DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF AN ANDROID-BASED INFORMAL READING

ENHANCEMENT PROGRAM FOR THE GRADE TWO PUPILS OF PARACALE DISTRICT

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

A Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of
Graduate School
Mabini Colleges,
Daet, Camarines Norte
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION
By
ANTONIO R. NAING JR.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
The Problem and Its Setting
Proficiency in reading is said to be a key in learning. This is because reading is
highly involved, linked and integrated in almost all areas of discipline or fields of
knowledge. Development of effective reading skills opens greater avenues for the honing
of all the other learning competencies and literacy skills like writing, numeracy and
linguistic skills. A good and proficient reader is more likely to be a more equipped and
academically empowered learner. However, a poor and incompetent reader is certainly
made more vulnerable to multiple academic problems and learning disabilities. The
development of comprehension, writing, numeracy, problem-solving skills and other
educational competencies of students are being hindered when the most important,
fundamental and foundation of all academic skills-which is reading is not well-established
among the learners.
Reading is the most important of all the literacy skills. In fact it is considered as the
foundation or the mother of all learning abilities and competencies. It only denotes how
paramount is the function of reading in individuals development particularly in terms of
knowledge acquisition and learning gains. This is especially true for school-age children
who need to be sufficiently exposed to opportunities to hone their reading potentials in
as early stage or level of learning possible for a stronger and more effective reading
development. Indeed, for school-age children and for all students to be considered
completely literate, it is most essential that they become skilled readers.
Nowadays, addressing the challenge of honing the students reading skills and
proficiency is made more attainable because of the presence and availability of
educational resources for reading which are in digital, ICT-based or mobile format. The
prevalent and widely popular and increasingly prominent use of digital and mobile-based
teaching materials including computer-assisted and mobile reading programs and
devices have become so indispensable in our current educational system. Utilization of
these digital and mobile learning resources has been embraced as an integral part of our
system of educating our Filipino students in almost all levels of schooling. With this, it is
very obvious and highly undeniable that the benefits and usefulness of these
technologically advanced teaching-learning tools has been appreciated, recognized and
valued throughout these years not only by the modern-day teachers and students but
also by educational superiors, experts and authorities. The positive sides and advantages
of utilizing digital and mobile devices in education have been embraced in many areas of
learning including reading instructions. That is why, current generation of teachers
nowadays are summoned to be completely knowledgeable and fully-equipped with
technologically-based instructional skills and strategies, in order for them to be more
effective, efficient, creative, resourceful and innovative in the delivery of instructions
including the most significant reading-based instructions most especially for school-age
children.
Speaking of mobile-based learning resources, currently these are being popularly
utilized by the reading or language teachers. Desired learning outcomes in reading or
language lessons becomes more possible to attain with the help of mobile devices
because students attention and focus with the reading instructions provided are more
easily elicited when presented through these technologically advanced tools. The
delivery of reading lessons also becomes more practical, direct and realistic when the
students are exposed to mobile-based reading instructional presentations.
Provision of reading remedial or reading recovery instructions can also be possible
with the use of mobile-based reading devices or programs. It is also noteworthy to
mention that students who are found to be struggling or poor readers or those who are
at risk of reading disabilities can be easily motivated and encouraged to participate in
the reading remedial activities when they are exposed to the use of mobile-based
reading instructional devices. The attractive modern features of mobile-based reading
tools and programs are attention-catching, visually appealing and highly engaging for
the at risk readers, thus they are more motivated to attend to the reading classes and
becomes more willing to undergo reading remediation.

It is definitely true that reading is just one of the areas where the benefits of
mobile-based teaching and learning can be felt and experienced by both the educators
and the learners. Engagement of students in the delivery of reading instructions can be
assured to be easily and effectively elicited using mobile or digital devices because
students at present are truly 21st century type of learners who are more ICT or
technologically oriented and enthusiasts.
In view of all these, this study is anchored on the provisions of DepED Order No.
70, series of 2011 or the Guidelines on the Utilization of Funds for Every Child a Reader
Program (ECARP). The Every Child a Reader Program supports the thrust of the
Department of Education to make every Filipino child a reader at his/her grade level. This
program encompasses the implementation of Reading Recovery Program and the
administration of Philippine Informal Reading Inventory (Phil-IRI) and the development of
the Philippine Word Lists in English (PWLE) for Grades 2 pupils.
As one of the components of ECARP, the Philippine Informal Reading Inventory
(Phil-IRI) serves as a reading assessment tool to measure and evaluate the levels of
reading proficiency both in English and Filipino among the public elementary school
pupils. Likewise, Phil-IRI results serve as bases for the formulation of appropriate reading
programs
and
interventi
ons at school, division, regional and national levels.
The selected locales of this study are the 5 elementary schools under Paracale
District. These include Palanas, Capacuan, Tawig, Paracale Central and Tawig Elementary
Schools. These schools are composed of a total population of 705 grade two pupils. Out
of this number, 84 grade two pupils are identified as non-readers or at risk readers.
These non-readers or at risk readers are identified through different forms of reading
assessments like Phil-IRI, reading tests and other tools. The number of these non-readers
in the grade two level in the selected five schools reflect the present situation or status
of these schools in terms of the levels of the reading skills and performance of their
pupils. It also indicates a serious problem regarding the reading disabilities and problems
of these pupils which indeed require specific reading intervention.
In view of these, the motivation of the researcher in conducting this study is to
address the problems in the reading difficulties and disabilities of the pupils in these
schools and at the same time to respond to the challenge of facilitating improvements in
the reading skills and proficiency of the learners by way of designing or developing an
android-based reading program especially for grade two pupils. The researcher aims to
develop an innovative reading mobile-based reading program. Results of reading
assessments provide the most valid profile of the mastered reading skills as well as least
mastered reading abilities or reading difficulties of the pupils which gives the researcher
with baseline data or reference in the selection and formulation of reading
developmental and instructional contents to be integrated in the proposed android-based
reading program.
Statement of the Problem
This study will be centered on the development and evaluation of an android-based
informal reading enhancement program to be offered for the grade two pupils in the
selected elementary schools under Paracale District.
Specifically, this study will seek to answer the following questions:
1.) What are the specific reading difficulties of the pupils in the selected schools of
Paracale District?
2.) What android-based informal reading enhancement program can be developed
for the pupils in terms of:
a.) Reading skills associated with auditory discrimination
b.) Reading/recognizing alphabet concepts
c.) Reading skills associated with identification/classification of objects
d.) Reading numeracy concepts
e.) Reading skills associated with sensory-perceptual learning
3.) What is the evaluation of the jurors in the developed android-based reading
program in terms of its:
a.) specific reading instructional objectives and target reading outcomes

b.) featured reading instructional contents

c.) designed reading instructional activities
d.) reading assessments
4.) What recommendations can be proposed to further improve the developed
android -based reading program?
Scope and Delimitation
This study will be limited and focused on the development and evaluation of
android-based informal reading enhancement program for grade two pupils of
Paracale District Elementary Schools. The respondents of this research will be
the selected 84 grade two pupils identified as at risk readers from the five
selected elementary schools under Paracale District. These five schools are
Palanas, Capacuan, Tawig, Paracale and Tugos Elementary Schools. There are
also 17 grade two teachers in these five schools selected as respondents of this
study. The criteria in the selection of the pupils as respondents of this study
include the results of the teacher-made pre-tests in reading and results of PhilIRI tests. The pupils as respondents of this research are those who will be
identified as the low performing students in reading as revealed by the results
of these reading assessments. Likewise, the 17 grade two teachers will be
selected to serve as evaluators of the android-based reading enhancement
program to be developed by the researcher.
This research will be limited and anchored on the application of the
developmental-evaluative method of research using interviews guide, surveyquestionnaires, pre-test and post-test in reading and rubrics as data gathering
tools or research instruments.
The specific limitations of this study will be based on the following research
objectives: 1.) to identify the specific reading difficulties of the pupils; 2.) to
determine the android-based informal reading enhancement program to be
developed for the pupils; 3.) to evaluate the developed android-based informal
reading enhancement program for the pupils and 4.) to propose
recommendations of how to improve the quality of the developed mobile-based
reading device or program. This research will objectively focused on the
evaluation of the developed android-based informal reading enhancement
program based on its target reading instructional outcomes, contents, designed
activities and reading assessments.
Related Literature
Louisa Moats and Carol Tolman (2010) in their article Types of Reading Disability
explained that children with reading impairment are those who have a score of basic
reading skills below 30th percentile.
Clifford (2010) in her work Common Reading Disorders of Children cited that reading
disorders appear when an individual experiences trouble with any aspect of the reading
process. Reading disorders start at young age and these come as results from specific
differences in the cognitive or brain-based language processing.
Thompson (2010) in his article Types of Reading Disorders enumerated the most
common reading disorders usually observed among children or grade school pupils.
These include poor word decoding, lack of fluency and problems on reading
comprehension.
Morphs (2011) in his work Signs of Childrens Reading Disabilities stated that
currently there are many children who struggle inexplicably in reading. Recent studies
indicate that most of the time, exact causes of reading disabilities are hard to identify.
Femi (2011) cited some of the signs of reading comprehension problems among
children. Childrens comprehension largely depends on their mastery of decoding skills.
Children who struggle in decoding also find difficulties in understanding the reading text.
Auburns (2011) emphasized that childrens retention skills in reading is largely
dependent on their decoding and comprehension skills. In school, pupils are usually

tasked to read selections, stories or passages and then answer comprehension questions
in the end. Comprehension check may be in the form of oral or written expression.
Strigel (2011) in her work ICT and the Early Grade Reading Assessment: From Testing
to Teaching explained the functions of Information and Communication Technologies in
the assessment of the reading skills of the grade school pupils. She explained that there
are two recent indicators related to the reading skills of the students nowadays.
Rayman (2010) in his article Cell Phones Could Help Millions in Developing Countries to
Read stated that almost 700 million people worldwide suffer from illiteracy or who
cannot read or write. Lack of books is claimed to be the primary cause of this higher rate
of illiteracy. Currently, mobile phones are integrating electronic books which make digital
or mobile reading highly accessible for the users.
Morrels (2010) in his work Digital Books and Mobile Reading explained that the use of
cell phones, computers and other digital devices has made the reading materials and
resources readily available and accessible for the learners. Reading using mobile devices
is easier and more enjoyable.
Kowalzyk (2014) in his article Reading e-books on a Phone- 5 Ways to Make the Most of
It emphasized that mobile phones can serve as a good companion for every person who
wants to avail reading e-books daily.
Related Studies
Wang (2010) in his thesis Reading and Grammar Learning Through Mobile Phones
investigated the feasibility and limitations of utilizing mobile phones in facilitating
reading and grammar lessons and instructions for the students.
Tredoux et.al (2010) in their group study Mobile Phones and Reading for
Enjoyment: Evidence of Use and Behavioral Change focused on the evaluation of a
reading program developed and launched by the group called Fundza. This reading
program primarily utilized mobile phones in the delivery of reading contents and
materials.
The study of Harmen (2010) entitled Using Mobile Phones to Improve Educational
Outcomes: An Analysis of Evidence from Asia attempted to find viable solutions to the
challenges regarding the delivery of quality education including reading instructions for
students in developing countries.
Ramos (2010) conducted a study Viability of SMS Technologies for Non-Formal Distance
Education in Mongolia which tested the effectiveness of using SMS-based modules in
improving the learning outcomes of individuals under the non-formal distance education
system.
Ashrof (2010) in his study Mobile Telephone Technology as a Distance Learning Tool in
Bangladesh discussed and analyzed how mobile phones could be utilized as an
alternative distance learning tool instead of the costly Internet or web-based tools. Oral
and written communication skills as well as reading instructions were integrated in the
SMS-based instructions provided in the selected schools in Bangladesh.
Whattananarong (2010) in his research An Experiment in the Use of Mobile Phones for
Testing at King Mongkuts Institute of Technology, Thailand sought to analyze the effects
of using mobile phones in administering tests for students in the said school.
Kam (2011) in their study Improving Literacy in Rural India: Cellphone Games in an
After School attempted to explore on the functions of mobile phones in promoting
reading, vocabulary knowledge and English language learning of the youth in out of
school settings. This study was centered on the evaluation of an after school program
which applied the use of mobile phone-based games which aimed to improve reading,
vocabulary and linguistic skills of the students.
Bernard (2010) in his study Using Mobile Phones for Teaching and Learning Purposes in
Sokaine University, Tanzania investigated the use of mobile phones for educational
purposes in the said school. Specifically, this study sought to determine how mobile
phones could be utilized to facilitate teaching-learning process.

A research study conducted by Trevour (2011) entitled Utilizing iPads for Kindergarten
Reading Activities sought to evaluate the comparative levels of reading performance of
pupils who are using iPads in reading and the pupils who prefer not to use the device in
their reading activity.
Another foreign study by Kissignger (2011) entitled A Collective Study of Mobile E-Book
Learning Experiences was conducted to investigate and explore on the learning
experiences of students using mobile e-book readers. The researcher aimed to describe
and analyze how the students utilize electronic textbooks delivered on mobile phones
and other mobile computing devices for the performance of their academic works.
The study of Urun (2012) entitled Integration of Technology into Language Teaching: A
Comparative Review Study sought to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of using
Information and Communication Technologies including mobile phones and computers in
language learning and teaching.
Vu (2012) in his dissertation study An Inquiry Into How iPads Are Used in Classrooms
sought to investigate how iPads are utilized in the classroom for teaching and
instructional purposes based on teachers perspectives. The respondents of this research
were the 21 elementary and secondary teachers who were found to be using iPads in
their teaching endeavor in the selected schools in Southern Illinois.
Darmi and Albion (2012) in their study A Review of Integrating Mobile Phones for
Language Learning discussed the usefulness of interacting mobile phone-based
instructions in the teaching-learning process. This research focused on the
comprehensive review of empirical studies centered on the utilization and integration of
mobile technology in language learning instructions and activities.
Pernjek (2011) in her thesis Developing Reading Skills and Motivation Through Mobile
Phones aimed to determine the students attitudes towards reading with the aid of
mobile phones.
Igbokwe (2011) in his thesis The Influence of Electronic Media on the Reading Ability of
School-Age Children aimed to explore on the reading habits and motivation of the pupils
in the two selected primary schools in Nsukka Nigeria. Specifically, this study sought to
analyze the influence of electronic media on the pupils reading hours and activities.
The study of Matthews (2014) entitled A Descriptive Study of Digital and Mobile
Reading among School-Age Children focused on the habits, attitudes and preferences of
school age children as digital and mobile readers of today.
Ramos, et.al (2010) in their locally conducted study The Viability of SMS Technologies
for Non-formal Distance Education in the Philippines sought to investigate the
usefulness of mobile phones or short messaging service (SMS) technologies for nonformal education in the Philippines. This study was focused on the project called MIND
which partnered with Alternative Learning Services of the Philippines, Department of
Education.
Eresi (2010) in his thesis Assessment of Phil-IRI Results in Reading as Basis for the
Development of a Mobile-Based Reading Program for Grades 1-3 Pupils sought to
explore on how the assessment of Phil-IRI results can help in determining the specific
instructional inputs in reading which can be integrated in a mobile or cellular phonebased reading program for school-age children.
The study of Arrellano (2012) entitled The Effects of Utilizing Mobile Reading Device in
the Reading Interests of the Sixth Graders was conducted to investigate and analyze
how the use of e-books or mobile reading device posed impacts on the pupils interests,
attitudes and habits in reading.
Escueta (2012) in her thesis Evaluation of Students Reading Gains and Achievements
under a Developmental Reading Program in a Digital and Mobile Format pursued the
assessment of the reading skills and proficiency of the students who were exposed to the
utilization of a reading program delivered in a digital and mobile application.
Salviejo (2012) conducted a study entitled Pupils Reading Habits and Attitudes
towards the Use of Cell Phone-Based Reading Instructions which aimed to discuss and

analyze how the use of cell-phone based reading instructions significantly affects pupils
reading engagement, practices and behavior. The researcher developed a cell-phone
based reading device for the grade three pupils. This device was developed as an
innovation that aims to boost pupils motivation towards reading, and to encourage them
develop regular and wide reading habits using a cellular phones containing mobile
reading programs.
The study of Maglayo (2013) entitled A Survey of Teachers Perceptions on the
Effectiveness of Using Phil-IRI as a Reading Assessment Tool and as Basis for the
Development of Mobile and Multi-media Based Reading Programs sought to determine
teachers views, perceptions and affinities towards the use of Phil-IRI in the evaluation
and analysis of the reading skills and performance of the grade school children in
Philippine public schools which serve as basis in the formulation and application of a
reading program presented in a mobile or multi-media format.
The locally conducted study of Villaluz (2014) entitled The Effects of Utilizing Phil-IRI in
the Implementation of Mobile-Designed Reading Program for the Grade School Pupils of
the Selected Elementary Schools in the Division of Camarines Sur. The researcher
developed and introduced a mobile-designed reading program for the pupils. This mobile
designed reading program was based from the results of Phil-IRI tests. The findings of
this research indicated that majority or 54% of the respondents believed that the use of
Phil-IRI is the most useful reading test to identify the pupils mastered and least
mastered skills in reading.
Corroborative to the findings of the study of Villaluz are the findings of the study of
Marual (2014). Marual in her thesis entitled Level of Word Recognition and Reading
Comprehension: A Basis for the Development of a Cellphone-Based Reading Program
also made use of Philippine Informal Reading Inventory in the assessment of pupils
mastery in reading basic sight words and in terms of reading comprehension. The
respondents of this study were the 40 grade IV pupils of Jose Rizal Memorial School.
The findings of this study showed that Phil-IRI results demonstrated pupils
mastery level in reading basic sight words.
Velasco (2015) conducted a thesis which focused on the utilization of smartphone-based
reading diagnostic test in the selected private schools in Camarines Sur. The respondents
of this research were the 286 grade two pupils from the four selected private schools in
Camarines Sur. The output of this study is the actual reading diagnostic test delivered
through smartphones. The program presented mobile reading tests on phonetics,
vocabulary and reading comprehension.
Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
This portion of this research is the comprehensive description and discussion of
research design and methodology employed in this study. This chapter likewise
integrates the data about the profile of the key informants of this study, the data
gathering tools and procedures and the tools for the statistical treatment of data and
analytical framework of the study.
Research Methodology
The researcher perceived that it is appropriate and suited in this study to apply the
descriptive-developmental evaluative research design or approach. This research design
is actually a combination of three major types of research approaches, descriptive
research, developmental research and evaluative research. These three types of
research play significant functions for the comprehensive discussions, interpretation and
analysis of the data, inputs and outputs of this research study.
The descriptive research will be applied in this study to describe, discuss and
analyze all the inputs and outcomes of this study from the profile of the participants up
to the researchers formulated conclusions of this research. On the other hand, the
developmental research approach will be integrated in this study through its discussion
on the production, development and utilization of the android-based informal reading
enhancement program. Furthermore, the evaluative approach will be utilized in the

researchers efforts to assess or evaluate the quality of this reading program with the
support and participation of the respondents who will be also tasked to evaluate the
developed android-based reading program based on its targeted reading outcomes,
contents, reading activities and assessments.
In general, the descriptive-developmental-evaluative approach will be applied in
the discussion of the following major objectives of the study including: 1.) identifying the
specific reading difficulties of the pupils; 2.) determining the android-based reading
program which can be developed for the pupils; 3.) evaluating the developed reading
program and 4.) formulating recommendations towards improving the quality of
developed android-based reading program.
Data Gathering Procedure
The systematic conduct of this research will be accomplished by following or
undertaking significant procedures for data gathering and validation. These data
gathering procedures play very vital functions to help and support the researcher in
arriving at accurate and valid data analysis, findings, conclusions and over-all outcomes
of this researcher centered on the development and evaluation of a
reading
enhancement program which is android-based. There will be six specific data gathering
procedures to undertaken in this study. These include profiling of the grade two pupils
and teachers who are selected as participants of this study, pre-testing, post-testing in
reading, evaluating the developed reading program using the rubrics, distribution of
survey-questionnaires and conduct of interviews with the respondents.
The first significant data gathering procedure to be initially undertaken by the
researcher will be the profiling of the grade two pupils and teachers from the selected
elementary schools under Paracale District. It is essential as it will help to provide the
researcher with informative background about the respondents or key informants of the
study. Another data gathering procedure will be the conduct of pre-tests in reading for
the grades 1-3 pupils. The researcher will make use of teacher-made pre-test in reading
specifically in English. The results of pre-tests in reading will determine the mastered and
least mastered skills in reading prior to the use of the developed android-based reading
program. Furthermore, the results of the pre-test in reading will serve as bases on what
specific reading instructional contents and features will be integrated in the developed
mobile reading program.
On the other hand, post-testing in reading will be administered after the intensive
utilization of the android-based reading program by the teachers in their reading classes.
Post-test results will indicate the specific level of reading improvements attained by the
pupils with the help of their exposure to the developed reading innovation. The pre-test
and post-test results will be compared to support the analysis of the effects of the
developed reading program on the reading skills and proficiency of the pupils.
Another significant data gathering procedure in this study will be the utilization of
rubrics in the evaluation or testing of the developed android-based reading program. The
rubrics will be distributed to the selected teachers/participants of the study who will be
tasked to evaluate or assess the reading program based on its features, contents and
over-all quality. The researcher will likewise distribute survey-questionnaires and conduct
interviews with the teachers selected as respondents to obtain further data on their
feedbacks, perceptions and affinities regarding the use of the developed reading
program as an alternative reading innovation for the primary grade pupils.
Respondents/ Sampling
The respondents of this study will be comprised of two sets- the grade two pupils
and the teachers under these grade levels. These pupils and teachers belong to the
selected elementary schools in Paracale District, Division of Camarines Norte within the
specific academic school year 2016-2017. A total of 85 pupils from the grade two level
will be subjected to pre-test and post-testing in reading (English). On the other hand,
there will be 17 grade two teachers who will selected as evaluators of the developed
reading program using the rubrics. These selected teachers will be also subjected to the
actual utilization of the developed mobile-based reading program in their actual reading
lessons or presentation of reading instructions for their pupils. Both the selected pupils

and teachers will play significant functions in discussion and analysis of the quality of the
produced android-based reading enhancement program for the learners.
Research Instruments
There will be five specific research instruments or data gathering tools to be
utilized by the researcher. Each instrument will serve to aid the researcher in the conduct
of multiple data necessary to support the main objectives of this research. These
research instruments are comprised of pre-test, post-test in reading, rubrics, interview
guide and survey-questionnaires.
Pre-test will provide data about the level of the pupils reading skills before the
researcher introduced the use of the android-based reading program and before they are
exposed to the utilization of this reading innovation. The post-test will gather and
present data specifically about the levels of reading enhancement among the pupils
upon their intensive exposure to reading lessons and instructional activities particularly
in English which highlight the integration of reading instructions presented via android
phone.
Rubrics will be also used by the teachers selected as respondents of this study in
evaluating the over-all quality, features and reading instructional contents of the
developed mobile reading program. Furthermore, interview-guide will be utilized by the
researcher in interrogating the teachers about their views, perceptions, observations and
actual teaching experiences while using the developed android-based reading program.
The survey-questionnaires on the other hand, will serve to gather further data on the
assessment of the quality of the developed reading innovation.

Statistical Tools
This study will apply both the descriptive statistics and qualitative statistics for the
treatment and analysis of the data gathered by the researcher. The descriptive statistics
will be utilized for the treatment of the numerical data obtained in this study like the
profile of the respondents, the results of pretest and post-tests in reading. These data
will be statistically treated using percentage, frequency count and weighted mean
techniques.
On the other hand, qualitative statistical treatment of this study will be primarily
undertaken or applied through the use of rubrics. These rubrics will be used for the
qualitative assessment or evaluation of the android-based informal reading
enhancement program for the primary grade pupils. The rubrics will be utilized by the
teachers in evaluating the mobile reading program according to four essential
components like its objectives or target reading outcomes, contents, featured activities
and reading assessments.
Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple
summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually
every quantitative analysis of data.
Descriptive statistics are typically distinguished from inferential statistics. With descriptive statistics you are simply
describing what is or what the data shows. With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend
beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the
population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference
between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study.

Qualitative data is a categorical measurement expressed not in terms of numbers, but rather by
means of a natural language description. In statistics, it is often used interchangeably with
"categorical" data.

Auditory discrimination is the ability to recognize differences in phonemes (the smallest unit of sound in a
language), including the ability to identify words and sounds that are similar and those that are different.
A phoneme is a single "unit" of sound that has meaning in any language

Relational structure in object recognition

The potentially relevant aspect of object recognition concerns how children represent the 3-dimensional shapes
of common objects, and derives from Biederman's (1987; Hummel & Biederman, 1992) Recognition-ByComponents account of visual object recognition. By this account, humans form internal representations that are
sparse geometric models of 3-dimensional object shapes built from a set of primitive volumes called geons.
These representations capture the whole object's geometric structure independent of viewing perspective and
enable the recognition of individually unique instances of common categories for example, the recognition of
kitchen chairs, dining chairs, and over-stuffed armchairs as instances of a single category because all share the
same foundational geometric structure.
Reading numeracy concepts
An autonomous model of literacy or numeracy assumes that the skills of reading, writing, enumerating, and doing
maths are independent of social context, have autonomous characteristics that are universal across time and
space, and generate consequencesfor cognition, social progress and individual achievementthat are general
rather than culture specific. The cultural model sees reading, writing, enumerating, and doing maths as social
practices, learnt in specific cultural contexts and imbued with epistemological significance. In this model the uses
and meanings of literacy and numeracy cannot easily be generalized across cultures but have to be understood in
their context. Some exponents of this latter view also argue that such practices and concepts are always implicated
in power relations and contests over meanings and resources. Since the autonomous model of literacy and
numeracy is the dominant view in both policy and educational contexts, comparatively more space is devoted to
explicating the newer and less widespread cultural view.
Numeracy is the ability to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts.[1] Basic numeracy skills consist of
comprehending fundamentalarithmetics like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. For example, if one
can understand simple mathematical equations such as, 2 + 2 = 4, then one would be considered possessing at
least basic numeric knowledge. Substantial aspects of numeracy also includenumber sense, operation sense,
computation, measurement, geometry, probability and statistics. A numerically literate person can manage and
respond to the mathematical demands of life

perceptual learning, process by which the ability of sensory systems to respond to

stimuli is improved through experience. Perceptual learning occurs through sensory
interaction with the environment as well as through practice in performing specific sensory
tasks. The changes that take place in sensory and perceptual systems as a result of
perceptual learning occur at the levels of behaviour and physiology. Examples of
perceptual learning include developing an ability to distinguish between different odours or
musical pitches and an ability to discriminate between different shades of colours.
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study.
The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under
study exists.

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to
relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical
framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of
your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand,
empirical research relies on experience or involves observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory.
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban[a] PC KC (/bekn/;[5] 22 January 1561 9 April 1626) was an English
philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord
Chancellor of England. After his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as
philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.