Fundamentals of Wind Turbine Generators

27th November 2010

Samuel Rajkumar

Contents
Introduction
Generator basics
Generator types used for wind turbines
Generator speed
Grid connection
Electrical power conversion
Cooling
Market information
Future developments

Introduction
The aim of this presentation is to present the main considerations for the
fundamental design of the electrical system of a megawatt scale wind turbine
generator (WTG)
The main function of the wind turbine electrical system is to convert the
mechanical energy developed by the wind turbine blades into electrical energy
suitable for exporting onto the grid
Vestas V52

Gearbox

Coupling

Generator

Power electronics &

control system

Generator basics
- Introduction
All large WTGs use alternating current (AC) generators
They can be classified as
o Synchronous
o Induction (or asynchronous)
Radial and Axial flux types of machine exist but most WTGs currently use radial
flux
There are many variations of generator used and many ways of connecting
them to the grid
Most geared high speed drivetrains have advanced to a fairly standard
configuration
Much variation still exists in medium speed and direct drive wind turbines

Generator basics
- Main components
Stator

Stationary part fixed into generator housing

Individual electromagnetic poles created by

winding copper wire around the laminations

The electromagnetic poles are arranged in

sequence to provide a moving magnetic field
when connected to a 3 phase electrical supply

Rotor

Moving part mounted on generator shaft

May contain
o copper windings (connected via slip rings),
o isolated conductive bars (squirrel cage)
o permanent magnets.

Generator basics
- Synchronous speed
A rotor with magnetic poles is forced to rotate around
creating a magnetic field in the generator
The moving magnetic field induces a three phase alternating
current (AC) in the stator windings

Generator basics
- Synchronous speed
This speed at which the stator magnetic field rotates is known as the
Synchronous speed and can be calculated as follows

nsyn

60 2 f
=
N

Where:
nsyn = Synchronous speed (rpm)
f = Output frequency (Hz)
N = Number of stator poles

A common generator design used for wind turbines is the 4 pole generator.
This has a synchronous speed of 1500rpm when connected to a 50Hz AC
supply.

Generator basics
The stator construction is similar for both the induction generator and the
synchronous generator
However the rotor construction is different for the two types
The rotor of a synchronous generators is either
o Wound / Electrically Excited (EESG)
o Permanent Magnet (PMSG)
Induction generators are either
o Squirrel Cage (SCIG)
o Wound / Electrically Excited (WRIG)
o Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG)

Generator types used for wind turbines

Generators for
wind turbines

Synchronous

Induction /
Asynchronous

Squirrel
cage
induction
generator
(SCIG)

Wound
rotor
induction
generator
(WRIG)

Doubly
fed
induction
generator
(DFIG)

Wound rotor /
Electrically
excited
synchronous
generator
(EESG)

Permanent
magnet
synchronous
generator
(PMSG)

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
The magnetic field from the rotor and stator are locked
The magnetic field rotates around the stator at synchronous speed (ns)
The rotational speed of the rotor also rotates at synchronous speed

nsyn

60 2 f
=
N

Where:
nsyn = Synchronous speed (rpm)
f = Output frequency (Hz)
N = Number of stator poles

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
As the torque applied to the rotor increases, the power output increases but
the speed does not change
A physical angle a is created between the rotor poles and stator poles

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
The physical angle a gives rise to an electrical phase shift between the induced
stator voltage and the rotor voltage:

Motor
Operation

Generator
Operation

d = aN/2

N = Number of stator poles

Increase in Torque leads to

an increase in angle between
rotor and stator poles

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
Synchronous generators have no inherent damping when connected direct to
the grid resulting in high shock loading of the gearbox
Modern WTG designs overcome this problem by using a frequency
converter to isolate the generator from the grid
The power rating of the frequency converter is the same as the power rating of
the generator. Hence, fully rated converter
Rotor
Gearbox

Synchronous
generator

Grid

Spring
Fluid Coupling

Fully Rated Frequency Converter

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
Wound / Electrically Excited Rotor
Wound / Electrically excited (EESG)
The rotor magnetic flux is provided by DC excitation to windings on the rotor
Requires slip rings and brushes which are a source of unreliability
Low power density compared to permanent magnet rotor- extremely large and
heavy

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
Wound / Electrically Excited Rotor

ENERCON E-82 2.0 MW Direct Drive wound

synchronous generator

Fully rated power converter

E126

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
Permanent Magnet Rotor
Permanent Magnet (PMSG)
The initial magnetic field is provided by the magnets on the rotor.
No external excitation is required on the rotor so no slip rings or brushes are
required increasing the reliability of the machine
Power density is increased compared to a wound rotor synchronous generator
or induction generator

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
Permanent Magnet Rotor GE Energy 2.5 MW

High speed permanent magnet generator

Fully rated power converter located at the base of the

tower

Generator basics
- Synchronous Generator
Permanent Magnet Rotor
Vensys
External Permanent
Magnet Rotor
Generator outer diameter
4.6 or 4.9m

Generator basics
- Synchronous generator
Advantages

Disadvantages

Frequency of output current is

independent of drive torque

Frequency of output current is dependent on

rotational speed so a fully rated (expensive)
converter and control system are required for
variable speed operation

Permanent magnet rotor has high

power density and high efficiency at low
speed
Large diameter direct drive possible
Can operate with a larger air gap
between the rotor and stator
Can generate power when not
connected to the grid

Permanent magnet rotor is more expensive

than a squirrel cage rotor
Permanent magnets can become demagnetised
Wound rotor is less reliable than a squirrel
cage rotor due to requiring slip rings and
brushes

Asynchronous generator types

Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
This is the simplest form of generator used in wind turbines.

Asynchronous generator types

Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG)
The rotor is wound in a similar manner to the stator

Generator basics
- Induction generator description

Residual magnetism in the rotor and reactive power

supplied to the stator from the grid are required for
an induction generator to start inducing power
Rotational motion of the rotor causes electric
current to be induced in the squirrel cage bars or
rotor windings
If the rotor is driven above synchronous speed then
current will be induced in the stator windings and can
be exported to the grid

Generator basics
- Induction generator description

For an induction generator to produce power there must be a difference in speed

between the rotor and the moving magnetic field called SLIP

Slip is normally expressed as a relative or percentage difference

nsyn

Slip =

60 2 f
=
N

(nsyn - nrotor )
nsyn

Where:
nsyn = Synchronous speed (rpm)
nrotor = Rotor speed (rpm)

A typical slip value at rated power for a simple induction generator would be
<1%

Generator basics
- Induction generator description
Electromagnetic torque is dependent on rotor speed
This relationship is described with a torque-speed curve
Stable operating region

Torque

Motoring

Synchronous
speed

Rotor Speed

Generating

Generator basics
- Induction generator description
Increasing rotor
speed increases
torque
production

Synchronous
speed (and supply
frequency)
remains constant

The slip between

rotor speed and
synchronous
speed increases

Torque

Motoring

Synchronous
speed

w syn =

60 2 f
N

= Rotational speed
corresponds to field
frequency

Rotor Speed

Generating

More
power is
generated

Generator basics
- Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
Direct Grid Connection
Induction generators are not generally used for other industrial power
generation due to the variation in rotor speed with load and requirement for
reactive power
However, they were widely used in early MW scale fixed speed WTGs due to
the damping effect of the generator slip. This reduces the shock loading of
the gearbox caused by torque variation from the rotor
Early WTGs with induction generator were directly connected to the grid and
operated at rated speed with a range of ~1-3% slip
Rotor
Gearbox

Asynchronous
generator

Damper

Grid

Generator basics
- Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
Two Speed Operation
Two speed operation gives the advantage of improved wind power extraction
in low wind speeds compared with a single speed generator, without the
expense of a fully variable speed system
Two speed operation is normally achieved by connecting the stator windings in
such a way as to enable the use of 2 different pole numbers.
o For example, a typical generator can be switched between four and six
pole operation giving a speed ratio of 1.5. The generator can then run at
1000rpm and 1500rpm at 50Hz.
The generator speed change event is know to cause extremely high transient
loading of the drivetrain

Generator basics
- Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
Two Speed Operation
Suzlon Megawatt Series

A 4/6-pole high-speed asynchronous

generator allows semi-variable
speed operation for achieving very high
efficiency values.

Generator basics
- Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
Fully Rated Converter -Voltage and Frequency control

Torque

Motoring

Field frequency is changed to

match up with the rotor speed
Rotor Speed

Generating

Generator basics
- Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
Fully Rated Converter -Voltage and Frequency control
Siemens (SWT-3.6-107 ) 3.6
MW installed offshore at
Burbo Bank (UK)
The NetConverter
power conversion system
allows generator operation
at variable speed, frequency
and voltage while supplying
power at constant
frequency and voltage to
the MV transformer

Induction generator types

Wound rotor induction generator (WRIG)
Variable Resistance
A variable resistor is connected in series with the rotor circuit. The resistor is
controlled via a high frequency semiconductor switch.
Below rated power operation is the same as a conventional induction
generator
During above rated power operation the rotor resistance is adjusted to enable
a slip range of 1-10%
This is cheaper than a full variable speed system but still enables some control
of torque
A disadvantage is that the additional rotor losses generate heat that must be
dissipated

Induction generator types

Wound rotor induction generator (WRIG)
Variable Resistance

The torque-speed curve is heavily dependent on the rotor resistance

A slip range of 1-10% is possible by attaching variable resistors to the rotor windings

Synchronous speed
Rotor Speed

Low Resistance
High Resistance

Torque
Generating

Induction generator types

Wound rotor induction generator (WRIG)
The VESTAS V80 1.8MW utilises Opti
Slip technology which avoids the
problem of introducing slip rings,
brushes, external resistors, and
maintenance altogether.
By mounting the external resistors on
the rotor itself, and mounting the
electronic control system on the rotor
as well
Communicate the amount of slip you
need to the rotor is done using optical
fibre communications, and sending the
signal across to the rotor electronics
each time it passes a stationary optical
fibre.

Generator basics
- Induction generator
Advantages

Disadvantages

Simple construction

Can only generate power when the stator

windings are connected to a power source

Low cost
Reliable
Damped response to torque variation
reduces gearbox peak loads
Overload capability

Lower efficiency than synchronous machines

due to additional rotor losses
Heat generated by rotor losses must be
removed
No direct control over the terminal voltage
or reactive power flow
Voltage instability

Asynchronous generator types

Double fed induction generator (DFIG)
Partially Rated Converter
Rotor constructed the same as a wound rotor induction generator
A power converter is connected to the rotor windings
Stator current is directly connected to the grid
70% of installed WTs utilize DFIG generators (2009)

Asynchronous generator types

Double fed induction generator (DFIG)
Partially Rated Converter
Double fed means that there are two sets of windings actively involved in the
energy conversion process (i.e. stator & rotor windings)
3 modes of operation
o Synchronous speed DC supplied to rotor
o Sub-synchronous speed Power only generated by stator. Some of which
is fed back to magnetise the rotor
o Super-synchronous speed Power generated by the stator and rotor

Asynchronous generator types

Double fed induction generator (DFIG)
Sub-synchronous speed

Super-synchronous speed
Torque

Synchronous
speed

w syn =

60 2 f
N

= Rotational speed
corresponds to field
frequency

Rotor Speed

Generating

DFIG with partially rated converter

Torque

nsyn =

60 2 f
N

Motoring

Field frequency is fixed by the grid

frequency, hence the wsyn
Rotor Speed

Rotor current frequency is changed (by

the converter) to match the rotor speed
with the synchronous speed

Generating

DFIG-Generating mode: Sub-Synchronous

Pstator
Rotor at SubSynchronous speed,
i.e. 1200 rpm (40Hz)

Grid
50Hz

50Hz

Rotor

Transformer

Slip = 0.2

Poutput = Pstator + Protor

Protor = -Slip * Pstator

= (1-Slip) * Pstator
50Hz

Converter
inverter

Rectifier

For Example,
If Poutput = 2 MW, Slip = 0.2; Pstator = 2.5MW, Protor = -0.5MW
Hence, the rating of the converter required 25% of the total rating of the generator

DFIG-Generating mode: Super-Synchronous

Pstator
Rotor at SubSynchronous speed,
i.e. 1800 rpm (60Hz)

Grid
50Hz

50Hz

Rotor

Transformer

Slip = -0.2

Poutput = Pstator + Protor

Protor = -Slip * Pstator

= (1-Slip) * Pstator
50Hz

Converter
Rectifier

inverter

For Example,
If Poutput = 2 MW, Slip = -0.2; Pstator = 1.6 MW, Protor = 0.4 MW
Hence, the rating of the converter required 20% of the total rating of the generator

Asynchronous generator types

Double fed induction generator (DFIG)
Advantages

Disadvantages

Can achieve rated power up to speeds of twice

the synchronous speed.

Protection required to prevent

rotor over-voltage in the event of grid
supply fluctuation.

Higher speed for a given frequency gives lower

cost, higher efficiency and higher power density
Typically the usable speed range is +/- 30% of
synchronous speed

Slip rings required (additional

maintenance & reduced robustness)

Power electronics are cheaper and lighter than

a fully variable speed system as they are only rated
to the maximum rotor power (typically 33% of
rated power)
Control of reactive power export to grid
DFIG architecture is currently very popular among MW scale WTG manufacturers

Asynchronous generator types

Double fed induction generator (DFIG)
Gamesa G-80 2.0MW

Generator speed
- High or low speed?
Power = Torque x Speed
Electromagnetic torque is found from the integral of electromagnetic stress
around the air gap
Electromagnetic stress is limited to ~kPa
Due to the limit on torque electrical machines are usually designed to operate
at high speed
Hence currently the construction of most wind turbines is to have a gear box
which scales up the rotational speed of the generator rotor by ~100x the
rotational speed of the turbine rotor

Generator speed
- High or low speed?
Power = Torque x Speed
Direct drive wind turbines have no gearbox and so the rotor of the generator
rotates at the same speed as the turbine rotor
The low speed means a high torque must be generated
The limit on electromagnetic stress means that the required increase in torque
can only be achieved by increasing the size of the machine
This is comparable with sizing a gear due to constraints on the strength of the
material
Direct drive generators therefore have a very large diameter

Direct Drive Generators

MTorres

Avantis

IMPSA

Direct Drive Generators

Leitwind

Unison

Generator speed
- High or low speed?

High
speed

Advantages

Disadvantages

Increased power density

Requires speed increasing gearbox

Low weight
Low cost

Low
speed

Eliminates gearbox, potentially

more efficient

Large stator diameter - heavy

Large number of poles

High power possible

nsyn =

Expensive

60 2 f
N

Grid connection
Wind turbines may be designed with either direct or indirect grid connections:
Indirect connection
o 99% of WT generators are connected to the grid
o The power from the generator passes through an interface (normally
power electric converters) that adjusts the power to match the grid
o Fully rated converters used with Induction generators and Synchronous
generators
o Partially rated converters used with DFIGs
Direct connection
o The generator is directly connected to the AC grid.
o Used for constant speed wind turbines with an induction generator

Electrical power conversion

- Main components
AC-DC rectifier
DC-AC inverter
Local transformer

Gearbox

3 phase
AC
Generator

DC link
AC-DC
rectifier

DC-AC
inverter

3 phase
AC
To
grid
Local
Transformer

Turbine

Electrical power conversion

- AC-DC rectifier
Rectifies generator 3 phase alternating current (AC) output (typically 690V) to
direct current (DC)
Converts DC link to AC of the correct frequency and magnitude to achieve the
desired generator operating point (induction generator)

Gearbox

3 phase
AC
Generator

DC link
AC-DC
rectifier

DC-AC
inverter

3 phase
AC
To
grid
Local
Transformer

Turbine

Electrical power conversion

- DC-AC inverter
Converts DC link to 3 phase AC of the correct frequency for the grid supply
(50Hz or 60Hz)

Gearbox

3 phase
AC
Generator

DC link
AC-DC
rectifier

DC-AC
inverter

3 phase
AC
To
grid
Local
Transformer

Turbine

Electrical power conversion

- Local transformer
Increases the 3 phase AC voltage to the required grid voltage (typically from
690V to 13.5kV)
The voltage is increased to reduce grid transmission losses

Gearbox

3 phase
AC
Generator

DC link
AC-DC
rectifier

DC-AC
inverter

3 phase
AC
To
grid
Local
Transformer

Turbine

Grid connection
- Direct
System

Schematic

Induction generator

Economical
speed range

Max
efficiency

100 +1%

0.96

100 +10%
(variable slip)

0.92

No power electronics required (low cost)

Limited speed range 1%
Torque variations due to factors such as tower shadow or upwind tower
effects are poorly damped
Shock loading of the gearbox

Grid connection
- Partially rated power converter
System

Schematic

Doubly fed
induction
generator
(DFIG)

Economical
speed range

Max
efficiency

100 +/- 30%

0.95

Only the rotor windings are controlled by the power electronics

Enables the use of cheaper partially rated power electronics (approximately
33% of rated power)
Increased speed range
Control of reactive power exported to grid

Grid connection
- Fully rated power converter
System

Schematic

Economical speed
range

Max
efficiency

Synchronous
generator

100 +/- 60%

0.94

Induction
generator

100 +/- 60%

0.93

Arguably the most expensive option

Maximum speed range

Provides full control of grid export current and voltage independent of shaft speed
(i.e. effectively provides an elastic coupling between a synchronous generator and
the grid to reduce shock loading)

Low noise at low wind speeds

Reduces mechanical loads

Allows the generator to be optimized with less restrictions

Generator speed
- Fixed speed or variable speed?
Advantages

Disadvantages

Fixed speed Low cost

Gearbox shock loads with

Direct Grid Enables robust direct

Connection connected SCIG system

Poor energy capture at low wind

speeds

Variable
speed

Improved energy capture at

low wind speeds

Increased cost

Frequency
Converter

Reduced noise at low wind

speeds
Reduced gearbox loading

Increased noise at low wind speeds

Increased complexity

Generator speed
- Fixed speed or variable speed?

Fixed speed, Stall regulated, Gearbox

Te

Fixed speed, Active stall, Gearbox

Limited variable speed, Gearbox

ch

no
log

yt
re
nd

Pitch regulated, Variable speed, Gearbox

Pitch regulated, Variable speed, Gearless

Time line

1980

1990

2000

2010

Generator cooling
All generator types require cooling to remove the heat energy generated due
to electrical losses
Generators are usually air cooled
o Air cooling is accomplished by ducting the air flow around the stator
housing. An additional fan may also be used
o Water cooling enables a more compact generator design but has the
additional expense of a radiator system, pump and associated pipe work

Market information
- Large scale wind turbine designs

Market information
- Generator type market share

Market information
- Generator type market share
Direct Drive
XEMC and Goldw ind

Enercon v PM Direct Drives

Enercon
Enercon Estimated

7000

Annual Production (MW)

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2006

2007

2008

2009

2010
Year

2011

2012

2013

Future developments
Move from direct grid connected fixed speed generators to variable speed
generators connected via frequency converters
Increase use of permanent magnets rather than electromagnets for the rotor
Increased number of direct drive designs using large diameter stators with
many poles
Medium speed drive train configurations
Integrated generator designs to reduce package space and cost?
Superconductivity (-200C)?

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