Biology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Biological science" redirects here. It is not to be confused with life science.

For other uses, see Biology (disambiguation).

Biology deals with the study of the many

living organisms.

top: E. coli bacteria and gazelle

bottom: Goliath beetle and tree fern

Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their
structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy.[1] Modern biology is a
vast and eclectic field, composed of many branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad
scope of biology, there are certain general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and
research, consolidating it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the
basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the
synthesis and creation of new species. It is also understood today that all the organisms survive by
consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable
and vital condition known as homeostasis.
Sub-disciplines of biology are defined by the scale at which organisms are studied, the kinds of
organisms studied, and the methods used to study them: biochemistry examines the rudimentary
chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex interactions among
biological molecules; botany studies the biology of plants; cellular biology examines the basic
building-block of all life, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions
of tissues, organs, and organ systems of an organism; evolutionary biology examines the processes
that produced the diversity of life; and ecology examines how organisms interact in
their environment.[2]
Contents

[hide]

1History

2Foundations of modern biology

o

2.1Cell theory

2.2Evolution

2.3Genetics

2.4Homeostasis

2.5Energy

3Study and research

o

3.1Structural

3.2Physiological

3.3Evolutionary

3.4Systematic

3.5Kingdoms

3.6Ecological and environmental

4Basic unresolved problems in biology

5Branches

6See also

7References

8Further reading

9External links

History
Main article: History of biology

A Diagram of a fly from Robert Hooke's innovative Micrographia, 1665

Ernst Haeckel's Tree of Life (1879)

The term biology is derived from the Greek word , bios, "life" and the suffix -, -logia, "study
of."[3][4] The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl
Linnaeus (Carl von Linn) used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica. It was used again in 1766 in a
work entitled Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae: tomus III, continens geologian, biologian,
phytologian generalis, by Michael Christoph Hanov, a disciple of Christian Wolff. The first German
use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus' work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose

used the term in the preface of a book, Grundzge der Lehre van der Lebenskraft. Karl Friedrich
Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a
morphological, physiological and psychological perspective (Propdeutik zum Studien der
gesammten Heilkunst). The term came into its modern usage with the six-volume treatise Biologie,
oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur (180222) by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, who announced:[5]
The objects of our research will be the different forms and manifestations of life, the
conditions and laws under which these phenomena occur, and the causes through which
they have been effected. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate
by the name biology [Biologie] or the doctrine of life [Lebenslehre].
Although modern biology is a relatively recent development, sciences related to and included
within it have been studied since ancient times. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the
ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China. However, the
origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back
to ancient Greece.[6][7] While the formal study of medicine dates back to Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC
ca. 370 BC), it was Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC) who contributed most extensively to the
development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where
he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological
causation and the diversity of life. Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a
series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the
plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages.[8]
Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz (781869), AlDnawar (828896), who wrote on botany,[9]and Rhazes (865925) who wrote
on anatomy and physiology. Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in
Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought,
especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.
Biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic
improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars
discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations
by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic
techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.[10]
Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th
century, a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. Then, in
1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit
of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although
they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work
of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three
tenets of what came to be known as cell theory.[11][12]
Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl
Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have
been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.
[13]
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated species as artificial categories and living
forms as malleableeven suggesting the possibility of common descent. Though he was
opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought; his work
influenced the evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin.[14]

Beard
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Bearded" redirects here. For the British music magazine, see Bearded (magazine).
For other uses, see Beard (disambiguation).

Beard

Hindu Sadhu with a goatee and moustache.

Details

Identifiers

Latin

barba

TA

A16.0.00.018

FMA

54240

Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]

A beard is the collection of hair that grows on the chin and cheeks of humans and some non-human
animals. In humans, usually only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. From an
evolutionary viewpoint the beard is a part of the broader category of androgenic hair. It is a vestigial
trait from a time when humans had hair on their face and entire body like the hair on gorillas. The

evolutionary loss of hair is pronounced in some populations such as indigenous Americans and
some east Asian populations, who have less facial hair, whereas Caucasians and the Ainu have
more facial hair. Women with hirsutism, a hormonal condition of excessive hairiness, may develop a
beard.
Throughout the course of history, societal attitudes toward male beards have varied widely
depending on factors such as prevailing cultural-religious traditions and the current
era's fashion trends. Some religions (such as Sikhism) have considered a full beard to be absolutely
essential for all males able to grow one, and mandate it as part of their official dogma. Other
cultures, even while not officially mandating it, view a beard as central to a man's virility,
exemplifying such virtues as wisdom, strength, sexual prowess and high social status. However, in
cultures where facial hair is uncommon (or currently out of fashion), beards may be associated with
poor hygiene or a "savage", uncivilized, or even dangerous demeanor.
Contents
[hide]

1Biology
1.1Evolution

2History
2.1Ancient and classical world

2.1.1Lebanon

2.1.2Mesopotamia

2.1.3Egypt

2.1.4India

2.1.5China

2.1.6Iran

2.1.7Greece

2.1.8Kingdom of Macedonia

2.1.9Rome

2.1.10Celts and Germanic tribes

2.2Middle ages

2.3From the Renaissance to the present day

2.3.119th century

2.3.220th century

2.4Facial hair and Political Leaders

3Beards in religion
3.1Christianity

3.1.1LDS Church

3.2Hinduism

3.3Islam

3.4Judaism

3.5Sikhism

3.6Rastafari Movement

4The "philosopher's beard"

5Modern prohibition of beards

5.1Civilian prohibitions

5.1.1Sports

5.2Armed forces

6Styles

7In art

8In animals

9See also

10Notes

11References

12Further reading

13External links

Biology[edit]

The beard develops during puberty. Beard growth is linked to stimulation of hair follicles in the area
by dihydrotestosterone, which continues to affect beard growth after puberty. Various hormones
stimulate hair follicles from different areas. Dihydrotestosterone, for example, may also promote
short-term pogonotrophy (i.e., the grooming of facial hair). For example, a scientist who chose to
remain anonymous had to spend periods of several weeks on a remote island in comparative
isolation. He noticed that his beard growth diminished, but the day before he was due to leave the
island it increased again, to reach unusually high rates during the first day or two on the mainland.
He studied the effect and concluded that the stimulus for increased beard growth was related to the
resumption of sexual activity.[1] However, at that time professional pogonologists such as R.M.
Hardisty reacted vigorously and almost dismissively.[2]
Beard growth rate is also genetic.[3]

Evolution[edit]
Biologists characterize beards as a secondary sexual characteristic because they are unique to one
sex, yet do not play a direct role in reproduction. Charles Darwin first suggested
possible evolutionary explanation of beards in his work The Descent of Man, which hypothesized
that the process of sexual selection may have led to beards.[4]Modern biologists have reaffirmed the
role of sexual selection in the evolution of beards, concluding that there is evidence that a majority of
females find men with beards more attractive than men without beards.[5][6][7]

Charles Darwin

Evolutionary psychology explanations for the existence of beards include signalling sexual maturity
and signalling dominance by increasing perceived size of jaws, and clean-shaved faces are rated
less dominant than bearded.[8] Some scholars assert that it is not yet established whether the sexual
selection leading to beards is rooted in attractiveness (inter-sexual selection) or dominance (intrasexual selection).[9] A beard can be explained as an indicator of a male's overall condition. [10] The rate
of facial hairiness appears to influence male attractiveness.[11][12] The presence of a beard makes the
male vulnerable in fights, which is costly, so biologists have speculated that there must be other
evolutionary benefits that outweigh that drawback.[13] Excess testosterone evidenced by the beard
may indicate mild immunosuppression, which may support spermatogenesis.[14][15]

Paper
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation).

Different types of paper: carton, tissue paper

Paper

"Paper" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters

Traditional Chinese

Simplified Chinese

Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived
from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many
uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction
processes.
The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century
AD, possibly as early as the year 105 A.D.,[1] by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest
archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BC in China. [2] The modern pulp and
paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Early sources of Fiber

3Etymology

4Papermaking
o

4.1Chemical pulping

4.2Mechanical pulping

4.3De-inked pulp

4.4Additives

4.5Producing paper

4.6Finishing
4.6.1Paper grain

5Applications

6Types, thickness and weight

7Paper stability

8Environmental impact of paper

9Future of paper

10See also

11Notes

12References

13Further reading

14External links

History
Main article: History of paper

Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC.

The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the
2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century
AD Han court eunuch.[2] With paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China
could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age.
Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th
century, where the first water powered paper mills were built.[3] Because of paper's introduction to the
West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos.[4] In the 19th century, industrial
manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to
significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G.
Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres. [5]

Early sources of Fiber

Ancient Sanskrit on Hemp based Paper. Hemp Fiber was commonly used in the production of paper from 200
BCE to the Late 1800's.

See also: wood pulp and deinking

Before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled
fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton.[6] A process for
removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774.
[6]
Today this method is called deinking. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that
paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers.[6]

Etymology
Further information: Papyrus
The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from
the Greek (papuros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant.[7][8] Papyrus is a thick, paperlike material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient
Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper into the Middle
East and Europe.[9] Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are
produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the
second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres
whose properties have been changed by maceration.[2]

Papermaking
Main article: Papermaking

Chemical pulping
Main articles: kraft process, sulfite process, and soda pulping
To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is
accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose;
this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known
as wood-free papersnot to be confused with tree-free paper; this is because they do not contain
lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this
consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from
cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.

The microscopic structure of paper: Micrograph of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The
individual fibres in this sample are around 10 min diameter.

There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it
was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the
1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its
advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a
generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid
or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers
and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to
pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.

Mechanical pulping
There are two major mechanical pulps, the thermomechanical one (TMP) and groundwood pulp
(GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips
are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process,
debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into
fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it
causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have
rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are
required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.

De-inked pulp
Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it
with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and

fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of
quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it
was made from.
There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.

Mill broke or internal mill waste This incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper
made within the paper mill itself, which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be repulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not
classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre, however most paper mills have been reusing
their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling become popular.

Preconsumer waste This is offcut and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and
envelope blank waste; it is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill,
and is a genuine recycled fibre source; it includes de-inked preconsumer (recycled material that
has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold
publications).[10]

Postconsumer waste This is fibre from paper that has been used for its intended end use
and includes office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this material
has been printed either digitally or by more conventional means such as lithography or
rotogravure it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a de-inking process first.

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although
they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.

Additives
Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve its
characteristics for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it and/or
applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to
establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.

Producing paper
Main articles: Paper machine and papermaking
The pulp is fed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from
it by pressing and drying.
Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special
kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas
when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.
Drying involves using air and/or heat to remove water from the paper sheets; in the earliest days of
paper making this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times various forms
of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine the most common is the steam
heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 F (93 C) and are used in long
sequences of more than 40 cans; where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less
than 6% moisture.

Disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Disease (disambiguation).

Scanning electron micrograph of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium that causes tuberculosis.

A disease is a particular abnormal condition, a disorder of a structure or function, that affects part or
all of an organism. The study of disease is called pathology which includes the causal study
of etiology. Disease is often construed as a medical condition associated with
specific symptoms and signs.[1] It may be caused by external factors such as pathogens, or it may be
caused by internal dysfunctions particularly of the immune system such as an immunodeficiency, or
a hypersensitivity including allergies and autoimmunity.
In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that
causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or deathto the person afflicted, or similar
problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes
includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms,
deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for
other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Diseases can affect people not
only physically, but also emotionally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected
person's perspective on life.
Death due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of
disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, genetic diseases both (hereditary and nonhereditary), and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified as communicable and noncommunicable. The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease (blood flow
obstruction), followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections.[2]
Contents
[hide]

1Terminology
o

1.1Concepts

1.2Types by body system

1.3Stages

1.4Extent
2Classifications

3Causes
o

3.1Types of causes

4Prevention

5Treatments

6Epidemiology
o

6.1Burdens of disease
7Society and culture

7.1Language of disease

8See also

9References

10External links

Terminology[edit]
Concepts[edit]
In many cases, terms such as disease, disorder, morbidity and illness are used interchangeably.
[3]
There are situations, however, when specific terms are considered preferable.
Disease
The term disease broadly refers to any condition that impairs the normal functioning of the
body. For this reason, diseases are associated with dysfunctioning of the body's
normal homeostatic processes.[4] The term disease has both a count sense (a disease, two
diseases, many diseases) and a noncount sense (not much disease, less disease, a lot of
disease). Commonly, the term is used to refer specifically to infectious diseases, which are
clinically evident diseases that result from the presence of pathogenicmicrobial agents,
including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and aberrant proteins
known as prions. An infection that does not and will not produce clinically evident impairment
of normal functioning, such as the presence of the normal bacteria and yeasts in the gut, or
of a passenger virus, is not considered a disease. By contrast, an infection that is
asymptomatic during its incubation period, but expected to produce symptoms later, is
usually considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most
forms of cancer[citation needed], heart disease, and genetic disease.
Acquired disease
disease that began at some point during one's lifetime, as opposed to disease that was
already present at birth, which is congenital disease. "Acquired" sounds like it could mean
"caught via contagion", but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It also sounds like
it could imply secondary disease, but acquired disease can be primary disease.
Acute disease
disease of a short-term nature (acute); the term sometimes also connotes a fulminant nature
Chronic disease

disease that is a long-term issue (chronic)

Congenital disease
disease that is present at birth. It is often, genetic and can be inherited. It can also be the
result of a vertically transmitted infection from the mother such as HIV/AIDS.
Genetic disease
disease that is caused by genetic mutation. It is often inherited, but some mutations are
random and de novo.
Hereditary or inherited disease
a type of genetic disease caused by mutation that is hereditary (and can run in families)
Idiopathic disease
disease whose cause is unknown. As medical science has advanced, many diseases whose
causes were formerly complete mysteries have been somewhat explained (for example,
when it was realized that autoimmunity is the cause of some forms of diabetes mellitus type
1, even if we do not yet understand every molecular detail involved) or even extensively
explained (for example, when it was realized that gastric ulcers are often associated
with Helicobacter pylori infection).
Incurable disease
disease that cannot be cured
Primary disease
disease that came about as a root cause of illness, as opposed to secondary disease, which
is a sequela of another disease
Secondary disease
disease that is a sequela or complication of some other disease or underlying cause (root
cause). Bacterial infections can be either primary (healthy but then bacteria arrived) or
secondary to a viral infection or burn, which predisposed by creating an open wound or
weakened immunity (bacteria would not have gotten established otherwise).
Terminal disease
disease with death as an inevitable result
Illness
Illness is generally used as a synonym for disease.[5] However, this term is occasionally used
to refer specifically to the patient's personal experience of his or her disease. [6][7]In this model,
it is possible for a person to have a disease without being ill (to have an objectively
definable, but asymptomatic, medical condition, such as a subclinical infection), and to
be ill without being diseased (such as when a person perceives a normal experience as a
medical condition, or medicalizes a non-disease situation in his or her life for example, a
person who feels unwell as a result of embarrassment, and who interprets those feelings as
sickness rather than normal emotions). Symptoms of illness are often not directly the result
of infection, but a collection of evolved responsessickness behavior by the bodythat
helps clear infection. Such aspects of illness can include lethargy, depression, loss of
appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, and inability to concentrate.[8][9][10]