10CS36 Discrete Mathematical Structures

Module 1 Part B

Important Instruction: The information in the following document has

been quoted from the books, Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics An Applied Introduction, Ralph P. Grimaldi, B.V. Ramana and Discrete
Mathematical Structures by Dr.D.S.Chandrasekharaiah. This document
is not a substitute for the books. The document is supplementary to the
information in the books. The document is strictly for internal circulation.
Existential Quantifiers
x + 2 is an even integer.
A declarative sentence is an open statement if
It contains one or more variables
it is not a statement
it becomes a statement when the variables in it are replaced by certain
allowable choices.
certain allowable choices - universe of discourse
denoted by p(x) : x + 2 is an even integer.
p(x)
Existential quantifier, - for some, there exists an x such that, there exists
ateast one x such that..
Universal Quantifiers
q(x) : 2x is an even integer
Universal quantifier, - For all, For any, For each, For every x, 2x is even
integer.
variables in open statements - free variables
variables in quantified statements - bound variables
Importance of Universe
Consider the open statement p(x) : x2 1
x.p(x) is true for the universe being set of integers.
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 x.p(x) is false for the universe being set of real numbers.

Universe: real numbers

p(x) : x 0
q(x) : x2 0
r(x) : x2 3x 4 = 0
s(x) : x2 3 > 0

x[p(x) r(x)]
x[p(x) q(x)]
x[q(x) s(x)]
F (1)
x[r(x) s(x)]
F (1)
Exercise
Let p(x) : x 3, q(x) : x + 1 is odd
Universe: Integers. What are the truth values pf q(1), p(3)
Write the following statements in symbolic form.
Universe : Integers
p(x) : x > 0
q(x) : x is even.
t(x) : x is exactly divisible by 5.
at least one integer is even.
x.q(x)
there exists a positive integer that is even.
x.(p(x) q(x))
No even integer is divisible by 5.
x.(q(x) t(x))
Exercise
Universe: Integers. True or False ?
p(x) : x2 7x + 10 = 0
q(x) : x2 2x 3 = 0
r(x) : x < 0
x[p(x) r(x)]
T
x[q(x) r(x)]
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 F(3)
x[q(x) r(x)]
T
x[p(x) r(x)]
T
Summary
Statement
x.p(x)
x.p(x)
x.p(x)
x.p(x)

True

False

There exists an a in U, p(a) is true.

For all a in U, p(a) is false.

For all a in U, p(a) is true.

There exists an a in U, p(a) is false.

There exists an a in U, for which p(a) is false.

For all a in U, p(a) is true

For every a in U, p(a) is false.

There exists an a in U, p(a) is true.

Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication

x.[p(x) q(x)] when p(a) q(a) is true for each a from the universe.
x.[p(x) q(x)] when p(a) q(a) is true for each a from the universe.
Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication
Let p(x), q(x) denote any open statement with any universe.
The contrapositive of x[p(x) q(x)] is x[q(x) p(x)]
The converse of x[p(x) q(x)] is x[q(x) p(x)]
The inverse of x[p(x) q(x)] is x[p(x) q(x)]
A quantified statement is logically equivalent to its contrapositive.
A quantified statement is not logically equivalent to its converse.
A quantified statement is not logically equivalent to its inverse.
A converse of a quantified statement is logically equivalent to the
inverse of the quantified statement.
Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication
Let p(x) denote any open statement with a prescribed non-empty universe.
x.p(x) x.p(x)
Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication
?

x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) x.q(x)]

p(x) : 2x+1 = 5, q(x) : x2 = 9. Consider the universe as the set of integers
x.p(x) is true as p(2) is true.
x.q(x) is true as q(3) is true.
x.[p(x) q(x)] is false as there is no integer which satisfies both r(x) and
q(x) at the same time.
Let p(x), q(x) denote any open statement with a prescribed universe.
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 x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) x.q(x)]

Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication
Let p(x), q(x) denote any open statement with a prescribed universe.
?

x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) x.q(x)]

Proof:
Suppose that x.[p(x) q(x)] is true in some universe. Then either
p(a) or q(a) or both is true for some a in the universe. Suppose p(a)
is true. Then x.p(x) is true. By the rule of disjunctive amplification
[x.p(x) x.q(x)] is true.
Suppose that [x.p(x) x.q(x)] is true. Then either x.p(x) is true
or x.q(x) is true or both. Suppose x.p(x) is true, then p(a) is true
for some a in the universe. By disjunctive amplification p(a) q(a)
is true, and therefore x.[p(x) q(x)] is true.
x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) x.q(x)]
Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication
Let p(x), q(x) denote any open statement with a prescribed universe.
?

x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) xq(x)]

Proof:
Suppose x.[p(x) q(x)] is true. Then p(a) q(a) is true for all a in
the universe. Therefore x.p(x) is true and x.q(x) is also true.
Suppose [x.p(x) xq(x)] is true. Then p(a) is true for all a in the
universe and q(a) is also true for all a in the universe. Therefore
p(a) q(a) is true for all a in the universe. Hence x.[p(x) q(x)] is
true.
Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication
Let p(x), q(x) denote any open statement with a prescribed universe.
?

x.p(x) x.q(x) x.[p(x) q(x)]

Universe is {1, 2}
p(x): True when x = 1
q(x): True when x = 2
p(1) q(1) is true. p(2) q(2) is true. x.[p(x) q(x)]
p(2) is false. q(1) is false. Therefore x.p(x) x.q(x) is false.
x.p(x) x.q(x) x.[p(x) q(x)]
Logical Equivalence and Logical Implication - Summary
Let p(x), q(x) denote any open statement with a prescribed universe.
x.p(x) x.q(x) x.[p(x) q(x)]

 x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) xq(x)]

x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) x.q(x)]
x.[p(x) q(x)] [x.p(x) x.q(x)]
Negation
[x.p(x)] x.p(x)
[x.p(x)] x.p(x)
[x.p(x)] x.p(x)
[x.p(x)] x.p(x)
Exercise
Negate and simplify
x.[p(x) q(x)]
x.[p(x) q(x)]
x.[p(x) q(x)]
x.[(p(x) q(x)) r(x)]
Open Satements with more than two variables
p(x, y) : x < y
The universe of x and y can be different.
Let p(x, y) : x + y = y + x
?

x.y.p(x, y) y.x.p(x, y)
x.y.p(x, y) y.x.p(x, y)
Let p(x, y) : (x + y = 6)
?

x.y.p(x, y) xyp(x, y)
x.y.p(x, y) xyp(x, y)
Let p(x, y) : x + y = 17
?

x.y.p(x, y) y.x.p(x, y)
x.y.p(x, y) 6 y.x.p(x, y)
Exercise
True or false ?
Universe is set of all real number
x.y.(x2 + y 2 0)
True (x = 0)
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 x.y.[(x < y) (x2 < y 2 )]

True (For any x, chooose y x.)
Universe is set of non-zero integers.
x.y.(xy = 1)
x.y.(xy = 1)
Negate x.y.[p(x, y) q(x, y) r(x, y)].
The rule of universal specification
If an open statement becomes true for all replacements by the members
in a given universe, then that open statement is true for each specific
induvidual member in that universe.
x.p(x)
p(a) for each a in the universe.
special case
Example 1
Universe : All people
c(x) : x is a computer science engineer
d(x) : x has studied discrete mathematics
All computer science engineers have studied discrete mathematics
A is a computer science engineer
Therefore A has studied discrete mathematics
Example 1
x.[c(x) d(x)]
c(a)
d(a)
1
2
3
4

x.[c(x) d(x)]
c(a)
c(a) d(a)
d(a)

premise
premise
Step 1, Rule of Universal Specification
2,3,MP

Example 2
Universe : All triangles
p(t) : t has two sides of equal length
q(t) : t is an isosceles triangle
r(t) : t has two angles of equal measure
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 In triangle c there are no pair of angles of equal measure

If a triangle has two sides of equal length, then it is isosceles
if a triangle is isosceles, then it has two angles of equal measure
Therefore c has no two sides of equal length.
Example 2
r(c)
t.[p(t) q(t)]
t.[q(t) r(t)]
p(c)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

t.[p(t) q(t)]
p(c) q(c)
t.[q(t) r(t)]
q(c) r(c)
p(c) r(c)
r(c)
p(c)

Premise
1, Rule of Universal Specification
Premise
3, Rule of Universal Specification
2,4, Law of Syllogism
Premise
5,6 MT

Example 3
Universe : Students
j(x) : x is a junior
s(x) : x is a senior
p(x) : x is enrolled in a physical education class
No senior or junior is enrolled in physical education class
B is enrolled in physical education class
Therefore B is not a senior
Example 3
x.[(j(x) s(x)) p(x)]
p(b)
s(b)
1
2
3
4
5
6

x.[(j(x) s(x)) p(x)]

p(b)
((j(b) s(b)) p(b)
(j(b) s(b))
j(b) s(b)
s(b)

Premise
Premise
1, Rule of Universal Specification
2,3, MT
4 DeMorgans
Conjunctive Simplification

Rule of Universal Generalisation

If an open statement p(x) is proved to be true when x is replaced by
any arbitrarily chosen element c from our universe, then the universally
quantified statement x.p(x) is true.
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Example 1
x.[p(x) q(x)]
x.[q(x) r(x)]
x.[p(x) r(x)]
1
2
3
4
5
6

x.[p(x) q(x)]
p(c) q(c)
x.[q(x) r(x)]
q(c) r(c)
p(c) r(c)
x.[p(x) r(x)]

Premise
1, Rule of Universal Specification
Premise
3, Rule of Universal Specification
2,4 Law of Syllogism
5, Rule of Universal Generalisation

Example 2
x.[p(x) q(x)]
x.[(p(x) q(x)) r(x)]
x.[r(x) p(x)]
1
2
3
4
5
6

x.[p(x) q(x)]
p(c) q(c)
x.[(p(x) q(x)) r(x)]
(p(c) q(c)) r(c)
r(c) (p(c) q(c))
r(c) (p(c) q(c))

Premise
1, Rule of Universal Specification
Premise
3, Rule of Universal Specification
Contrapositive
De Morgans

Example 2
7
8
9
10
11
12

r(c)
p(c) q(c)
[p(c) q(c)] [p(c) q(c)]
p(c) [q(c) q(c)]
p(c)
x.[r(x) p(x)]

Premise (assumed)
Modus Ponens
Rule of Conjunction
Distributive Law
p(c) F0 p(c)
Rule of Universal Generalisation

Rule of Existential Specification and Generalisation

Rule of Existential Specification:
If the statement x.p(x) is true, then p(a) is true for some member in the
universe.
Rule of Existential Generalisation:
If p(a) is true for some member a in the universe, then x.p(x) is true.
Valid or Invalid?
Some rational numbers are powers of 3.
All integers are rational numbers.
Therefore some integers are powers of 3.
Example
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 x.[p(x) q(x)]
x.p(x)
x.[.q(x) r(x)]
x.[s(x) r(x)]
x.s(x) .
x.[p(x) q(x)] Premise
x.p(x) Premise
p(a) Existential Specification
p(a) q(a) Universal Specification
q(a) Disjunctive Syllogism
x.[.q(x) r(x)] Premise
.q(a) r(a)] Universal Specification
r(a) Disjunctive Syllogism
x.[s(x) r(x)] Premise
s(a) r(a) Universal Specification
.s(a) Modus Tollens
x.s(x)
Method of Exhaustion
Theorems: Mathematical statements that are known to be true.
Consider the universe of {2, 4, 6, 8}
For all n, we can write n as a sum of at most three perfect squares.

2=1+1
4=4

6=4+1+1
8=4+4

Prove that every integer that is a perfect cube is a multiple of 9, or is 1

more than a multiple of 9, or is 1 less than a multiple of 9.
Proof:Every integer n is either a multiple of 3, or 1 more or 1 less than a
multiple of 3
Direct Proof
If m is an even integer, then m + 7 is odd.
Assume m is an even integer.
m = 2a
m + 7 = 2a + 7 = 2a + 6 + 1 = 2(a + 3) + 1 = 2b + 1
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 Since a + 3 is an integer m + 7 is odd.

Indirect Proof or Proof by contraposition
If m is an even integer, then m + 7 is odd.
Assume m + 7 is not an odd integer. m + 7 is even.
m + 7 = 2a
m = 2a 7 = 2a 8 + 1 = 2(a 4) + 1
Since a 4 is an integer m is odd and not even.
Indirect Proof or Proof by contraposition
If m is an even integer, then m + 7 is odd.
Assume m + 7 is not an odd integer. m + 7 is even.
m + 7 = 2a
m = 2a 7 = 2a 8 + 1 = 2(a 4) + 1
Since a 4 is an integer m is odd and not even.
Proof by contradiction
If m is an even integer, then m + 7 is odd.
Assume m is even.
Assume m + 7 is even
Then m + 7 = 2a
m = 2a 7 = 2a 8 + 1 = 2(a 4) + 1
Since a 4 is an integer m is odd.
m is even and m is odd - a contradiction.
Exercise
For all real numbers x and y, if x + y 100, then x 50 or y 50.
Prove by contradiction: For every integer n, if n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Prove or disprove: If m, n are positive integers and m, n are perfect
squares, then m + n is a perfect square.
Symbolic representation of quantified logical statements
U: Integers
q(x) : x is even
At least one integer is even.
x.q(x)
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Symbolic representation of quantified logical statements

U: Integers
p(x) : x > 0
q(x) : x is even
There exists a positive integer that is even.
There exists an integer that is positive and even.
x.[p(x) q(x)]
Can it be x.[p(x) q(x)]
There exists some integer, which if positive is even. It doesnt emphasise
the existence of positive integer.
x.[p(x) q(x)] There exists some integer that is positive and even.

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