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Article history:
Received 3 March 2016
Received in revised form
14 July 2016
Accepted 28 July 2016
Available online 3 August 2016
Waste water is a major environmental impediment for the growth of the textile industry besides the
other minor issues like solid waste and resource waste management. Textile industry uses many kinds of
synthetic dyes and discharge large amounts of highly colored wastewater as the uptake of these dyes by
fabrics is very poor. This highly colored textile wastewater severely affects photosynthetic function in
plant. It also has an impact on aquatic life due to low light penetration and oxygen consumption. It may
also be lethal to certain forms of marine life due to the occurrence of component metals and chlorine
present in the synthetic dyes. So, this textile wastewater must be treated before their discharge. In this
article, different treatment methods to treat the textile wastewater have been presented along with cost
per unit volume of treated water. Treatment methods discussed in this paper involve oxidation methods
(cavitation, photocatalytic oxidation, ozone, H2O2, fentons process), physical methods (adsorption and
ltration), biological methods (fungi, algae, bacteria, microbial fuel cell). This review article will also
recommend the possible remedial measures to treat different types of efuent generated from each
textile operation.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Textile wastewater
Cavitation
Ozone
H2O2
Bacteria
Microbial fuel cell
Cost analysis
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Textile operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
2.1.
Sizing and desizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
2.2.
Bleaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
2.3.
Mercerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
2.4.
Dyeing and printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
2.5.
Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
The textile industry standards for water pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Treatment processes for textile wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
4.1.
Physical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
4.2.
Oxidation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
4.3.
Biological methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
4.3.1.
Fungal cultures for degradation of dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
4.3.2.
Algae for degradation dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
4.3.3.
Pure culture and mixed culture for degradation of dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
4.3.4.
Microbial fuel cell: sustainable technology for textile wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Factors affecting bacterial degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Biological and physicochemical combination processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Cost of textile wastewater treatment techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dv.pinjari@ictmumbai.edu.in (D.V. Pinjari).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.07.090
0301-4797/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
352
8.
1. Introduction
2. Textile operations
2.2. Bleaching
Natural color substance in the fabric is responsible for the
creamy look to the fabric. In order to get a white fabric which enables the production of bright shades, it is essential to remove
natural color matter from the fabric by the process of bleaching. In
earlier days, hypochlorite was being used as bleaching agents. Now
days, hypochlorite is exchanged by another bleaching agents such
as H2O2 and peracetic acid. Peracetic acid is an environmentally
benign alternative to hypochlorite bleaching agent. Higher luster
along with less yarn destruction of the processed fabric is the one
major benets of peracetic acid (Abdel-Halim and Al-Deyab, 2013;
Liang and Wang, 2015).
2.3. Mercerization
Mercerization of cotton fabrics are carried out after bleaching to
give a shine and advance dye uptake. Basically, it is done by treating
cotton fabric with a high concentration (about 18e24% by weight)
of sodium hydroxide. In this process, cotton fabric goes through the
longitudinal shrinkage during impregnation in the NaOH solution.
Here, this longitudinal shrinkage can be avoided by elongating the
fabric or holding the fabric under tension. The excess caustic is
washed off after 1e3 min, while holding the cotton fabric under
stress. Then, the material gains the preferred properties of luster,
easy dye uptake and improved absorbency. Membrane techniques
or multiple effect evaporators can be used to recover the sodium
hydroxide in the wash water (Fu et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2014).
353
2.5. Finishing
Here, fabrics are exposed to a several types of nishing processes. Finishing process is used to improve denite properties in
the fabric. Specic properties like softening, waterproong, antibacterial and UV protective are imparted to fabric in the process of
nishing. The nishing processes also contribute to water pollution.
List of some water pollutants that may be produced at different
stage of wet processing is depicted in Fig. 3 (Kant, 2012).
3. The textile industry standards for water pollutants
There are stringent requirements for the discharge of the textile
wastewater as it is unsafe to the environment and societies. The
standards of the wastewater discharge (Table 1 (Paul et al., 2012)
have far too many parameters due to the variation in the raw
354
Fig. 3. List of some of the pollutant generated at each level of textile wet processing.
Table 1
Indian Textile industry standards for water pollutants.
Sr.No.
Parameters
Standards
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
pH
BOD
COD
TDS
Sulphide
Chloride
Calcium
Magnesium
6.9
30 ppm
250 ppm
2000 ppm
2 ppm
500 ppm
75 ppm
50 ppm
355
Table 2
Various adsorbent for adsorption of dye.
Sr. No.
Adsorbent
Dye
Reference
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
356
Table 3
Different oxidation method for degradation of dyes.
Sr. No. Type of oxidation process
1
4.
5.
6.
7.
Conditions
UV/H2O2
Results
Reference
(Zuorro and
Lavecchia, 2014)
that more work is done on a lab scale and great considerable work
should be focused on the design approaches for the scale up.
A summary of the several physical/oxidation methods used for
the textile wastewater treatment discussed in above section tells
that cavitation is one of the recent technologies for textile waste
water treatment but only a few studies have been reported in this
regards. The cavitation technology can be suitable for lowering the
toxicity levels of the efuent stream, reduction of COD to TOC ratio
and enhancement of Biodegradation Index (BI) (BOD5 to COD ratio)
as well as color reduction. Thus, cavitation technique is an energy
efcient option and can be used as pretreatment method in combination with other advanced oxidation processes or biological
methods (Mishra and Gogate, 2010; Saharan et al., 2011, 2013). As
far as cost is concerned cavitation technology requires overall lower
costs of treatment as compared to other method (Gogate and
Bhosale, 2013).
4.3. Biological methods
The biological process removes only the dissolved matter in
textile wastewater. The removal efciency is inuenced by the ratio
of organic load/dye and the microorganism load, its temperature,
and oxygen concentration in the system. On the basis of oxygen
requirement, biological methods can be classied into aerobic,
anaerobic and anoxic or facultative or a combination of these. An
aerobic methods use microbes for the treatment of the textile
(Gupta et al.,
2012)
(Daskalaki
et al., 2011)
(Gogate and
Bhosale, 2013)
(Mishra and
Gogate, 2010)
(Saharan et al.,
2013)
(Saharan et al.,
2011)
357
system is not stable and after 20e30 days bacteria will start
growing and the fungi will no longer dominate the system and
degrade the dyes (Jonstrup et al., 2013).
4.3.2. Algae for degradation dyes
Algae are omnipresent and are getting an increasing consideration in the area of degradation of textile wastewater. Several
species of algae which have been successfully used are reported in
Table 5. A review of literature recommends that degradation of dyes
by algae occurs through three different mechanisms such as 1)
consumption of dyes for their growth, 2) transformation of dyes to
non-colored intermediates or CO2 and H2O, 3) chromophores
adsorption on algae. Biosorption and biodegradation are very
different phenomena. Biosorption implies moving the dye from the
water phase to the solid phase (the bioadsorbent) while biodegradation means that enzymes are actually breaking bonds that
constitute the chemical structure of the dye, so that the dye is
transformed into other chemical compounds. The literature also
recommends that Green macroalgae Cladophora species (Khataee
et al., 2011a) have capability to degrade mainly azo dyes due to
presence of azoreductase enzyme Meng et al (Meng et al., 2014).
studied azo dye (acid red 27) decolorization by Shewanella algae
(SAL) in the presence of high concentrations of NaCl and different
quinones or humic acids. This study showed that mediated decolorization of acid red 27 results into less phytotoxic aromatic
amines. Khataee et al.(Khataee et al., 2013) also reported the
biodegradation of C.I. Basic Red 46 (BR46) solution using the green
macroalga Enteromorpha sp. under optimum conditions with a
reaction time of 5 h, a temperature of 25 C, alga biomass of 2 g and
initial dye concentration of 15 mg/L. Thus, algal biomass plays a
signicant part in the elimination of azo dyes in the textile
wastewater by biodegradation. Furthermore, bio-sorption process
using algal waste for color removal can be a practical alternative for
Table 4
Recent reports on fungal cultures capable of dye degradation.
Sr.No. Fungi
Dye
Results
(Hadibarata
et al., 2013)
Penicillium simplicissimum
isolated from indoor
wastewater sample
Aspergillus niger
Reference
(Benghazi et al.,
2014)
(Kulkarni et al.,
2014)
358
Table 5
Reports on algae for dye removal.
Sr.No.
Algae
Dye
Mechanism
Reference
1
2
3
4
5
Adsorption
Adsorption
Biodegradation
Biodegradation
Biodegradation
359
Table 6
Pure or mixed bacterial cultures for degradation of dyes in textile wastewater (TOC: Total Organic Carbon and COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand, NR: Not Reported).
Bacterial strain
Dye &
concentration
Kocuriarosea(MTCC 1532)
Time %
%
Enzyme
TOC Decolorization
84%
NR
100
NR
100
NR
90
Reactive Orange
13
24 h
144 h NR
Consortium-GR, consisting of Proteus vulgaris NCIM2027 (PV) and Micrococcus glutamicus NCIM-2168
(MG),
Mixed consortium (Alcaligenesfaecalis, Sphingomonas sp. Dye Direct Blue15(250 mg/l)
EBD, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis and
Enterobactercancerogenus)
Novel microbial consortia Bx
Blue Bezaktiv SGLD 150 dye,
15 mg/l
NR
93.64
Static, 37 C,
24 h
NA
Aerobic sequencing
batch reactor(ASBR),
pH 7, 30 C
24 h
95- 88e97
98
COD
with cheap electrocatalyst i.e. Cu, TiO2, Ni, Si looks like a promising
anode material but more detailed work needs to be done in this
aspect.
Recent discovery on cathode also focuses on the use of nanobres/nanotubes of carbon to increase surface. Co3O4/nanocarbon
composite was examined by Song et al., 2015 which almost
matched the performance of Pt/C in all aspects like columbic efciency, current at reduction peak and power density (Song et al.,
2015). As of now, nanobres of carbon can be expected to match
the performance of Pt/C electrode or even perform better if suitable
blending catalysts are found. So, more work needs to be done for
modication of carbon nanober based cathode by use of more
efcient and cheaper catalyst for MFC. Use of nanobre composites
along with cheap catalyst like Cobalt, Iron and Manganese dioxide,
Silver and Palladium looks like a promising cathode material but
more detailed work needs to be done in this aspect before any
claims can be made.
Scope of MFC for commercial use is highly dependent on
membranes which have low resistance, high selectivity and are
cheap with long term stability. Membranes are used in MFC to
ensure transport of ions from one chamber to the other. High ionic
conductivities (1 S cm1) associated with the liquid KOH, phosphoric acid have been used along with the thick sheets of membranes such as Aromatic Sulphonic Acid sulfonated poly(sulfones),
sulfonated poly (ether ketones) (Ayyaru and Dharmalingam, 2014;
Prabhu and Sangeetha, 2014). Moreover, electricity production
have also been accomplished by making materials like ceramic and
earthen pot more porous to ensure lower resistance (Daud et al.,
2015). It will be a major development of MFC if cheap membranes like above can affect proton transfer in presence of other
cations due to size difference. However, the issue of selectivity still
remains. Cation species present in textile waste water such as K,
2
Na, Ca2, NH
are able to cross the Naon membrane
4 , and Mg
like protons. Considering that the concentration of these cation
species is higher in MFCs than the proton concentration, an accumulation of these cation species are produced in the cathode
95.45
References
(Olukanni
et al.,
2010)
Azoreductase and NADH-DCIP (Parshetti
reductase
et al.,
2010)
(Shah
Veratryl Alcohol Oxidase,
et al.,
Tyrosinase and NADHeDCIP
2012)
reductase enzymes
NR
(Holkar
et al.,
2014)
NR
(Kumar
and Bhat,
2012)
Laccase and reductase enzyme (Kurade
et al.,
2012)
Riboavin reductase and
(Jadhav
NADHeDCIP reductase
et al.,
2010)
NA
(Jain et al.,
2012)
NA
(Khouni
et al.,
2012)
360
Table 7
Effect of different parameters on bacterial degradation.
Parameters
Oxygen
Superior degradation under strictly anaerobic conditions due to higher reductive enzyme activities(Cervantes and Dos Santos, 2011).
Requirement of a minor amount of oxygen for the oxidative enzymes those are responsible for the azo dye degradation.
Oxygen requirement for degradation of the intermediates formed during the reduction reaction of azo dyes, such as the simple aromatic
compounds such as naphthalene sulphonic acid, aniline, phenol, phthalic acid, sodium benzoate (Parshetti et al., 2010; Olukanni et al.,
2010; Jain et al., 2012)
Use of the anaerobic process following aerobic treatment (Saratale et al., 2009; Olukanni et al., 2010).
No degradation of dyes by bacteria without any supplementation of carbon or nitrogen sources.
Azo dye degradation by microbial consortia as well as single bacterium cultures normally needs various carbon sources (glucose, starch,
fructose, maltose, lactose, sodium acetate) with concentration of 1 g/L and the organic nitrogen sources (0.5 g/L), such as peptone,
ammonium nitrate, urea, yeast extract. (Ponraj et al., 2011; Garg et al., 2012; Jain et al., 2012; Shah et al., 2013)
Glucose, starch and fructose serves as superior co-substrates.
Effective degradation only for yeast extract.
The degradation of azo dyes increases by 50e70% up to the optimal temperature of 37 C.
Marginal reduction in the degradation activity by 80e90% at higher temperature greater than or equal to 42 C due to the loss of cell
sustainability or the loss of activity of an enzyme responsible for degradation (Holkar et al., 2014).
For certain whole bacterial cell (Dermacoccus abyssi MT1.1T strain) preparations, the azoreductase enzyme can persist active up to temperatures
of 60 C, over period of one hour (Lang et al., 2014).
The optimum pH for degradation is between 3.0 and 10.0(Ayed et al., 2011).
The degradation rate is higher at the optimum pH of 7(Anjaneya et al., 2011).
The degradation rate decreases rapidly under strongly acidic or strongly alkaline pH (Ayed et al., 2011).
Bacterial cultures exhibit good degradation for the dye concentration in range of 50e400 ppm.
Higher concentration of dye slowly decreases the degradation efciency due to the toxicity of dyes on the individual bacteria or insufcient
biomass to dye concentration (Holkar et al., 2014; Phugare et al., 2011).
Reactive azo dyes having sulfonic acid (SO3H) groups inhibits the growth of microbes at higher concentration of dyes (Kalyani et al., 2009).
Higher degradation rate for dyes (e.g. crystal violet, malachite green and ethyl violet) with molecular weights less than 500 g/mol and simpler
molecular weight.
Lower degradation rate in the case of dyes having electron extracting groups such as eSO3H, eSO2 and NH2 in the para position of the aromatic,
relative to the azo bond and for dyes (e.g. Reactive Blue 19, Reactive Blue 13, Reactive Orange 16 and Reactive Orange 7) with the molecular
weight higher than 500 g/mol (Lade et al., 2012; Holkar et al., 2014).
Faster degradation for monoazo dyes as likened to diazo and triazo dyes (Garcia-Segura et al., 2011).
Lower rate of transfer of reducing equivalents from a primary electron donor to a terminal electron acceptor (azo dye in the anaerobic azo dye
reduction process.
Use of redox mediators with concentration in the range of 0.005e0.02 mM enhances the transfer of reducing equivalents to the terminal
electron acceptor (Sun et al., 2013).
Flavin-based compounds (avin adenide dinucleotide (FAD) and avin adenide mononucleotide (FMN)) and quinone-based compounds
(anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate (AQDS), anthraquinone-2-sulfonate (AQS), riboavin (vitamin B2), cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12) and lawsone
(2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone)) have been extensively reported as redox mediators (Saratale et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2013).
Temperature
pH
Dye concentration
Dye structure
Redox mediator
361
Table 8
Combined biological and chemical process for textile wastewater treatment.
Sr.No. Type of efuent
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Results
Reference
original efuent properties in the pretreatment scheme, a systematic study is needed. There is a requirement to nd the research
methodologies which considers the above effects. Such a study
must implement analytical tools to estimate the effect of the
chemical oxidation process as a pre-treatment or post-treatment
on harmfulness and ratio of BOD to COD i.e. biodegradability index. Thus, the effect of pretreatment or post treatment should not
be only evaluated by ratio of BOD to COD but also toxicity of intermediates obtained after treatment as toxicity may give very low
COD but cause big damages (Punzi et al., 2015).
Brief review of a several combinations of chemical and biological
for dealing with the textile wastewater is shown in Table 8 and it
reveals that whether the oxidation methods or the biological
methods are rst in a sequence of treatment, the ultimate aim of
362
Table 9
Cost of textile wastewater treatment techniques.
Sr.No. Process for treatment of textile
wastewater
Color/COD removal
References
Complete decolorisation.
Final COD of 80 ppm after activated sludge process.
For the Fenton process, 78% and 95% COD and color removal (Solmaz et al., 2006)
efciencies respectively.
For the Fenton e like process, 64% and 71% COD and color (Solmaz et al., 2006)
removal efciencies respectively.
In this study, chemical coagulation (8% COD removal) and ion (stn et al., 2007)
3.5 USD per m3 (cost of
exchange processes (51% COD removal and nal COD 50 mg/
sludge disposal 1.5 USD per
l) were applied after pre-treatment by Fenton oxidation
m3)
process (29% COD removal) to the textile wastewater.
363
Fig. 5. Strategy for the combination of AOP/chemical oxidation and biological process for textile wastewater treatment.
studies.
Efuent treatment plants (ETP) utilizing biological methods,
rather than chemical methods claim that their preference is due to
low production of inorganic sludge, low working costs and complete mineralization/stabilization of dye in biological method.
Normally, textile waste water parameters after biological treatment
are not in compliance with the textile wastewater discharge standards. So to meet wastewater discharge and to reduce the effect of
toxic or inhibitory compounds on bacteria, rstly, recalcitrant
organic compounds and dyes should be oxidized by chemical
oxidation or advanced oxidation method to convert it to biodegradable constituents before subjecting the wastewater to bacterial
treatment is preferred. Cavitation can be used to destroy microbial
life in water, if any. The treated water after removal of microbes can
be recycled for the purpose of cleaning. Now onwards, more researchers should focus on the kinetic study of decolorisation/
degradation and modeling of bioreactor for the combination processes of AOP or chemical oxidation as a pre-treatment or posttreatment of segregated recalcitrant streams from each stage of
wet processing before or after subjecting to biological treatment of
the textile wastewater. The researches on pollution control for the
textile industry should also focus on quantitative description of
combination processes instead of only qualitative discussion.
Extensive research has been done to decide the role of the
various bacteria groups in the degradation of azo based water
soluble dyes. Few studies have been reported on the anthraquinone
based reactive dye. So, in future it is necessary to carryout work that
will try to emphasis the degradation of anthraquinone based dyes
with the help of integrated solutions (AOP and biological combination processes). Such a work may enhance the biodegradability of
textile industry wastewater containing anthraquinone based water
soluble dyes used for dyeing. The success of the work related to low
cost materials for MFC will have a positive impact on the local
364
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