Sectiona PDF

EN 5350 Data Communications and Networking
Chulantha Kulasekere
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering
University of Moratuwa
22nd April 2005
Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)
EN 5350 Data Communications
22nd April 2005
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Course Outline
Course Aims
To establish the terminology and concepts of Computer Networks

and the associated Communication environment.
Understand the finer details of data communications for digital
transmission of information.
Identify and appreciate the physical layer, data link layer concepts
in efficient communication system.
At the end ..
Understand and describe the concepts related to exchange of
data between coupled interconnect devices with emphasis on
transmission, interfacing, link control and multiplexing.
Understand and describe the internal mechanisms of different
network topologies and architectures and their relevance to data
transmission systems.
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Course Outline
Course Content
The electrical interface: Media, impairments, physical layer

standards.
Data transmission: transmission methods, error detection and
correction, compression for transmission.
Protocol basics for the data link layer: ARQ, link management.
Application environments: Character na bit oriented protocols.
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Course Outline
Reading Material
Main Text:
Data Communications, Computer Networks and Open
Systems/4e Fred Halsall, Pearson Education Inc. 1996.
Supplementary Text:
Communication Networks: Fundamental concepts and key
architectures/2e, Alberto Leon-Garcia and Indra Widjaja, Tata
McGraw-Hill 2004.
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Course Outline
Grading Policy
Continuous assessment (50%)

Home work assignments
Other independent work
Final examination (50%)

Comprehensive.
Open book.
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Network Background
We are concerned with the issues that have to be considered
when two or more computers communicate with each other.
Computer A
Computer B
AP
User-to-user communication
AP
Communication
subsystem
Computer-to-computer
Communication
subsystem
communication
Computer-to-network communication
Data communication network

AP = Application process
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Our Concentration
Application A
Application B
Application
layer
Application
layer
Presentation
layer
Presentation
layer
Session
layer
Session
layer
Transport
layer
Communication network
Transport
layer
Network
layer
Network
layer
Network
layer
Network
layer
Data link
layer
Data Link
layer
Data Link
layer
Data link
layer
Physical
layer
Physical
layer
Physical
layer
Physical
layer
Electrical and/or optical signals

Leon-Garcia/Widjaja
Communication Networks
Figure 2.4
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Our Concentration ...

The following figure illustrates the protocols and information that
we are going to consider in this course.
Application A
Application B
Data
Application
layer
Application
layer
ah
Presentation
layer
Presentation
layer
ph
Session
layer
Transport
layer
Physical
layer
Leon-Garcia/Widjaja
Transport
layer
th
Network
layer
Data link
layer
Session
layer
sh
Network
layer
nh
dt
dh
Bits
Data link
layer
Physical
layer
Figure 2.7
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The Justification
Signals converted to electrical signals travel in the physical layer
as a bit stream.
The transmitted signals undergo attenuation and distortion. This
can be acceptable untill the receiver is unable to discriminate
between the binary 1 and 0 in the bit stream.
The above is influenced by
Transmission medium.
Bit rate of transmission.
Physical separation of the source and destination.
Hence it is necessary to learn

Choosing transmission media.
Types of impairments.
Signaling and modulation.
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Fundamental Issues in Transmission Media

The information bearing capacity is based on the following
The amplitude response function and the phase response function
of the medium and the associated BW. This is dependent on the
distance.
Issues
TheFundamental
susceptibility of the
mediumin
to noise and interference from
Transmission
other
sources. This willMedia
result in error rates and SNRs.
d meters
Communication channel
t=0
z
t = d/c
Information bearing capacity
z of
Amplitude
response & is
bandwidth
The speed
propagation
dependent on the relative permittivity
z dependence on distance
of the channel
(v
=
c/
).
It
is 2.3E8 m/s for Cu and 2E8 m/s for
z Susceptibility to noise & interference
optical fiber.z Error rates & SNRs
Propagation speed of signal
c = 3 x 108 meters/second in vacuum

= c/ speed of light in medium where >1 is the dielectric
constant of the medium
Chulantha Kulasekerez (ENT)
EN 5350
Data Communications
22nd April 2005
= 2.3 x 108 m/sec
in copper
wire; = 2.0 x 108 m/sec in optical
z
z
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Fundamental Issues in Transmission Media ...

The amount of energy used at the source for transmission is
dependent on the type of media. i.e. cost is associated with the
choice of media.
The media has certain properties that limits the affective distance.
Hence the additional infrastructure used in the system is directly
related to the choice of media.
The choice between guided and unguided media has a direct
relationship to the network topology.
The attenuation is also dependent on the media type.
attenuation for guided media = kd dB
attenuation for unguided media = n log10 d dB
For the former the relationship between attenuation and frequency
is of the form 10kd where k is dependent on the frequency.
Attenuation increases linearly with distance.
For the latter the relationship is d n where n is the path loss.
signal level in a unguided media can be maintained over much
longer distance than over guided media.
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Transmission Media - Guided

Two Wire Open Lines
Simplest transmission medium.

Good for a separation of up to 50m apart and moderate data rates
(less than 19.2 kb/s).
Cross coupling of electrical signals, electromagnetic interference
limits the data rate.
Applications: TP line connection. Direct communication links over
short distances.
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Twisted Pair
Reduces capacitive cross coupling leading to higher data rates.

Interference effects are reduced since now both wires pick up the
interference equally.
Skin effect can reduce the available BW. Hence sophisticated
electronics have to be used at higher frequencies to recognize
received information.
Bit rates up to around 1 Mbps over distances less than 100m.
Bit rates can be increased by using UTP and STP cables.
Applications: Intra net. TP subscriber loops. low data rates for
24-gauge twisted pair.
Standard Data rate
Distance
T1
1.544 Mbps
5.5 km
STS1
51.840 Mbps 300 m
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Attenuation Vs. Frequency for Twisted Pair
26 gauge
30
24 gauge
27
Attenuation (dB/mi)
24
22 gauge
21
18
19 gauge
15
12
9
6
3
f (kHz)
1
Copyright 2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
10
100
Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks
1000
Figure 3.37
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Twisted Pair Applications
Cat3 UTP: Ordinary TP cables.

Cat5 UTP: Tighter twist to improve signal quality.
STP can be used to minimize interference: costly.
10BASE-T Ethernet
10 Mbps baseband Twisted pair.
Two Cat 3 pairs.
100m for Manchester coding (may change for different types).
Cat3 up to 16 MHz, Cat4 up to 20 MHz, Cat5 up to 100 MHz.
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Coaxial Cable
Interference shielded leading to higher bit rates.

Capacitive coupling eliminated for the most part.
Can be used for bit rates of typically over 10 Mbps over several
100 meters.
Techniques of modulation can be used to increase the distance.
Applications: Cable TV, long distance TP transmission, original
Ethernet LAN medium.
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Attenuation Vs. Frequency for Coaxial Cable
Attenuation (dB/km)
35
0.7/2.9 mm
30
25
1.2/4.4 mm
20
15
2.6/9.5 mm
10
5
0.01
0.1
Copyright 2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
1.0
10
Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks
100
f (MHz)
Figure 3.40
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Transmission Media Guided

Optical Fiber
Getting away from the restrictions of the Cu cables. Optical fiber

has very high bandwidth. Nearly error free transmission.
Light waves are immune to EM waves and is good for industrial
environments.
High BW and high bit rates. Also good for transmitting lower bit
rates in noisy environments.
High security since it cannot be tapped.
Limiting factor is dispersion. Multi mode fibers can be used to
narrow the pulse width when traveling which can increase the BW.
Mechanical vibration can become signal noise.
Dominates long distance transmission.
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Attenuation Vs. Wavelength for Optical Fiber
100
50
10
Loss (dB/km)
Infrared absorption
1
0.5
Rayleigh scattering
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Wavelength (m)
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Transmission Media - Unguided

Satellites
A collimated microwave beam onto which the data is modulates is

used for communication.
High BW can be achieved (> 500MHz) and can carry many
hundreds of high bit rate data using multiplexing.
Requires line of sight.
The degree of collimation determines the receivers. Very small
aperture terminals (VSATs) are used if highly collimated.
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Terrestrial Microwave
Replacement for transmission lines up to 50 km.

Line of sight is required.
Adverse weather conditions determines the reliability of
transmission.
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Terrestrial Microwave
Low frequency radio waves can also be used for replacement for
guided media.
Wireless distributed connections.
Usable data rate is generally lower than the fixed wiring system.
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Assignment
Use the attenuation vs. frequency graphs for twisted pair and
coaxial cables and explain why the bandwidth decreases with
distance.
Suppose we wish to delay an optical signal by 1ns. How long a
length of optical fiber is needed to do this? How much is the signal
attenuated? Repeat for 1ms.
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Attenuation and Distortion Sources
Transmitted data
+V
Time
Transmitted signal
V
Attenuation
Limited bandwidth
Attenuation and
distortion effects
Delay distortion
Line noise
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Attenuation
Attenuation and Distortion Sources ...

Limited bandwidth
Attenuation and
distortion effects
Delay distortion
Line noise
Combined effect
Received signal
Sampling signal
Received data
Bit error
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Attenuation
Decrease of amplitude oer a distance during transmission is known
as attenuation.
Both hardware and media will determine the correct transfer of
information. Repeaters/amplifiers may have to be used.
Signal attenuation increases as a function of frequency. Hence a
signal with a large frequency content will be distorted due to
disparate nature of attenuation for each frequency.
Quantitatively
Attenuation = 10 log10
transmitted signal power

dB.
received signal power
Amplitude distortion can be eliminated by using an equalizer after

the amplifier. This will provide differential amplifications
Amplitude distortion affects analog systems more than digital
systems since in analog systems we require faithful reproduction at
all frequencies.
The attenuation becomes a bigger issue for multilevel signaling.
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Limited Bandwidth
Each type of cable used for data transmission has a particular
bandwidth associated with it. Generally one has to choose the
appropriate type of medium depending on the maximum
frequency of transmission.
Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a binary waveform
into its frequencies.
Even though the binary waveform can consists of randomly
varying sequences, the worst case sequence of 101010... is
considered for computations.
Example: If a signal 500bps is transmitted over a communication
channel, what is the minimum bandwidth required if it should not
attenuate up to the fifth harmonic.
Definitions: The absolute BW of a signal is the width of the
spectrum while the effective BW is the band within which most of
the signal energy is concentrated.
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Limited Bandwidth ...

The coding of the signal for transmission is also important to
determine the effective BW required to transmit it (bipolar/unipolar
RZ/NRZ etc).
For a signal
v (t) = a1 {cos 2f0 t
1
1
cos 6f0 + cos 10f0 ...}
3
5
corresponding to a bipolar square wave, the following is true.

If f0 = 1MHz then the BW of the above signal which has up to the
5th harmonic is 4MHz. The bit rate is 2Mbps.
If f0 = 2MHz (effectively increasing the BW) then the BW of the
above signal which has up to the 5th harmonic is 8MHz. Further
the data rate is 4Mbps.
If f0 = 2MHz, however now if the signal has only up to the third
harmonic, the BW is 4MHz while the data rate is still 4Mbps.
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Multilevel signaling is one way to improve bandwidth usage.
If the number of signal levels is M, the number of bits per signal
element m is given by
m = log2 M.
Data rate (R, measured in bps) and the signaling rate (Rs ,
measured in Baud) are related by
R = mRs .
Now the maximum information transfer rate in a noiseless channel
is given by C = 2Wm.
In the absence of noise, the bit rate can be increased without limit
by increasing m.
With the introduction of transmission protocols, the effective
information transmission rates decrease. Hence three terms,
namely, bit rate, data rate and signaling rate. All of these can
mean the same or different as the case maybe.
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The bit rate (R) indicates the actual number of bits that are
transmitted
1
R=m .
Tb
where Tb is the duration of the bit.
Signaling rate Rs (measured in baud, pulses per second) is given
by
R
Rs =
m
Data rate (Ri ) is the actual information content in the signal.
Ri = R overhead bits/s.
Higher the bandwidth efficiency B = R/W , the stricter are the
design parameters of the associated equipment and hence higher
cost.
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Delay Distortion
Similar to amplitude distortion, the delay experienced by different
frequencies vary in a channel. Hence delay distortion occurs at the
receiver.
Can be reduced by using an equalization process.
For higher bit rates the delay distortion increases leading to inter
symbol interference and thus limits the bit rate. Measured using eye
diagrams.
The transmission delay is different from the propagation delay. For
example if the input signal x(t) to a channel with amplitude
response A(kf0 ) and phase response (kf0 ) is given by
X
x(t) =
ak cos(2kf0 t).
The output from channel
X
y (t) =
ak A(kf0 ) cos(2kf0 t + (kf0 )).
If A(kf0 ) is constant no amplitude distortion will occur. If (kf0 ) is
constant no delay distortion will occur.
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Delay Distortion ...

The compounded delay for a block of data can be written as
Delay = tprop + ttr
L
d
= + .
c
R
where L is the number of bits in the block.
Use data compression techniques to reduce L.
Use higher speed DTEs to increase R.
Place the DTEs closer to reduce d.
Since in the data link we handle frames within the protocols it is
better to look at the information as a frame. Then
a=
tprop
ttr
determines which part dominates.

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Leading to Noise Effects

Higher the data rate of the signal, the greater the effective BW it
requires.
The greater the BW of the tx system, the higher is the data rate that
can be tx-ed over the system.
With the introduction of levels what we are trying to do is to increase
the number of information pieces that travel in one signaling
element.
For a given BW, the data rate can be increased by increasing the
number of signal elements. However this places an additional
burden on the receiver since now he has to discern many possible
amplitude values.
Channel Capacity: The channel capacity is the maximum rate at
which data can be transmitted over a given communication path.
With many levels now the noise in the line becomes very important.
With noise the ability of the receiver to discern many levels
becomes low.
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Noise and Its Implications

The degree of line noise can be quantified using
S
)
N
Lower S/N leads to higher bit error rates thus reducing the
effective data rate.
Furthermore the Shannon-Hartley law states that

S
C = W log2 1 +
bps.
N
SNR = 10 log10 (
where C is the data transfer rate.

Noise targets multilevel signaling more.
With the presence of noise, the representation of the signal now
becomes important. Analog transmitted in analog form or are we
going to transmit analog in digital form? Or in fact can we transmit
digital in analog or digital form.
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Assignment
Consider a telephone line with a SNR of 40dB which is a little over

the maximum possible. Use the Shannon formular to compute the
bit rate. Now consider the fact that a V.90 modem operates at
56kbps. Is this is excess of the Shannon bound? If yes, explain
how? if no, explain why not.
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Noise Analysis
In general we look at the following quantity. It is important to find the
minimum signal level relative to the noise level. This is
characterized by bit error rate (BER); The Energy measured in joule
per bit in a signal, Eb is given by Eb = STb where Tb = R 1 .
The level of thermal noise in a BW of 1Hz is given by N0 = kT
watts/Hz; This is a noise power density where k = 1.3803e 3
Joule/K (Boltzmann constant) and T the temperature in kelvin.
By normalizing
Eb
S
= 10 log10 (S/R) 10 log10 (kT ) dB
=
N0
RkT
Explain the above w.r.t parameters and actual communication
frequency.
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Noise Analysis ...

The above is for a 1Hz BW; if it is extended to a BW of W
N = WN0
S W
Eb
=
= 10 log10 (S/N) + 10 log10 W 10 log10 R dB

N0
N R
Here it can be seen that the BER can be increased by increasing
R, decreasing W and increasing N.
If digital signals are sent they have to be converted into analog
form using modulation.
Depending on the scheme of modulation and the value of Eb /N
needed to achieve a certain BER varies.
This can be used to evaluate channels for a given BW to achieve a
certain data rate using a particular modulation scheme.
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Digital Transmission of Analog Signals

Now we have to differentiate between the channel BW and the
signal BW.
A signal with BW W has to be sampled at least at 2W Hz.
The infinite precision information has to be made finite through
quantization which will introduce noise. Discussed later.
Coded into the channel with a significant amount of bits making up
of a specific bit rate which the channel now has to support.
If we have a m bit quantizer the output bit rate is 2Wm bps.
There are additional limitations such as the quantizer settling time
which will also limit the actual data rate.
To drive a signal in a channel we consider two methods
Baseband mode: all the available BW is used to drive a single high
bit rate Tx path.
Broadband mode: available BW is divided to derive a number of
lower BW sub channels on a single cable.
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Digital Transmission of Analog Signals ...
The approximation of the sampling and recovery process is given

below.
m bits / sample
2W samples / sec
Analog
source
Sampling
(A/D)
Quantization
Original x(t)
Bandwidth W
2W m bits/sec
Transmission
or storage
Approximation y(t)
Display
or
playout
Interpolation
filter
Pulse
generator
2W samples / sec
Figure 3.20
Leon-Garcia/Widjaja
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Quantization Noise Component
In digital transmission of analog systems the signal will be

quantized at some stage which will include noise into the signal.
This noise is different from the noise generated by the channel
which will effect the bit rate of the signal.
Note that we can decrease the quantization noise by increasing
the accuracy (division of the range of representation) which will
lead to smaller spacing between the samples.
This will lead to higher bit rates being required to send the signal.
i.e. more bits per sample to maintain the accuracy. Hence high bit
rates.
With this we being out a notion of quantizer signal to noise ratio.
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Quantizer Characteristics
Uniform
quantizer
3.5
output y(nT)
2.5
1.5
0.5
4 3 2
-0.5
-1.5
input x(nT)
-2.5
-3.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1.5
-2.5
-3.5
x(t) and the corresponding quantizer approximations y(nT)
ChulanthaLeon-Garcia/Widjaja
Kulasekere (ENT)
Communication
Networks
EN 5350 Data
Communications
22nd April Figure

20053.21 41 / 70
Quantization
The issue with quantization is you have to compromise between
M = 2m with m levels and the corresponding bit rate 2Wm.
For uniform quantization of the range V to V = V /2m1 .
The quantization error is in the range [/2, /2]. This is for the
round function, for twos complement representation etc, this range
can change.
The quantizer SNR is given by
SNR =
average signal power

2
= x2 .
average noise power
e
The standard deviation x is a measure of the spread of the signal

values about the mean, which is assumed to be zero.
The average power of the error is given by its mean square value,
e2 and the average signal power, x2 .
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Average Error Power

M = 2m levels,
Dynamic Range ( -V, V),
= 2V/M
error = y(nT)-x(nT)=e(nT)
...
-V
e2
Mean Square Error:
input
...
x(nT)
When the number of levels M is 12large, the error values are

approximately uniformly distributed in the interval [/2, /2].
The power of the error signal is given by
Leon-Garcia/Widjaja
1
e2 =
Figure 3.22
/2
2
x 2 dx =
12
/2
The quantizer SNR then becomes

x
SNR = 3
22m .
V
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Quantizer SNR
The previous equation is written as
SNR dB = 6m + 10 log10 3
2
x
In general choosing V so that is corresponds to the maximum

value of the signal is too inefficient. Rather it is chosen such that
the probability of a sample in the signal exceeds V to be
negligible. A reasonable value is V /x 4
We note the following
Increase of each bit will increase the SNR by 6 dB.
Increasing V for the same m will increase the separation hence
decrease the SNR.
Increase of signal power improves SNR.
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Other Types of Quantizers

It can be noted that with uniform quantization the smaller
amplitude signals will experience larger quantization noise than
the larger amplitude signals.
Note that the ear is more sensitive to noise on quietlow
amplitudespeech signals than louder speech signals.
Hence in systems such as PCM non-uniform quantization
systems.
i.e. as the amplitude of the input signal increases, the
corresponding codewords represent a larger signal range thus for
smaller signal levels low quantization noise and for larger signal
levels larger quantization noise. However now the noise is
comparable with the signal levels.
This compressor-expander system is called the compander.
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Companding - Compression characteristics

(a)
Compressor
circuit
vi
vi'
Linear
ADC
Network
vi'
(b)
11
Segment
codes
(+)
Linear
quantization
intervals
10
01
00
Linear
DAC
Expander
circuit
vo '
vo
+V '
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
00
01
10
11
00
01
10
11
00
01
10
11
00
01
10
11
00
01
10
+V
vi
Segment
codes
()
11
V '
(c)
vo '
+V '
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00
01
10
11
00
01
10
11
10
()
Companding - Expansion Characteristics

11
V '
vo '
(c)
+V '
vo
+V
Quantization codes
Segment codes
Polarity bit
V '
Figure 2.25
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An Example of Telephone Speech
The BW of a TP conversation is 4 KHz.

According to the Nyquist sampling theorem we need to sample at
the rate of 2W 8000 samples/sec.
Suppose the error requirement is 1%, then SNR is
SNR = 10 log(1/0.01)2 = 40 dB.
Assuming a V /x = 4 we get 40 dB = 6m 7.72 which is 8
bits/sample.
For example for PCM the bits/sample is chosen as above and for
TP speech the bit rate is 8000 8 bits/s = 64 kbps.
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Example of CD Quality Audio

Human year is sensitive up to 22 KHz.
For audio signals that are of high quality, involves sampling at
much higher rates than the Nyquist rate.
If W = 22 KHz, the Nyquist sampling rate is 44,000 samples/sec.
High quality music requires finer granuality of the quantizer.
Typically 16 or more bits per sample.
For a stereo signal we have the following bit rate.
44, 000
bits
samples
16
2 channels = 1.4 Mbps.
seconds
sample
If we sample more than the Nyquist rate the bit rates are even
higher than this. For example surround sound will require 4 times
as more bit rates.
Now we have to use compression techniques to get the same
information across in lesser time.
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Consequences of Limited BW
In an analog PSTN the telephone conversation can be sent

without much attenuation.
However binary data gets distorted since low and high frequency
data are not transmitted without attenuation. Band pass channels.
For this reason it is not possible to simply apply two voltage levels
to the TP line.
Instead the binary data should be converted into a compatible
form, something similar to a speech signal. i.e. bring the
frequencies to a range passed by the channel.
This process is known as modulation.
We concentrate on ASK, FSK and PSK.
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

(a)
vASK (t)
Bandpass
filter
vd (t)
(Data signal)
Lowpass
filter
PSTN
vc(t)
(Carrier signal)
v'd (t)
vc(t)
(b)
1
1
vd (t)
Time, t
0
1
vc(t)
1
1
vASK (t)
0
1
(c)
6f0
The amplitude
of a single audio tone
is switched between two
2f
Signal
power
levels.
0
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ASK ...
for vc (t) = cos c t and

vd (t) = 12 + 2 {cos 0 t
vASK (t)
1
3
cos 30 t +
1
5
cos 50 t . . .} we have
vASK (t) = vc (t) vd (t)

1
1
= cos c t + {cos(c 0 )t + cos(c + 0 )t
2
1
1
cos(c 30 )t cos(c + 30 )t + . . .}
3
3
We see that how close the signal representation to the original
signal is dependent on the number of sidebands that we are
willing to accommodate in the channel.
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ASK ...
6f0
(c)
2f0
Signal
power
Frequency
fc 3f0
fc f0
fc
f c + f0
fc + 3 f0
f0 = Fundamental frequency component = 1/2 bit rate (Hz)
What ever the fundamental frequency of the digital waveform the

Figure 2.18
following
is true
Any BW computation should be carried out for the worst case signal
since anything else would require lesser BW.
To receive only the fundamental, we require a minimum BW of 2f0 .
To receive the third harmonic it is 6f0 etc.
We also note that the carried signal is present even though it does
not have any information.
1996 Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd.

1996 Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc.
22nd April 2005
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ASK ...
To transmit the worst case bit rate (it has a fundamental frequency
f0 which leads to a bit rate of 2f0 bps) we require 2f0 .
Conversely, assuming that the BW is 2f0 , the Nyquist rate of
transmission is twice what is computed above.
To avoid duplicity of information (f0 ) we can use a BPF to isolate
only one side band.
Then the BW is f0 and the Nyquist rate is now satisfied.
However the signal side band power is reduced by half. This
power reduction in turn reduces the S/N ratio and hence results in
an increased BER ratio.
If more than the fundamental is received, will the system violate
the Nyquist rate? What are the advantages if any?
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Facts about ASK

ASK is susceptible to sudden change in gain. These can be
caused by amplitude fluctuation caused by propagation delays
etc. Hence early modems did not use ASK since it depends on
the amplitude variations to determine the signal.
This is an inefficient primitive modulation technique.
On voice grade lines it is used for speeds up to 1200 bps.
If analog data is sent this method of modulation is not suitable
since the amplitude variations are critical. However if the
information is digital then the requirement is only to recover levels,
this method can be suitable. With the digital service in the last
mile, and since the signal retains its original characteristics with
the conversion at both ends, ASK is now used again.
Currently some of the higher bit rate modems use a combination
of ASK and PSK.
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
(a)
1
Data
signal
vd (t)
1
Time, t
0
+1
Carrier 1
v1(t)
0
1
+1
Carrier 2
v2(t)
0
1
vFSK (t)
(b)
6f0
6f0
2f
Here the difference
between 2fthe two carriers
play a role in
Signal
power
isolating spectra.
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FSK ...
Explain the significance of VFSK (t) and the two signals vd (t) and
0
vd (t).
To understand the principle we have to plot the following spectra.
(1) Signal, (2) carrier, (3) modulated signal (4) demodulated.
What is the significance of the frequency shift fs and how is it
chosen?
The BW of the FSK signal is f2 f1 + 2f0 for the first harmonic.
(Halsall Figure 2.19[c])
Another way of looking at this is considering that each carried is
modulating half the bit rate (1s or 0s). That is it has two ASK
modulators each with a carried frequency and one of them will be
active half the time.
At the receiver, the frequency of the signal is identified using the
ASK demodulator technique and hence will be getting data half
the time.
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FSK ...
vFSK (t)
6f0
(b)
Signal
power
6f0
2f0
2f0
Frequency
0
f13f0 f1f0 f1+ f0 f1+3 f0 f23f0 f2f0 f2+ f0 f2+3 f0
f2
f1
fs
1
0
fs = Frequency shift
Each ASK component will have half the original bit rate. Hence
the fundamental for each component will be half of what we used
2.19
for Figure
the ASK
in the previous section.
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FSK ...
For each ASK component you need 2f0 BW and in total you will
require 4f0 plus the separation of the two frequencies as BW for
FSK.
However since the fundamental frequency in this case is half of
that used in the original ASK system, the BW requirement is still 2
times the fundamental frequency plus the frequency shift.
In terms of BW, ASK and FSK are almost the same. However in
terms of noise performance, FSK is better.
eg. a signal of 600 bps over analog PSTN.
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Facts about FSK
Since this is not plagued by the amplitude variations as a result of

low BW channels, FSK was used as the preferred modulation
method in all of the early low bit rate modems.
However the BW occupation is dependent on the spacing of the
frequencies associated with the two symbols.
A frequency spacing of 0.5 times the symbol period has to be
used in general.
FSK can give M-ary scheme if more than two frequencies are
used.
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Some Thoughts on Digital Modulation
What are the general goals of digital modulation? Why, typically is,
digital modulation not enough for radio transmission?
In general the goal of digital modulation is to translate the digital
data into an analog signal (baseband) suitable for transmission.
However another analog modulation scheme will be applied
during radio transmission to shift the center frequency to the radio
carrier. The radio carrier is required so that at that frequency the
antenna sizes (/4) becomes manageable and so that the signal
can be conditioned to suit the medium characteristics such as
path loss,reflections etc.
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Question
A B&W TV picture may be considered as composed of
approximately 3E5 picture elements. Assume that each picture
element is equi probable among 10 distinguishable brightness
levels. If 30 frames/sec are transmitted. Calculate the minimum
BW required to transmit the video signal assuming that a 30dB
S/N is necessary for satisfactory picture reproduction.
Note that a commercial TV transmission actually uses a video BW
of approximately 4 MHz.
If its for HDTV, what would the minimum BW be?
Can this bit rate be transmitted over a digital communication link
and how?
Can coding techniques increase BW utilization?
Also try Example 2.7 and its interpretation.
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
(a)
+1
Data
signal
vd (t)
1
Time, t
0
1
+1
Carrier
vc(t)
0
1
Phase
coherent
vPSK (t)
180
Differential
180
180
180
v'PSK (t)
90
(b)
Signal
power
270
270
90
90
270
6f0
2f0
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PSK ...
90
270
270
(b)
90
90
270
6f0
2f0
Signal
power
Frequency
fc 3f0
fc f0 fc fc + f0
fc + 3 f0

Q (Quadrature)
(c)
180= 0
0= 1
I (In phase)
Phase coherent PSK uses the same carrier with 180 degree
shift between binary 1 and 0. A reference carrier signal
should be at the receiver to match against the incoming phase
disadvantageous.
Figure
2.21
phase
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PSK ...
Differential PSK (DPSK) is better since the detection is only a
phase transition of 900 relative to the current indicates a 0 in the
next bit and a phase transition of 2700 relative to the current
indicates a 1 in the next bit. Only the magnitude of the shift in
phase is required and not the absolute value as in the previous
case
A bipolar periodic data stream can be represented by
vd (t) =
1
1
4
(cos 0 t cos 30 t + cos 50 t . . .)
3
5
Then vPSK (t) = Ac cos(c t + Dp m(t)) where Dp = /2 for BPSK

and m(t) = 1 for a bipolar signal. Bipolar signal is used since
automatically the phase shift no corresponds to the amplitude
change.
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PSK ...
vd is a Fourier representation of m(t). Since the quality of the
bipolar signal is already incorporated in vd one can simply multiply
this signal by vc (t) to obtain the PSK signal.
As the spectrum show this is nothing other than the ASK spectrum
without the carrier signal.
If only the fundamental component of the worst case signal is
received, the minimum BW required would be 2f0 . This is equal to
the bit rate.
Since the carrier is not present, there will be more power in the side
bands (discussed later). This makes PSK more reliable in the
presence of noise when compared to ASK or FSK.
Again the Nyquist rate can be achieved if you limit the signal to the
a single side band.
The situation will be similar to ASK, however now all the signal
power will be embedded in the side band which is advantageous. In
the ASK when a side band is lost the carrier has more power
compared to the data signal. Here the situation is different.
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Assignment
A high quality speech signal has a BW of 8 kHz.

a) Suppose that the speech signal is to be quantized and then
transmitted over a 28.8 kbps modem. What is the SNR of the
received signal?
b) Suppose that instead a 56 kbps modem was used. What is the
SNR of the received signal?
What modem speed is required of we expect a 40 dB SNR?
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Example
We have seen that the channel capacity in the presence of white
Gaussian noise is controlled by Shannon-Hartley law.
For a fixed value of N and W , find C in the limit as the received
signal power S .
How can you achieve this limiting value in the channel?
In practice what are the limitations you observe that do not allow
us to achieve this theoretical value.
It is seen that C increases linearly with W . Hence it appears that
an increase in channel bandwidth results in a linear increase in
channel capacity. Can this be practically achieved?
Find the channel capacity C in the limit W .
Comment on the above.
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Example
Here is an illustration of the trade off between data rate and BER.
DPSK is a binary modulation technique. In channels with WGN
assume that we can design our modulation scheme so that the
channel BW B = 1/T where T is the pulse duration. Find the
maximum data rate that can be transmitted using DPSK for a bit
error probability Pb = 10E 3 and Pb = 10E 7 assuming
S/N0 = 60 dB.
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A Look Back at Digital Modulation

Most communication systems fall into one of three categories.
BW efficient: Describes the ability of a modulation scheme to
accommodate data within a limited BW.
Power efficient: Describes the ability of the system to reliably send
the information at the lowest practical power level.
Cost efficient: The DTE/DCE choice to optimize the above.
Even though the BW efficiency is high priority, the actual

parameter optimization depends on the situation.
For a terrestrial MW link the priority is BW efficiency and low BER
since they have access to plenty of power. Hence not concerned
with power efficiency much. Not specially concerned with receiver
cost and complexity since not many have to be built, hence cost
efficiency is also not a problem.
Mobile phones require high power efficiency since operating on
battery. Hence BW efficiency is compromised. Also cost is
important since many units exists, hence cost efficiency is also
important.
22nd April 2005
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EN 5350 Data Communications and Networking

22nd April 2005

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

To establish the terminology and concepts of Computer Networks

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

The electrical interface: Media, impairments, physical layer

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Continuous assessment (50%)

Final examination (50%)

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Data communication network

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Electrical and/or optical signals

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Our Concentration ...

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Hence it is necessary to learn

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Fundamental Issues in Transmission Media

Information bearing capacity

Propagation speed of signal

c = 3 x 108 meters/second in vacuum

Fundamental Issues in Transmission Media ...

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Transmission Media - Guided

Simplest transmission medium.

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Transmission Media - Guided

Reduces capacitive cross coupling leading to higher data rates.

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Attenuation Vs. Frequency for Twisted Pair

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Twisted Pair Applications

Cat3 UTP: Ordinary TP cables.

Cat3 up to 16 MHz, Cat4 up to 20 MHz, Cat5 up to 100 MHz.

Chulantha Kulasekere (ENT)

EN 5350 Data Communications

22nd April 2005

Transmission Media - Guided