l
st
l
e
r
i
m
n
b
i
n
ne t ( m 2 ) (
;
(
)
y
th t i ( m n +
(
He ce w h ve t sum the ser es
E xam

an

o s

an

h ch there
The th term
+1
) th t i

1)

are n
o

-r

He n c e

an

so o

n x

on

so

(n

te ms
f the eri es
r

)(

is

(m

( m + 1 ) (u + 1 )

s,

+ (m

n l ) ( n n

r te the seri es

w e m ay w i

ar

E = mn + ( m

in w i

an

are

s,

an

an

s o

an

as

1)

(n

th t

i s,

(m + 1

f ll w s
o

+n

(n + 1 )

1)

(n

2
2
+

2
1
+
,

(m + 1 ) ( n + 1 )

ns o ,

1)

n +

rk i g e mples by th i s meth d the stude t must b c re

ful t see th t th seri es i c mplete i ther w ds th t there e ctly
terms l l f m d c di g t th m l w I f y terms w ti g
i f the re
redu d t terms ll w ce must b m de by dd i g su btr ct
th c se m y b
i g te rms
Rem a r k
o

In wo

or

a re

as

xa

ac or

an

e.

e sa

an

or

a re

an

are

an

or

xa

or

E OME T RI C

xx

SERIES W HO SE
F UN C T I O N OF

T ERM IS TH E PR O DU C T O F AN IN T EGRAL
AND A SIMPLE E X P O NEN T IAL F UN CT I O N OF n

7%

(p n

re

0,

,,

p os i tiv e i n teg e
Th e s i m pl es t

du ce s t o
s ay

is

p
Th e
s

ur

ar

r at i o
m l

al l

i n d e p e n d en t

is

o f n, a n d s

an

i s th a t i n w hi ch t h e i nt eg r al fu n cti o n

c as e

Th e

t e m i s t h e n o f th e fo

nth

w he e

t h e n th t o t h e

of

th at i s t o

r,

s ay,

c o n s t ant

m p sr n ,

a co n s t a n t

is

is

p
1 ) th t e m i n t hi s
s

re
or

p e ci al

ca se

ra tio of each term to the pr ecedi ng is con

sta n t i s cal l ed a GE O ME T RI C S E R I E S or G E O M E I R I C PR O GRESSI O N
a nd the cons tant ra ti o i n qu es ti on i s ca l l ed the C O MM O N RA T I O
I f t h e r s t t e rm b e a an d th e co mm o n r at i o r th e s e co n d
t e r m i s ar ; t h e th i r d ( ar ) r th a t i s ar ; th e f o u r t h (ar ) r t h at i s
m
n
t
t
m
i
r
an d s o o n
Th e
h er
s a
A g e om etr i c s e r i e s
ar
i s t h e re fo r e n e i th e r m o r e n or l e s s g e n er al t ha n t h a t p a r ti cu l a r
cas e o f t h e g e n e r al cl a ss o f s e r i e s n o w u n d e r d i s cu s s i o n w h i ch
i n t r o du ce d i t to o u n o t i ce
To su m a g eometri ca l ser i es
A

ri es

r ies

a re

t h at i s ,

cl ass o f s e

con s ta n t

, ,

th e nth te m i n th e

of

p ,n

w he

48 9

nTH

Th e typ i cal f or m
co n s i d e r e d i s

to be

n ow

SE I E S

se

i n whi ch the

'

Let

ar

M ul tipl y b ot h s id e s

(1

of

i s i nd e p e n d e n t

of

m
o

("

we
oi

h av e

m 1

cw

1
Z

o p e a t i o ns o n

we

3
( )

of
f

r and

by l

ar

ar

H e nce
t h e nu mb e

ar

se

l
(

ar
(

S i n ce

ar

h av e t hu s

th e

r ig h t h
-

o bt a i n e d

an

th e

of

d si de
sum

Of

( 3)
th e

r ie s
C or

av

rl

I f l h e th e l a s t t e r m

H en

ce

( 3)

t he

se

r i es

t hen l

m a y b e w i tt e n

He e w reg rd the r i s i g
r

of

= ar 1 and

of r

to

the

n th

p w er
o

as a

si gle per t i
n

on

E XAMP L ES

4 90

C H AP

a rl

E mple 1
xa

04

terms

to 1 0

In

th i s c se
a

E mple

xa

Here

(i

= 1}

E mple 3
xa

to

m2

i/

2 n
)

1
'

my

c
c

m3

2
)

3
x

eve

if

be

an ) , i f

be

3
x

w y

1
x

term s

n,

odd

y)

He ce

:e

=1,

He ce

2 1

a.

3/

to

terms

+a

33

n +1

(y

y
$

N ow

l +x +

a nd

(
\Ve

13

fun cti on

n ex t

whi ch mu ltip li es

"

to

is

It

an

w i ll

d b ar e

r v ed
t o g e th r

be

o bs e

w e m u l t i pl i e d

the

nt h

te

w h o se n th

co n st an ts

rm

any

t e m h as

ri c seri es
Th e se r i e s

m
t
eo
e
g

y )

1
y> <
y>
n

l a: )

o ce e d
r
p

a
: -

co n s i d e

the

the l s t deg

cas e
I

v) ,

+y

Th e g e n e r al t e r m i n th i s

w he e a

+y+

1 + y+

he ce

(1

cas e

r e the i nteg r al

whe

ree

is

bu )

l
(

th at

t h e n t h te m

r
r

of

r
r e s ul t i f
ny a r i t h m t i c s e r i e s b
y
F o r t hi r e so n
se r i e s

thi s fo m w o ul d

of

te m

g eom et ic se ie s
th e f o m ( 1 ) i s o f ten
.

c al l e d a n ar i thmeti ca

e m pl oyed

to

m ay b e

sum a

G P

s u mm e d

by

an

e x t en s i o n o f

r ti c

th e

u r

L et
E

b 2) r
.

b 3) r
.

n
.

GE OM ET RI C

ARITHMETIC O -

xx

M u l tipl y by 1

(1

an

491

S E I ES

hav e

we

)E
b l )r

(
(a

b 2 )r

b 3)r

b l )r
.

b 2 )r

bn) r

(
(a

(
(a

bn

(
(

b l

br

L o o k i ng
we

br

m e r el y

br

at

(a

t h e t e m s w i t h i n th e t w o

co n s t i tu t e

t h at t h e s e

s ee

"

g e om e t

ri c

se

r i es

ve

r ti cal

H en ce i f w e
n o s e r i e s l e ft o n
,

li n e s ,

m u l t i pl y by 1 r a s e co n d tim e, th e e w il l b e
th e
i g h t-h and s i de ; a nd w e sh all i n effe ct h av e f ou nd
e h av e , i n f act ,
e q u i ed e xp e ss i o n f o r 2

r
r

t he

1
(

(1

)(

bi

b) r

br

1
+
br

br

br

"

(l
)(
b) r
(a

(l
(

b) r

br
b) r

br

n+1

br

br

{
(l

l
(

a
(
)

a
(
)
1 ) b}r

n+1

bn) r

"

+2

Hen ce
(

b) r

b) r

(a

r e ad er h as no t al re dy p e r ei v e d th at th e
e ri e
r w il l s u m any
a r ti ce o f m ul ti p l i ng r e p e a t e dl y by 1
of
y
t h e g e ne ral fo r m i n d i ca t e d i n
1 1 p r o babl y th e fo ll o w i ng a r g u
If

th e

m e n t w i ll

Let

co nv i nce

f (h )
s

th e n t h e d eg

te ms

f (n
,

in
l

d e n ot e

ree

an

f (n

each

ca s e

of n o f

i s th e

H en ce

(s
we

se

r i es

f ( 1 )r

(s

th e

n ow

th e

d w e h av e

an

2 ) th d e g

s th

s i n ce

d eg r e e
the tw o

m ay d e n o t e

f ( n)
,

1 ) w ill b e

of n of

the

1 ) th ,

S im i l a r l y

a nd s o o n

M u l ti p l y b y 1

o th e

by

C o n si d e r

i s th e

su c h

i nt eg ral f un cti o n

of

d e s t r oy

i n t eg r al f u n c t i o n

by

hi m th a t

ree

an d

an

m ay be d e n o t ed

IN T E G R O -G EO ME T RI C

4 92

(1

f (3)r
Il a) ?

'

f (1 )r

Th e

se

s i n ce

ve

th e

(s

te m s

th e be g i nn i n g

at

w h o s e nt h t e m

is

s i m pl e

n ow

m u l t i pl i e s

If w e

r t ic l li ne s i n ( 2 ) i s
i n teg r al f u nct i o n w hi ch

b etw e en th e

1
( )

th e

f fn

l ) th d e g e e o n l y
m u l ti pl y o n ce m o e by 1

n ow o f

r tain

ri es

t h a n th a t i n

ce

ca n

) >2
f (2 )r
f fl ll

is

SE I E S

s h all

we
e nd,

and

nd

t og eth e

on

th e

w i th

rig h t
se r i es

now

r w e r e du ce t h e d eg r e e
Ea ch t i m e w e m u l ti pl y by 1

m u l t ipl i er o f r by u ni ty
H en ce by m u l ti pl yi ng by ( 1

th e

of
r

8+1

r pa te th e ser i es o n th e r i g h t h an d s id e al tog eth e r

a n d t h e r e w ill r e m a i n o nl y a e d nu m b e r o f t e r m s
I t fol l w s that any ser i es w hose n th ter m consi s ts of an i nteg ra l

fu nction of n of the s th deg r ee mu ltip li ed by r can be summed by

sh a

we

e x ti

ll

v
mu l tip lying by ( 1
)
Thi s s im pl e p r o p os i ti on

s i mp ly

mat i on

of

th e

cl as s o f se

s+1
.

ri e s now

E mple 1
Here the deg ee f the multi pli er
summ ti o w must m lti ply by ( 1
xa

n,

"

u nd e

di s cu s s i o n
.

(1

t h e w h o l e th eo y

co n t a i n s

of r

+n

th e

of

su

He ce i n rder t e ffect the

We thus n d

is 2

3
.

3 1
.

9 9

3 2r 3

m
n i
2

2 3

3 2

1 )2 r

3(n

3 1

3( n

2)

3)

"

3a r

3 (n

2)

"
1
r +

(n
2
72.

He ce

(n

1)

2
2
n
(

1
+
r
"

1 ) rn+ 2

2n

23

2 r +

(1

3r

2 r + 3r

an d

we

'

4r

2 nr

2 nr

1 ) r 9

2r

9n

1
.

+ 2 (2n
r

( 2n

n +2

h ve

2r

2n

(1

E mple 2
E
Mult i ply by ( 1 + )
xa

(2n

2 n r en +l

(2n
.

I I e nce

(1

2"
?"

)r
2
r
2)
l

2 2 nr2"
.

"

(2n

2n

+2

w,

C O NVERGENCY

xx

If w put
e

h ch grees w i th

w i

E mple 3

3,

G EOMET R I C

4 93

S E I ES

deduce

1 , we

OF

xa

2 n = n

4
abo

ve

C O NVERGEN C Y A N D DIVERGEN C Y OF TH E AB O VE SERIES

We h av e s e en t h at t h e s u m O f n t er m s o f a s er ies
w h o s e nt h t e r m i s a n i n t e g ral f u n ct i o n o f n i s a n i n t eg r al fu n ct i o n
o f n ; a n d w e h av e s e e n t h at e v e r y i n t e r a l fu nct i o n be co m es
g
i n ni t e f or an i n n i te v al u e O f i ts v a r i abl e
H en ce th e su m o f n
t e r m s o f a n y s e ri e s w h o s e nth t e rm i s a n i n t eg r al fu n ct i o n o f
i t m ay b e m a d e t o e x cee d
(nu m e ri call y) a ny q u anti ty h o w ev e r
i
n cr e s i n
n
r
e a t by s u f ci en t l
y
g
g
Th i s i s e p r es s ed by s ayi n g t h at ev e r y s u ch s e r i e s i s
di erg ent
C o n s id er t h e g eom e tr i c s e r i e s
.

+ ar

If

1 , th e

se

ri

b eco m e s

es

+ a = nd

H e nce

i n cr ea s i ng

s u f c e nt l y

by

m ay

n, w e

h o w e v e r g r ea t
b e n u m e r i cal ly g r eat er t h a n 1 , t h e

a ny v a l u e ,

If r

2 to

cau s e

su

r pa s s

a r

s am e

is t

ru e

f o r w e h av e

1)

"

ar
r

Now ,
an

s i n ce r >

d t h e r efo r e

ci e n tl y

ev e

r gr

i nc

eat

l
ar

i ng

i t,

m ak

s m al l a s

be

see

cas es

nu m e

as

o ft e n

e x p e s s ed

c au s e

to i nni ty

i n cr ea s i ng

l
ase
e
p

e at as w e

the g eometr i c

2 to

su

r pas s

H en ce

r i es i s said

se

th a n 1 , w e

pl eas e,

by
f r o m a /( l r )

by

s u f ci e n tl y

a s s m al l as w e
e r
.

n,

ke

ma

a ny

s u f

by

e n ce ,

v alu e

'

h ow

ri cally l es s

w e p l e as e

by

n , w e ca n
.

2 t o d iffe

su m

r
(
/

Ex i x

cau s e

the

e a s ing

I n thes e two
If

w e ca n ,

as

li t tl e

ri es

ar

is

ar

su f ci e ntly i ncre as

d t h e r e fo r e

i
n
t
h
at when
y g
se

an

by

s u f ci e nt l y

sa

the

can ,

to be di verg ent

as

ar

i n cr e as i ng
we

pl e ase

ri c

nu me

is

/( l
n,

we

as

ca n

Th i s is

lly l ess than 1 ,

/( l

E X AMPL E

4 94

I n thi s
the

va lu e a

ri es

the

case

1
(
/

IN FINI T E G E O ME T RI C SERIES

OF

is

se

rg ent

to be

sai d

conve

odd

an

n u mb e

su m o f an ev en n u m b e

th e

fo r e , d o e s

k en

al w a

i t s t e ms i s

al w a

Th e

n i te

a , an d

th e

su m ,

nu m b e

in

an

ys

re

of

te m s

o f an

terms w h ve

in

2
w

he

n n

of

terms

of

the ser es
i

lr
i

l /2 n

1
~

ay

be i

m de i n i tely gre t

is

Th i s c se m

ni te umb er

of

th e m

of

He nce

o f n o ti ce

r d oe s i t co n v e rg e t o o n e d e ni te v al u e
p ro p e r ty i s so m e t i m es s ai d to osci l late

ri e s h av i ng th i s
E mple 1
F i d the l i m i t f the sum

Fo r

rg e to

conve

n e i th e

bu t

xa

b eco m e i n ni t e w h en

n ot

ta

ar e

se

sum o

= a a + a

2
th e

to

Th e r e i s yet ano th e r ca s e w o r th y
If r
1 , th e s e r i e s be com e s

H ence

a nd

C HA I

llustr ted ge metri c lly

a

f ll w s
L et A B b l i e f uni t le ngth

as

e a

P1

It i b v i us th t by sufc i e t
n um b e r f these
per ti s w n c me e rer t B th
y ss i g ed d i
t ce h w eve r sm ll I ther w rds i f w t ke sufc i e t umber f
terms f the seri es
s o

an

on

e ca

n a

an an

A P]

P 1 P 2 + P 2 P3 + P 3 P 4 +

sh l l h ve result di fferi g fr m A B th t i fr m u ni ty
ple se
Th i s i s i mpl y ge metri c l w y f s yi ng th t

we

xa

as

l i ttle

as

we

OO

=1

2
n

ad

E mple 2
T ev lu te the recurri g dec i m l
L et

an

s,

The
th

v usl y
He ce

is

b io

34
a

34

34

34

34

e metri c seri es
o

( l d OO

h se c mm
o

34

l oo I WW

34
99

on

r ti
a

o,

is

less

P R OB L E M S

xx

ARI T HME T I C P R O G RES SI ON

ON

4 95

PR O PERT IES O F QUAN T I T IES W H I C H ARE IN ARI THME T I C

GE O MET RI C O R HARM O NI C PR O GRESSI O N
.

If
nu m be

Of

r s t t e rm

be t h e

2 th e

a nd

te m s,

b the

of

su m

d iffe r en ce ,

co m m o n

an

th e

r i th m e t i c p r o g r e s s i o n

w e h av e

1 b
) }

ti ti es ,

qu at i on e nabl e s u s t o d e t e r m i ne
E, a , b, u , w h e n t he o t h e r t h r e e

is

i n t eg

Th is

an

e q u a t io n

w h e n n i s th e u n

k no w n

Thi s l as t
q u a d a ti c
w e m a y il lu s t a t e by

E mple
G i ve
ve
xa

i
n
v
e
g

ar e

l s t d eg

ree

i n w h i ch

in

cas e

a co u l e o f ex am l es
p
p

qu an
e u at i o n
q

Th e

all

ca s es ,

th e

e qu a t i o n

of

po i n t s

e sen ts so m e

th e fou

i n te

e x ce

r es t

pt

is

w h i ch

a bo

the

n
i
t
u
a
t
q
y,

cas e

of

an y o n e o f

1 5 , b:

to n d

We h ve

by

the f rmul
o

(1)

(n

He ce
=3
=8
The r ts f th i s equ t i
d
It m y seem str ge th t
there sh uld b tw d i ff ere t um b ers f terms f w h i ch the sum i the s me
The m ystery i e pl i ned by the f ct th t the c mm d i ff ere ce i eg ti ve
The seri es i i n f ct
n

oo

o n a re n

an

smuch
sum f 8 terms
E mple 2

as

on

3 6

the sum f the p rt bet w ee the verti c l l i es

f the se r i es i the s me
the sum f 3 terms

i na

xa

an

or

an d ,

s,

as

is

er the
o

The equ t i
a

on

for

th i s c se i

in

= 3,

s
n

14

2n

He ce
+ 2 87
The sec d f the r ts be i g eg t i ve h
i mmed i te refe re ce t
pr blem The rs t r t i dm i ss i ble f
i t s ig i c
cer ed b t i t i
pe t bject i n b ec use i t i fr ct i l f fr m the n tu e f the c se
must b i teg l It m y b c jectured theref re th t w h ve set
selves i mp ss i ble pr blem A l yt i c lly c s i dere d the fu cti
+ 2
v ri es c t i u usl y d there i i the bst ct n d i fculty i n g i vi g t i t
ny v lue w h ts eve r
The sum f
ri thmet i c seri es n the ther h d
f the v lues th t 2
v ri es p
h ppe s th t 1 4 i t
lt m
d it
n
ssume w he n = 3 nd b 2 There
h w ever t w v lues w h i ch
n

on

oo

ra

an

on

er sa

an

an

a
:

on

on n

o ne o

ou r

are ,

s no

o our

ra

on

or ,

so

ar as

na

as n o

on

an

on a

or

so

s a

oo

ca

an

D ETE R M I NAT I ON

4 96

R T M ETI C

S E I ES B Y TWO

OF A I H

C H AP

DATA

ssume b et w ee w hi ch 1 4 l i es ; nd w sh uld e pect th t the i tegers

d e t h i ghe r th
2 8 7 w uld c rr esp
d t these v lues f 2
n e t l w er
f
w he n n = 2
nd w he n n = 3
S
i f ct i t i
can

an

o,

n x

an

on

or ,

r ith m eti c pro g r ess io n i s d et e rm i n e d w h e n i ts r s t

t e r m an d co m m o n di ff e r e n ce are g i ven ; t h a t i s t o say w h e n
t h e s e ar e g i v e n w e ca n w r i te d o w n a s m a ny t e rm s o f t h e pr o
An ar ith m e ti c p r o g r e ss io n i s th e r e f r e
g ress i on a s w e p l eas e
An

ll

w h at m a th em a t i ci an s

d et e rm i ne d by

ca

twofold manifoldness

t w o i n d e p e n d e n t d at a

an y

B ea r i n g t h i s i n m i n d , w e

m eti c p r og r e s s i o ns

of

3, 4, 5, & c

g en e a l a

&c

r i th

'

8,

8,

a,

(IL

( IL

a,

3 3,

r i t e t h e m ost
t er m s a s foll o w s
w

can

( Ii
01

t h at i s , i t i s

3,8 ,

2 ,8 ,

r e and 8 are any q uan titi es w h ats o ev er I t wi ll be

o b s e r ve d t h a t i n t h e cases Wh e r e w e h a v e an o d d n u m be r o f
t e r m s t h e co m m o n d iffe r en ce i s )8 i n th e case s W h e r e w e h av e
Th e s e for m u l ae are s om e ti m e s u sef ul i n
a n e v e n nu mb e r

whe

es t a bl i s h i n g e q u a ti on s o f co n d i t i on

b et w e e n q u a n t i t i e s i n A P
.

E mple 1
G i ve th t the p th ter m f n A P i P nd th t the qth term i Q t
L et b the rst term nd b the c mm d i ffere ce ; the n
n d the A P
1 )b
d + ( q 1 ) b respect i vel y
the p th d qth term
He ce
+ (p
xa

equ t i s

t wo

on

are

an

s ar e a

an

These
We

+ (p

the

of

on

+ (q

de g ree t determ i e

1 st

a an d

nd

b= ( P

E mple 2
If b b
xa

{( P

1 )Q

(q

b)

b= a ,

c:

9)

a,

in A P
.

sh

ow

th t

=a

We m ay put
'

The equ ti
a

on

to b e

a.

'

est bl i shed i

e)

(2 a

,6 )

a an

ar e

an

3
.

+B

s n ow

2
.

20

l3)

S i ce
i depe de n t f n
d B
i de nt i t y
The left -h d s i de reduces t
n

(2 a

an o

e)

em

the th i s equ t i
r,

on

mu t
s

be

an

ARI THME T I C MEANS

xx

f(
2 a {2 a 2 + 2 5 2 } + 5 { 4a B}
+ 13

He nce the requ ired result i est bl i shed

a

a -

b by d e

a nd c

me

r el y
If

b,

be

c,

AP

in

(c

2
)/

w e h av e

p o k e n o f as th e a r i thmeti c mean b e t w ee n a
a r i th m e ti c m ea n be t w e en t w o
u
a n t i ti e s i s t h e r e fo r e
q
s

i s p op u l a r l y cal l e d th ei r av e r a g e
a nd c be any two u an ti ti es wha tsoever, and A , , A2 ,
q

w hat

n othe s , su ch

An

tha t

a,

ar e sa i d

Th e r e i s
i
ve n
g

c a re

b is

ca s e

Th e

2 01

q u ant i ti es, a,
ni ti o n
e nce

b
I n t h is

2 a 3,

I f th re e
b

2
3
l)

4 97

a,

A , , A2 ,

an

no

A , , A2 ,

n d i ng

d i i cu l ty i n

F o r , i f b b e th e

th e l as t

of

AP
.

then A , , A2 ,
.

A n w h en

A , , A2 ,

d i ff e r e n ce

co m m o n

a an d c

of

a a nd

th e

AP

th e n

c,

(n

From

an

means i ns er ted between

n a r i thmeti c

to be

for m

A, ,

1 )h

t h e s e w e d e d u ce b

H e n ce

w e h av e

A1

= a +

i s mea nt

ar

Ae

u +

M E B y the
a,,

= d + u2

n +

i thmeti c mean

a1

c a

&c

or ave ag e o

qu an ti ti es

a , , a,

a,

pa r t i c u l a r c a s e w h e r e t w o q u a n t i t i e s o n l y a r e i n
t h e a r it h m e t i c m e a n i n t h i s s e n s e a g r e e s w i t h t h e

In

th e

qu es ti o n,
d e n i ti o ns g i v e n ab ov e ; bu t i n o th e r
h
s e s h a ve n o t hi n
a
r
p
g i n co m m o n

ca s e s

t h e m ean i n g s

of

th e

E mple 1
I sert 3 0 ri thme ti c m e n b et w een 5
me f these me s
L et b b t h c mm d i ff ere ce f the
The
b ( 90
1)
He nce the me s
xa

an o

an

an d

90 ;

an d

nd

the ri thmet i c
a

on

A P
.

5 , A1 , A2 ,

Ago, 90

an

are

th t i
a

31
.

"

31

s,

VOL

'

g
31

41 0
,

&c

31

2 K

E X AMPLES

4 98

C HAP

We h ve
a

An

AI

+ 90

85
3

(5

true ge er ll y th t the ri th m eti c me f the

ri th
met i c me s b et w ee
nd
i the ri thmet i c me
b et w ee
nd
E mple 2
The r i thmeti c me
qu t it i es i A P e ceeds the
f the squ res f
squ re f the ir ri thmet i c me n by qu t i t y w h i ch depe ds nl y up
p n thei r c mm d i fferen ce
nd
L et the qu t i t i es b
R ema r k I t i s

n a a

an

xa

an

an

n a a

by

an

an d

+ ba

on

+ 2 6,

6,

a n

1 ) (Qn + 1 )

+ a bn ( n + 1 ) + b

ain ,

f squ r es squ re
He ce
A M
w h i ch p r ves the p r p s i t i
n

on

I f E be t h e

r s t

w h os e

an

an

on

Ag

an o

n,

The

te m

an

of

AM

+1

b,
d

su m of n
co m m o n

te m s

r a ti o

of a

g eo m e t

ri c p r og ressi on

r es p ect iv e l y

ar e a a nd r

we

h av e
E

,
a

y th r e e o f t h e fou r , 3 , a, r , n, ar e g i ve n, th i s eq u ati on
W h en e i th e r 2 o r a i s th e u nk no w n
d e te r m i nes t h e f ou r th

W h en

an

n
i
t
u
a
t
q
y,

we

h av e t o

s o l v e a n e u a ti o n O f
q

th e l s t

d eg r ee

Wh en

k no w n q u a nti ty w e h av e to s ol v e an i n teg ral e qu ati on

o f th e n th d e g r e e
w hi ch i f i t e x ce e d s 2 w i l l i n g e n e r al be
e ff e c t e d b y g ra ph i ca l o r o th e r appr o x i m a t i v e m e th o ds
I f n be
t h e u nk n o w n q a nt i ty w e h av e t o s ol ve a n e x p o n e n t i al e q u at i o n
of th e f o r m r
s
w h e r e r an d s ar e k n o w n
Thi s m ay be

is th e

un

DE T ERMINA T I O N

xx

a cco m

pl i s h e d

of

by m ea n s
n e x t ch a p te r

at

i n th e

s h al l s ee

G E O ME T RI C

OF

o nc e

t abl e

AP

an

GP

is

r s t
th e

ex p e s s

ll t h e

r ati o

E mple 1
The p th term f G P i P
r ti
nd c mm
L et b the fi st te rm the c
on

Fr m these
o

d i v i si

by

U s i ng th i s v al ue

S i nce

the

an d

in

"

om

xa

an

ar e

i nd ep e nd ent,

i d e n ti t y

term i Q

nd

The

h ve

the rst term

o n ra

= P,

hen ce
the rst equ t i
P /Q , w

-a)

(P

ti

we

by

ou r

dt

a a,

on,

w e nd
-

(1

9)

n)

(1

q
u
P

- / q
)
m Q a p i (q p ) ,
p

l / ( p -q I
P

I / (q p i

a,

e,

If the c mm
The equ ti t b
a

(1

pr ve th t
(c
t i b de ted by w m y put
est bl i shed the bec mes
ra

on

an

on

(1

r,

no

b= r a ,

d = 7 3a

-E

s,

3 74 + 2 7 5 + r 6 )

(1
w

q th

arq

E mple 2
I f b d b f u r qu t i t i es i G

th e s e t w o

th t i

deduce

P/Q )

He ce w h ve
e

of r

we

o n,
rP

4a

a rP

r a ti o

com m o n

betw e en q u an ti ti es i n G P , i t
qu anti t ie s i n v ol v e d i n t er m s o f th e

i n q u es tio n m u s t th e n be co m e

e q u at i o n
xa

an d co mm o n

te m

e q u a ti o n

any

to

an

an

e s t abl i s h i n g

u s u al

we

as

twofold manifol dness ,

m ay be d ete m in ed by m e an s o f i ts
s t te m
t w o i n d e p end e n t d a ta
o r by a ny o t h e
is

l og a r i t h m s ,

Of

4 99

L ik e

In

DA T A

S E I ES B Y TWO

h i ch i

s ob

vi usl y true
When thr ee quantiti es
o

2r + r + r4
9

4 73 + 2 r ,

2 r 5 + v6 + 2

g eomet ic mean between

b,

a,

c, are

in G P
.

b is

ca l l ed

the

a and c

H en ce b a c Hence, i f
\Ve h ave , by de n i ti o n, c/b b/a
w e s u pp os e a , b, c to b e al l p o s i t i v e r e a l q u a n t i ti es , b =
M(ac)
Th at i s t o s ay, the g eometri c m ea n between two r ea l p osi ti ve qu a nti ti es
2

i s the p osi ti ve

If
n

G ,, G , ,
.

the squa

re root of

a a nd c

quanti ti es,

a nd c

va l u e o

be two g i ven p os iti ve

s u ch tha t a, G , , G , ,

G ,,

a re s ai d

to be

r r

thei p odu ct
ua nti ti es , and G G , ,
q
.

for m

G
GP
.

then

metr ic means inser ted between

g eo

G E O ME T RI C M EAN S

5 00

Le t

be t h e

Th en w e

h av e G 1

th e l as t

of

r ati o

co mm o n
ar ,

t h ese

G2

ar

s u pp os ed

Gn

ar , c

po s i ti v e v al u e o f th e r o ot b ei ng , o f
d e te r m i n ed , w e can n d th e v al u e

r e al

th e

k en

Si nce r i s thu s
th e g eo m e tr i c m e an s
ta

co u s e,

O f al l

The g eometri c mean of n p osi ti ve

u ct
n
t
r
o
t
o
t
h
e
i
r
r
o
d
va lu e o
h
t
e
h
o
f
p
f

rea l

qu anti ti es i s the p ositi ve

Th i s d e ni ti on ag r ees w i th

r r d e ni ti on w h en t h e r e ar e t w o
E mple
The ge metri c me
ge met ri c me
f the
ge metri c me b et w ee
d
L et the
ge metri c me s i questi b
The

q u an t i ti es

th e f o m e
xa

w e d e du ce

e q u a ti o n s

p r og r e s si o n
n
ur
F r om

th e

of

ca n

o nl y

an

n a an

an

an s

et w ee

an d

is

the

an

on

ar,

ar

2
,

ar

"
,

so

th t
a

(ar

ar

h ch pr ve the pr p s i ti

w i

W
W
( O,
on .

qu anti ti es whi ch are s uch that their recip r ocals

a r i thmeti c p r og r essi on ar e sa id to be i n harmoni c p rog r essi on

for m a n
F r om

thi s d e ni ti o n w e

so m e ti m es

If

a,

r i es of

se

b,

d e du ce t h e foll o w i ng , w h i ch i s

ca n

n ing pr op e r ty
c be thr ee consecu ti ve ter ms of a harmoni c p r og r essi on

i
g v en

as

th e d e

a c=

F or, by d e ni ti o n, l

a,

1 /b, l

o are

th e

r ef o r e

b c
be

b
__

ab

be

a
,

r o p e r ty i n q u e s t i o n
A h r moni c p r og ressi on l i k e t h e ar i thm e ti c p r o g r ess io n
Th e
fr o m w h i ch i t m ay b e d e r i ve d i s a twofold manifoldness
f l l o w i n g i s th e r e fo re a p e r fectl y g e n e r al f o r m f o r a h a r m o ni c

w hi ch

p r ov es

ab

II e nce

in A P

Ii e n ee

then

th e p

HARM O NIC PR OG RESSI O N HARM O NI C M EANS

xx

se

50 1

r i es

t w o i nd ep e n d e n t

c o n ta i n s

f or i t

r e cip r o cal s

of

co n s ta n ts

r m s ar e i n A P
fo r m s ( se e
1 8)

th e te

Th e fol l o w i ng

h ar m o ni c p r og r es s i o ns
i v ely

and

b;

an

d th e

co n s i s t i n g o f

ar e

r
r

p e fe ctl y g e ne a l fo r
t e m s e s p ect
5,

3, 4 ,

/(

B)
Uf

I NCL

I NC

Th e

Il

b o v e f o r m u l ae m ay b e u s ed l ik e t h o s e i n
18
If a , b, c be i n H P , b i s ca ll ed the ha rmoni c mean

between

S in ce l /a
.

w h os e co m m o n

(
H1

d
If

(n

qu a n ti ty
the r ecip oca l s

the

ha r moni c mea ns i nser ted between

i n th i s

we

s ay ,

a
(
) /

no

ac

H
f

be
it

l /H2

1 ) a e,

s uch

f or m

an

ae

2 (a

l ) a c/( 2 a

1 ) a c, & c ;
.

1 ) c) , & c

ip r oca l i s the ar i thmeti c mea n

i
es,
n
i
t
i
i
s
sa
d
t
o
b
e
h
e
h
a moni c
ua
t
t
q

tha t i ts

g iven

ca s e

a and c

h av e
l

ha r moni c p r og r ess i on, H , , H, ,

d i ffe r e n ce i s d,

mean

it

for m

( l /c

H en ce

to be

1 /b

l /b

l /H, , I /H, ,

an

ar e s a i d

H,
AP

H, H, ,

a,

\Ve h a v e , by d e ni ti on, l
l /o, an d b 2 a c/( a
c)

a nd c

H e n ce 2 /b
If

a)

r ec

qua n ti ti es
I t i s eas y t o se e , f om th e co e s p o n di ng p op o s i ti o n e g a d
i ng a i t h m e ti c m ea n s , th a t t h e ha rmoni c mea n of the n ha moni c
means between a and c i s the ha mon i c m ea n of a a n d c
o

rr

a nd

is

The g eometric m ea n between two r eal p os i ti ve qua n titi es a

the g eometr ic m ea n between the ar i thmeti c a nd the ha r mon ic

m ea ns between

mea ns

a re

a a nd c

i n des cendi ng

L e t A, G ,
m ean s b e tw ee n

be

a nd

the

ri thmetic

g eometr i c,

rder of mag nitu de

t h e a r i th m e t i c g e o me t r i c
o

a a n d c,

a nd

harmoni c

t h en

= +

J(ac)

an d

h ar m o n i c

ARITHME T I C G E OMETRI C AND HARM O NI C MEAN S

502

H ence
w h i ch

0 ac

AH
p r o v e s th e

Ag a i n ,

C H AP

r s t p ar t

9
,

r op o s i ti o n

th e p

Z
:
6

of

ac

Ma

A c

ac
M
n
o
h
a + c

/ ( ac)

a + c

at )

N o w s i n ce a a nd c ar e b o th p ositi v e /a an d d o ar e bo th r e al
th e r e fo r e ( Ma
/ c) i s an e s se nti ally p o s i ti ve q uan ti ty ; a ls o
A( a c) and a c are b oth p o s i ti ve H en ce b o th A G a n d G H
x

a re

os i ti v e

p
Th e r efo r e A
.

Th e p r o p os i ti o n o f t h i s p a r ag r ap h (w hi ch w a s k no w n to t h e
G r e e k g eom e t er s ) i s m e r ely a p a r t i cu l a r ca s e o f a m o r e g e n e r a l
r
o s i ti o n , w hi ch w i ll b e p r o v e d i n ch a p x x iv
o
p p
.

N o tw i th s tandi ng th e com pa rati ve s i mp l ici ty o f th e

l a w o f i ts f o r m a ti o n the har moni c s eri es does not bel ong to the ca te
a r i ou s e
e
r i es tha t ca n be s ummed
V
o
o
r
s
p r e s s i o ns can be
g y f
f o u n d t o r e pr es ent t h e s u m t o n t er m s bu t al l o f t h e m p a r tak e
o f th e n atu r e o f a s e r i es i n t h i s r e s p ect th at t h e n u m b e r o f s te p s
i n th e i r s yn th e s is i s a fu n cti o n o f n
I t w il l b e a g o o d e x e r ci s e i n al g br ai c l og i c t o p r o v e t h a t
th e s u m o f a h a r m o n i c s e r i e s t o n t e rm s ca n no t b e r ep r e s e n te d
Th e d e m on s tr ati n
by a n y r a ti o n al al g eb r ai cal f u n cti o n o f n
w ill b e f o u n d t o r e q u i r e n o th i ng b yo n d t h e l em e n ta r y p r i n cip l es
o f al g eb ra i c f o r m l a i d d o w n i n t h e e rl i e r ch ap te r s o f t h i s w o rk
,

XL
g ri th m et i c l pr gress i s
t 1 5 ter ms
t 2 4 terms
terms
t
E X E RC I S E S

Sum the f ll
o

owi n

(
7

it
a

+(

4l

1 +l
o

o o

The 2 oth term f

d the sum f 1 000 te rms
o

term

erms

s.

to

t o l t ei m s

an

to 1 6

o n

to 30 t

on

A P
.

terms

i s 1 00 ,

the p r gress i
o

an d

on

the sum

of

30

terms i

5 00

xx

503

The rst term f n A P i 5 the n um be r

d the c mm
d i ff e re ce
3 90
tur l um b ers begi
H w m ny f the
a

sum i

X E RC I S ES X L

na

1 5,

an

the

terms i

i ts

of

on

n ni n

wi

th u i ty m u n t
n

t o 5 0 050 0

Sh w t h t
i i te n um b e r f A P
b f u d w h i ch h ve
the pr perty th t the sum f the rst 2 terms i equ l t the sum f the
e t m terms n b e i g gi ve i tege r F i d th t p rt i cul r A P h vi ng
the b ve pr pert y w h se rst ter m i u i ty
uth r w i shed t b y up the w h le 1 0 00 c p i es f w rk w h i ch
A
he h d pu bl i shed F t h rst c p y he p i d l B ut the dem nd r i sed
e ch success i ve c py he h d t p y 1 d m re u t i l the
th p ri ce
d f
Wh t di d i t c st h i m it
w h le h d b ee n b ught p
pl ced
the gr u d t i nterv ls f 5 y rds p rt
1 0 0 st es
A ru nn er h t st rt fr m b sket 5 y rds fr m the st st e p i ck up the
by
H w m y y rds
st es d bri g them b ck t the b sket
h
he t
lt gethe r
A B i str i ght l i n e 1 00 y rds l g A t A nd B
e rected pe r
A L B M w h se le ngths 4 y rds d 4 6 y rds respect i vel y A t
p di l
i te r v ls f
g A B perpe d i cul rs
erected t meet the l i n e LM
y rd l
F i d the sum f t h le gths f ll these per pe nd i cul rs i clud ing A L nd B M
tr vellers st r t t gether
the s me r d O
Tw
f them
tr vels u ni f rml y 1 0 m i les d y The ther tr ve l s 8 m i les the rst d y
d i cre se h i p ce by h lf
m i le d y e c h succeed i g d y A fter h w
m ny d ys w i ll the l tter vert ke the f rmer ?
set t fr m the t w e ds f r d wh i ch i l m i le l g
Tw m
The rst tr vels m i les the rs t d y
b the e t
d
+ 2 b the n e t
n
The sec d tr vels t such r te th t the sum f the num ber f m i les
t r velled by h i m d the n um b er t r velled by the rst i l w ys the m e f
A fter h w m ny d ys w i ll the y meet
y n d y n mel y
I sert 1 5 i thmeti c me s b et w ee 3 d 30
I ser t 1 0 ri thmet i c me s b et w ee n 3 d + 3
A cert i n eve n um be r f ri thmet i c me ns i serted bet w ee n 3 0
nd 4 0
nd i t i
f u d th t the r t i f the m f the rst h lf f these
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X ERCI SE S X LII

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C H A P TE R

XXI

L og a r ith m s
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p l e a se
nd a v al u e

f rom 0 t o

C or

t h i s , by

L e t y b e p o s i ti v e
H e n ce w e
t h an 1
l /y as
m ay m a

i nt eg

r e n ce

we

as

c an

as

t h e d iff e

an d

s m all

1, we

e qu al

2 nd

co n s e cu t i v e

N ow

y
is

m ay m a
n ea

can s o ch o os e i t

y, w e

y w ill l ie b e t w een tw o

GRAPH

ITS

s
a

th e

ph

of

h
a
r
g p
y

of

th e f u nctio n

D EF INI T I O N

XXI

o bs e v e d

I t w ill b e
the

at

p o int

s am e

an d

th e

th a t

of

o th e

L O G ARI THMI C F UN C T I O N

t h at t h e t w o

B, w hose

s a m e v al u e o f

th e

OF

r d in

cu

is

at e

ab s ci s s a o f

y th e

r v e s cr o s s
1 ;

th e

an

511
ax is o f

th e

d th at f o r

o n e cu

r ve

o ne

i s d ou bl e

r easoni ng by w h i ch w e sh o w e d th t th e e qu ati on
n d e r s to o d d e t e r m i n e s y a s a
a
ce r ta i n r e s t r i ct i o ns b e i n
u
y
g
c s h o w s t h at t h e s a m e e q u a t i o n u n d e r
c o n t i nu o u s f u n c t i o n o f c
t h e s am e r e s t r i ct i on s d e t er m i n e s a; as a co n t i n u ou s f u n cti o n o f y
Th i s p oi nt w i ll p e r h ap s b e m ad e cl e ar e r by g r ap h i cal co n s id r
t ions
If w e obtai n t h e g raph o f y a s a f u n t i on o f to f r om t h
t h e c u r v e s o o bt ai n d e n abl e s u s t o ca l cu l at e a
e q u ti o n
w h e n y i g iv e n
t h a t i s t o s a y i s t h e g r ap h O f x r e g a r d e d a s a
f un cti o n o f y
Th u s i f w e l oo k a t th e m a t te r f r o m a g r ap h i cal
o
i
n
t
o f v i e w w e s e e t h at t h e co n t i nu i t
t
r
h
m
e an
the
o
f
h
e
a
p
y
g p
Th e

e a

'

co n t i n u i t

of

f u n ct i o n

of

W h en
e q u ati o n

b eco m e s

Th e

r i t te n
a

th e

co n t i n u i t

a: a s

al

to

g e b a,
e na bl e

fu n cti o n

i nt r o d u ce
an

s om e

to

us

s p ea

t
m
e
a
n
s
o
f
he
b
y y
n e w k i n d o f t r a n s ce n d
of

n o m e n cl a t u e

d d i t i o nal
of

i t w i th b r e v i t y

an d

call ed

n
a
u
ti t
q

th e

is

cal l ed

exp onen ti a l

p
cal le d t h e log a ri thm

a:

th e

base

to base

so m e t i m e s

an

d is

is

u s u al ly

ex

is

'

ry

c o n s t an t

y is

re a s

w e O bv i o u s l y

n e ce s s a

cl ea n ess

d e t e r m in e

fu n ct i o n i nto

e nt al

o f re, a n d a l s o

we

f u nct i on

as a

y to ba se

a , and

w i tt e n

l og a y

Th e t w o

e q u a ti o n s
x

(c

l og a y

r e ly di ff e r e nt ways o f w r i ti ng th e sam e f un cti o n al

r e lati o n I t fol l o w s th e r ef or e tha t ll the p r op er ti es of ou r new
l og a r i thmi c f ncti on mu s t be d r i vabl e fr om the p roperti es of ou r old
th u s m e

are

p on en tia l functi on, tha t i s to

er

ex

say,

from

the l a ws

i ndices

Th i s n t t i i l i ttle used i eleme t ry te t b ks b

t w he
ni
i n pl
f
h ve s me c mpl i c ted fu ct i
w
i
i
t pri t th
p (l
o a

ve

en

on

ace o

s e a s er

n a

an

- oo

ut

i t is

on o f x

co n

Thus

F UNDAMENTA L PR OP ER T IES

512

Th e

s tu d e n t s h o u l d

a l s o n o t i ce

at the equa ti on
t
2
h
( )

l og
(b

3]
is

OF

C H AP

L O GARI THMS

th at i t fo l l o w s f

rom ( 1 )

an

wy

i denti ty

an

I f th e

base

s am e

u nd e s t o o

be

d t h r ou g h ou t, w e h av e

r op er ti es o f th e l og ari thm ic f un cti o n

I The l og a ri thm of a p r odu ct of p osi ti ve number s i s the sum of
the l og a r i thms of the sep a ra te f actors
I I The l og a r i thm of the qu oti ent of two p os iti ve nu mbers i s the
e di idend over th e log ar i thm o the d ivi sor
t
h
excess o the l o ar i thm o
f
f
f
g
III The log a ri thm of any p ower @osi tive or neg a ti ve i nteg r a l
or fr acti ona l) of a p osi ti ve n umber i s equal to the l og a r i thm of the
nu mber mu l tip li ed by the p ower
t h e f o ll o w i n g l e adi ng p
.

i
t
i
v e n u mbe r s,
n
s
e
o
b
L et y, , y, ,
,
,
y
p
r esp ecti v e l o g ar i th m s t o bas e a, s o t h at
I

we = 10 g

10 8 a ?

B y t h e d e ni t i o n
-

ax )

yg

92 a

10 g a yn

n =

th e i

l og a r i th m w e h ave

of a

x1

a, , a,

"

yl b

o o

+x n
,

by t h e l a w s

H en ce

by t h e d e ni t i o n

We

l og a yl

h av e t h u s
Ag ai n,

CU"

e s tabl i sh e d

yl fyg

w hi ch

i s th e

A g a i n,

l og a i

i n di ce s

of

i nd ices

W/

g m

of a

I le

l o g a r i th m ,

xi

t h a t i s,

of

l o g a yn

l o g wy2

by t h e d e n i ti o n

ya ) ,

by th e l a w s

H e n ce

i nd i ces

l o g ar i th m ,

of a

931 + so,

t h a t i s,

of

l og wy2

a n al yt ical e x p es s io n o f

'

l l
a

II

m)

(p

by th e l aw s

E X AMPLES

XXI

H e n ce

b y th e d e

ni ti on

of a

l og ar i th m ,
l og a yi

t h at i s ,

i s th e

w h i ch

E mple 1
xa

a nal

s me b se i t i
E mple 2
E mple 3
a

xa

s n

in

10 g a I/ 1 3

III

l g7+l g3
se pr v i ded l l the l g ri thm h ve the
di c te the b se by wri ti g the suf

l og 2 1 = l og ( 7 x 3 )
for a ny ba ,

is

e x p es s i o n o f

true
eedless t

on

yti cal

A s the equ t i

l og i cl

513

x.

xa

E mple 4
xa

l og

l og 2 9

113

l og

l og

l g 3 + l g 5 2 l

2 10 g 2 + 3

og

- lo
g

11

l og

1
o
7
g
% l og 3
2 l o 3
l
o
7
4% g
,
g

l og 7 ,
.

C O MPU T AT I O N AND T ABULAT I O N OF L O GARI THMS

of

If th e ba s e

5
u ni ty,

w e h av e

g r eater

tha n

nu mber

l ess than

l og ar i t h m s be g r e at e r th an
l og a ri thm of any p osi ti ve number

s y s t em o f

t h at th e

s een

an d the l og ar i thm
i s p osi tive
u ni ty i s n eg a ti ve

u ni ty

The l og ar i thm
m ay be

a ny

p osi ti ve

u ni ty

i tself i s

a l ways ze o,

w h at e v e

t h e b ase

The l og a r i thm of the base i ts elf i s of cou rse u ni ty, s in ce a

t
The l og a ri thm of any p ower of the base, say a , i s r ;
p

r ti cu la r

the l og a ithm

the r ecip

rocal of

the base i s

l
.

and ,

in

00
00
00
is
and the l og a i thm of 0 i s
The l og ar i thm of
,
I t i s fu th e o b v i ou s t h at t h e l og a ith m of a n e g a t i v e n u m b e
e a l q u ant i ty
co u l d n o t ( w i th o ur p e s e n t u nd e s t a n di n g ) b e an y

W i th

h o w ev e r , w e

s u ch ,

th e

u s u al

cas e
so

VOL

m ay be

to

rrang e

r eas on s
l og ar i th m

F or
a

p e s e nt con ce n ed
w hi ch i s n o t an i n t eg

ar e n o t a t

Th e l o g a r i th m o f any n u m be r
o f t h e b as e w il l b e s om e f r acti o n al
as

nu m b e

r al

w
e
o
p

o r n eg a ti v e,
s
i
t
i
v
e
o
p

r pr ese n tly

t h at w ill

app e a

t h at i t

co ns i s ts

of

it is

po s i ti ve

D ETERM IN ATI ON

5 14

O F C HARA C TER STI C

CH A P

rac t i o nal par t l e s s t h n u n ity and an i nte g r al p ar t p o s i t i v e or

n e g a t i v e as t h e c s e m ay b e
Th e p o s i ti v e fr a c ti on al p ar t i s c all e d th e manti ss a
Th e i n t eg r l p a r t i s c all e d t h e cha ra cteri s ti c
F o e am pl e th e l o g ar i th m o f 0 4 5 1 t o b as e 1 0 i s th e n eg at i v e
I n a cc o rd an c e w ith th e a bo v e u n d e r s tan d
n um be r
i ng w e s h ou l d w r i t e
f

'

l og

,0

045 1

1 34582 35
2

us

sa

l og

c as e

I n th i s

65417 65

k e o f c o m p a c t n s s an d a t
t h i s i s u s u al l y w r i tt e n

Fo r t h e

c on f i o n

'

t h e n th e

m ant i ss a i s 6 5 4 1 7 6 5

10

1
(

th e

s am e

2 654 1 7 65

0 45 1

c h a r a c ter i s t i c

r e v en t

( th at

is 2

t m e to p

i s,

a nd

th e

'

b as e

is

To n d t h e l og ar i th m o f a g i v e n n u m b e r (I/ t o
t h e sam e p r o b l em a s t o s o l v e t h e e q u at i o n
a

g i v en

ya

r
ar e
g i v e n a n d a: i s th e u n k n ow n qu an t i ty
T h e r e a r e v a r i ou s w a y s i n w h i c h t h i s m a y b e d o n e ; a n d i t
w i ll b e i n s tru c t i v e t o d e s cr i b e h e r e s o m e of t h m o r e e l em e n ta ry
a l th o u h a t th e s am e t i m e m o r e l abo r i o u s a
g
pp r o i m a t i v e m e th o d s
t h at m i g h t b e u s e d
I n th e r t p la c e i t i s al w ays e asy t o nd th e c h ar a c te r i s ti c
or i n t e r l
\Ve
g
p a r t o f t h e l o g a r i th m o f n y g i v e n n u m b e r 9
h v e s i m p ly t o f inal by tri al two c onsecu tive i ntegr a l p owers of the
base between w hi ch the g i ven nu mber y
2 l i es
The a lg ebra i ca l ly l ess of
these two i s the cha r acter is ti c
E m ple 1
T o nd the ch r cteri tic f l g 45 1
\V h ve the f ollo w i ng v lue f
con ecutive integr l pow er f 3
w h e e a an d y

xa

'

a a

or

s o

Po
w er
1

V lue

27

81

2 43

729

L O G ARI THM S

xxx

H
H

ence

36

ence

Po w er
V lue
a

s of

of

T here fore

W e h ve

log

B se

111

'

'

<

th t i to

0 45 1

l og

a a

ence 3

515

an

ple 2
Fi nd the ch r cteri tic

10

ence log 4 51 l i e b et w een 5 d 6

log 4 5 1 5 proper fr ction
ch r log 4 5 1 5

Ex am

B AS E

TO

proper fr ction
a

ch r log
a

Wh en

t h e b as e

l o g a r i th m s i s t h e

s ys t e m o f

th e

r ad i x

of

r i c al n o t a ti on th e c h ar a c te r i s t i c can al w ays be
o b tai n e d b y m e r e l y c o u n t i ng t h e d i g i t s
F o e am pl e i f t h e r ad i x a n d ba s e b e e a c h 1 0 t h e n
If th nu mber ha ve a n i nteg r a l p a r t the cha r acteri s ti c of i ts
l og ar i thm i s
one l ess tha n the nu mber of d ig i ts i n the i nteg r a l
(
p ar t)
If the number have n o i nteg r al p a r t the charac ter isti c i s
one
(
m or e than the n u mber of zer os tha t foll ow the d eci ma l p oi nt)
Th e pr oo f of t h es e r ul es c o n s i s t s s i m pl y i n th e fa c t th at i f a
n m b e r li e b e tw e en
an d
t h e nu m be r o f d i g i t s by
w h i c h i t i s e p r e s e d i s n + 1 ; a n d i f a n u m b e r li e b e tw e e n
an d
th e n u m be r of
e r o s af t r t h e d e c i m a l p o i n t
th e

of

03 7

s ay,

ence

'

s al e o f

nu m e

is

F or e m ple 3 5 1 l i e b et w een 1 0
ccord i ng t the rule
Ag i n 0 3 5 1 lie b et w een 0 1
Hence ch r log 0 3 5 1 = 2
(1
xa

Th e

'

a nd

10

3
.

ence ch r log
a

10

351

1,

'

10

r ul e
f

our sys tem o

s u g g e s ts a t o n e

a nd

th t i b e tw een
w h i ch gree w i th the rule
'

1,

s,

t h a t, if

1 0 be

l og a r i thms, then the char ac ter i s ti c

ad op te

as

an d
.

the ba se

log a r i thm

d ep ends

a nti ssa i s t
m
n
h
e
d
c
m
e
i
a
l
o
i
n
t
a
d
t
p
f
dep end ent of the posi tion of the decimal p oi nt bu t dep ends merely on
the su ccessi on of di g i ts

m e ely

on

the p osi ti on

the

C O MPU TAT I ON or L O GAR I T HM S BY S OL U TI ON

516

o
e
r
v
p

f o m ally

m ay

\Ve

th

i s i m p o r t ant

OF a

ca n

r o p o s i t i on

as

f ol l o w s

N be any nu m ber for m e d by a g i v en s u cc es s i on o f d ig i ts

Th en
6 t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c an d m t h e m an t i s s a o f i t s l o g ar i th m
a ny o t h e r n u m b e r w h i c h h as t h e s am e s u cc e ss i on o f d i i ts a s N
g
bu t h as th e d e c i m al p o i nt pl a c e d d i ff e r e ntl y w i ll h av e t h e fo r m
5
1 0 N w h e re i i s an i nt eg e r p o s i t iv e or neg at iv e a s t h e c as e m ay b e
3
l
l og w l
l o g mN by 4
B u t og w l 0 N
i
l og N
c) m
N o w s i n c e by h yp o th e s i s m i s a p o s i t i v e p r op e r f r ac t i on an d c
f
ar e i n te e r s
t h e m a n t i s s a o f l o g w l O N i s m an d t h e
a nd i
g
c h a r a cte r i s ti c i s i + c I n o th er w o rd s th e ch ar a c te r i s ti c al on e
i s al te r e d by sh i ft i n g t h e d e c i m al p o i nt
Th e p r o c ess u s e d i n
6 fo r n d i n g th e c h a r a c t e r i t i c
o f a l og ar i th m can b e e x te n d e d i n to a m e th o d f o r n d i ng t h e
m an t i s sa d i g i t b y d i g i t
E m ple
T o c lcul te log 4 2 1 7 t three pl ce f deci m l
T he ch r cter i t i c i o b v i ou ly 0 L et the three r t digit f the m nti
T hen w h ve
b
g
he ce
We m u t w c lcul te the l 0 th p o w er f 4 2 1 7 I
do i ng ho w ever
there i no need to nd l l the ignic n t g f w f the highe t w i ll
u fce We thu nd
L et

xa

a a

e a

s o

10

a s

s o

s sa

no

u res

n so

1 7 7 84 00

We w
th t i the ch r cteri t i c f l g 1 7 7 8 4 00 Hence
Di vid i ng by 1 0 d r i ing b oth i de f the re ult i ng equ t i on to the l 0th
po w er w nd
1O
; hence
D iv i di g by 1 0 d r i i ng to the l oth pow er w w nd
H ence y = 2
1 0 ; hence
H ence = 5 ver y e rl y
We concl de therefore th t
log 4 2 1 7 6 2 5 ne rly
no

s ee

a:

an

a a

a s

s o

10

an

a s

e no

n a

'

'

10

Th i s

d of c om pu ti ng l og a r i th m s i s far to o l abo r i ou s to
be o f a ny p r a c t i c al u s e e ve n i f i t w e r e m ad e c o m pl e t e by t h e
a dd i t i o n o f a t s t t o a s c e r t a i n w h at e ff e c t t h e u r e s n e l e c t e d
g
g
i n t h e c al c u l a t i n o f t h e l 0 t h p o w e r s p r o d u c e o n a g i v e n d e c i m al
c e r t a i n t h o r e t i c al
pl ac e o f th e l og r i th m ; i t h as h o w e v e r
m e th o

C OMPU TAT I ON B Y

XX I

i nte r es t o n a cc o u n t
a l o g a r i th m

of

I N SE

RTI N G G E O M ET RI C

d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n w i th

i ts

517

M EAN S

d e ni ti on

th e

of

By

a so m e w h at s

i m i lar pr o c e s s

c o nt i n u e d f r a c t i o n
If a s er i es of

as a

l o g ar i t h m

e x p es s e

l og a r i thms

ar e

Let t h e
l o g a r i th m

in

be i n g eometr i c p rog r ess i on, thei r

n u mbe s

c p r og r essi on
q u e s t i on be y

ar i thmeti

r in
r s t to

n u m be s

f the

b as e

L e t th e
y, , y, ,
yn
a , a nd t h e l o a i t h m o f th e
g
yn t o th e s a m e b as e b e

be

c omm on r at i o o f th G P y y y
T h e n w e h a v e th e fol l o w i n g se r i e s o f c o rr e sp on d i ng
8
e

be

ca n

,,

2 ,

3 ,

/:l
a

fro m

a)

t he t

r u th

'

'

1 )3

2 #3
+

06

'

r op o i t i o n i s m an i f e t
As a m t te r o f h i s t o ry i t w as th i s i d e a o f c o m p a r i ng t w o
r i th m e t i c p o
s e r i e s o f nu m b e r s o n e i n g eo m e t r i c t h e o t h e r i n
r e s i o n th t l e d t o t h e i n v e nt i n o f l o g r i t hm , a n d i t w as o n
g
th i s c o m p a r i s o n th t m o s t o f t h e e arl y m eth o d s o f c o m p u t i ng
t h e m w er e fou n d e d
L e t u s s u pp o e
Th e fo ll o w i n g m a y b e t ak e n as a n e m pl e
t h a t w e k n o w th e l o g ar i th m s a a n d r o f t w o g iv e n n u m b r s y
an d y ; t h e n w e can n d t h e l o g a r i t h m s o f as m an y n u m b e r s
We h av e
l yi ng b e tw ee n y an d y a s w e p l eas e
wh

i ch

q aa

l )

v al u e s

of

the p

xa

L et

us

i nser t

ri c

g e om e t

(g g/

ya

w h e e a,
now

i s th e

th e f o ll o w

N ex t

i ng

i ns e r t

l o g a r i th m s

ri
s

95 9

m ean , y5 , b e t w e e n yl

thm et

if

7 5
(L

ic

a nd

y, , th e n

S a y,

m e an b e t w e e n

a , a n d a9
'

\Ve h a v e

y s te m

L o g a r i thm

a,

a,

m, ,

N u m be r

yl

y,

yo

rc
c rr

g e om et i
o f th e
o

m e an s b et w e e n ml ,

xl

m ea n s b e t w e e n y y5 a n d y5 , y,
Th e
e s on d i n
p
g n u m be r s w i l l be t h e a r i th m e ti c
.

a , a nd

as

We

L o g a r i th m s

xl

x3 ,

N u m be r s

r1 ,

es ,

thu s
as

h a v e th e
a,

rug

r7 ,

r9

ys t em

C O MPUTAT I ON B Y

518

I NSE

P r o c e ed i ng i n l i k e m a nn e r, w e

an

L og ar i th m s

xl

N u mbe r s

so on

E ac h

a,

RTI N G G E OM ETR I C M E AN S

d e r iv e

th e

ys t em

as ,

a4 ,

as ,

as ,

a, ,

reg

r3 ,

r4 ,

r5 ,

r6 ,

r7 ,

r3 ,

C H AP

339

rs ;

h
i
n
t
i s c a l c u l at i o n
p
e x t r a c t i o n o f a s u ar e r o o t ,
q

r e q u i r es m e r el y a m u l t i
a n a dd i t i o n a cc om p a n i e d
f u r n i s h es u s w i th a n e w nu mb e r

s te

ca ti o n th e
d i v i s i on by 2 an d ea ch st ep
a n d t h e c orr es o n d i n
p
g l og ar i thm
Si n c e
a
f o r m an A P th e l og ar i th m s ar e s pa c ed
o u t e u al l y b u t t h e s am e i s n o t t r u e o f t h e c o rr es o n d i n
q
p
g n m
b e r s w h i ch a e i n G P
I t i s t h e r efo r e a tabl e of a ntil og ar i t h m s
th at w e s h ou l d c al c ul ate m ost r e d i l y by th i s m e th o d
I t w i ll
be ob s e r v e d h ow ev e r t h at by i n s e r t i n g a su fc i ent n u mb e r o f
m e an s w e can m ak e t h e su cc es s iv e nu m b e r s d i ffe r f r o m e a c h oth e r
a s l i ttl e a s w e
l
as e 5 an d b
m
a n s o f th e m e th o d o f i nte r o l a
e
e
p
y
p
t i on by r s t d i ffe r e n c e s e p l a i n e d i n th e l as t s e c t i o n o f th i s
c hapte r w e c oul d spa c e ou t th e nu m b er s e qu ally an d thu s co n
v ert o u r tabl e of ant i l og ar i thm s i n to a tabl e of l og ar i thm s of th e
o r d i n ar y k i n d
=1
A
nu m eric l e m ple w m y put 1 0 y 1 y = 1 0 ; then
0
Proceeding bove ind i c ted w hould rrive t the follow ing t ble
Log ri th m
L g rith m
N u mb r
N umb er
pl i
by

if

s a

xa

as a

e s

x9

o a

4 2 1 70

0 0 0 00

1 0 00 0

{231

0 6 250

0 875 0
2 3 71 4

0 3 7 50

3 1 62 2

0 5 0 00

In

c o m pu t i n g

1 0 0 00 0

1 0 0 00

l o g ar i th m s, by w ha tev e r m e th o d , i t i s

ry t o cal cu l ate i nd e pend e n tl y th e

l og r i th m s o f c o m p o s i te i nt g e r s a fte r w e h av e f oun d to a s fh
c i e nt d eg r e e o f a cc u r a cy th e lo g ar i th m s o f al l p r i me s u p t o a
c e r t a i n m ag n i tu d e T h u s f o r e a m p l e l o g 4 8 5 1 = l o g
2 l og 7
l g 11
H n c e l og 4 8 5 1 can be fou n d w h e n
2 l og 3
t h l o g a r i th m s o f 3 7 a n d 1 1 a e k n o w n
By the nt i log rith m f
y nu mb er N i m e nt the nu m ber f w hich
N i the log rith m
i

o b v ou s

th a t i t i s n o t

n e es s a

an

C HAN G E

OF

519

B ASE

comp u ted a system of l og ri thms to any ne base

a w e ca n w i tho t d ii cul ty d edu ce ther efr om a sys tem to a ny other b se
b
A ll we have to do i s to m u ltip ly all the l og a ri thms of the former
1 /l o g b
sys tem by the n u m ber n
Ag a i n, havi ng

F o r, i f

l og a y
l og b y

ba s e i s

w h os e

C or

fo ll o w i n g
f r o m th e

i
d e n i ti on

e q u at o n ,

w
e put y :
1
( )

e q u at o n

i ch c ou l d eas i l y
a l o g a r i th m

wh
of

l og b a

Th e

e qu a t on
a

the

the l a tte

exp onen ti a l a

i n the

re

IO g

or

exp onen ti a l

mog b
.

b sho ten n or
g
y

s a me r a ti o

ca n

be ded u ced fr om the

l eng theni ng

a ll

the a bsciss ce

log a b

Th i s

i s t h e g en e ra l t h e o r em c o rr e s p on d i n g to
\Ve m a y al s o e x p r e s s th i s r es u l t a s f oll o w s :
G i ven

mo

g et th e
d i r e c tl y

b m ay b e w r i t t e n

He n c e the g rap h of the

r
h
o
g p
f

dedu ced

y
x

be

we

a,

1 /l o g a b,

l o g a b l og b a

or

C or 2

s ys t e m

I f i n th e

s o ft e n c all e d t h e modu lu s o f th e
i
p
b w i th r e s p e c t t o t h e s ys t e m w h o s e bas e i s

n u m be

Th e

4
l og a b, by
l og a y/l og a b

Hen c e

l og b y, th en y
l o g a bx ,

He n c e

r em a rk

in

h
en ei the A i s the
t
w
o
e
i
a
A
a
n
d
B
t
n
e
x
o
n
t
l
a
h
s
,
y
p
g p
n
a
o thog ona l
o
e
i
t
n
o
A
o
n
B
o
l
t
o
o
r
B
i
h
e
o
t
h
o
o
n
a
o
e
c
o
s
t
,
,
j
j
f
p
f
g
p
p lane p ass ng th oug h the ax s of y

an

r c
i
r

US E

e hav e

L O G A R I THM S

OF

n ot a t o n,

the

ys t e m

IN

R ITHM ETI C A L

t h a t, if w e

s ee n

u se

C ALC UL ATI O N S

th e

rd i nary d e c i m a l

l og ar i th m s t o ba se 1 0 p o s s e s s es t h e i m
t ha t t h e c h ar a c t e r i s t i c can be d e t e r m i n e d by
of

t
a nt a d v an t
r
g es
p
i ns p e ct ion an d th a t th e m ant i s sa i s i nd ep en d e nt o f th e p o s i ti o n
O n a cc ou nt o f t h es e a d v n tag es th i
o f t h e d e c i m al p o i n t
s y s te m i s u se d i n pr a c t i c l c al c u l a t i o n s t o t h e e cl u s i o n o f al l
o th e r s
a

P C M EN

5 20

S E I

1
3050
51
52
53
54
55

4 8 4 2 9 98 3 1 4 1
442w
2 4564
5 84m
5 5 988
o
7 2 6 o8
7 41 0
8 6 9o
0 8 83 3
4 85 0 1 1 w
2 02 54
o
o

:2

OF

L OGAR I T HM I C TAB LE

3 42 6
4 84 9
6272
7 6 95
91 1 7
0539

A
Q
I

Q
'

O
Q

1 5 3 03
2 959
4
4 3 7 05
5 7 95
0
4
721 9

1 676
3 0 96
451 7
5 93 7
7 356

1 81 8
3239
4659
6 07 9
7 4 98

1 960 m
a
3381 c
4 801 m
6 221 a
t
7 6 40

306 1
62
63
64
65

8 6 3 OO3
2
4 86 0 0 5 N
1 47 O
0
O
2 88 O
8
X
4 30O
5

8775
0 1 94
1 61 2
302 9
44 46

8 91 7
0 336
1 754
31 71
4 588

9059 D
Q
047 7 O H
D
0
\
1 8 95
O0
3 31 3 3455
47 30 487 2

66
67
68
69
70
307 1
72
73
74
75

2 5863
572m
o
3
8 7279
71 o
855n
4 86 95
9 96 o
9 01 1 0
t
s
1 52 5
4 8 7 1 3 8 a4
u

2 7 9 e8 2 9 4 0
421m
2 4353
a
562c
6 5767
7 03 9 7 1 80
8 4 5 1 8 5 92

6 0 05 6 1 4 6 6 2 8
7 42 1 7 5 6 3
8 9 7 8 01
0 2 5 2 0 3 93 0
1 6 6 7 1 808 H
3081 322 2
4 4 95 4 6 36
5 908
050
7321
87 34

76
77
78
79
80

9 86 3
4 88 1 2 7 5
2 6 86
4 097
5 507

0 00 4
1 41 6
2 82 7
4238
56 48

01 46
1 557
2 96 8
4 37 9
5 7 89

3081

7 0 58
8467
9 87 6
1 2 85
2 6 92

7 1 99

82
83
84
85

6 91 7
8 32 6
9735
489 1 1 44
2 5 52

86 08
001 7
1 42 5
2 83 3

86
87
88
89
90

3 959
5 366
6773
81 79
9 5 85

4 1 00
5 507
6 91 4
8 32 0
97 2 5

42 41
5648
7 054
8460
9 86 6

3 0 91
92
93
94
95

4 90 0 990
2 395
3 7 99
5203
6 607

1 1 31
2 535
3 940
5 343
6 7 47

1 271
2676
4080
5484
6 887

96
97
98
99
31 00

801 0
94 1 2
4 91 0 8 1 4
2216
361 7

81 50
95 5 2
0 95 4
2 356
3757

8 2 90
9 6 93
1 0 94
2 4 96
3 8 97

56
57
58
59
60

C H AP

D i ff

3 2 83
4 707
6 1 30
7 553
8 97 5
0 3 96

h
t

b
(

2
14
28
57

71
85
99
14

28

L O G ARI T HM I C T AB L E

USE O F

xxx

I n p r i n t i ng

n e e s sa

ry

v en

t abl e

l o g ar i t h m s t o b a s e 1 0 i t i s q u i t e u n
r
a c t i c abl e , t o p r i n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
p

of

if it

52 1

we e

g i v en, c o rr e s p o n d i ng t o
v e d i g i t s , r an g i n g u s u a l l y f r o m 1 0 0 0 0 t o
A g l a n c e a t p 5 2 0 , w h i c h i s a fa c s i m i l e o f

Th e m a n ti s s ae

al o n e a r e

cc e s s i o n
of

pa g e

l og ar i th m i c t abl e i n Ch a m ber s

su

M a themati cal Tabl es

of

th e

i ll Sh o w
l og a r i th m o f

rr ang em en t o f su c h a t bl e To t ak e o u t th e

No
3 0 7 1 5 fr om th e t abl e w e r u n d o w n th e c o lu m n h ea d e d
u n t i l w e c o m e t o 3 0 7 1 3 th e r s t th r ee g u r e s o f th e m an t i s s a
t
h
e
v e r th e bl an k i n t h e r s t h al f c o l u m n )
re 4 8 7
s t an d i n
o
g
(
l as t fo u r a e f ou n d by r u nn i ng al on g th e l i n e t i ll w e r e a ch th e
c ol u m n h e ad ed 5 th ey are 3 5 0 5 Th e ch ar ac ter i s t i c i s s e e n by
i nsp e c t i on t o be 4 Hen c e l o g 3 0 7 1 5 4 4 8 7 3 5 0 5
To n d th e n u m b e r c o rr e s po n d i ng t o a n y g i ve n l og ar i th m
w e h a v e o f c o u r s e s i m pl y t o r e v e r s e t h e p r o c es s
To nd t h e l og a r i th m o f 0 3 0 7 1 5 w e h av e t o p r o c ee d e a c tly
a s be f o r e o n l
y a d i ff e r ent c h ar a c t e r i s t i c nam el y 2 m u s t b e p r e
e d t o th e m ant i s s a We th u s nd l og 0 3 0 7 1 5 2 4 8 7 3 5 0 5
If w e w i s h t o n d t h e l og a r i th m o f a n u m be r s ay
w h e r e w e h a v e m o r e d i g i t s t h a n ar e g i v e n i n t he t bl e t h e n w e
m u s t t a k e t h e n ear e s t n u m b e r w h o s e l og ar i th m can be fo u n d
by m e a n s o f t h e t b l e t h a t i s t o s y 3 0 8 3 3
We th u s nd
l og
Q 4 8 9 O1 5 8 1 n e r l y
G r ea te r a cc u r a c y can be t

t i n e d by u s i ng t h e c o l u m n h ead e d
D i ff
a
w i ll b e e x p l a i n e d
r
s e n tl
e
p
y
C o n v e r s el y i f a l og a r i th m be g iv en w h i c h i s n o t e a c tly
c o i n c i d ent w i th on e g iv en i n t h e ta bl e w e t ak e th o n e i n t h
t abl e t h a t i s n e a r e s t t o i t an d t a k e t h e c o rr e sp o nd i n g n u m b e r s
n a pr o i m a t i on t o t h e n u m be r r e u i r e d
G r eat e r a cc u r c y
p
q
can b e
o bt i n e d
by u s i ng t h e d i ff e r e n c e c o l u m n
Thu s th
n m be r w h o se
l og ar i th m i s 1 4 8 7 2 1 9 1 h a s fo r i ts r s t v e
th e

'

'

F or o m e purpo e
e ten i on f the t ble i re q uired d uch
ten ion
upplied i n v riou w y w hich need t b d e cr ib ed here F or
r pidity f re ference in c lcul tion th t require no gre t e ctne
hort
t b le f
ucce ion f 3 digit r ging fro m 1 00 to 999 i l o u u lly
g ven
1 T he b over 0 1 5 8 indic te th t the e digit follo w 4 89
d not 4 88
s

s s

s ar e s

or a

ss

an

s,

s,

no

ex

an

an

xa

ss a s

a s

'

ar

an

522

i g n i c a n t d i g i ts
w i th v e d i g i t s

UM B E R

OF

FI G U R ES R E QU I RE D

CHA P

r o i m at i o n
w e o u g h t t o t ak e 3 0 7 0 6
c h a r a c te r
Si n c e
i s ti c i s 1 t h e c tu al n u m b e r i n q u es t i o n h as t w o i nt eg r al d i g i ts
He n c e th e r e qu i r e d nu m be r i s 3 0 7 0 6 th e e rr o r be i n g c e r t a i nl y
3 0 7 0 5 3 bu t , i f w e w i s h t h e b e s t

pp
th e

l es s t h an 0 0 0 5
'

n
l
e
w
h
h
r
i
c
i
i
c
u nd erl i s
th e appl i c a t i o n o f
p
p
l o g a r i th m s t o a r i t h m e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h e v e r y s i m p l e o n e
t h a t s i nce to a ny nu mber ther e corr esp onds o ne a n d only on
e
log a r i thm a nu mber can be identied by means of i ts l og ar i thm
I t i s th i s p r i n c i p l e w h i c h s et tl es h ow m a ny d i g i ts of th
m an t i s s a o f a l og a r i th m i t i s n e c e ssa r y t o u s e i n c al c u l at i o n s
w h i c h r e q u i r e a g iv en d e g r e e o f a cc u r a cy
Su pp ose f o r e x am pl e t h at i t i s n e c es sa r y t o be a cc u r te
d o w n t o th e fth s i g n i c an t g u re 3 an d l et u s i nq u i r e w h e th e r
i
t
f
ou r
a t ab l e o f l o g a r i th m s i n w h i c h t h e m nt i s s ae ar e
v
e
n
o
g
I n s u c h a t abl e w e Sh ou l d n d l og
a c e s w ou l d b e s u ffi c i e n t
l
p
0 4 8 7 1 l og 3 0 7 0 2
0 4 8 7 1 3 th e t abl e i s th e r e fo r e
30 701
n o t s u ffi c i e n t ly e x t e n d e d t o d i s t i n u i s h n u m b e r s t o t h e d e g r ee
g
F i v e pl ac es i n t h e m an t i s sa w ou l d i n th e
o f a ccu r a c y r e qu i r e d
r
s e n t i n s ta n c e
b
s u f c i e n t f or th e
r
l
o
3
0
0
1
e
e
u
os
e
f
r
7
o
3
p
p p
g
0 4 8 7 1 5 l og
Tow ard s th e e nd of th e
t abl e h o w e v e r v e pl a c e s w ou l d s c arc el y be su fc i e nt 3 f or l o g

Th e

0 9 7 7 31

94 910

l o g 94 9 1 1

an d

Th e g r e at a d v an ta g e
i n s t e a d o f t h e a c tu a l

l o g a r i th m s

0 9 7 731

of

us n

n um be s

in

a ny

c al c ul at i o n

i s th a t w e

can ,

in

cc o rd n c e w i th th e r u l es o f 4 r epl c e e v e ry m ul ti pl i c t i o n by
dd i ti o n e v e r y d i vi s i on by s ubt r acti o n an d e v e ry o p e r ati o n
an
o f r a i s i n g t o a p o w e r o r e tr a c t i ng a r oo t b y a m u l ti pl i c t i o n o
d i vi s i o n
Th e fo ll o w i ng ex am p l e s w i l l i ll u s tr a te som e of t h e l e ad i ng
c ases We s upp os e th a t th e s tu d e n t h as a tabl e o f t h e l o g
r i th m s o f a ll n u mb e r s f r o m 1 0 0 0 0 t o 1 0 0 0 0 0
i
i
n g m an t i s s
v
g
t o s e v e n pl a c e s
E m ple 1
C lcul te the v lue f 1 6 84 3
a

xa

I f A = 1 6 84 3

log

A = lo

001 3 2
2

g 1 6 8 43

log

'

0 0 1 32

log

'

3 6 92 ,

x xx

X AMP L E S

l og 1 6 8 4 3

2 2 6 4 1 94
1 2 05739

log
log

3 6 92

'

log A

3 7 7 97 31 6

00 6 02 1 9
ence
A
Ob erve th t the neg tive ch r cteri tic m u t b de lt w it h ccordin g to
lge br ic rule
E m ple 2
T o e tr ct th cu b e root f 0 1 6 8 43
L et
then
log A l g 0 1 68 43

'

5 23

xa

a a

'

5,

1
1 4 08 8 0 6 5
'

ple 3
C lcul te the v lue f
L og A log 3 6 8 log 4 3 9
log
log 4 3 Q

E x am

2 56 33

3;

,;

1 4 6 80 3 5 8
'

3;

l og A = 4 5 1 89 4 2 4
A:
33 03 3

Ex am

ple

F ind h

n digit there

ma y

ow

l og A

in

are

1 000 0 l o g 1 0 ]
1 0 0 0 0 X 00 432 1 4 ,

'

43 2 1 4
'

the num ber f digit i n A i 4 4

E m ple 5
T o olve the e ponenti l equ tion
f l og ri t h m
by m e n
We h ve
log 1
log 1 1
T here fore
l g 1 2 = log
1 g
0 1 3 92
H ence
w
4
log
H ence
log l og 0 4 1 3 92 7 l g 0 7 91 81 2

Hence

xa

'

T here fore

'

R em a r k I t i s
q,

a,

ca n n o w

ar e a

52 2 76

an

e ca n s

o bt in the v lue
a

'

o bviou th t w
olve y uch e q u tion m w b
l l given
F or t king log rith m f both ide w h ve
(

We

'

here p

'

s o

x+
p
9) l o g
of x

by

= lo

as

s,

g b

s o

ol i g qu dr tic e q u tion
v n

T R P O L AT ION B Y F I R ST D I FFE R EN C E S

524

IN E

I N TE

13

l ate

R P O LATI O N B Y F I R ST D I FFE RE N CE S

Th e m e th o d by

t h e l og a

v al u e o f

th e

i ch

it is

r i th m

of

u s ua

i n t h e t abl e i s

wh

on e

i ch

l t o nd

n u mb e

wh

( or

i nterp o

i c h d o es

n ot

c abl e t o any
fu n c ti o n w h ose v al u e s h a v e b ee n t abu l at e d f o a s e r i e s of e q u i
d i ff erent v al u e s o f i ts i nd ep en d e nt v a r i abl e ( or arg ment
Th e g e n er al s u bj e c t o f i nt e r p ol at i o n b el o ng s t o t h e c al c l u s
o f n i t e d i ffe r e n c es bu t t h e S p e c i al c as e w h e r e r s t d i ffe r e n c e s
an b e e
al o n e ar e u s e d
pl a i n e d i n a n el e m e n ta ry w ay by m ean s
o f g r p h i c al c o n s i d e r a t i o ns
We h v e al re ady s e en th at th e i n cr em ent of an i nt eg ral
f u n c t i o n o f x o f t h e l s t d eg r e e y Ax B s ay i s p r o p o r ti o nal
t o t h e i n cr em e nt o f i t s a r g u m e n t 3 or w h a t c o m e t o th e s am e
t h i ng i f w e g iv e t o t h e a r g u m e n t x a s e r i es o f e q i d i ff e re n t
2h a
3 h & c t h e f n c t i o n y w i l l as s u m e a
h a
v al u e s a a
B Aa B
Ah Aa
B
2 Ah
s e r i e s o f e qu i d i ffe r e n t v a lu e s Aa

h ap p e n t o

cc u r

wh

C HA P

is

pp l i

Aa

3 Ah, & c

I f, th e r e f o r e , w e w e r e t o t abu l a te t h e
of

i d i ffe r e n t

v al ue s o f

B f or

Ax

d
i
ff
r
n c e s bet w e en s u c
e
q
w o u l d b e c o n s t an t n o
ta bu la r dif er ences
ce s i v e v a l u es o f y (
m at te r t o h o w m an y p l a c es w e c al c u l at e d y
C o n v e r l y a fu n c t i o n o f x w h i ch h as t h i s p r o pe r ty th at th e
d i ff e r n c e s be t w e en th e s u cc e ss i v e v al u e s o f y c o rr e s po nd i n g to
e q u i d i ffe r e n t v al e s o f x ar e abs o l u t e l y c o n s t an t m u s t b e a n i n
o f t h e l s t d eg r e e
t eg r al f u n c t i o n o f
I f h o w e v e r w e t ak t h e d i ffe r e n c e h o f t h e r g u m e n t s m all
e n u g h a n d d o n o t i n i s t o n a cc r a c y i n t h e v l e o f y b y o n d
a c r t i n s i g n i c n t g u r e t h e n f o r a l i m i t e d e t e nt o f t h e t abl e
t ab l r d i ff e r en c e s ar e
n y f u n c t i o n i t w i ll b e f ou n d t h a t th
of
c o n s t an t
R e fe rr i ng fo r e m pl e to p 5 2 0 i t w i l l be s e e n t h t t he
d i ff er n c e o f t w o c o ns e c u t iv e l og a r i th m s i s c o ns t nt nd e qu al
t o 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 f r o m l og 3 0 6 6 0 u p t o l g 3 0 8 99 o r th a t th e r e i s
m e r e ly n a cc i d n tal d i ff e r e n c e o f a u n i t i n t h e l as t p la c e ; t h a t
i s t o s y t h e d i ffe r en c e r em ai n s c o n s t ant for ab o u t 2 4 0 en t r i es
se

r i es

v al u e s

o f x,

th e

se

a u

u a

xa

'

L I M I TS

xx i

i m i lar

fr o m B a rl o w
s

i g n i c an t

p h en o m e n o n w i ll b e

T abl e s
g re

r
vi
d
d
o
e
p

M ETHO D

O F THE

seen

525

i n t h e f o ll o w i ng

r ct

ex t a

b e yo n d t h e 7 t h

w e d o no t g o

N u mb e

C ub e

R t
oo

D ff

2 301

1 3 2 0 1 97 4 0

1 91 22

2 302

1 3 2 0 3 88 6 2

1 91 1 7

2 303

1 3 2 05 7 9 7 9

1 91 1 1

2304

1 3 20 7 7 0 9 0

1 9 1 05

2 305

1 3 2 0 96 1 9 5

r g r aph i c al ly L e t A CS D Q B
an d l e t
s
b e a p o r t i o n o f th e g r p h o f a f u n c t i o n y
su
pp os e t h at u p t o t h e nth S i g n i c a nt g r e th e d i ffe r e n c es o f y
a e c o n s t n t f o r e q u i d i ff e r e n t
v al u es o f x lyi ng betw ee n
T h i s m ean s
O E an d O H
t h at i n c al c u l a t i n g ( u p t o t h e
n th s i g n i c a n t g u r e ) v al u e s
o f y c o rr e s p o n d i ng t o v a l u e s
Le t

l oo k

u s no w

t h e m a tt e

at

o f as

b e tw e e n O E

OH w e

an d

r epl a c e t he g r aph by th e
h
us f o
T
s t r i h t l i n e AB
g

m ay
a

e x am p l e ,

if

MQ

M
O
f(
)

OM,

an

v a l u e c al c u l a t e d

d P M i s th e

by m e an s

If

i g n i c ant pl a c e
t h i s b e s o th e n

of

QM

th en

m e n t t h en i s t h a t P M
th e n

r ig h t line

th e

CM

st a

AB

t h a t i s P Q , i s l es s t h a n

Our

s t a te

a un

it

in

for ti or i

i t w i ll b e

so

if w e

r e pl a c e

r t i o n o f th e g r ph s ay CD lyi ng be t w e e n A an d B by a
s t r ai g h t l i n e j o i n i n g C a n d D
I n o t h e r w o rd s if up to the nth p l a ce the i ncr ement of the func
ti on f or eg u i di er ent v lu es of x be c n sta nt betw een cer ta i n l i m i ts
then to tha t d eg r ee of a ccu r a cy a t l e st the i ncr ement of the fu ncti on
wi l l be p rop or tiona l to the i n crem ent of the a rg u men t f or a ll va l u es
wi th i n those l i m i ts
L e t u s n o w s t ate t h e c o n c l u s i o n O f l as t ar t i c l e u n d e r
a

po

R ULE

526

an

a na l y t

i c al

c o ns ta ncy

fo m,

P RO P O R TI ON A L P A RTS

OF

ca n

i i i o ns befor e m en t i o ned as t o
rs t) d i ff e r en c e be i ng s upp os e d fu l fil l e d

a ll

th e l m t a t

r (o r
L e t h be t h e d i ff er e n c e o f t h e a r g m e n t s a s t h e y ar e e n t e r e d
i n th e t abl e D th e t abu l ar d i ff e r en c e f (a
h)
h a v al u
a
o f t h e a r u m e nt w h i c h d o e s n ot o cc u r i n th e t abl e b u t w h i c h
g
l i es b etw ee n t h e v alu e s a a n d a h w h i c h d o o ccu r s o th at h h
T h en by l as t parag rap h
of

t abu la

<

) f ( a)
h) f ( a )
h ) f ( a)

f (a
a
f(

(a
a
(

Hen ee

bet w ee n h

(l)

f( )
a nd
a
f(

i s g i v e n, w e

ca n

h)

Si nc e i n

h)

k n o w n i t g i v e s u s a r el at i o n
W h e n t h e r e f o r e o n e o o th r o f t h e s e
th e o th e r
W h av e i n f ac t

D, h

al l

ar e

c al c u l

a te

f (a

f (a )

h)

an d

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c i o n c o rr es pon d i ng t o a

nd a n
om
3
w
e
i
i
F
r
n
n t e r m e d i at e v al u e o f th e a r g u m e n t
v
e
( )
g
i nt er me d i ate v alu e o f t h e arg u m ent c o rr es pon d i ng t o a g iv en
i nte r m e d i ate v al u e o f th e fu n ct i o n
Th e e q u at i on s ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) ar e s om e t i m e s c al l e d t h e Ru le of
P r op or ti onal P a r ts
we

nd

a v al u e

th e f u n t

of

ple 1
T o nd by m e n f r t di fference th v lue
B rlo w T ble w ill llo w
B y the rule f proportion l p t w h ve
E xa m

as

s o

of

as a

ccu tely
ra

ar s ,

1 3 2 0 5 80

0 00 86 ,

1 3 2 06 6 6,
wh

ich wi ll b found correct do w n to the l t gure

out

as

l ab o u r i n th e

Th e

o nl y

th e f

r a c ti o n

4 5/ 1 0 0

of

c al cu l at i o n c ons i s ts i n w o rki ng
I n t abl es o f
t abu l a r d i ffe r e nc e

a bo v e

the

XXI

l o g a i th m s

e v en

th

X AMP L E S

l ab ou r i s

is

527

c al cu l ato r ; f o r u nd e r
t abl e o f p r o po r t i o n al p a r ts g i v i ng
s

r d

th e

a e
p

ch d i ff er e nc e th e r e i s a s m all
t h e v l ue s o f
o f t h e d i ff e r e n c e i n q u s t i o n se e t h e l as t c o l um n o n p
(
I t w i l l b e o bs e r v e d t h a t i f w e s t r i k e th e l a s t g u r e o ff e ac h o f
t h e p r o p o r t i n al pa r t s ( i n cr ea s i n g t h e l as t o f th o s e l eft if t h e
o n e r e m o v e d e x c ee d s
w e h a v e a t abl e o f th e v a r i ou s h u n
d r ed th s a nd s o o n
He n c e w e can u s e th e t abl e twi c e o v e r ( i n
s om e c ase s i t m i g h t b e o ft e n e r
) a s i n th e fo ll ow i ng e x am pl e
E m ple 2
T nd log 3 0 8 1 3 45
We m y rr nge the corre ponding contr i b ution follo w
ea

'

xa

s as

40

56

log

ple 3
nd the nu m ber w ho e log rith m

E x am

To

i s 1 4 87 1 76 3

1 4 87 1 7 6 3
'

1 4 87 1 6 6 7

8 0 7 0 2 00

96

85

60

11

ntilog
3 0 7 0 2 68
Here w
t do w n under the given log rith m the ne t l o w e t i n th t ble
d oppo ite to it the corre pond i ng nu m b er 3 0 7 0 2
N e t w w rite do w n 000 0 096 th d i ff erence f the e t w log rith m
d
look f the gre te t nu m b er i n the t ble f proport i on l p rt w hich doe not
e ceed 9 6 thi i 8 5 W e t do w n 8 5 d oppo ite to i t the corre pondin g
gure 6
L tly w ubtr ct 8 5 fro m 9 6 the re ult b eing 0000 01 1 We then
i m gine gure truck ff every nu m ber in the t bl e f proportion l p rt
look f the re m ining
w hich
t nd ne re t to 1 1 d t dow n the
gure n m ely 8 corre pond i ng to i t the l t d igit f the nu mber w
eek i ng
'

e se

an

se

an

s , an

'

or

'

as

or

s a

as

o ne

'

an

se

e are

as

s,

E X E R C I SE S

X LII I

F ind th ch r cteri tic f

log 5 log 5
F ind the ch r cter i tic f log 1 06 7 log 0 1 38 log
Fi nd log 8
C lcul te log 3 6 4 3 2 to t w pl ce f dec i m l
e

a a

a a

s o

10

10

'

s o

s o

a s

-3

l og m 0 0068
'

3 8,

l og 3 1 /8

5 28

C lcul te
a

llo w

the v lue

ou t

X E R C I SE S X L I I I

of

th e f

ollo w i ng

ca n

as a

ccur tely
a

as

our t ble
a

ill

(5

41 6 8

7 8 85

~
.

80 6 8

f/ ( 5
(0

T he popul a ti on

0 1 36 95

country incre e e c h ye r by 1 3 / f i t
m ount t the b eginning f the y e r
B y h w m uch / w i ll i t h ve i ncre ed
ltogether fter 2 50 ye r ?
I f the nu m b er f b irth
n d de th
per nnu m b
d
re pectively f the popul tion t t h b eginn i ng f e ch ye r fter h w m n y
y e r w ill the popul t i on b tre b led
C lcul t e the v lue f
C lcul te the v lue f
w here = 2 7 1 82 8
+
F ind m e n proportion l b et w een 3 1 7 9 34 d 3 987 6 3 6
I n ert three m e n proportion l b et w een 6 5 3 4 2
d 88 6 3
T he l t d 1 3 th term f geo m etric progre ion
3
d 65
re pectively d the co mm on r tio
T he 4th d 7 th ter m f geo m etric progre ion
31
d 52
re pect i vely nd the 5 th term
1
1
1
+
H w m n y ter m
m u t b t k en in
f the er i e
order th t i t m m y d i ff er f ro m un i t y by le th n m illionth l
G i ven log 5 = 6 9897 nd the u mb er f d i gi t in ( VE0
G i ven log
d log
nd log 1 1
Fi nd the r t four igni c nt gure d the nu m b er f d i gi t in
a

of a

as s

a s

as

an

l9

an

an

ss

ss

an

a re

s su

ss

10

'

99

20

an

n term f 3 3 3
prod ct m y j u t e ceed 1 0 0 0 00
G iven log 3 6 = 1 3 6 7 8 nd
G iven l g 6 i = 2 nd
S olve the f ollo w ing equ tion
a

u t I t ke i n order th t the
s

:6

2 x 1 5x z 5
3y

5 y,
"1

(a

4 "

2a b

s of a

t b le
a

( 3O

5
3x

2m

11

2-x
.

(a
of

co m m on log rith m log

a

here

1 6 3 4 5, W
.

ho w th t
Sho w th t
S

F ind by m e n
2 7 1 82 8

3"

= 5,

b)

'

(a

H ow m a y

3 x + 29

an

an

ar e

an

a s

an

s a

a s

'

=a

1 /l o g

x a

an d

th t
a

=a

l og

b l o g b c l og

l og d

V( l og

V( l og a b)

ba

V( l o g

V 00 8 6 )

b)

S ho w th t the log r i th m f
y u m b er to
d
e
D ort i on l b et w een i t log rith m to the b
a

an

as s a a n

b as
2

"

is

e n pro
a

C L

HI ST ORI A

XXI

P Q

If

529

ss

l og ( A + C

a,

an

x1

10

mg z l o g x l x z ,

l og

a,

log

b i

A P

l og b+c a l og

c_

ba

b c,

the n

th e

l oo0 v
x

ho w th t log ( A + O)

1 =

2
c ,

= 10

$2

c b in G P how th t
d log
b c b in G P
If
co m m on d i fference f the l tter i
then
If
+b =
b,

a,

r ss

If

geom etric pro g e i on

of a

o w th t 2 ( g ) log P = 0
in h rm onic progre i on
I f AB C b

Sh

te rm

r th

R b e th e p th , qt h ,

NO E

x4

6
D

th e vzzy = zx xz = xrya

10 g 1 2 x3 ,

x1

f lo g r i th m
me n
f
c l N t The honour f d evi i ng the
bb rev i t ing
ri thm et i c l c lcul t i o
f p u b l i h i ng the r t log r i th m i c
d
t ble b elong to John N p i er ( 1 5 50 1 6 1 7 ) f Merch i ton ( i n N pi d y ne r
i our d y i n E d i n b urg h )
T h i i nvent i on w not the re ult f c u l i n p i
w h i ch he de cr i b e three
t i on f w le r from N p i er R bd l g i
i
other m ethod f f ci l i t ti ng r i th m et i c l c lcul t i on m on g them h i l l t
ing rod w h i ch under the n m e f N p i er B one w ere f long e rl y
f m ou
h i log r i th m th t he h d devoted
g re t p rt f h i l i fe to th con
i der t i on f m ethod f i ncre ing the p o w er d d i m i n i h ing the l b our f
rith m et ic l c lcul t i on N p i er p b l i hed h i i nvent i on i n tre t i e ent itled
M i i i L g i th m
De cri pt i o j q u u i t q Trigo
m C
i
m t i
t et i m i n o m n i L ogi t i c
M the m t i c Am p l i i m i f 11im i t
hi
A th
I nventore I
N e p ero B rone M
p d iti i m i
pli ti
t
i &
I
th i w ork h e pl in the
f
S coto Ed i b g i
log ri th m 3 d gi ve t b le f log r ith m i c i ne to 7 fi g re f every m in te
f th q u dr nt
I the C
the b e ed w ne ither 1 0 nor w h t
Jil i i/i
i
w c lled N p i er
econd
b e (
t h ch p ter on log r i th m i c er i e i
th
N p i er h i m e l f pp e r to h ve b een w re f the dv t ge
p rt f th i w ork )
f 10
b e
d to h ve p roj ected the c lcul t i on f t b le
the i m p roved
d hi
p l n 3 b t h i i rm he lth p revented h i m f ro m c rr yi g out th i i de 3
d e th t h ree y e r
f ter the p u b l i c t i on f the C
Il l i i
p revented h i m f ro m
even p ub l i h i g d e cri pt i on f h i m ethod f c lc l ti ng log r i th m Th i
w ork e t i tled Al i i
w
i C
edi ted b y
m C
t
ti
&
i L g i th m
f N p i er
on
i ted b y H enry B rig g
T o H enr y B rigg ( 1 5 5 6
Pro fe or f G eo m etry t G re h m C ollege d
fter w rd S i l i
Pro fe or t O ford b elo g the p l ce f honour e t to
N p i er i n the develo p m ent f lo g r i th m
H recogn i ed t once the m er i t
d
e i ed the p i ri t f N p i er i nvent i on Th i d e f the u p eri or dv nt ge
f
deci m l b e occurred to h i m i ndep endentl y ; d he vi i ted N pi er i n
S cotl nd i n order to co
lt w i th h i m reg rd i ng che m e f t h c lcul ti on
f
log rithm i c t b le f ord i n ry nu mb er on the i m proved p l n F ind i g
N p i er i p o e i on f the
m e i de i n
l ightl y b etter f or m h dopted h i
ugge t i on d the re ult f the i i t w th t B igg d ertook th w ork w h i ch
N p i er decl i n i ng h e lth h d i nterr p ted
B rigg p ubl i hed the r t tho nd
f h i log r th m i
1 61 7 ;
d i n h i A i th m ti
L g
i th m i
g ve to 1 4
f dec i m l th
log ri th m f l l i nteger fro m 1 to
d f ro m
p l ce
to
I
l t m e t i o ed w ork he e pl in th
th
p re f ce to th
m ethod u ed f
c lcul t ing th log r ith m them elve
u ing
d the rule f
the m i n rith m et i c l c lc l t i on

H i s tor i

o e

a n

s,

an

as a

as

as

o ne o

s s

ss

or

ss

a i

a s

VOL

or

o,

u a

as

n x

an

s un

ar

u sa

ca ,

an

as

ca

or

an

an

an a

as

an

v s

sa

s, an

ss

cu s

on s r u c

on

an

u a

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er c

as

or

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or u

ar

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ss

s , as s s

an

av

a s

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as

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s as

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s as a

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or

s , an

or

2 M

RC L

5 30

HI ST O I A

cxm p

NO E

xx x

Wh ile B rigg w eng ged i n ll ing p the g p lef t i n h i t b le the w ork f

c lcul t ing log r i th m w t k en p i H oll nd b y Ad r i n Vl q b ook eller f
H c lcul ted the
G oud
log r ithm w h i ch w ere w nt ing i n B rigg
T b le 3 d p b l i hed i n 1 6 2 8 t ble cont i n i n g the log r ith m to 1 0 p l ce f
dec i m l f l l num b er from 1 to
T he w ork f B r igg
d Vl q h
f l l the t b le p b l i hed i nce the i r d y ( w i th the e ce p t i on f
b een the b i
th
t b le f S ng
th t i t f orm f i t uthor m onu m ent b oth
l ti ng d g re t
d the m er i t
I order f ull y to pp rec i te the b r i ll i nc y f N p i er i nvent i on
f B r i gg
d V l q the re der m u t b e r i n m i nd th t even the
f the w ork
e p onent i l not t i on d the i de f e p onent i l f uncti on not t p e k f the
i nver e e p onent i l f unct i on d i d not for m p rt f the tock -i -tr de f m the
t i ll long fterw rd T he fund ment l i de f the cor e p ondence f
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r s

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53 3

t cas e A = 1 5 2 5 ,

'

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03 5

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c o n v e r s i o n pe r i o d a s u n i t o f t i m e L e t P d e n o te t h e p r in c i p al A
t he a cc u m u l a te d v a l u e o f P t h a t i s t h e p r i n c i p al t o g e th e r w i th
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Th e i n t e r e s t b e a r i ng c ap i t al or p r i n c i p al
P
P r th a t i s to P R
d u r i ng th e s ec o n d p e r i o d i s P R 3 and th i s at th e e n d o f th e
s e c o n d p e r i o d w i ll h a v e a cc u m u l at e d t o P R + P Rr
that i s to
PR
Th e pr i n c i p al d u r i ng t h e th i rd p e r i o d i s P R an d th
a m ou n t at t h e e n d o f t h a t p e r i o d P R
and s o o n
I n Sh o r t the
of

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a mou nt

R3

in

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X AMPLE S
w hose

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p e i ods w e s hal l have

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rd i nary
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m
f
c
m
u n d i n t e r es t 3 f o r i t e n ab l es u s w h e n an
bl
o
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R n ar e g iv e n to d e term i n e th e
O f th e f o u r q u a n t i t i e s A P
f ou r th
I n m os t c as e s t h e c al cu l a t i o n i s g r e atl y f c i l i t t e d by
Se e t h e e x m pl e s w o rk e d b e l ow
t h e u s e o f l o g a r i th m s
C o r 1 If 1 denote the whol e comp ound i nter es t on P du ri ng the
n p er i ods w e have
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th

of

is

e quat o n

we

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ve

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th e

a mou nt

r
r

p e i ods
n p e i ods
n

to A, w e ha ve

A
so

r (R 1 )
n

If P denote the p r esen t va lu e of a s um A du e

comp ound i nterest bei ng a llowed, then, si nce P mus t i n

C or 2
hence,

th a t

Th e

A/R

d i s c o u nt

th e p

on

P R,

re s en t

un

ple 1
Fi nd the m ount in tw
convertible qu rterl y
H ere P = 2 3 5 0 2 8 7 5

d e rs t n d i ng

i s t h e r efo r e

1 /R

A( I
E xa m

er

a s of

2 35 0

at

co m pound intere t

n = 8,

'

log A = l g P + l
log P = 3 3 7 1 1 2 1 0
log R = 0 80 2 6 84
n

B = I OOS7 5

008 7 5 ,

'

3 4 0 1 3 89 4

ple 2
H w long w ill it t ke 1 86 1 4 9 to
pound intere t converti ble h l f ye rl y
E xa m

ou t to 2 1 6
n

at

co m

When n i very l rge the even gure given i ordin ry t ble h rdly
ff ord the nece
ry ccur cy in the product log R T o re m edy thi de fect
uppl e m ent ry t b le
u u lly given w hich en ble the com puter t nd
very re d il y to 9 1 0 pl ce the log rith m f nu m ber ( uc h R ) which
d i ff er l i ttle fro m un i ty
a

ss a

a re

or

s o

as

NO M I N A

xx II

ere

=
P 1 86 7 3 7 5 ,

F C T I V E R AT E
R=1 0 3

2 1 6 4 7 92 ,
'

n:

535

AN D E F E

( log A

log P ) /log R

0 6 41 8 4 7
0 1 2 88 7 2

50 0

ence the required ti m e i ve h l f ye r th t i

ye r
E m ple 3
T o nd the pre en t v alue f 1 000 due 5 0 ye r hence l l o w ing co m po nd
i ntere t t 4 / converti ble h l f ye rl y
We h ve P A/R
n = 1 00
B 102
Here A = 1 00 0
log P = log 1 000 1 00 log 1 0 2
H

xa

a s,

s,

a s

a s

o,

'

1 00

'

2 1 3998 0 0

0 08 6 00 2 ,
.

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t he n o m i n al r at e c o n v e r ti bl e a s g i v e n
L e t r d e no t e t h e e ffe c t i v r at e of i nt e r e s t p er p o u n d w h i c h
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c
n
d
r
h
I
n
t
e
s
e
o
a
g
p t of
t h i s w o rk w e s h al l d i s c u s s t h i s -k i n d o f a nn u i t i e s
F or t h e
s e n t w e c o n fi n e o u r s e l v e
r
e
t o c as e s w h e r e t h e a nn u al p aym e n t
p
i cer ta i nly d ue e i t h e r f r a d e n i t s u cc e s s i n o f yea r s o r i n
p e r p e tu i ty
nn u i ty
r
O n e v e ry c o m m o nl y o cc u rr i ng
o bl e m i s to
p
f ind the a ccu mu l ted va lu e of a F O R B O R N E annu i ty An nn u i t an t
B w h o h d t h e r i g h t t o r e c e i v e n s u cc es s i v e p aym e n t s at n su c
c e s i e e u i d i s t an t t e r m s
h s fo r so m e r e aso n
t h e r no t
r
q
r e c e i ve d t h e se p ay m e n ts Th e q u es t i o n i s Wh at s um s h ou l d h e
r e c e i v e i n c o mp e n s at i o n ?
A

of

u a

as

C UMU L ATI ON

xx u

the

F O R B OR N E

OF

AC

'

ANN

UI T Y

537

To m ak e th e q u e s t i o n g e n e r a l , l e t u s s u p po s e t h a t t h e l as t
n i n s t al m e n t s w a s d u e m p e r i o d s a g o

of

cc u m u l a t d y al u e o f th e annu i ty
i s th e s u m of t h e a cc u m u l a t e d v a l u es o f t h e n i ns tal m en t s
a nd th at c o m ou n d i n t er e s t m u s t i n e u i ty b e al l o w e d o n ea c h
p
q
i ns t al m e n t
N o w t h e n th i n s t l m e nt d u e f or m p e r i o d s am ou nts t o
m +2

t he n
the n
2 th t o AR
an d s o o n
1 th t o AR
Hen c e
i f V d en o te th e w h ol e a cc u m u l ate d v l u e w e h av e
It is

c l ea r

th at th e w h ol e

- 1

ARM

Su mm i ng t h e g e o m e tr i c

se

r i es

AR

h av e

we

1)

C or
a

If the la s t i ns ta lment be

cc umu la ted

va lu e o

on l

d ue,

ust

the fo bo

r rne a nnu i ty is g i ven

A( R

in

0,

a nd

the

by

1)

ple
A f r m er rent i 1 5 6 per nnu m p y b le h l f ye rl y
un ble
H w
to p y f ve ucce ive ye r the l t h l f ye r rent h v i ng b een due three
F ind h w m uch he o w e h i l ndlord llo w ing co m pound intere t
ye r
g
E x am

or

a s a

a s,

ss

as

as

at

ere

A = 78,

R = 1 01 5,
'

78

I O l og

log 7 8

-1 10
0 5

01 5

1 0 1 56

18 9 2 0 94 6

6 10 g 1 0 1 5

03 8 7 96 0
2 05 5 8 8 8
'

log

0 15
=296 0 8 8 2 6

l og V

16

r ce of

p i

0 6 46 6 0 0 ,

78

log

= 10

A no th e r f un d a m en tal p r obl em i s to ca lcu late the urchase

p
L e t u s s u pp o s e th at B w i s h es , by p ayi ng
g i ven a nnu i ty
.

d o w n a t o n c e a s u m P t o a c qu i r e for h i m sel f an d h i s h e i r s th e
r i g h t o f r e c iv i ng i t p er i o d i c p ay m e nts of A each th e r s t p ay
m n t t o b e m ad e m p e r i d s h e n c e
We ha v e t o nd P
P i s o b v i ou s ly th e s u m of th e
p r es e nt v al u e s o f t h e n p ay
,

PU RC HASE P RI C E

538

m e nt s

rs t

N o w th e

of

i s th er e fo r e A/R

v al u e

t h e s e i s d u e m ye a

A s p r esen t

O F A N A NN

c d

Th e

rs

i s du e

s e on

i s t h e r efo r e A/Rm + 1 ,

v al u e

UI T Y

C HAP

h en c e 3 i t s p r e s en t
m
1 ye ar s h en c e 3

a nd so o n

Hen c e

A
+

m +l

m + n 1

He n c e

(R

7 n + n 1

C or 1
.

Th e

r at i o

of

th e p u

rch as e p r i c e

of

a n a nn u

l p ay m e n t i s o f te n s p o k e n o f a s th e number

w h i c h t h e a n nu i ty i s w o r th
If the p er i od

a n n ua

a bove

i nves tig ati on be

yea

a nd

p be the

i ty

ea s
y

pu

u nders tood

r of

num be

to th e

year s p u

rchase

i n the

rchase

then we have f

rom ( 2 )
R
(

If the p eri od be l /gth

( A, we have
1
.

Ge r 2
.

beg i n to

yea

s in e

If th e

a nnu a l

the

p ayment i s then

1)

i ty

be

n ot

that i s to

s ay,

a nn u

then m

I,

a nd

A( R

Al

r un a t on e,

p eri od

deferr ed as i t i s c all e d
i
f the rst p ayment be du e

bu t
one

we ha ve

A( 1

so

2
01

(1
(1

MR

1)
1)

r d of co nversi on i s a year or the qth p a rt of a year

C o r 3 To O btai n t h e p r esent va lue of a deferred p erp etua l
a
a nnu i ty o r a s i t i s O f t e n
u t the p r es ent va l u e of the r ever s i on o
f
p
n
n
i
t
l
ea t i n the
r
etu a l a nnu i ty w e have m er el
k

r
e
m
a
e
n
i
e
t
o
y
g
p
p
y
equ a ti on
lVe thus obtai n
a

ccordi ng as

"

the p e i o

In som e
T h i s i s the u s u al m e n i ng f b e g inn i ng t o run a t once
ca s es the rs t p a ym ent i s m a de at once I n t h t c e o f cours e m = 0
a

as

xxn

UM B E R

Y EAR S PU RC HAS E

OF

or A

F REE HO LD

539

R
1)

Hence f or the

r of

nu mbe

yea

rs

pu

rchas e

we

1)

yea

or

ccor di ng

Ge r 4

conve s on

is

or

1 /gth

r
ce

yea
a t on
a

for mu l a

A/( 1

(1

A/r

r of

nu mbe

F or the

the
PVhen the p e p etua l a nnu i ty beg i ns to ru n
w
ave
h
1
e
n
1
0
b
eco
m
e
ve y s i m le
u
t
t
i
m
P
g
( )
p

ri

r d of

the p e i o

as

have

yea

rs

pu

rchas e
P

0 2%

1h

or

ccordi ng

er

f convers i on

1 /g th of a yea
If t h e p e i o b e a yea , em e m be i ng th at , if s b e th e
e n t O f i n te e s t a ll o w e , th e n
s 1 0 0 , w e s e e t h at
/
the p e i od

as

r d
r

is

yea

r r

He n c e t h e f o ll o w i ng

or

100

r at e

r y S i m p l e r ul e f o r t h e v l u e o f a p e r p e t l
a nnu i t
r
rc
d
i
vi d e 1 0 0 by the
n
T
d
t
h
u
r
h
ase
o
e
n
m
b
e
o
a
s
y

f y
p
ra te
c nt of i nteres t co r esp ondi ng to the hind of i nvestment i n
p
T h i r l e i m ch u e d by p r c ti c al m e n Th e f ol l o w i ng
q sti on
t abl e w i ll i ll u s tr t i t
i
c
i
l
n
a
t
o
pp
ue

a e

of

E xam

e r purch e
a s

ple

33

as

20

18

17

orro w ed to b rep id i
w hich
to cover b oth princip l d intere t
llo w i ng co m pound intere t t 4 %
L et A b the nu l p ym ent then
A

22

25

28

53

0 "'

s a

R te 2
NO

er

ua

ve

s um of

is b

a re

an

an

30

To

equ l ye rl y in t l m ent
nd the ye rly p ym ent
a

s a

is

the pre ent v lue

s

o f an

R T

5 40

I N TE E S

U I T Y T AB L E S

AN D AN N

nnuity f A p y b le ye rl y the nnuity to b eg i n

H ence by ( 5 ) b ove
ye r

a s.

C HA P

once

at

run f

an d

or

30

3 0, 00 0 = A ( 1

A
30

1 0 45
'

log 1 0 4 5

1 4 2 6 5 1 1 0,

1 0 45

2 6 7 0 00

14

11

r i o d i c i ns tal m ent s
f an an n i ty to v ry a cc ord i n g t o g i v e n l aw s t o
o r th e p e r i o d s
c om pl i c ate t he d etai l s o f n n i ty cal c ul at i o n s v e ry s e r i ou sly 3
b t as w e s h ou l d i n t h i s w ay i ll u s tr at e n o g e n e r al p r i n c ip l e o f
i
m
o r ta n c e i t w i l l b e s u f c i e n t t o r e f e r th e s tu d e nt t o o n e
an
p
y
t w o i ns tan c e s o f t h i s k i n d g i v e n am o n g t h e e x am p l es a t t h e
o
e n d of t h i s c h p te r
I t o nl y r e m a i n s t o m e n t i o n t h at i n p r a c ti c e th e c l c u l at i o n
n d a nn u i t i e s i s m u c h f a c i l i ta te d b y t h e u s e o f t abl es
o f i nt e r e s t
n w h i c h t h e v al u e s o f th e
c
h
a s th os e o f T r n bu ll f o r e a m pl e
i
)
(

r
f u n c t i o ns ( 1
1 }/r { 1
l
(1 +
)
(
r
r
&
1
c
a re t abu l a t e d f o r v a r i o u s v a lu e s O f l 0 0 r
1
+
{
(
/
an d n
F o r f r th e r i nfo r m a t i o n o n t h i s s u bj e c t s e e th e Text B ook
1
of the I nsti tu te of A c tu ar i es P a r t I
5
1
p
]

I t w o ul d b e

e as

y, by

a ss u m n

g th e pe

su

LIV
T he d i ff erence b et w een the true di count d the intere t
per i od i 4 i m ple intere t b eing llo w ed t 4 / 3 nd
f
F ind the pre ent v lue f
due 5 0 y e r hence llo w i ng 4 % /
co m pound intere t convert i ble ye rly
m
Fi nd th m ount f 1 5 0 t the end f 1 4 ye r llo w i ng 3
pound intere t convertible h l f-ye rly d deduct i ng 6 d per f inco m e
E X E R C I SE S X

an

or a

on

e a

ta x

a s

co

a s, a

an

or

lo ng w ill it t ke f
m to dou b le it el f t 6 / co m pound
i tere t convertible nnu lly 9
m
m ount t 1 0 00 t 5 /
n penn y to
H w long w i ll it t ke f
pound intere t convertible nnu ll y ?
l ry f 1 00 w h t d i fference doe it m ke whether it i p i d
O
i m ple d f co m pound
t the re ult b oth f
m onthl y ? Work
q u rterl y
i nte e t t the r te f
m A i l id
t t 1 0 / co m pound intere t converti ble nnu ll y
A
- e rl
f
r
A
f
co
pound
intere
t
con
er
i
e
l
te
b
l
m
h
5
t
v
d
m 2A t
y
y
/
h w m n y ye r w ill the m ount b equ l ?
How

n a sa a

a s

an

or s

co

or

su

ou

su

an

or o

or

r s

su

or a

ou

X X II

541

ho w th t the di fference b et ween b nker di coun t

im ple intere t b eing uppo ed i
S

X E RC I S ES X L I V
a

9 2
An r

true di count

an d

2 2
3 3

nr + n r
n r +
1

a d oo

nd
pper lim it f the error in taking
If
i
the m ount f 1 00 in ye r t l oo / m
pound intere t convert ible nnu lly
d 1 denote the w hole co m pound n d the w hole im ple
If I
t l 00
intere t P f
/ convertib le nnu ll y ho w th t
ye r
1 5/1 00,

>

1 0,

>

an

an

on

or

as

it

a s a

a s a

co

or i t

c, ,

I,

o w e P on w h i ch he p y 1 00 / nnu ll y the princip l

to b p id up fter ye r Wh t m m u t he inve t t 1 0 0
t b
ju t ble to p y the i ntere t nnu ll y d the princip l P w hen i t f ll due
Bh
de b enture b ond f 5 0 0
r il w y When the b ond h
t ill ye r to run the com p n y lo w er the i ntere t from 5 / w h i ch w
the r te greed upon to 4 / d in co m pen t i on incre e the m ount f
B
b ond by
Fi nd uppo ing th t B
l w y inve t h i intere t
A m an

a s

it

as a

ve

at

a s

an

o,

an

s o as

on a

sa

as

as

o,

as

can

x,

su

'

per on o w e
p y ble 1 2 ye r hence d o ffer
do w n to liquid te th debt Wh t r te f co m pound i ntere t converti ble
nnu lly doe he de m nd
A te t tor directed th t h i t ru tee
in rr ng i ng h i ff ir hould
t p rt uch u m f
e ch f h i three on th t e ch m i ght receive the
m e m ount w hen he c m e f g
When he died h i e t te w w orth
d the ge
f hi
on w ere 8 1 2 d 1 7 re pect i vely F ind
p rt f e ch reckoni g 4 / com pound intere t f
wh t
m w
t
ccu m ul tion
B o w e to C the u m A A
A
t d te
F ind t w h t d te B m y equ i t bly d i ch rge h i deb t to C
ye r h
b y p y i ng l l the u m together uppo i ng th t the y ll b e r the
m e r te
f intere t ;
d
1 t Allo w ing intere t
d intere t in lieu f d i count w here d i
tL
i due
2 d A llo w i g co m pound intere t
n d true d i count t co m pound intere t
R e q uired the ccum ul ted v lue t the end f 1 5 ye r f nnu i t y
f 5 0 p y b le i n qu rterl y i n t l m ent
A llo w co m pound intere t t 5 /
A lo n f 1 0 0 i to b p id ff i 1 0 e q u l m onthl y in t l m ent
Fi nd the m onthl y p ym ent reckon i ng com pound intere t t 6
I b orro w 1 0 0 0
d rep y 1 0 t the end f ever y m onth f
10
Fi nd n equ t i on f the r te f intere t I p y Wh t k i nd f
ye r
i ntere t t ble w ould help y i n pr ct i c lly olvi ng uch que t i on th i
T he rever ion fter 2 ye r f freehold w orth 1 6 8 2
ye r i to
b
old nd i t pre ent v lue llow i g i n tere t t 2 / convertible nnu lly
F ind the pre ent v lue f freehold f 3 6 5 ye r reckoning m
pound i n tere t t 3 i / convertible h l f ye rl y d deducting 6 d per f
incom e t
I f perpetu l nnuit y b w orth 2 5 ye r purch e w h t nnuit y to
A

sa

or

an

as

se

en ce

s a

s, s

s a

an

as

,.

an

u1

n2

or

n,

sa

a s o

as

a s

as

co

an

or

O,

s a

a s o

an a

or

- ax

an

ou

e s

scou n

s a

a s

s,

an

or

a s

su

an

a s

s a

se

X RC I SE S X L I V

5 42

E E

continue f
intere t

3 y

or

er

be b

a s ca n

ought f

5 0 00

or

ca n

to bring th

s o as

e s am

xxn

e r te

of

e r purch e b p id f
nnuity t continue f
cert i n
nu mber
e r d 2 4 ye r purch e f
long nd
t cont in ue t wi ce
the r te f intere t ( convertib le nnu lly)
Tw proprietor h ve equ l h re in n e t te f 50 0 y e r
O
t by
b u y the other
igning h i m term in b le nnuity t l t f 2 0 y e r
Fi nd the nnuity reckoning 3% / com p ound intere t convertible nnu lly
T he rever ion f n e t te f 1 5 0 y e r i old f 2 00 0 H w
long ought the entry t b de ferred i f the r te f intere t n the inve t m ent
i to b 4 2 / converti b le nnu ll y 7
t
nom in l rent b purch ed f 1 0 00 w h t
I f le e f 1 9 ye r
ought the re l rent t b i n order th t the purch er m y get 4 / h i
i nve tm ent ( intere t conver ti ble h l f-y e rly) l
B d C h ve equ l intere t in n nnuit y f A f 2 ye r ( p y
T hey gree t t ke the p ym ent ltern tel y B t king the
b le nnu ll y )
r t W h t ought B t p y to C f th priv i lege he thu receive
le e f 2 0 y e r f h i f rm t rent f 5 0
A f rm er b ought
p y b le h l f-ye rly A fter 1 0 ye r h d run he determ ined to b y th free
hold f the f rm \Vh t ought he to p y the l ndlord i f the f ull rent f the
f r m b 1 00 p y b le h l f y e rl y
d 3
b the r te f intere t
inve t
m ent in l nd
Wh t nnuity b eginning ye r hence n d l ting f
ye r i
equiv lent t n nnuity f A b eginning w d l ting f
ye r
A te t tor le f t
to b h red equ ll y b et w een t w i ti t
tion B d C ; B to enjoy t h intere t f cert i n nu m b er f ye r C t
h ve the rever ion H w m y ye r ought B t receive the intere t i f the
r te b 3 % convert i ble nnu lly
If
m n live m y e r f
h w m n y y e r m u t he p y n nnu i ty
m e m oun t f
the
f A in order th t he m y receive n nnui ty f the
re t f h i l i fe Sho w th t i f the nnu i t y to b c q uired i t continue f
m f m one y w ould dou ble
ever then the nu m ber f ye r i th t i n w h i ch
it el f t the uppo ed r te f i ntere t
u bject to
nnu l burden f 1 00 Hi
A gentle m n e t te w
e pen e in y ye r v ried the numb er f ye r he h d lived d h i
inco m e the qu re f th t nu mb er I h i 2 1 t ye r he pent
S ho w th t
441 0
d h i i nco m e b e f ore deducting the nnu l burden w
he
in deb t every ye r till he w 5 0
old f 1 5 0 0 w ith f n duty f 1 8 p y b le nnu lly
A f
i
c u lty f 1 0 0 p y ble every 5 0 ye r W h t w ould h ve b een the
d
4
t
R
r
i
ce
f
the
f
f
i
t
h
een
ought
outright
eckon
intere
t
i
d
b
b
1
p
F ind the ccu m ul tion d l o the pre en t v lue f
nnu i ty
w hen the nnu l p ym ent incre e in A P
m e pro b le m w hen the incre e i in G P
S olve the
T he rent l f n e t te i m A to begin wi th ; b t t the end f
every q ye r the r nt l i d i m i n i hed by A o w i ng to the incidence f fre h
t t i on Fi nd th pre ent v lue f th e t te
If 20 y
O f y a s,

a s

as

an

a s

ou

as

o a

a s

on

an

s s

as

as

eu

or

a s

as

7,

an

s a

an

a s

as

s a

as

sa

or

a s

a s

an

or

an a

as

sa

a su

eu

a s,

e a

as s

ra n

as

s a

a s

a s

ns

a s

or a

or 77.

or

as

a s

a s,

an

a s

or i t

as

no

an

ax a

a s

an

or

an

on

it

an

a s o

s a

s a

an

or

as

or

a s

as

a s.

or

or

or

as

ne

s s

as

s s

an

s a

a s a

s a

o,

as

ass

or a

or o n e

as

or an a

AP P E N D I X
ON

TH E G E N ER AL

SO L

U TI O N

OF

U BI C

U ATI ON S ; AN D O N THE
S U C H E Q U A TI O N S C AN B E S O L V E D
Q U A D RATI C E Q U A TI O N S

R ATI O

EQ

B I Q UA D

AN D
C ASE S

WHE RE

M EA N S O F

BY

Si n c e

c ub i c

b i q u adr at i c e qu at i on s ar e o f f r e q u en t
o cc u rr e n c e i n e l em e n t a r y m a t h e m a t i c s , a n d m a ny i n t e r e s t i n g
g eo m e t r i c p r obl em s can b e m a d e to d e p e n d o n t h e i r s ol u t i o n, a
b r i ef a cc o u nt o f th e i r l ea d i ng p r o pe r t i es m ay be u se fu l t o r ead e r s
I n c i d e nt al ly, w e s h all m ee t w i th s o m e p r i n c i pl e s
o f th i s bo o k
o f i m p o r ta n c e i n t h e G e n e r al T h e o r y o f E q u a t i o n s
and

C O MM EN S U RAB LE R OOTS AN D RE DU C I B I LI TY
We s h ll s p p o e i n a l l t h at fol l o w s th a t th e c oefc i ents
p o f a n y e qu t i o n
.

p0

p ox
ar e

al l

w e pu t

r eal c o m m e n su r abl e n u m be r s
x
g/m w e d e r i v e f r o m ( 1 ) th e

I f,

p05

(I )

0
as

c h ap

in

iv al e nt

xv

2 1,

e q u at o n

i s m t i m e s a c o rr e s p o n d i ng r o o t O f
If

w e t h e n c h o os e m s o t h a t mp 1 p ,
m
a re
/0
a l l i nt e r al f or e x a m l e , b
p
g
y t a k i ng f o r m t h e L C M o f t h e d e
w e S h all
n o m i n a t o r s o f t h e f ra c t i o n s
p n/p o
t o the form
r ed u c e
ea

ch

p ,,

of

w h os e

r o o ts

i n w hi ch

al

l the

i ci ents

coe

ar e

p os i ti ve

or

n eg a ti ve

i n teg ers,

a nd

the

5 44

A PE N

the hi g hest te m

i ci ents of

coe

I nteg r al F orm
If, a s i n c h a p
th e equ a t i o n ( 1 ) i nt o

DI X

We

u ni ty

m ay

c all

th

is

Sp eci a l

th e

p ,g

w he e g,

fo r m e d

p on

eq u a t o n

p,
be

xv

2 2 , w e pu t

16 0 5

r i

w he e n

we t

ran s fo r m

g ,g

w e ta

c om es

a,

Hen c e , i f

r -

ha v e

ke

n ow

/
n
t
h
e
t
r
a ns
o
,
ph p

d e t e r m i n a t e v al u e s

I t fo ll o w s

th a t

B y a p rop er li nea r tr a nsfor ma ti on, we can a lways dep ri ve an

equ a ti on of the n th d eg r ee of i ts hi g hest ter m bu t one
We can, of c ou r s e, c om b i n e t he tra n s fo r ma t i ons of
2, 3,
a n d r e d u c e a n e q u a t i o n t o a s p e c i al i n t e g r al f o r m w an t i ng t h e
h i g h es t t e r m bu t o n e
If an equ a ti on of the sp eci al i nteg ral for m ha s commensura ble
r oots, these roots mu st be i nteg r a l, a nd can onl
y be exact di vi sors of
F o r , s u ppo s e t h a t t h e e q u a t i on
h a s th e
i ts a bsolu te term
f r a c t i o nal c o mm en s u r abl e r oo t a /b, w he r e a m ay be s u ppo s e d to
T h en w e ha ve th e i d e nti ty
be p r i m e to b
.

,,

0,

w h en e
a

wh

i ch

ll

/b5

ha
t

i s i m p o ss i bl e ,

r i g h t h an d i d e
-

Al s o , i f

i c

the

gah

l e ft-h an d

ide

is

'

l
,

ra c t i on

a nd

th e

g ,a

we

m u s t ha v e

r i g h t h a nd s i d e i s obv i ou s ly n i nteg ral nu mber

a m u s t b e a n ex a c t d ivi s o r O f
The comm ensu ra ble roots of a n equ a ti on if any exi st can therefore
a l wa ys be fo nd by a l i mi ted n mber o a r i thmeti ca l op ra ti ons
f
We hav e m e r el y t o r e d c e th e e q u t i o n t o a n e q i val ent
c
i
l
i
n t e g r al f o r m
n d s u b s ti t u t e t h e d ivi s o r s o f i t s a bs o l t e
e
p
Th e nu m b e r o f
t e r m o n e f te r t h e o t he r i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
tr i l s m a y i n mos t c a s es b e re d u c e d by obt ai n i ng u pp e r and
,

i c

ma

i n te g e r
b e a ny i n teg r al r oo t

a
E
n
g

He n c e

s n e

an

s n e

th e

A P P END I X

5 45

l o w e r l i m i ts for th e r oo ts by m ea n s o f t h e t h e o rem
2 1 , b y g rap h i ca l m e th o ds , or o th e r w i s e

of

h ap

x ii

E x am p l e

q t i on i l d y i n th
bl
ibl co m m n
p c i l i nt g l fo m H nc th
oot

o b i o th t t h
It i
+ 1
i l O $ 15
i SO
i 6
i 3
i 5
i 2
it i
q t i on h no n g t i
oot ; d i nc
m i n i ng po ibl
n mb
O f th
l to t y 1 0
y l g
nd + 5
n mb
+ 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 i t i i mm d i t l y fo nd th t + 2 + 3
oot
e

ra

Thi
onl y po

1 0 x9 + 31 x
e

as

ua

e rs ,

are r

u s e es s
u

or

ve

an

an

ar

er

a rea

su ra

e r

us

er .

a e

are

ss

ua

re

ss

An e q ua ti o n i s sai d t o be r edu ci ble w h e n i t h as a roo t o r

r o o ts i n comm o n Wi t h a n e q u a t i o n o f l o w e r d e g re e ( h av i ng o f
co u r s e co mm e nsu rab l e coe f ci e n t s ) 3 i rr edu ci bl e i f i t h as n o r o o t i n
com m on w i t h a ny e q u a t i o n o f l ow er d eg r ee
If an e q u a t i o n
0 h av e ro o t s i n co mm o n w i th a n
n th e
r od u ct o f t h e l i n ea r
t
h
e
) (a
0
e q u a t i o n o f l ow er d e g r ee d
,
p
)
fa ct or s co rr es p o ndi ng t o all s u ch com m o n r o o t s , say g (x) , i s t h e
w h i ch ca n b e d e d u ce d
a nd
G O M o f th e ch a ract er i s ti cs
f ro m t h es e fu n ct i o n s by pu re l y r a ti o n al op era ti on s I t f oll o w s
w h e re
a n d k m ar e i nt e r al f u n cti o n s o f
t h at
g
( )
Th e r oo t s o f f (x)
O a re
:6 h a v i n g co m m e n su ra bl e co e f ci e n t s
t h er e f or e t h e ag g r e g at e o f t h e r oo t s o f t h e tw o e q u a ti o n s g (x)
0
h( a:)
Ea ch
0 , e a ch o f l o w er d e g r ee t h a n t h e o r i g i na l e q u at i on
of t h es e n e w e q ua ti o n s m ay b e r e d u ci bl e or i r r ed u ci bl e ; bu t i t
i s obv i o u s th a t a t l ast w e m u s t a rri v e a t a s er i e s o f i rr ed u cibl e
O
e q u a ti o n s th e a g g r e at e o f Wh o s e r o o ts a r e t h e r oo t s o f
g
a n d t h e ch a rac t e r i s t i cs o f t h ese e q u a t i o n s a r e t h e i rr e du cibl e
i r r ed u ci bl e i n t h e s e nse th a t t h ey ca nno t be
fa ct ors o f
d e co m p os ed i nt o i n t eg ra l fa ctor s o f l o w e r d eg r e e h av i ng co m
m e n su ra bl e co e ffi ci e n ts
Th e f o ll o w i n g t h e o r em , o f ten a pp ea l ed t o i n t h e t h eor y
o f e q u a t i o n s , i s a n i m m e d i a t e co ns e q u e n ce o f t h e no ti o n o f i rr e
d u ci bi l i ty e x pl a i n e d i n t h e l a s t parag r ap h
If a n i rredu ci bl e equ ati on A have a root i n common wi th a n
e ua ti on B ( r edu cible or i rr edu ci ble , then every r oot o
q
)
f A i s a r oot
.

f B

For i f o n l y s o m e o f th e r oo t s o f A w er e r oo ts o f B , t h en a
co mm o n comm e n s u ra bl e fa ct or o f th e ch ara ct er i s t i cs o f A a nd B
co u l d b e f ou nd o f l e s s d e r ee t h an A i ts el f ; a n d A w o u l d n o t
g
be i rr ed u ci bl e
When an equati on i s reduci ble i t ca n be reduced by a ni te
7
num ber of a r i thmeti ca l o er a ti ons
p
,

VO L

AP P END I X

546

C o n si d e r

th e

e q u at i o n

+ pn =

w h o s e r oo t s are

a ,,

a2,

I f ( 5 ) be r ed u cibl e, t h en
m u s t h av e a comm en surabl e f actor
or
h
w
o f t h e 1 s t , o r 2 n d,
t
d
e
r
e
h er e (f) i s th e g rea t e s t
e
,
f
g
i n t eg e r i n n/2
If
h a s a co mm e nsur abl e fa ctor o f th e 1 s t d eg r ee, ( 5 ) h as
a co mm e n su rab l e r oo t , w h i ch ca n b e f ou n d a s e x l a i n e d i n
4
p
I f f (a ) h a s a comm en su rab l e fa ct or o f th e s t h d eg r ee , l e t
a , b e t h e co rr es o n d i n
a ,, a 2,
r oot s ; a n d l e t
p
g
.

a:

a,

a,

c
c

98

w h er e

3 u , , qg = 3 a , a 2 ,

91

1 1;

m(m
1
th e

a l l com m en su r a b e

h yp oth e s i s

by

a s,

w h i ch

e qu a t i o n s

as

ar e r e s p ecti v e

th e

0,

f or m

7L

Ea l a g )

If w e

0,

r o o ts o f

a , a,

ar e

gs

ly

ll th e d i ffer e n t

v a u es o f

S a l a s,

2 a ,,

a l cu2

as

by t aki ng ev er y p os s ibl e s el ect i o n o f s of th e r o ot s o f

t h e n t h e co e f ci e n ts o f t h e s e e q u a ti o n s ar e symm e tri c
t h e r e f or e r a t i o n a l fu n cti o n s o f t h e co
fu n cti o n s o f th e r oo t s of
a n d t h e r e f o r e co m m e n su r ab l e
Bu t
e f ci e n t s o f
q,
ar e o bv i o u s l
an d , b e i n
y r o o t s o f th e r e sp ecti v e e q u ati ons
g
co m m e n su r a bl e , ca n be f o u n d by a n i t e n u m b er o f t r i a l s
I n p o i n t o f f a ct, i t i s i n g e n era l su f ci e n t t o d e t er m i ne 9 a s
a n d t h e n d e ter m i n e t h e
a co mm e n s u rabl e r o o t o f t h e r s t o f ( 7
o bt ai ne d

s -

fu n cti o n ( 6 )
a nd

as

th e G

th e d i s cu ss i on

r ea d e r

OM

of

and

of

o
ss
i
b
e
p

I I (r
.

Th e proo f,

q,

e x cep ti o n s ,

m ay b e

l eft

to the

EQUAT I ON S S OLUBLE

BY

MEAN S OF S QUA R E

OO T S

i rra t i o na l o p er a ti o n s l ai d
d o w n i n ch a p x w i ll s h o w t h at any fu ncti on w h i ch i s con s tru cted
x
by m ea n s o f a ni t e nu m b er o f th e o p era ti ons
N/
m ay w i th ou t l oss o f g en eral i ty b e s u pp os ed t o be con s tr u cted

Refe
.

as

foll o w s

r e n ce
.

t o t h e t h eor y

of

A PP END I X

5 47

Star ti ng w i t h t h e s eri es of r a ti onal nu mb ers , w e con stru ct a

Any
n u m ber o f q ua d ra ti c i r ra ti o na l s , s ay
J a n x/ ue,
ra t i o na l f u n ct i o ns o f t h e s e m a y be r e d u ce d t o l i n ear f or m s , s u ch
as
w h i ch w e m ay d es cr i be
We su ppose t hat Ja n
a s q u ad ra ti c i r r a t i o n al s o f t h e r st or der
a r e i n d e p e n d e n t , i n t h e se ns e t h a t t h e r e i s n o l i n e a r
J ag ,
as
P
0 , co n
Rx/ a l x/ a ,
r el a ti o n , su ch
Q d a,
meeti ng t h e m 3 f or , i f t h er e w er e any s u ch r el a ti o n, w e cou l d u s e
i t t o g e t r id of d a , by e x p r e s s i ng i t a s a l i n ear fu ncti on o f
a nd t h u s r e d u ce t h e n u m b er o f i n d ep e nd e n t s q u ar e
J a,
.

r oo ts

/h
w h er e b b
a r e q uad rat i c
N ex t con sid er a
T h en t ak e
i rr a t i o na l s o f th e r s t or d er r e d u ced a s abov e
ra ti o nal f u ncti on s o f t h e s e a n d r e d u ce t h e m t o l i n ear f or m s co n
T h ese w e m ay
t ai ni ng o nl y i nd ep end e nt s q u ar e r o o t s a s b e f o e
ca ll q u ad ra t i c i rra ti o n al s o f t h e s eco n d o r d er
P r o ce e di ng i n t h i s w ay w e ca n bu i l d u p q u ad ra ti c i r r ati on al
c

g,

2,

,,

i
i
s o b v i o u s t h a t ever fu ncti on whi ch
t
y
y
constructed by q neans of a ni te nu mber of the op er a ti ons
x/ i s a qua dra ti c i rra tiona l of a ni te order i n the a bove sca le

fu ncti o n s
is
x

of a n

ex a m

pl

HJ2 + J3

re s

a nd

Fo r
N

o r d er

p ct i l y
e

ve

e,

are

J2

J 2 J3

q d tic i
ua

ra

rra

t i on l

J 2 + J3 )

a s of

th e

t
rs

se

cond

J 3 ) J2 +
,

an d

th i d o d
r

er s

I f w e g i v e ev ery p os s ibl e arrang em e nt o f s ig ns t o t h e

s q uar e r oo t s i n a q u a d r a t i c i r ra ti o na l fu n ct i o n w h i ch co n tai n s p

1
s u ar e r o o t s , w e
q
g et 2 v a l u es , w h i ch ar e s aid t o be conj u g ate t o
o n e a n o th er
I t s h o u l d b e n o t i ce d t h a t t h e c o n j u g a t e s m a y
n o t b e a l l d i ff er en t ; e
d 3)
J 3 ) and
d ( J2
g , J( 2
M2 J 3 ) +
J 3 ) a r e co nj u g a te w i t h r esp ect to
d2
3 bu t th ey ar e not d i s ti nct
If any qu adr a ti c i rr ationa l
con ta i ni ng 1) squ ar e r oots i s
a r oot of an i r reduci ble equ ati on
x
t
h
a
l
i
t
o
n
u
t
s
0
e
n
l
s
c
a
e
,
,
j
f( )
g
9P
ar
(p
) e a lso roots of the same equa ti on
F o r, i f w e s u bs ti t u t e a , i n t h e e q u a ti o n, w e s h a ll i n th e rs t
-h a n d s i d e o f w h i ch w i ll b e a l i n ear
a ce
e t a n i d e n ti t
t
h
t
l
l
f
e
e
y
p
g
Si n ce o ur
qu ad ra t i c i r r a ti o na l f u n cti o n o f s ay t h e kth o r d er
s u ar e r oo t s ar e i nd e e n d e n t, s u ch a r e l a ti on ca n n o t ex i s t u n l ess
q
p
ea ch t erm i s z er o i nd ep en d e n t l
W
e
a r e t h u s l e d t o a s er i es o f
y
i d e n ti ti e s i n vo l v i ng q u ad ra ti c i rrati o na l f un cti o n s o f or d er k 1 ,
o r l o w er
Applyi ng t h e sam e rea soni ng ag ai n a nd ag ai n, w e ar e
D ef

AP P END I X

5 48

last

l ed t o a s eri es o f i d e nti ti es i n w hi ch t h ere ar e n o s q uar e

r oo t s a t al l
T h es e m u s t h ol d w h a tev er th e s ig ns of th e s qu ar e
r o o ts o r i g i na ll
H ence, if a , nu ll i fy
y i nv o l v e d m ay h av e bee n
f (a) , s o m u s t a l so
I t i s easy t o s ee, by r ea s oni n g s i m i l ar t o t h at em p l oye d i n
x ,
ch a
1
t
h
a t t h e f u n ct i o n
6
,
p
at

m
(

(x

x.

i n t eg ra l fun cti o n o f d eg r ee pt
2 1 i n x, w h o s e coef ci ent s
ar e co m m e n s u r a bl e
If a ,,
a , a re a l l u n e q u a l , t h e n, s i nce t h es e ar e al l r oot s
,
O , it (:c) a nd
of
can o n l y d i ffe r b
y a con s tant fact or
T h er efore th e d eg r ee of
i s 2 10
If
are n o t all u n e q u a l , t h e n e a ch o f t h em m u s t
be r ep ea te d t h e s a m e n u m ber of t i m e s 3 o th er w i s e, by di v i di n g
w
r of
w
a
c
b
a
ro
er
o
e
e
s
h
ou
l
d
o
b
t
a
i
n
t
h
e
h
ra
t
r
i
s
t
i
a
c
c
e
c
y
p
M)
p
p
fu n cti on o f a n e qu a ti o n w h i ch h as s o m e bu t n o t all o f th e roo ts
of
6 , i s i m p o ss ibl e, s i n ce
w h i ch , by
O i s i rr e
I t f o ll ow s t h a t t h e d eg r ee o f f (x) i s a fa ct or o f
du ci bl e
th at
i s t o s ay, i s s om e p o w er o f 2 l ow er th a n th e p th
H ence th e
f o ll o w i ng i m p or ta n t r e s u l t
The deg r ee of an i r r edu ci bl e equati on w hi ch ca n be solved by means
of s ua re roots must be a
q
p ower of 2 3 and i ts r oots can a l l be dedu ced
from any one by varyi ng the sig ns of the squar e r oots i nvolved i n the
exp r essi on f or tha t root
B y a pr o ces s o f co nti nu a lly pai ri ng fact ors w h i ch ar e co n
j u g a te w i th r esp ect t o any p ar ti cu l ar s qu ar e r oo t, w e can r e du ce
t h e ch ara ct e r i s t i c o f a n y e q ua t i o n so l u bl e by m ea ns o f s qu ar e
r o o ts t o th e
ro d u ct o f t w o co nj u a t e f a ct or s , e a ch o f w h i ch con
p
g
H en ce
t ai n s o n l y t h e s q u a r e r oo t o f a comm e n su rab l e n u mb er
a ny su ch equ a ti on can be p u t i nto the for m
is

an

w h e r e p ,,
q
hi s t ran s f or m ati on m ay

s o u ti o n o f

For

Eq u a ti on s

t n

s ubs a

th e

f th
ur

er

be

re

r d ed
a
g

ar e a ll comm e n su rab e

th e

as

rs t

s tep

i n th e

e q u ati o n ?

di c
s

A l g e br i qu es

ce o f

an d

8, 9

ar e

on
(t n
t k n

u s si
ra

of

by

th i

ma

L au r e nt

tt

er ,

s ee

Pe

h p
a

er s e

vii

n Th e i d
f om w h i ch th

or e

es

We h av e
to th e

r e d u ced

be

3 ayz s

f o ll o w s th at

It

t he

a:

r oo t s o f
3

ar e

my

z,

c
c+ r
q

cu b e r o o t o f u ni t y,

i m ag i nary

an

be

f or m
x

(e

ev e r y cu bi c e q u a t i on can

3 ) t h at

s ee n

If

549

C UB IC EQUAT I ON

TH E

10

PP EN D I X

th e

e q u ati o n

( 3 yz) x

(D

2,

)(

my

a:

(y

t h e i d e n t i ty

h av e

we

(0 2

) (a

(0

me

3/

2
( )

N ow , if
3

=
z
r

th e

( 1)

e qu a t i o n s

F r om ( 3 )

(2)
that

a nd

w e s ee

ar e
3

i d en t ica l
3

and 2

th e

are

H ence

r oo t s o

f t h e q u a d r at i c

5
if

t h en t h e

5/

(1)

ro o t s o f

f/ M ,

f/ L
Wh e n

NI

r
_

ar e

m
E
/L

3/ L

m 3/

n
g i t h oot f th c bi c i
i
t fo m f
oot i
l nd t w
d i n th i c
n
i m gi n y
p i on f C d n f th oot f
i / L /M i th f m o
c b i c q t i on w h i ch fo m d th
f
noto i o cont o y
bj ct
b tw n h im
d h i co nt ym n T t g l i
If
th t q m t b n g t i n m b th
/4 + q /2 7 i n g t i
f
p i on ( 6 ) i n th i l g b i c fo m
l f t h p po
i
n m i c l c l c l t i on W m y ho w
f ncti on
th c i c l
ch p i i 1 7 f n di ng t h p i nc i p l l
f / L
d /M
W th
2 5

nd th t t h oot
2
2
p
p
p
i
i
i
5
=
=
wh
2
6
2
Th th
n
d
oot
th fo
7
7
p (
m/
/2 (
ll
l ( C d n I d c ibl
r

v en e n
a

a.

/4 + q /2 7

ar

or

er

u a

th r e e

2
7

r ea

co s

u se es s
e

ar

r ea

or

e r

us

v er s

or

s es

s, a s

co s

ur

r u ar

er ,

ve

an

v a u es o

'
o

e v er , u s e

n a co

ar e

us

cos

s are

us

er e

re

cos

r ee r

s ar e

4
/

ra

res s

su

ar a

so

ar

v e,

u s ex

or

r ea

ere

If

e r

ase

e r

v es

an

( 6)

ve,

ua

r es s

an

is

ee

ex

po i t i
co m p t ti on ;

w2

rre

q / 2 7 be

z er o ,

tw o

of

th e

r oo t s

are

e qu a

Se e

loP

a s

ress l a nd a nd

Tw e e d i e

Tr i g on o m etr y,

1 24

a nd

ll

APP EN D I X

55 0

Si nce 3 i s n o t a p ow er o f 2 , i t f oll o w s fr om 8 t h at a
cu bi c ca nn o t b e s o l ve d b
m
f
s u ar e r o o t s u n l es s i t i s
ea
n
s
o
q
y
re d u ci bl e : i n o t h er w o r d s , u n l es s i t h as a comm e n su rabl e r oo t
I n t h at cas e i t m a y h app en t h at th e o th er t w o r oo t s ar e a l s o
comm e n s ur a b l e,
so
t h a t no ir ra t i on al o p era t i on s a t al l a r e
r e u i r e d fo r t h e s o l u t i o n
q
I t f oll o w s f ro m t h e r e su l t of
9 a nd 1 0 , th a t a n i rre du ci bl e
cu bi c r eq u i r es b o t h s qu are and cu bi c r oo ts f or i t s f or m al sol u ti o n
.

B I QUAD RAT IC EQUA T I ON

TH E

Th e

s o u t i on o f

t h e bi qu a dr a ti c

(1)
b e m a d e t o d ep e n d o n t h e s o l u t i o n o f
q u a dra t i c e q u a t i o n s
F or w e m ay co nj o i n w i t h ( l ) t h e e q uati on

can a

l w a ys

a cu

bi c

d tw o

an

a n d r e ar d
g

u s in

(2)

(l

as

th e

a -e

l i m i na n t

t o t ra n s f or m

e q u i v a en t

to t h e

of

th e

w e s e e t at t h e

thi s

y s t em

ys t em

( 1)

N ow ,
( 2 ) is

0 3

g ai n t o

Ma

(q
an

(1)

s ys tem
a

a nd

ys t e m

'

'

p ay

r s:

Ay
2

N ow ( s ee ch ap v ii ,
1 3 ) w e ca n a l w ays d et erm i ne A so t h at ( 3 )
s h al l br eak u
We h av e m erel y to
p i nt o t w o l i n e ar e q u a t i o ns
c h o ose A s o t h at
.

ow
In

ot

h er

l
w ord s ,
3

ll ed

A m u s t be
z

k
q

r
p
(

<q

A>

a r oo t o

f t he

48 ) ) t

cu
r

bi c

e qu a t io n

Lag r ang e s Resolvent

I f w e s u bs t i tu t e i n ( 3 ) for A a ny
t h en
t ak e s th e f o r m
ca

4 qs

o ne o f

th e th r ee

roo ts o f

APP EN D I X
a nd

th e

th e

l eads

(4)

( 3)

s te m

w h i ch ar e t h e

r o o ts o f

551

t o t h e t w o q u ad r at i cs

r oo t s o f

f ou r

th e b i qu adra t i c

a
s, be t h e r o o ts o f t h e bi q u ad r a t i c t ak e n i n a
I f a ,,
Al s o
8
aaa,
cer ta i n o r d e r , t h e n w e s e e f ro m ( 6 ) t h a t ,8
e
2
f rom t h e i d e n ti ty ( q Maz + p rey y raz Ay s E (y a n
t
c oe f ci en t s o f
s ee, by co m ar i n
w
e
8
8
a
,
y h a t A ,8
p
g
(y y
)
H e nce t h e fo ll o w i ng i nt er e s t ing r es u l t

a aa, ,
Cor The r oots of Lag rang e s cu bi c r esolvent ar e
.

a3 12, , a ge,

a a,

thod f o l i ng bi q d t i c i m l y
n l yt i c l
t n l ti on f th g o m t i c lly ob i o f ct th t th fo po i nt f i nt
ct i on f t w con i c ct i on n b d t m i n d by fi nd i ng t h i nt ct i on
f t h th
p i of t i ght li n w hi ch
f t h con i c of
w i th i th
y
cont i n l l th fo po i nt
E mpl
Th e

ab

se

me

s a

ra

ve

xa

ur

e er

an

e re

ur

r ee

er

ers e

s ra

a rs

s o

es

x
av e

th e

s y s em

5 93

l nt to

=
y 0

5 x y + y + 5 cc

= 0,

ui v a e

Th e

u bi

(5
r es

o l nt i
ve

re e

av e

an

th e

oot

s of

(1 )

a re
x

Th

ey a r e

in

f ct
a

l oot

sur a b e r

We t ak e

(y

the

si m

pl t
es

g i n by
ve

1 , 3, 2,

es

ec

(y
a

th t

5V

th t i
(A 5 ) (A
th comm n
w h i ch h pp n to h
d nd th t ( 3 ) b o m
A= 1
so

Conjoi n
Th n w h
e

ra

us

on e o

an

ua

s ca

er o

se

e r

or

- x

If th e cu bi c r e s ol v e nt i s i r re d u cib l e , A w i ll i nv o l v e a n
i ncom m ensu rabl e cu be r o o t, a n d t h e ro o ts o f t h e bi q ua d ra t i c w i ll
H ence, i n
n o t b e e x p r e s s i bl e by m e an s o f s q u ar e r oo t s a l o n e
o rd er t h a t t h e r oo ts o f th e bi q u a d r a ti c m ay b e e x p r e s si bl e b y
m ean s o f s qu ar e r oo t s a l o n e, i t i s nece ss ary t h a t th e c ubi c
r es ol v e n t s h ou l d h av e a co m m en su r abl e r oo t, w h i ch ca n a l w ay s
be f ou nd a s e x pl ai n ed i n
.

Se e

loE

a s

APP EN D I X

5 52

T h is

for, if w e u s e th e v al u e
i
w
o f A, t h en a , ,8 ,
3
ll al l be ex pr es si bl e by m eans o f a si ng l e
,
y
2
s u ar e ro o t
A
s ee c h ap x ii ,
v iz
4
a n d e ach
J
3
q
q
{
p
(
}
(
)
o f t h e t w o q u ad rat i cs ( 6 ) w ill be s o l u b l e b y m ea ns of an a dd i
Th e e x p ressi o n for a r oo t w i ll i n g en er a l
t i o n al s qu ar e r oot
b e a q u ad rati c i rra ti o n al o f t h e s eco nd or d er o f th e f or m
A J ( B JO) , w h er e A, B , C are rati on a l fu ncti ons o f th e
coe f ci e nt s 3 bu t i n p a r ti cu l a r ca s e s i t m ay re d u ce t o t h e s i m p l e r
f or m A ~/ B x/ O D J B x/ O 3 or i t m a y h app e n th at t w o
or f our o f th e ro ot s m ay b e co mm e n su rab l e
If a bi q u ad rati c be r e du ci bl e, i t m ay r e du ce
to a
l i near eq u ati on and a cubi c 3 ( i i ) t o t w o qu a dr ati cs 3 ( ii i ) t o tw o
l i n ear e q u ati o ns a nd a qu adr atic 3 ( i v ) to four l i n ear equ ati ons
I t s h ou l d b e n oti ce d as r eg ar ds a b i q u adrat i c t h at r e d u ci bi l i ty
by m e an s of s qu ar e r o o t s (i e by m ea n s o f
s o l u b i l i ty
an d
x am l e,
u a dra ti c e q u a ti o n s ) a l o n e ar e n ot t h e s am e t h i n
F
or
e
q
p
g
a bi u ad ra ti c m a
q
y h av e o n e com m e n su r abl e r o o t, a nd i t s o th er
m ay b e th e r o ots o f a n i r re du cibl e cubi c
r o o ts
A g ai n ,
2
2
2 56
O i s ev id en tl y s ol u bl e by m ea ns
2( 2a
( a: 3 x
of s qu ar e r o ot s 3 b u t i t i s n o t re du ci bl e , f o r w e ca n n o t f act ori s e
th e ch ara ct er i s t i c w i th o u t i n t r o d u cin g t h e s u rd
2
T h er e i s a no th er w ay o f s o l vi ng a bi qu a drati c w h i ch i s
Su pp os e t h e bi qu ad rati c r e du ce d
o f t en con v eni e nt i n p r acti ce
t o th e f o rm
co nd i tio n

is

o bv i o u s

ly su f ci ent ;

'

T h en
th e

a,

an

d we

ca n re d u ce

th e

haracteri s ti c

to

f or m

H ence
we

0 3

a
t,

a,

a,

{a

a,

(as

a, x

a3 c
c,

i f w e pu t

h av e

T h er e for e
2 B - e = 9,
w h i ch

q u i v a l en t t o

ar e e

7
Th e w
r em ar

ki

ho l
9

of

th e

re s e

nt p oc
r

es s

is

t 2
e

n t
a

ura

l ppli c t i on
a

of

th e

l t
as

APP EN D I X
t og e th er w i th
3

2 qp

p +
w

553

4 8 >p r = o

<r

i s D escar tes Cu bi c Resolvent

h en a n y r oo t of ( 7 ) i s k n o w n , t h e v a
by ( 6 ) and t h e r o ots of t h e bi q u ad rati c

h i ch

g i v en

w
g

J
8
,
yp

Jp w +

l u es

o f ,8 a nd

are

n by
i
v
e
g

are

O,

A s b e fo r e, t h e n ece ssary a nd s u f ci en t co n di ti on fo r so l u bi l i ty
by m ean s o f s q uar e r o ot s i s t h at t h e r es o l v en t s h a ll h a v e at l ea s t
o n e c omm e n s u ra bl e ro o t
.

C or 1
quanti ti es
.

The

m2 > 3
whi ch

D escar tes

roots

(x

x1

x4

(x

three

r esol vent a r e

x4

(x

x4

the

(x

x3

si te

i n p a i rs
Cor 2 If the bi qu adra ti c be reduci ble to two qua dra tics, one of

the r oots of D escar tes r esolvent mus t be a p erfect s quare 3 a nd thi s

condi ti on i s s ui ci ent
I f t h e so l u ti o n o f a g e o m etr i c p r o b l em be e x pressed by
ar e e u a l

of

se r i es

e q u ati on s,

an d

su

ffi ci ent

cond i ti o n

f or

by m ea n s o f th e r u l er an d co m p ass a l o n e i s t h a t t h es e
e q u at i o n s e i t h e r ar e , or ar e r e p l a ceabl e by a s er i es o f l i near an d
Th e f or eg o i ng
q u adr ati c e q u ati o n s ( s ee I ntr od u ct i o n,
co n s i d era ti o n s o f t en e nab l e u s t o s e t t l e t h e p o s s i bi l i t
y or i m possi
F or ex am p l e, th e ab s ci s s a, or or d i nat e,
bi l i ty o f s u ch a s ol u ti o n
o f th e i n t er s ect i o n o f t w o co n i cs i s i n g e n e ra l t h e r oo t o f a bi
qu ad ra t i c e qu a ti on : h e n ce t h e i n t er s ec t i o n s o f t w o coni cs canno t
b e con s t ru ct ed by t h e r u l er an d co m pas s a l on e , u n l es s th e cu bi c
r es ol v en t o f t h i s bi q u ad r a t i c h a v e a com m en su rab l e r oo t
s o u bi

l i ty

t h e n e ces sar y

E X E R C I SES
s

(1

u a re r

ve

if p3

Pr

oot

Di c
Sol

th t

s u ss
ve

t h e bi

8r :

4p q

2 x4 x3

+pw

ra

ia

r es

ua

q)

3
x

ve

ra

1 5x + 2 = 0

+ (20 +

9x

rx

0 is

ol bl
u

L g ng n
a

2
3
+ 1 0x + 2 2 ae

+ 2 (n

ra

o l nt
foll o w i ng b i q d t i c

th e

th e

q d ti c
ua

X LV
o f ai

+p x

g ee i p x

MP

+ vq ( r

=
q ) 0
?

by

AP P E N D I X

554
3x2

2 x 4 + x3

8x
x

4 x3 4 x2 + 1 6 x

4
x

6 x 2 + 8x -

If

an e

3=O

q t i on f th p c i l i nt g l fo m
p o th t ch f th
q t i on
ua

e s

of

ra

re

du c e

to q t i on
p ci l i
th
ua

l ow d g
lo f
i
Wb
t g l fo m (
A lg b
d g th n th
S ho w th t w i tho t o l i ng q t i on
f h i gh
cond w
d t min
b t i t t i on y = + 13 + y x
th t th
B 7
h ll t n fo m y c bi c q t i on i nto th fo m y + A = O
Sho w th t w i tho t o l i ng q t i on
f h i gh
d g th n t h
th i d w
d t m i n [3 7 6 th t th b t i t t i on y =
5
h ll t n fo m y bi q d t i c i nto t h fo m
S ho w th t { M /2 +
i
p i bl i th fo m
t i on l w h n
c bi c
d y
d on ly w h n t h
+ Jy w h
com m n bl oot \Vh t h i g h th i
th
+q + =0 h
o l t i on f c bi q t i on
oot f D
o l nt f th bi q d t i c
Sho w th t
t
i
lw y
l d po i t i ; d th t t h oot f th
ll
l i f t h oth t w oot (p p ) f th o l nt
bi q d t i c
1
b oth
l d po i t i 3 2 ll i m gi n y i f p d p
l n g ti
b oth
l d t w im g i n y i f p d p
l
d
n q l ; 3 tw
b oth
n g ti
if p
d p
b oth i m g i n y
d q l
I f th
oot f L g ng
o l nt b l l l d n q l how
th t t h oot f t h bi q d t i c
i th ll l
l ll im g i n y ;
oot f th
ol nt i
l th n t w oot f th
d th t i f onl y
l d tw i m g i n y
bi q d t i c
S ho w th t
g l h pt gon c nno b i n c i b d i
c i cl by
m n
f th
l
d co m p
on l y ( E
ii
i pt i on i n
c i cl f
g l pol ygon f 1 1
S ho w th t t h i n
d p nd
i
d c i bl q i nt i c q t i on
id
t i ght l i n w
S ho w th t i f A B b t w g i n po i nt i
by th
l
d co m p
l on nd po i nt t h li n ch th t
A F + B F AP
m k
th t i f
t th
d of
8 p o
S t t i ng f o m th
o l b l by q
oot l on th n i t L g ngi n
b i q d t i c q t i on b
o l nt m t h
t
co mm n bl oot
t l
oot f th bi q d t i c
b
S ho w th t i f t h
t i on l f nct i on f t w q d t i c
d th n t h c bi c y 4 g y +
t h
co mm n bl oot y y = m ; d
4 (q
4 )y + 8 = 0 m
m t b th
q
f
t i on l n m b
A
th
( q/2
cond i t i on ffi i nt
of

er

ra

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ve

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3
25

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O F E X E R C I SE S

I RE S U L TS

I
l st

th

gt

di i

ree

bb ;

u m ber of

126

s ar e

1,

Th e

2 /a:y

2 xy/z

2 /xyz

1 6a b d

1
1

up

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b +

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b1+ 9

a
a

8
a:

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by 6 5 2 80

r ea er

l /x z

( f
2 a + 4 b)

3 6a b
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6b

be cf

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a

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4
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ur

3
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9

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3 5 4 4
8
9
6
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56
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c
2
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zz

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bQP t ?

V
s

g t

is

ad

53

cond

azy

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+ 4b

f nct i o

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i n c zx

n is = 1
Th e u
6 a zb + 1 2 a b2 8 b3

+ 2ab

b2
)

3
a
b
2

2
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a - cHl - cl
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a

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or

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Th n m b
f d i g i t i 2 0 3 t h t th

bb ; 9 aa

da

2 md

RE SUL T S OF EXER C I S E S

556

Th

t yp

re e

ae

2
b
/(

l ik

3 4

es

y
4 2 a 3 b3
ca

82

(1%

bar

11

&c

lk

3 12 i
&c
2 ( ca

am

1 8a 2 b2 e2

/(

by

yz

oz

3
2
(p
c
5

a
s

( 8) F t i on l
rac

9x4

1 ) oc4

(p

)(
)(
b) x + ( a 2

2 a (c

q +p

ax

o
e

b( a

q )
3
a bov
e

12

2
3 1
x
3 z

by

b) rcy

4 th

2
oe

p 2 q2

(b

3 f

)(

4
oc

+1

1 7 8 2 9c3

&c

3
3
l
x
/ )

12

12

7 0x y

3x y

Th

m ay a

7 6,
b)

n:

60

) (a

(a

18

t yp

es

w ri

r e se

E E903

) ( a:

nt fo
,

'

:c

tt n P {( y
e

'

d)

"
e

fu n cti on = 9e3

b6

Eu ?

2
a
b
a
e
3 c y

c+ a

2
b
o
e
2 )
+

)(

2 2 5x4 y6

1 2 a 2x 2 9

24

3
a

1 ) x4y2 -a 2 b29e3y3

b( 2 a 2

12

1 08
x

6 x2

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1 8965

)(

s
m
pq

r) ( r
2
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+ 3x

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)(

17 )

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2
5
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l
n
x
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1 0 777 5 3 6 x 5

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se

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4 0/( x

Gn

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m i ss i ,
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viz

ae

8,
n
s

e,

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b3c3

Earl y:

s.

1 5,

32 0

w ) (y

3
a
3y

9 2 2

'

( ac
y )x

23
- 1

:
=
3
a
o
O
o
c
3
x
l
Q
, R
x

3a:

ng

ur

l : 6, m :

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1 7 7 1 47

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m:

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y ) ( ac

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a oc

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be3

r -

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2 ( 2 l 2/mn ) x 9

B Ex

2 2

2 3

712

1 0 59c4 + 3

VIII
2

2 2

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11
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8
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o
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8
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15

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266

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:

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VI I

10

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b
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1

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72 9

3 a be
2

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m
3

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s
st

b) y3

4
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x 1

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8azg

2 7 47102 318
+ (b

b2 ) ( c2

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( )

a bc

Za G

VI
a

lik

b3 4

ab

y
12 ,

er e

e
bc

1
3

P is

3 2
ac y e

2
,

s a

( y zc

a
c

bc5

con t nt

a ny

'

E P (x

b)

(a:

cc y

l:

21,

) (x

d )/

3 2 x3

2 x23]

= 3x4 + l gl

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3
x
.

J -m2 + 5 Q x
f

9
.

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Q

R
Th e

RE SULT S
R= O
R

A
w
%

g zx
3 a2

2
x

I
Tg g

R= 0

2 a b + b2

w 2 x y + 4 y2

55 7

2
=z
c
83c + 1 5, R 2 0

E X E R C I SES

OF

3-

x -

6
3 3
a y x

a 5 b + a 4 b2

= x6 i x5

6
b
+

zc3

1 + b+

veg

2 az+ 4

bzc + cx f
a 3b + 3a 2 b2 a b3 + b4
2

t n fo
ra

rm e

re s u

lt

is

20 %

= a3 2 cc2 + x 4 , R = 1 2

=
0
+
q
p

pq

Th e

r e m ai

nd
x

in

er

+ 9x

a
2

5ab

3
a

b3

ch

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is

ca se

2 7x3 +

+s

8ay ( ce

be

v ar i a b e ,

b2 )

th e

2,

m + 1 m u s be

l t pl

mu i

e of n

+1

u +1

3x

9w

2 7x3

a
3;

3 ) nas

+ (
n n

2 ap
p

3
,

rx

c b
'

2a h

1 3oc - 1 5

g
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ea

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y)
4
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y)

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x y
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e re

32

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E xa m pl e 5

P3

P = zc + 2 3

ere

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2

y 3
5 P 4

x + l
g
se

3
76

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CM

No

1 5,

1 6 a3

3x 2

us e
x

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1

:e

+ 93

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+ 4 a m+ 8a

wi

th

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2
.

( a:

are

g
a3

a
o
c
a
x
+2

6 3
2
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4
7c

o ld b m
f (p
n i th f th f cto of w hi ch i i
q) (
f i th
gn l m
f t h gi n f nct i on
I f ho w
= 8 th
th n 1 i m
i th n
f cto
4 +3
e f both
co mm on to n m to d d no m i n to
U
U
6
7
d 7 3 th t gi
cond gi th
t h cond i t i on i
th fi t fo m t h
i
i ngl cond i t i on
P
+
+

w u
e

e a

e ra

e as u re o

ea su re o

s a

an

rs

er a

e re

(x + 2 )

b)

( ac

+ b)

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XI

rs

g Tx

e v er ,

of

se

e se

v es

2
+b )

p od ct

(x

1)

gi n f n t i on
ve

( iv

( 9x

(
-

1)

s.

-c

13

2)

(x

2 (a

(3

2 ) ( 3x +
th e

(
(
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a

rs

se

3)

s.

an

er

ve

v es

( :c
( o:

er o

eas u r

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-

x/ 7 l

(5

a -

B)

%)

r3

( 2x

v} {x

- a -

l3 )

(6

{x

y)

{x
(7)

553

RES ULTS

(2

+s

X RCISES

OF E E

{1

(a )
( I L ) (z

2 } {z

0N

y( 1

(o

-5
-

(I t )

( 1 1L )
P lz

7 3 i \ / 1 1 t

a x
2 -

N h
- Vv - l z - b- c
t
I
z
i
q)
(
) (
)i
(
)/
-b
d
z
p ) (z
(
y bz w yi
t2 a )
( 3 L ) (z - 3 Hz - 5 Mx
( 21 )
-

-1
z
H P Hz -

q)

(x

-z

ga

- a"

)(
( z - l ) (y

'

(z

+ 2y

nnd

th ns

o btx in a cn bi c

bc cn

y)

(i
)

(a t ) ( z

+y

=
n
(y

yt

) (4

(M y
y)

( 5t )

-I

)(

z -

y ).
4)

E qr) ,

th t

i t m y be s h ow n ( see cha
a
p xv iii , 5
h
I

l
u l
=

A
D
l
+
B
M
+
,a p z

en

Hr

(y

- r tr -

- 15

I n

z ) (z
)(
z

( 60L) I f

x'

- ab

( WU

=
ar

Eq ua te the cl iu ri m i ua nt o f th e f nnct i on to
eq m t io n for X
Whe n c = 0 ,

-z

t ) ( z

+ z) (y

th

-
a

( 3a )
ze

y)

( 31 )

q:

pa "

2( z
l

( u ) (z

-a
) (z

-4 z
)(

3) (z

-l

'

X11

+ 2;

( 1 1 ) zz y )

-s i

6 a b + 1 W

1;

y)

(I O
- z

>

( 1a )

/ (z

4a z

+z

l + y3 +

tu

a -

(51

z -

(a )

-z -

5c

M KM M

( 31 )

/p
m
i

b - c)

ru

( 41 M
h
m ) ( p ) (h

(a n

m
g

2 29 n m

22 1

(m u

(a )

1 ) (y

( 36

( u s z e /w
o

4ab

8b

ti c - c

3a

- a - bc

( 415
h Kh - d l
(6 2 1
.

R ESU L T S o r E X E R C ISE S

558

oe

{x

{r + v( 1
y( 1
5

7
y )

V7 )

(x + 7

VP - q)
r
e
q)
(1 9
r) (

- 1
- bw
w
){
(
(

p)

(
(

3 i V1 1 )

x oc
se

o
(w

( se

q)

p)

2
x -p

a 3,
p

+y

zer

th o bt i n c

a nd

us

2f 9h ) /f e

u bi c e

+ z ) ( v z )

a:

m
m

a
m
P
)(

am

1 ) (y

s
cr

x:

ca - a b

(x + y

A B
,

W4

= Ap 3 p 3

Ap 3p 2

3m

ar e

(x + y
)(
y)
-z z- x
x
(5 3 )
)(
v)
)(
x

2 (y z)

3m

ac

)(

(5 2 )

(z

=
and
z
a
s
z
x
)(
)(
p 3 <y
y)
th e n i t may be s how n (s ee cha p x v i i i , 4 )
8 6 7w+1

3 (m 1 )

3 (m 1 ) e

+ BP 3 P 2
+ Igp 3 p 2

c l co fc i nt

u m er i a

s a

th t

X 11

H n
e

( w + :c

y)

ce

th e

th o

e rem

3J:

( 2x

bg
)

+ 4b

fo ll ow

2
9
c
y/ (
y)
6 a 2 b + 1 2 a b2 8 b3

p2 ,
1
2m
+ Lp 3
p 2,

oe

(a
z

w
(
v)

m
y

pg

s i
/

)(

g
v
e

d i c i mi n nt of th f nct i on to
)
Wh n
( f + bg

th e

f or ) x

ua

)(

( cc

If

er e

'
2
ay 1 y

q t i on

2
93

ar r
bc

)a

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x -y+

( oe
(x

+ 2 y z )

z
e

3)

)/

by) ( bw + a v)
x 5
x

(oc

2 ( ac y ) ( 1 x y )
V2

c
c-

-l

a
w
(
)

aw -

4 ) (x

3 ) (x

( :c

q)

r( 1

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4a h
0

9
2
a
l /(

mg / (a

4
a

4a o: (

+ ac

z
c

c2

)(

8a

4 x 9y2 /( x 6 y6 )
l
1
:
c
(

2
rc

1 + y2 + z2 y z yz

b c

(a
-

2 (a

(h

p ) ( h

) (y
3

a 2

( ac

+y

1 - Ex 9 + 2 xyz

h / II ( h a )
g

l a b e

(62 ]

R ESU L T S or
1

E X E R C ISES

559

4 / (x

5 /

3 093

l 3 x
/ (

)
l 4 x
(

1 / (a b)

212 -

)(

2n - a

2p a + q)
b)

a
c- a
-

1 /(a

2r a + q )

pb

Qr b w

bg -

q)

{ (a

2p ) ac
3/ 4 (x

) (90

2x
(
e
w
(

1 /( ae - 1 )

1 )

2 (x1

{( n +

2
1+3
3

X1 1 1
1 0 02 42

7 88 00 1

2 2 6 35 4

86 1 2 4 9

2 67 3

204

1 43 1

1 2 7 4t5 0

53 6 1 7

1 8 3 55

'

2 6 53 9 1 9

2 4 6 6 4 1 1 2 43

(4 )

4, & c

5 03

a x

ft

u bi c

119

( x + 2 ) ( m+ 3 )

+ 1)

(a

+ 356 +

on l y 1 0 di ff nt c
t
I t w i ll b fo nd th t th l t d i gi t i 5 w h n p
1
6 3 i
ll
1 i
th l t d i g i t i 1
Si nc
)
l w y d i i i bl by 1 0
Si nc 1 0
po w
d ll h i gh
f 10

d i i i bl by i t foll ow th t p 1 1 0
m t b d i i i bl
by
m t b d i i i bl
p
by 8 th
fo &
I f th d i gi t i th p i od f p / b q q
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9 q
Si nc
y
m
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ly to
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ll
d i
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nd i n 4 3 th fo 9 nd i 5 3 th fo 9
nd i 1
d
0
nd
(1 0 +
pq pq
i O 1 i 1 2in 8 3 i 7 4 i 4 5 in 5
H nc th th o m 3 f
y
h nc p = 0
b w i tt n 1 0 m i p p i 5
n mb
6
Th l tt
on l y i dm i i bl H nc I ( 1 2 m +
nc
con i d
oth c

Si

1 0m

e a5 :

er

er

ere

as es

v s

are

p w

v s

0, 1 , 2 ,

as

as

9, w e

or

er e

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se

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er

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71

or

so on

us

er

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dig i t

ss

pl (
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d) ( a ) i s

s im

th t i
W m th

s of a ,

us

pl
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12

resu

lt

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2 yr

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3!

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t nd

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fo r

re

,,

ave

0
p

re

ou
e

yr

re

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p 1a
u(

er

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as

sr

an

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rem a

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g,

of

er

or

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s a

on e

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7
n
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m+
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g,

en

ca n

us

er

an

er

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es

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us

er

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na

th fo

e re

pma

re ,

the

th e

ce,

&c

n i n i th m f
i di id d by 9
Hn
(2
)
; w h nc
(/
th e

es

e su

z r

&c

RE S UL T S

5 60

th fo

0 3
ere
2 2 cc : 0 or
r

l d n ll y to
i nt g
H nc
ea

er

fo

Th e

r.

a )/r m u s t b e

( 2z

re

2t+ 1, g

th o

th e

r m er

r em

be

3t + 1 ,

nt g
N w 2
ho w n to b i n dm i
= 3i + 2 w h
t

an

ca n

EXER C I S E S

OF

2x

3x

'

Ea
2

513

7 /2 n

b)

a:

2 V2

3 /2n

(r

q x/ q

y
1 2 V1 0

2 v 1 /4 y3l4

y)

V1 0 5 }

2 V3 5

ise

d p od ct i
r

2 V {11 ( b

( 2 V5

15
a

43

)}

is

23
a

r esu

th e
ac

r es u

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8 1 6 49

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) /4 am

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2

P)
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3 V2 I

4 V7 + 4 VI 5

Th e

ra

ti on l

) V( b

i s 2 ( 3u

e res u

V2
i (1

ac

)
s

a c

3
6
3
+
(
V

1 / V2 )

2 V2

V7

V( a

5+

l ( yz

VI 8

3 z
5
x
(
)
y

: l:

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E
l

r esu

( V1 0
VI 5 )
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i /re

ra

Th e

7 ,2 n

ra

556

A t i on l i i ng f cto i
A ti on l i i ng f to
lt E + 32 b 2 1 b
lt 7
3 th

6 Ea b

ac2
06 32 45 553 2

1 1 2

)ac

5 V5

6 V3

'

ve

5 m2 + 4 6 m

3 2 51 8 2 93

3 1 622 77660 ;

l t 30 7

V4 6 2 )

4 V2 2 V7
'

th e

7 33

(a:

is

er

b) }

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52

V6 ) ;

V3

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lt i

+ 2 V3

ra

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zi:
l
l
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V2 )

2 V6 )

A t i on li i ng f cto

A t i on l i i ng f to
ra

1 /2 n

1 {1 1

3 th e

( V5

3 V2 )

an

3a9 /1 0y1 / 5

q)

22

3 5

b)

y
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q VMr

q)

P q + P V q( P

b) }

3 /n

2 xl in

q Vi ew

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2 ac1 /5yl /2

a
:

t is

7 x2

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2 );e

2b

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um

( 1 3m + 1 0m + 1 3 + 1 2 (m

q (P

er

3/2 n

6 V3

q)

3x

2 V3

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mm "

2y

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th
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y po i t i

ss ib e

ere

2 x3/ ny1 /n

h nc

2r,

x <

2 3
x 7

l l2n

ch
x

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5 ao

5 2

3 x2 /5 y7 /1 0

2x

X IV
18

er

2 oc
l

: :

3
a

: :

A= 1 ; th e
92 1 3 7
,
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u be

oot

is

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q )

3a;2

( 2a
3 9
( 2 76 2

oot

3, 4 , 1 2 ;
2
x + dx + k 3

is
or

i ( m + 3ae
2

2 7 , 1 0 8, 1 0 8

2x

6 d lc + d

3
,

3 lc2

92 , 1 0 5 3
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.

+ 3 kd

2
,

or

3 8,

Th e

h : 3lc9d

R
2
b
i
s
It
{

&
g

ESU L T S

E X E RC IS ES

or

1
-

a
c

XV I
2 (a

( V3

4 V5 ) i

) (

) (

x ma

(s +

4i )

6 x + 1 8x 3

) (

ma

2
96

2x

cos

2 7r/7 + 1

) (

wea

+ 1)

} {96

) (

co s

X VII

1 4 45 6

ad

d)

XVI II
'

01 8 7 5 i n

ft

6 3 73

1 7

2, 5

0, 6

p t

10

as

+b

b,

4 cm ( 1

m ) ;e + ( 1
x

+y +

oc

3mg

Ut

x x

yz

yz( z

a
s

my

XXI

y
I

5y

5y

(a h

b)

oe 2

2 7 b(

VO L

4 ba;3

5,

-2

2 a )3

ac:

4 a os + 3a ?)

4 993

(b

2h

r >

X + Y + Z 2 Y Z - 2 ZX
2 a b 2 bc
9

2a w

6 2 52

bc) /

2 5 mg

w2 +

s 2 + s t t2 } + 2 st + Us

3
x

+ 2 8x :

ad

(1 3 )

a,

(9

2 XY :

(b+ d

V5

7 + 5 V2

b :e
)

mi n

2 913

3x

333

o
e

1 04
3;

v a u e s o f a: a re : 1:

+ 2b

) V7 +

l l

XI X

b:

(4

a d
b
c
+

rea

(6

Th e

4 a

(
2
(96 + x ( V5

2 a c:

3i
2
(
)

w:

er e

v
e

lc = 0

zz

cos

:6

(3

II

2 i) ,

m l

t (3

'

3 2
8
8
{ p q( p q ) /
2 6x + 2 1

: :

:c a

1 /1 6 a 3

1 /896 J

: :

{l

2 8a 6 b9 + 7 0 a 4 b4
2+

561

a - a

(a c

O
[

E ULT S OF E XER C I S E S

562

R S

XX II
6 6 4 57

2 0 508

an d

3 5 82 6
th e

2 8 02 5 3

ctly
gi n y

ex a

res

ima

4 5 8 1 4 0 0 36 2

1 23

) 1 33

ac

21

4 5 1 95 5 0 7

6, 9

(2

b
,

bc ca

b4

(a
x

)(

)
a (a + b
c

=4
+

b,

b)

l n2

bdf

i l
2

in

( af k

ree e

) (a

bcg

of z 3 t h
bcf

fh

1 2 , 8, 6

T 13

(a

b)

(m

= b+

a : c+a

(a

b + c)

x,

ua

a bd

a be

as

bf h

ua

b)

= ( m 3 + n3

+ b c

m n )/

P u t w+ y

z3

a cd
rs

"

&c

(p

a
c

n f th t fo
l t q t i on th n gi
s

th n l i m i n t

y, z, s ,
i n ac, y,

) /2 , & c
a

( 96
c)
&c

Em u )

we

b)

E A( x

&c

(a + a )

a bc

02 6 9

e ra s er/ t r

may

(ac

8 03 9,

'

2 bc

B y m ea

er m s

er

cd

'

l 2 n ) /2 ( 2 l 2

s e

1 , 3 , 5 , 9, 1 1

3 l m ( 2m

&c

bcf + ed e + cef

v a r a b es

7 293,

re s s
s

p q, p + q

3 l2

a bc

b + ) (g
p th n
i n t m of
E p
p q
lt
q t i on
y t m of th
x

2
0
6
3

2
ab

ac :

r es u

c.

l m2 l zm
-m
n & c
l
l
(
)(
),
,

i}

was

ca

2 lmn

+ z:

1 6, 4

a,

{0

oc y
a

0,

4
a
b
b
+
+
,
a be( b - c) ( c d

2, 3, 4

2 bc c2

)}

(1 0

B = 3.

2 ( a b) ( b

6 0 , 4 0, 3 6

A=3

XX V
a
c

6 6 04 85 , 3 6 89 93
2 a b
2 lm (m

2 b a,

- ab+

+x

ol e

( cf

+b

z ,

2 a b/ (a b)

A= a b

(5

35-23 1
3l

2
a2

)}

XX I V

- a b bc - cd

V(

b2 + a b

a
:1:

4 a bf d ( a 2 b2 )

(2 1

1 4 7 57 7 31 6 1

(
3

0 , 3

hb

(1 0

ly

am e

(3

/h

(7 )
:

3,

3 4 7 1 6 2 3 1 92

XX I I I
(1

2 0 52 0 4 2 1 7 6 8 7 96

(1 3 )
b e t w ee n 2 a n d -

O ne

ar

6 h2

9 9 6 6 66 679

1 8 6 4 4 82 3 7 3 0 9 5

a e

g (a d
a d c a df
z:

ur

q t i on
ua

p , , r,
be )/ {bee

ac

ex

a nd

bd c

f}

ae

th

res s

bcf h

bf dh

bcf

al l

v es

bccg

ere

beeh )

th e

a: z y z

q u at i on

ESU LT S

0 13

b)

1 /( 1

E X E R C ISES

/( l

B C

"

B C

&e

+ d)

A( B C)

Th e

is

563

14

ra

Th i o l ti on i
s s

d ic l

be

a s

a ke

n po i t i l y
ve

11

2p + 2

p,

+9 1 ,

0,

&c

&c

c) ( b
th

m us
l /( lc a )

6, 8

&c

(I

er

e s

1 /( k c)

l /( k d )

18

b b( b

b) ,

-b c
,

&c

- a
,

i s/ 6

0,

(7

ra

4
,

1+

1 6 i
a

q (
2 0 0, 1

O,

2t

V3

b;

V2 9 )

con i t nt
s s e

e zu

a:
.

b>/

&c

2a ,

(5 )

(1 1

53
,

V3

49

53,

1 1 5i
,

12

'

+ o,

75

1,

- 2a
b
c
+
(
)/

Za 2 i 2 a b

i 1,

V( Za

/P

2 , 8, 1 , 1

VO L

w es)

s i

20

?
)

2 ab
),

4a - a 2

(a
a
(

2,

q)

V2 i

XX I X

ocz

a,

an d

5
a

c,

2 b)

th n

+b

c+ a

ys tem be

1 , 2

3(
49

(4

+ q

b c
,

a,

0, O

) ( a + h)

XX V I I I
(1

&e

a nd

0, 0 3

a.
c c

d
)3
:

ave

b)

+ b

o d th t t h

I 11

I /( h

th e

&c 3

S a ab) , 8 0

&c

we

a b, u

(b

al l

if

/m n, & c

us

33

a bc, e

t no

w &c

(5

2
a
5
(

oe = a bcd , y :

e re

s e x ra

9,

u re

e
m
a
t
m
m
r
/(

( B C)

q i d
wh

XXV I
a

"

re

g
'

33

0,

2 i

3i ,

1,

2
a
a
2
F2 V (
)

2:

a
4
4a
F2 V2 a ( a

V{
,

"
,

E X E R C ISES

R ESU L T S O F

564

XXX
2
.

+ b,

- cd

%2 a

V( a

cd
2b
2
ca
b
e
r
(
c/(
)
6 9a 9

3. 3
a

/a

(3 )
0
0

0,

V2 a i , 0

cd

5, 3 3

+bc

( a + h)
x

2a
,

42, 1 5

oot

h i h do
c

Rd c
e

(9i
O [ zl: 4 V5 a 7q]
( 2 a b)
V( a b)
se r

g /b
a

to

es

: :

sa

t i fy

l ong
t no
0,

(a

e us

ua

th

re

5,

ci p oc l
r

bi

q d ti c
ua

4a (m
n

1)

)i
(

nb

ra

4m

%V {1
2

2
2
a
b
(

c,

2a + 2
)

q t i on

) /2 (m

wi

(m

th e

a re a l l e x ra

4 V5 ) a

s a, a,

not

es

V5 ) a

ho

4,

b= a,

XXX I

if

0.

(4 )

4 r nn/ (m 2

)}

V( a h)

XXX I I
b,

&c

e,

{( a
and:

&e
:

2, 1

3
b
2ab
V(

V7 3 + V(
Th e

R d c to
es

a re

th n b co m
e

es

a re

h
b iq d tic
ra

i 1 , 2 : 1:

ua

ra

u bi

su

q i l nt to

the

oot

V3

oot

1 6,
s of

h / 21>
9
5(

3,

s of

h i ch

t no
q t i on
e

us

Vh n
e

5 4 1
33

h ch

w i

t no

a r e e x ra

(3 2

Rd c
c pt
u

es

to

t{
a

re

c i p oc l
r

us ex e

a,

ol ti on
g i n t ll th
ncl o i ng th m i q
b ck t th

ex tr a neo u s s

ti ng u i s h e d b y

u
e

ua

b,

00

i 2/

V( 2 OV6
\

ar e e x r a

th e

th e

{( x

ere
al l

l 1

::

[t (

2.

wg -t ( p

u va e

P u t if :

2
b
V(

7,

c i p oc l bi q d t i c
r

is

(6 )

4.

J
.

ua

c i p oc l c

) t(

q t i on

0,

ua

ol t i on

/l og

x/ 5

1
7

40 4: al so

9
2 (

7y l o
f g

bi

13i

ll i

(30

2+
2,

(4

q) }

a,

bi

2a, 1

/ )

a re

n s

uare

ve

ra

e s,

ey a r e

us

in m o t c

3
3

a s es

dis

RE S UL T S

EX ER C I S E S

or

XXX I I I
7, 4
4, 7

1,

3
;
7

7,

g(

2,

1,

( 59
0 , ( bl ?
0,

{1

{(
3
a
{(

)
a 9)
2
/
i
a
b
a
x
+
(
d iv

1
)

1 ) ( b2

&c

5, 5

y/

5,

-3

3
,

o l t i on
u

1 07 i

V1 1 7 2 1 ) /2

two

a w2
w
b
(
)

ab

two

0,
0,

4a bp r
1}

4 66 6229 }

)
q?)
2

b)

2
b
(

{F F
7,

be) ( p 2
b?) ( p 2

{1

565

a )
Q
3
b
,
V (

m/ s ca
a

ere 01

ol t i on

on

4, 3 , 6 , 2 ;
3, 4 , 2 , 6

3, 1 ;

s lut i s

Ea i ;

3
4

1 , 3

s luti s

on

i 3, i 2 ;
i 2, i 3 ; 4

s lut i ns
o

6,

2
;

2 , 6

3,

2,

5, 2 ,
2 , 5,

6 , 3 , 6 w , 3 w,

2 , 3 , 2 w, 3 w ,

i
3 00

3 00 2 , 6 w g ;

3 , 6, 3w ,

%
wb

w bi f
y, i

i
wb )
(a

2
,

5, 2 ;
2

5
,
-

2 , 4 , 2 w,
4 , 2 , 4 w , 2 w,

9
4
4
i
6
a
6
3
2 V( 2
+2

b d:

a b;
3, 2,

(3 3 )

2, 3,

2 mg , 4 mg ;
g
4m ,

m;

1, 2,
2, 1 ,

3
2

3
3
4
(

V1 9 i )

here

5 v,

v
v

If

vz

y/

ay,

i 3, i 2 ;
i 2, i 3 ;

"

+ 1,

the ( 1 ) = ( 1 + )
8 s lut n s ;
d 8 m re g
9

n v

io

4
v

an

a re

c i p oc l bi qu dr t i c
r

l ve n

by
2: 8 ;
O

t l se th rst equ t i
qu dr ti c f J

Ra i on a i
nd

or OJ

us i

o n,

ng

th e

sec d i n th pr cess
on

+b i

/(

a nd

6 a 2 62 +

thus

ES U L T S

566
1 0, 1 3 ;
1 3, 1 0
.

ca n

deri ve (

rc

iv

y)

r e l s lut i
o

A ther i gi ve
no

here w

c,

&c

&c

are

equ t i s

two

on

put

an d

y =c+a,

c,

= a + b,

a
),

9
2
6
6
{ +

z = &c

El i m i te z b et w ee the rst
The f ll wi g s luti ns

=
y 3,
x

na

nz y
x = b+

2,

2
= 0 , mz y
1
2
a
b y g/ +
+
y

as :

is

on

we

+ 1

2 ) + nv = 0 ;
=
2
v
n
0
+
(
)

2 (m + n )u + m

+ (b

3=

2 ) u + 2 (m

ac :

XX X I V
x

deri ve

w e c an

mu

2a

V2 6 + a ( b i s )

i,

x y a b,

(m

O ne

8, 2

t bi ,
za

zo z

&a

If

2, 8 ;

2 a ( x + y)

E X E RC ISES

OF

or

93

6,

7
=
,
y

y:

OOl

t wo

so

62 0 2 ) /2 a bc, y :

as :

y= 2,
i on

3,

lut

z:

deri ve by sub tr ct i fr m the rst t w equ t i s

=0
d
f
r
m
the

r
st
th
r
d
C m bi i g
d
i
(
(
)
)
(
y
)
y (
f the ri gi l equ t i
these tw w i th
s w bt i the f ll wi g
s lut i s ( the l st th ree t w i ce ver )

t wo

s lut i s
on

\Ve

an

on e

on

an

na

96

yz

a,
a:

(P

5
B
B
;

here
f ll w s
o

an d

{3

ar e

on

V0

a,

a:

a)

the r ts
oo

n n

a n

on

ve

o f a:

a)

=0
p

ag
p
Q

ya

E i ght s l ti s

o u

on

we

ad d

as

V4 0 9 ) /3

upper s ig s t gethe r
n

( l o-l

= i

<

v <1 635 ) /6
,

l w er t gether th r ugh ut
o

m / ves
y

an d

V4 O9 ) /3

y:

on

If

the

RES U L T S

or E

X E RC I S E S

5 67

three equ t i ns w bt i the equ t i ( + b + )

He ce
The th ee equ t i s
theref re b
d
repl ced by three l i e r equ t i s
y 0
s lut i s
li e r i
Th equ t i s
&
+ 6
S lv i g w bt i
my
y
y
p y
9
y y
w i g bi qu dr t i cs f
i
If
put
w
b
t
the
f
ll
w
w
y
y
a

a n

a
c

z,

ax , z

u a nd v

WW
i r

P q)

thus nd the f ll
o

4
v

t ( 1) 2
a i on w e

wh

v lues f
a

1,

ar

c a

fo r

p/a , & c

az:

: :

se,

tr

or

w e)
2
7 - 17 9 )

on

c a

z:

2 2

ro

oo

z:

The l st p i r gi ves
i &
F m the rst
&
w he re p
)(
y pb(
gi ves the f ll w i g q dr t i c f
i k
w
the
c
} 0 \Vhe

00

ua

n a

on

an

or

no

n,

on ,

on

an

2 bc, y :

at

2
c

&c

a)

0 , 4a ,

0 7 4a )

"

0, 4a ,

( c,

a,

lI a
,
i

a t

The g i ve equ t i s m y b w ri tte

w h ve ( y
t V (0
He ce y
&
)
(b
sy stem i theref re i nsuf ci e t t determi e the three v ri bles
n tb
2 b
c s i ste t s ystem u nless 2
O
w
m y w ri te the equ t i s p (
1 )/
bp (
1 )/
p
n

e a

on

a nd

on

nd p

we

2 9

(b

el i m i ted the result i g e q u t i s m

na

on

(8
ay

26

) /a bc

b e w ri

an

tte

v,

so

in

on

us,

as :

El i m

26

If

o z,

be

a;

l 4 n 2 8$

2 gn+ n2
2

u,

Hen ce
&
The
f ct i t w i ll

82 0

9
c

on

i n at i n g

( 77

07

s l ti s i
3 y 1
n the r
&
Fr m the gi ve equ t i s w
deduce
y 2
&
Whe ce (
( 5 3/
)/( y ) &
(3
)y (
)
y
=
We
the determ i e nd by me s f the gi ve n equ t i s
y
Result
b ) (2
w he r e p i
ny
f
p { 11 (
the 4th
ts f 1
The equ t i s
b w ri tte
y+
y
&
w he re p
i 2 6 ( E b f / qb
my )
Result
p/
i i i
i
&
z
w
s
lut
s
t
i
i V2 b (b
y

here

0,

(p
2
( 9 7Y) )

oo

2x

ac :

(1
an d

n a

the rst three equ t i s w h ve + y

Fr m these squ ri g d usi g the l st equ t i w deduce
Fr m these l st w deduce
&
Subst i tut i g these v lues i the l st equ t i w nd p 0

E
He
ce
n
1
d
b
(
)/
(

v lues

a n

319qr ) , y :

ar e a

ar e

o r u a n d 'v

see th t
p (b
)(
)
rbi tr y The sec n d equ t i
2b}
{S g a c ) 6 b }
{2 6

2
2
05
{

of

f} ,

w,

1)

an

on

e o

vz,

an

a n, x

The rst th ree p irs g i ve

equ t

on

29

owi n g

ca n

'

as

u z,

\Ve

ar e

e no

on

on

n a

or

sa

on

yz,

93

of

sa

'

zx

on

on

on

: :

:8

ca n

4
c

ca n

12

an

4 4
c

on

o u

set

ca n

roo

4
c z

1 , sa

one

: :

a z

on

on e

xz

g i i

R E S U LTS

568
y

OF E

an d x

z:

X E RC I S ES

m d(b

d ),

The re l s luti ns
o

We h ve
He ce

cl

(b

y:

ya
as

b( e

z:

p(

(y

at

bg cg ) ,

ac :

)(

2
z

my)

( bc

a2

a c

&c

&c

m g } (a 2

l2

63 0 9

m9?

4
b
p(

XXX V
2
l
{(

z:

a re

4,

6, y :

ao

) (m

[wo w(mm ( ban ( bd )

b) 2 ( l 2 m 2 1 )
m2
4
a
54 0 9 (a 2 bg )

b) 4
q)

'

( bc
2
l
(

2
2
7;7 ( a
Z

c d

'

=
put
n
y i n the th ree esult i g
d the re r esults tw qu d r t i cs i
7 &
2
b
5 b
P t
el i m i n te
d w
d
reduce the esult i g equ t i s t tw q dr t i cs i
L et
the
We h ve nf ( 6 + ) ( 7 f )
+
7= 3
(b )
1 b
Ag i mult i pl yi g the l st
&
These gi ve 5 y i terms f
{a
} 7
three equ t i s by 5
These gi ve 5 n 3
f w h ve b
g i i te rms f f5
We thus get three l i e r equ ti s f 5 7 f
l
&
We
deduce
t
+y y
y
i w h i ch
d ll y
N w e i the r
c se the sy stem i i determi n te
i w h i ch c se the ystem
i i c n s i ste n t

Eli mi n te
)
equ ti ns the n el i m i te E
(p

cg

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na

on

on

ua

x g xn

27 + 529%

520 2

5p q

g
9

) /2

5299

co n s

g cn

on

or

sa

A
2

9t
..

B3 :

2221 3293
217 2 2

4P 1 27 3
2

+ 12 1 p g

219k + 17 2
0

33

3 721 4

6l m

(p

62 )

2121

320 1 17 1

3p 1 p 2

3272 223174

3
+ P3

3293

91
Z

3
7
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l/

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4171 172
2291 273

a re

2ph 3

3191 192 3p 3 ) /p 3
(p 1
2
3
2
3
5
2P 2
527 1 273 V
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191 192
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2
3
3
3
7
92
( 1 8 21 1
p 1 p 3 )/( 191 193

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h"

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1
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2 2 + 2m

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5
7

4174
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9=
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P P
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2
2
227 1 191 3
( P 2 # 02 3 171 10 1 ( P 2 + 295 ) + P 1 12

z
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2
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a b
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0

291103

2 ( 291 + P 1

( 6291 10 2 273 #
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4 q) /q

(
.

291
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34

5P 1 2Z72 10 32

191 393
27 263

p3
6271 2172

mm

2
a:

4171 23 2 293

(
5

5291 10 23293

(1 5

9 2
7 2

610 q + 92

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9M )

20
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3 s

or

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th e

a n

an

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3
93

v an

n a

2 q)h

n u

na

n o

n 7

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an

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a n

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2 2 2

z, an

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on

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oo

a,

are

7 , 8 : 1:

VI 5

Fr m
o

&C

617

( 2a

2 01962

4 2

4d

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Ro o

ag i n a

ts re l
a

ry
ts re l
a

b) ?

Gr

(I ti
Q

D (

qr

a:

'

P9

2 5 6 a c3

2 7d

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on

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at

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7

b+ c d
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h
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p
w as 4 3 y a

m i les

e rs

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1 06 ya
1 0 8 1 5 1 08 2 7

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0,

49 + 2 7 7 = a

25

3 5,

rds very e l y

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2 2a2
(

9d

1 0d

9
2

62

b:

up

1 02 1
of

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9

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on

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ts

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sec ds
s
5 4 g ll
rd s per m i ute

q)?

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nu m

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4 083 7 7

nu

a:

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te

t)

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m gre te r)

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na n

gre ter )

the d i scri m i

+ ( n um

ts r e l

g 3

ar e

oo

569

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d e,

D = 2 2 ( b c)

r ts

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ts equ l

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too

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( b + c,

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E X ER C ISES

OF

n ar

in

1 8,

ba b ( a

) ( I)

1 00

d i st ces fr m X I I
b y = 6 0p /1 1 w he r e
g i ve
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11
If A
C l se i der the y h d rig i lly 1 3 /8
d 4 h u rs
20
7 4 8 4 /8
3 h u s
8
80
5 6 7 8
6 0 qu rts
1 2 3 4 ;
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d
i
i
i
m
mum
m
mum
r
eve
es
i
d
t
d
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p
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&
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on

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ar

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the r equ i red pr pert y

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l /c

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na

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nu

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ax

a re

an

l 4 ) /2 ( 1

h se f r t term
i

2 1 31

is

9
3

, 3 93

58

( c an

d w

h se
o

C D

ya

&c

&c

5,

b+
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rds

a -

R E SU L T S

5 70
8

8 71

16

Th e

p rt f ll w s fr m 7
i eve n
cc rdi g
o

as n

or o d d

b) 3n

3 0

( 6n

g/ ( 1

% l ( l + 1 ) ( 3m

1 ) ( 6n2

1 ) 3 (n

8+

496 0

2l

n -2

y) ( 1

e/( x

a
c

1)

)
(

a r

b)

th e

{1

ac

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00 7 94 8 1 8

13 3 35 2

31 4 4 9 7 3
2 6 7 4 73 4
81 21 3

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w h ere

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q be th e
(1 + a )

here }

is

rbi tr ry
a

cyphers)

9 7 94 8 7

54

or

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1
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4, 8 , 1 6 , 3 2
6 6 , 1 9 8, 5 94

m/(p

8 9 , 8 a ea
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P a = i
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g b

=
)
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b
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4 , 3 , 3, 4

2 2

5,
.

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or

x ) 4

(p

XLI I I
4, 5, 3,

or

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1 ) P ( q
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3 3
a r

on

5 82 5 : 8
a

are

c rresp d i g A

V( j

results

A P
j

5, 1 0 ;

&c

(
2
9
+ 0

1)

2
2
7
1
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1 1 , 3 3 , 9 9, 2 9 7 ;

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3, 4 8

12

g i ve sums

10
5
84

or

ao

00

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(d

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2
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4A1

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or

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a
g

(
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71

sec n d

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g
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x
(
m

1
1
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y) (
y)
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y)
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(
r
a + 2 ( 1 r
1
(
n
Zn
1
1
x
)
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n
=9
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s 22 1

71

3 3 72

1 ) (2 m

71

31 3

n
a

(1

% (
(p
3 b( a b) 2
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+ 71

2n

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um b e r i

1)

odd n

471 02

7 b.

1 ) 7 t ( 71

rst

X E RC I SE S

21 3 4

or E

7 7 7 94

RE S U LT S OF E X E RC I SE S
35

2 432 ,

1 3 7 3 45 4

'

y
x

'

3/

'
.

2 7 9 3 92 5

3 mo n
t he

ths

4 5 26

( l og

7s
be

7 s 6d

10

12

+ b)

22 5

e rs
a

75

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12

(m

er

a s

if

10

10

10

14

11

A ( I R

{ l og 2

va u e :

47 9

e rs
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l
( 3 4 Prese n t

1 ) b}

+ (n

14

20 y

"

1 91 2 8 1 1

12 y

10

1 80 1

i 2 07,

+ y:

e rs
therw i se P {( I

1 1 07

1 0 y ar s
2 90 4 : 2 : 5

(R

x = 7 6 0 2 8,

15 y

not re i vested

l og R y

l og (

ZA,

80 78

1 66 0

e rs
surplus i terest

d i g i ts 1 9

X LIV
2 54 y

4732 0

of

02 06 0

um b er

00 0 5 2 7 6 96
y
1 2 4 2 07
l og ( a 2

as :
:

983 97

571

v al u e

1 ) Rma + 1 }[RM RQ

X LV
es lve ts

l og ( 1 + R

/( R 1 )
a {1

1)

(R

of

L a g r a ng e

b( l

/( R

b)

(k

a nd

de
te
r
ts
o
f
h
t
p
oo

no

is

a roo

zi

an

e r

X:
ar e

r ts
oo

Th e

D esc rtes )

a nd

equ t i
a

s
on

reduces to
etc
.

=
p 4

END OF PAR T

P r i n ted by R

C L ARK ,

I M IT

E d zu u rg lz
'

D,