Basic Laws Overview

Ideal sources: series & parallel

Resistance & Ohms Law
Definitions: open circuit, short circuit, conductance
Definitions: nodes, branches, & loops
Kirchhoffs Laws
Voltage dividers & series resistors
Current dividers & parallel resistors
Wye-Delta Transformations

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Ideal Voltage Sources: Series

v1
= v1+v2
v2

Ideal voltage sources connected in series add

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Ideal Voltage Sources: Parallel

v1

v2

= Smoke

Ideal voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel

Recall: ideal voltage sources guarantee the voltage between two
terminals is at the specified potential (voltage)
Immovable object meets unstoppable force
In practice, the stronger source would win
Could easily cause component failure (smoke)
Ideal sources do not exist
Technically allowed if V1 = V2 , but is a bad idea

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Ideal Current Sources: Series

i2

i1
= Smoke

Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series

Recall: ideal current sources guarantee the current flowing
through source is at specified value
Recall: the current entering a circuit element must equal the
current leaving a circuit element, Iin = Iout
Could easily cause component failure (smoke)
Ideal sources do not exist
Technically allowed if I1 = I2 , but is a bad idea

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Ideal Current Sources: Parallel

i1

i2

= i 1 + i2

Ideal current sources in parallel add

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Resistance: Defined
All materials resist the flow of current
Resistance is usually represented by the variable R
Depends on geometry and resistivity of the material
A cylinder of length and cross-sectional area A has a resistance:
R=

where
R=
=
=
A=

J. McNames

resistance of an element in ohms ()

resistivity of the material in ohm-meters
length of cylindrical material in meters
Cross sectional area of material in meters2

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Resistance: Basic Concepts & Assumptions

We will always measure resistance in Ohms
Ohms are denoted by the greek letter Omega:
Examples: 50 , 1 k, 2.5 M
Conductors (e.g. wires) have very low resistance (< 0.1 ) that
can usually be ignored (i.e. we will assume wires have zero
resistance)
Insulators (e.g. air) have very large resistance (> 50 M) that
can usually be ignored (omitted from circuit for analysis)
Resistors have a medium range of resistance and must be
accounted for in the circuit analysis
Conceptually, a light bulb is similar to a resistor
Properties of the bulb control how much current flows and how
much power is dissipated (absorbed & emitted as light and heat)

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Ohms Law
v

R
v

Linear
(Ohm's Law Applies)

Nonlinear
(Ohm's Law Does Not Apply)

As with all circuit elements, we need to know how the current

through and voltage across the device are related
Many materials have a complicated nonlinear relationship
(including light bulbs): v = f (i)
Materials with a linear relationship satisfy Ohms law: v = mi
The slope, m, is equal to the resistance of the element
Ohms Law: v = iR
Sign, , is determined by the passive sign convention (PSC)
J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Resistors & Passive Sign Convention

i
v
+

i
-

i
+

i
+

Recall that relationships between current and voltage are sign

sensitive
Passive Sign Convention: Current enters the positive terminal of
an element
If PSC satisfied: v = iR
If PSC not satisfied: v = iR

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

Other Equations Derived from Ohms Law

v
Ohms law implies: i = R

Recall p = vi. Therefore

v
v2
p = vR = R
p = (iR)i = i2 R
Resistors cannot produce power
Therefore, the power absorbed by a resistor will always be
positive
1 = 1 V/A

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

10

Example 1: Ohms Law

1.61 mA
6 k

i2
2 k

- 0.5882 V +
+
10 V

10.59 V
-

i2
v6
R4
v2
i8

J. McNames

v6

8 k 5 mA
i8

3.38 mA
2 k
-

v2 +
+
13.53 V

R4

=
=
=
=
=

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

11

Short Circuit as Zero Resistance

i
Circuit

i
+
V
-

+
0

Circuit

0V
-

An element (or wire) with R = 0 is called a short circuit

Often just drawn as a wire (line)
Could draw a resistor with R = 0, but is unnecessary and adds
clutter

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

12

100

Short Circuit as Voltage Source (0 V)

i

i
+

Circuit

0V =

Circuit

0V
-

Vs

= Smoke

An ideal voltage source Vs = 0 V is also equivalent to a short

circuit
Since v = iR and R = 0, v = 0 regardless of i
Could draw a source with Vs = 0 V, but is not done in practice
Cannot connect a voltage source to a short circuit
Irresistible force meets immovable object
In practice, the wire usually wins and the voltage source melts (if
not protected)

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

13

Open Circuit
i
Circuit

0A
+
V
-

Circuit

V
-

An element with R = is called a open circuit

Often just omitted
Could draw a resistor with R = , but is unnecessary and would
add clutter

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

14

90

Open Circuit as Current Source (0 A)

0A
Circuit

+
V
-

+
0A

Circuit

V
-

= Smoke

An ideal current source I = 0 A is also equivalent to an open

circuit
Could draw a source with I = 0 A, but is not done in practice
Cannot connect a current source to an open circuit
Irresistible force meets immovable object
In practice, you blow the current source (if not protected)
The insulator (air) usually wins. Else, sparks fly.

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

15

Conductance
Sometimes conductance is specified instead of resistance
Conductance is a measure of the ability of an element to conduct
electric current
Inverse of resistance
G=

1
R

i
v

Units: siemens (S) or mhos ()

1 S = 1 = 1 A/V

v = Ri
i = Gv

J. McNames

Portland State University

v2
p = vi = i R =
R
i2
2
p = vi = v G =
G
2

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

16

Circuit Building Blocks

Before we can begin analysis, we need a common language and
framework for describing circuits
For this course, networks and circuits are the same
Networks are composed of nodes, branches, and loops

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

17

Branches Defined
2 k

10 V

6 k

2 k

8 k 5 mA

5 k

Example: How many branches?

Branch: a single two-terminal element in a circuit
Segments of wire are not counted as elements (or branches)
Examples: voltage source, resistor, current source

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

18

Nodes Defined
2 k

10 V

6 k

8 k 5 mA

2 k

5 k

Example: How many nodes? How many essential nodes?

Node: the point of connection between two or more branches
May include a portion of the circuit (more than a single point)
Essential Node: the point of connection between three or more
branches

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

19

Loops Defined
2 k

10 V

6 k

8 k 5 mA

2 k

5 k

Example: How many loops?

Loop: any closed path in a circuit

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

20

Overview of Kirchhoffs Laws

The foundation of circuit analysis is
The defining equations for circuit elements (e.g. Ohms law)
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL)
Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL)
The defining equations tell us how the voltage and current within
a circuit element are related
Kirchhoffs laws tell us how the voltages and currents in different
branches are related
They govern how elements within a circuit are related

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

21

Kirchhoffs Current Law

i1

i2
i3

i5

i1 + i2 i3 i4 + i5
i1 + i2 + i5

= 0
= i3 + i4

i4

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL): the algebraic sum of currents

entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero
The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving a node
Common sense:
All of the electrons have to go somewhere
The current that goes in, has to come out some place
Based on law of conservation of charge

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

22

Kirchhoffs Current Law for Boundaries

6 k

2 k

2 k

i2

i1
10 V

8 k 5 mA

5 k

i4

i3

i1 i2 + i3 i4
i1 + i3

= 0
= i2 + i4

KCL also applies to closed boundaries for all circuits

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

23

Example 2: Kirchhoffs Current Law

10 V

2 k

6 k

3 k

i1

i6

i3

8 k

5 mA

5 k

i8

Apply KCL to each essential node in the circuit.

Essential Node 1:
Essential Node 2:
Essential Node 3:

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

24

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

M
X

Vm

= 0

m=1

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL): the algebraic sum of voltages

around a closed path (or loop) is zero
Based on the conservation of energy
Analogous idea in hydraulic systems: sum of pressure drops and
rises in any closed path must be equal

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

25

Example 3: Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

2 k

10 V

v2

6 k

+
+
v8
-

v6

3 k

8 k 5 mA

- v3 +
+
+
VI
v4
-

5 k

Apply KVL to each loop in the circuit.

Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop

J. McNames

1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

26

Comments on Ohms Law, KCL, and KVL

Ohms Law:
KCL:
KVL:

v = iR
P
P In = 0
Vm = 0

Much of the circuit analysis that we will do is based on these three

laws
These laws alone are sufficient to analyze many circuits

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

27

Ohms Law for Fluids

Ohms law applies in fluid mechanics
For turbulent flow, the pressure is related to the rate of flow
squared - not analogous
For laminar flow,
r 4 P
Q=
8L

8L
P =
Q
r 4

where
Q = flow rate (m3 /s)
r = pipe radius (m)
L = pipe length (m)
P = pressure drop (kN/m2 )
= dynamic viscosity of fluid

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

28

Ohms Law for Fluids Continued

If we define R =

8L
r 4 ,

Q=

then

P
R

P = R Q

This is Ohms law for laminar fluid flow in a pipe

Kirchhoffs laws also apply to fluid networks
Analogs
Resistor Pipe
Voltage source Pressure source
Current source Flow rate source
Capacitor Fluid capacitance (tanks)
Inductor Fluid inductance (inertia)
Transformers Fluid transformers (change in pipe diameter)
But there are no fluid analogs to transistors or op amps

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

29

Example 4: Applying the Basic Laws

6 k

2 k

v2

10 V

v6
5 mA

+
+
vI
-

Find v2 , v6 and vI .

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

30

Example 5: Applying the Basic Laws

2vo

4 k

io
12 V

4V
6 k

vo -

Find io and vo .

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

31

Example 5: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

32

Example 6: Applying the Basic Laws

70 k

i7
10 V

20 k

+
v3
-

i2
30 k

i3

5 mA

+
vI
-

Find i7 , i3 , i2 , v3 , and vI .

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

33

Example 6: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.26

34