What is injury? Injury is an unintentional or intentional damage to the body.

This may be
caused by accidents, falls, hits, weapons, and other causes. Major trauma is injury that has the
potential to cause prolonged disability or death.
When an Injury is unintentional, it is called an accident. An accident may be defined as
an unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically resulting in
damage or injury. Any event that happens by chance or that is without apparent or deliberate
cause. It is an occurrence that disrupts the flow of normal interactions and relationships.
Accidents are any undesirable incidental and unplanned event that could have been prevented
had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its
occurrence. Most scientists who study unintentional injury avoid using the term "accident" and
focus on factors that increase risk of severe injury and that reduce injury incidence and severity
(Robertson, 2015).
One of the reasons why injuries are lethal because they are unexpected, meaning it will
happen on a time you least expect it.
Accidents can happen anywhere, even at the very house youre staying. Here are some
common examples where accidents occur:

Road
Sports

In 2012, a research was conducted

on the top 10 causes of deaths in the world,
and accident belonged to the 9th place.
Nearly 75% of all deaths in the world
are attributed to just 10 causes, with the top
3 of these accounting for over 50% of all
deaths. Over the last five years, the main
causes of death in the world have remained
fairly consistent, although unintentional
injuries (accidents) became the fourth
leading cause of death in 2013, while
stroke became the fifth.
Accident advanced 5 places in just one year and the numbers of people dying because
of accidents are not getting lower because by their very natures, accidents are unintentional, but

there are many ways in which to reduce the risk of accidental death and injury, and the loss and
suffering these incidents cause for victims and their loved ones. Some key components of
accident prevention include those focused on road safety, such as seat-belt use, and improved
awareness of the dangers of driving while intoxicated. In order to avoid accidents, people must
be aware on their surroundings and take caution in everything they do. They must always aim to
keep themselves safe. Safe is a state of being protected from or not exposed to danger or risk;
not likely to be harmed or lost. Free from any disease. Uninjured; with no harm done. Free from
external threats to ones life.
CAUSES OF UNINTENTIONAL INJURY EVENTS
ACCIDENT a sudden event (such as a crash) that is not planned or intended and that causes
damage or injury.
INJURY an act or event that causes someone or something to no longer be fully healthy or in
good condition.
INTENTIONAL - done in a way that is planned or intended.
HUMAN FACTORS - Human factors is a discipline that bears on personal injury claims that
applies scientific knowledge of perception, cognition and response to product design and human
behavior. Often the primary causes of an injury resulting circumstance center upon the
individual or human factors.

Age
Knowledge
Experience
Human Capabilities
Physical Conditions
Psychological States

MECHANICAL FACTORS - Not all injuries are caused by human factors. Many fatal and injury
resulting situations occur from some kind of mechanical failure. The breakdown may be
something rather mild, as when some part of the bicycle fails to function properly resulting in
injury to the rider. On the other hand, mechanical failure can lead to tragedies causing deaths.

Mechanical Failure or Breakdowns

Measures to reduce the risks of mechanical failure

Improved Quality Control

Regular Maintenance

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Weather
Lighting
Visual & Spatial Distractions

Physical Obstacles
Design Standards

Accident Repetition
Are there a few unfortunate individuals at your workplace who seem to repeatedly experience
accidents? A knee last month, a finger this month? It's a safety topic that doesn't receive a lot of
attention, says one expert in the field, but it should. That expert is Robert F. Pater, director of
Strategic Safety Associates in Portland, Oregon.
He says too many employers fail to address the problem, in part because they've never defined
it. ("If you don't define it, then how do you know if you need to treat it?") Pater says a number of
different definitions exist. According to one, an accident repeater is someone who logs five
recordable injuries in three years. Another defines accident repetition as the accruing of three
lost-time injuries within a year's time. Yet another suggests five or more injuries in a five-year
period. Although the topic of accident repetition has not been the subject of a great deal of
scientific research, Pater points to one Canadian study that found that the fatality rates and
workers' compensation costs for accident repeaters were 10 times higher than for other
workers.
Pater says his research and experience have led him to five basic causes of accident repetition.
He categorizes them as follows:

Exposure. Workers are exposed to more hazards, or exposed more frequently, than
othersfor example, regularly lifting heavy loads or being exposed to icy conditions.

Cumulative injury. In this case, the worker's physical condition deteriorates due to
repetitive or cumulative trauma. Both physical stresses and off-the-job activities
contribute to progressive injuries or illnesses.

Re-injury. Everyone is familiar with this syndromeif you injure your foot, it seems that
you're more likely to re-injure the exact same place.

Referred injury. This is an injury that occurs as the result of compensating for another
condition. For example, a hurt foot can affect how weight is distributed, which can lead to
a change in gait and possible pain in the knee.

Random. In these cases, no apparent pattern can be detected; sometimes these

accidents can be attributed to stress or emotional issues.

In some instances, says Pater, individuals who repeatedly suffer accidents are simply "faking it,"
looking for a way out the door, or seeking a way to make their supervisors look bad. He adds
that people who suffer repeat accidents are indeed diverse. Some are quite "proud" and suffer
through initial symptoms rather than act on them. Others are overworked, overtired, distracted,
fail to report injuries, or feel unappreciated.

A System Approach
Although there's no simple answer to the problem of accident repetition, Pater suggests an
approach that looks both at the worker, and at the work environment. "The traditional approach
was to threaten, discipline, counsel, or basically ignore the situation in the belief that the
problem was a personal one," he says. "But when you have a pattern of accident repetition, you
probably have a system problem and it requires a system approach." Such an approach
includes the following.
Assess the problem. An assessment involves a review of several factors. Organizational
factors could include medical management (are back-injured employees relegated to deskbound "light duty" jobs that can actually worsen a back injury?) or accident investigation
strategies. Task factors include job design, workstation layout, lighting, pacing, etc. Human
factors include history of prior injuries, medications, body mechanics, age, and others.
Plan an intervention. Select a model such as counseling, discipline, or education/training (the
choice Pater prefers). "I consider disciplining people who are injured really double jeopardy," he
says, "and forced counseling too often sends the message that the employee is [considered to
be] emotionally troubled." Pater believes the education model should seek to remove the stigma
from the repeaters and teach skills that help them take greater control of their personal safety.
Create a pilot program, monitor it, and expand it. Start small and assess the benefits and
value of the program before spreading it throughout the organization. Concentrate on a positive
and systematic approach.
Other Tips
Among other strategies that will help reduce accident repetition in your workplace:

Teach employers and employees to identify signs of job stress.

Make sure accident investigation is focused on prevention rather than blame.

Train all personnel in the causes of accidents and in preventive measures.

Give employees prevention tools. For example, train them in techniques to improve
balance and coordination, a big cause of accidents, according to Pater.

Design a program that addresses the attitudes of supervisors and other workers. (If a
supervisor is constantly referring to Joe as "just another accident waiting to happen," Joe
will come to identify himself in that same, negative way.)

Finally, Pater suggests abandoning the term "accident repeater" when communicating with
employees, in favor of "accident repetition." It's a way to depersonalize the problem and get
away from the stereotype.

Epidemiological Model Applied to Safety

The use of descriptive studies to trace the extent and distribution of unintentional injury events
in a given population involves the application of the epidemiological model. Historically, the
application of this model has been used principally in the field of communicable disease control.
Epidemiology makes it possible to learn what the causative agents of a certain disease are and
provides information about groups of individuals who are most likely to contract that specific
disease. It has also been valuable in ascertaining the relationships between various illnesses
and behavior patterns. Specific etiological (causes) of diseases have been identified using the
principles of epidemiology.
There are three interactive dimensions in the epidemiological model: a host, an
etiological agent, and the environment. In order to control a communicable disease one needs
to break the interactive chain of infection existing between these factors. Focus upon the
individual or host involves studying those factors directed toward the person. It is the
individual who is susceptible to the specific disease in a communicable disease control
program. In communicable disease control it is the etiological agent, the specific microorganism,
that causes the host to become ill. It is necessary for the agent to invade the host before a
disease cab become manifested in an individual.
The microorganism can invade the host through a number of avenues. These factors are
spoken of as the environment. Some diseases are transmitted through airborne particles, others
in water, insects carry many different microorganism, and others are transmitted by direct
person-to-person contact. A long as the host, the etiologic agent, and the environment are kept
in equilibrium, a person is healthy. A mal-disturbance leads to sickness. In disease control
activities it is important to ascertain which dimension can be countered most easily,
economically, and effectively in order to break the chain of infection.
The epidemiological model, was first suggested in 1948 as an approach that could be
used for the study and prevention of accidents. The Kellogg Foundation funded several
community-based safety projects in the 1950s using the host-agents-environment interactive
epidemiology model. Since that time the model has been used extensively by researchers and
programmers in the field of safety in many different settings.
The application of epidemiological methodology in injury causation and prevention has
been found to be useful in identifying the causes of un intentional injury events. However, it
must be noted that this model has its shortcomings. In communicable disease control work
there usually is one single causative agent, such as a particular virus, bacterium, or protozoan.
When the epidemiological model is applying to the field of safety, the approach becomes more
problematical in that there usually is not one single causative agent. Unintentional injury events
tend to be multiclausal causes which often involve a variety of different interactions, some
nearly impossible to ascertain or pinpoint.
Analyzing the three factors of the epidemiological model will help clarify some of the
issues involved.

Host
The study of an unintentional injury event requires that the person, or persons, involved
be the focus of the study. This may mean the study of a specific population, as in the case of a
study of farmers who are injured from working high- speed farm machinery. It could be a study
of the behavioral patterns of boys on the playground who are injured during a specific period of
time and who require the services of the school nurse. Another example of the application of this
model might be an examination of the physiological factors associated with falls resulting in
hospitalization among senior citizens above the age of seventy.
After study is conducted to learn more about the various factors associated with the
individual and the problem under consideration, it becomes important to apply the model to
establishing an injury-reduction initiative. Since we are dealing with the host, our attention and
program activities will focus upon the people involved. Injuries occur to people, not to inanimate
objects. Numerous host-related factors are important in injury-causing situations, although two
that usually receive a lot of notice are age and gender.
The Cause
As we continue to apply the epidemiological model to injury prevention, we need to focus
upon the causative agent. Many substances, products, and items may cause injury or death.
The specific product may be of a chemical or biological nature that is systemically toxic to the
host. This is the case when dealing with the many different kinds of household poisons,
insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides that are usually found around homes, garages, and farm
buildings.
Any type of epidemiological study requires a careful analysis of the actual agent that
caused the fatality or injury. Measures should be taken to reduce the presence of causative
agents that can harm individuals. This could mean placing sharp tools in their proper storage
places in the workplace when they are not in use. It might involve removing a childs toys and
other objects from the stairways. Such a focus could mean purchasing a car, a riding lawn
mower, or other types or power tools that have appropriate safety features installed.
Environmental Factors
In any given unintentional injury event there are a number of factors associated with
environment that can be investigated. For example, during a serious windstorm a tree may fall
on the car and cause injury to the occupant. The host is the individual who ventured out despite
travelers advisories; the agent of injury is the tree; and the environmental factor involves is a
natural force, the wind.
Many measures may be employed to reduce the hazardous nature of a given
environment. In the case of highway safety, periodic engineering developments have made for
safer travel, such as the use of breakaway sign poles and the construction of dual highways.
HEALTH OBJECTIVES FOR THE NATION

UNINTENTIONAL INJURIES
1979 Accident Prevention and Injury Control
Three centered upon the importance of risk reduction initiatives (increasing the number
of automobiles with automatic restraint protection, ensuring that newborns return home after
birth in certified passenger carriers, and requiring the installation of smoke alarm systems in
homes and apartments).

1979 Accident Prevention and Injury Control

Parents should be able to identify appropriate measures to protect children from three
major risks of injury, including motor-vehicle injuries, burns, and poisonings

Burn-safety outdoors
These burn safety measures can protect children from outdoor hazards:

Watch grills and fire pits. Don't allow children to play near these potential hazards.
Check car seats. Before placing your child in a car seat, check for hot straps or buckles. If you
park in direct sunlight, cover the car seat with a towel or blanket.
Forgo backyard fireworks. Leave fireworks, including sparklers, to trained professionals.
Fire safety counts, too
Take these simple precautions to prevent fires:
Lock up matches and lighters. Store matches, lighters and flammable liquids in a locked
cabinet or drawer. Teach children that matches and lighters aren't toys.
Be careful with candles and cigarettes. Keep burning candles out of reach, and extinguish
candles before leaving the room.
Use space heaters with care. Keep space heaters at least three feet (about one meter) away
from bedding, drapes, furniture and other flammable materials. Keep children away from space
heaters.

Keep Young Children Safe from Poisoning

1

Store all medicines and household products up and away and out of sight in a
cabinet where a child cannot reach them.
2 When you are taking or giving medicines or are using household products:
Do not put your next dose on the counter or table where children can reach themit
only takes seconds for a child to get them.
If you have to do something else while taking medicine, such as answer the phone, take
any young children with you.
Secure the child safety cap completely every time you use a medicine.
After using them, do not leave medicines or household products out. As soon as you are
done with them, put them away and out of sight in a cabinet where a child cannot reach
them.

Be aware of any legal or illegal drugs that guests may bring into your home. Ask guests
to store drugs where children cannot find them. Children can easily get into pillboxes,
purses, backpacks, or coat pockets.

1979 Accident Prevention and Injury Control

Another objective called for health care providers to advice patients about the value of safety
belts in automobiles
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
(University of the City of Manila)
Intramuros, Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Manufacturing Engineering Department

MEC 313 SAFETY MANAGEMENT

(Injury: A Concern to All in Society)

Prepared by:
Espidillon, Enrico A.

2012 10244

Luna, Earl Anthony N.

2012 20259

Seminiano, Ralph Jireh B.

2012 20407

Gomez, Paul John S.

2011 10364

Luceno, Edily Joy S.

2011 - 10905

INSTRUCTOR:
Engr. Juan C. Tallara Jr.
Professor