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Application of Fly Ash in Reclamation of

Wastelands through Plantations and Floriculture
Alka Thapliyal1 Anushree Malik2*
1 School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi-110 067, India
2 Centre for Rural Development & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi - 110 016, India
Corresponding author: * anushree@rdat.iitd.ac.in

Keywords: fly ash dumps, microbial consortium, organic amendments, problematic soils, revegetation, soil fertility

ABSTRACT
This article links two terms wastelands and fly ash, which sound distinct but have several common implications. In their present forms both are
waste and a rather problematic one that could spread further if poorly managed. Their management itself is difficult and economically
unfavorable. At the same time both could have great potential if utilized prudently. The present article emanates from the need to realize the
veiled potential and to find out how fly ash and wasteland can complement each other for the benefit of Humanity and our environment.
Consequently this article introduces and deals individually with wastelands and fly ash in the first two sections followed by a synergy (concept of
joint or symbiotic management of wastelands and fly ash) in the subsequent section. Lab/field scale applications of fly ash in wasteland
reclamation are summarized with special emphasis on the benefits of organic/ microbial culture-amended fly ash. Prospects of floriculture on
abandoned fly ash dumps are also discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION
Land is a finite resource which is put to many competing uses. Enormous population growth and the consequent demand for land, water and
biological resources has put tremendous pressure on land resulting in the generation of wastelands. Wastelands are those lands which are
either not available for cultivation or are left out of cultivation due to poor economic returns. They are ecologically and topographically unstable
and the soil here seems to have completely lost its fertility status due to deficiency in nutrients and beneficial microorganisms. Some wastelands
have even developed toxicity for the growth of crops or trees. The situation is quite alarming as on the global basis, only about 11% of the
worlds soils are without serious limitations.

1.1. Wastelands
In India land is a source of livelihood for 60% of the population through agriculture and related activities but about 20% of the total geographical
area exists as wastelands. Given the interlinkages of crop production, livestock economy and environment, land degradation has a major impact
on the livelihoods of people, especially in rural areas. Obviously there is an urgent need to reclaim these wastelands in order to meet the
demands of an expanding population. Moreover, if these wastelands are not put under green cover they may be further subjected to erosion and
expansion and eventually desertification. The situation calls for immediate action in this regard. Realizing the grim situation a National
Wastelands Development Board was set up in India in 1986 that refers to wastelands as degraded lands which can be brought under vegetative
cover with reasonable effort and which is currently lying under-utilized, and land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate water and soil
management or on account of natural causes. This definition indicates that land degradation could stem from a variety of reasons and it is
always desirable to consider these factors as they may provide clues to successful restoration projects.

1.2. Genesis of wastelands

Land, a non-renewable resource and central to all primary production systems, has suffered over the years from different types of degradation
that rendered it unproductive: by the forces of wind/water erosion or by salinity, water logging or others. Various factors like inherent/imposed
disabilities (location, environment, chemical and physical properties of the soil) or financial or management constraints are responsible for land
degradation. Nevertheless, these factors can be grouped into natural and anthropogenic factors. Wastelands formed due to natural factors
include those areas which are unfit for agricultural purposes due to topographical/geographical constraints. These include steep sloping area,
barren rocky/stony waste/sheet rock area, snow covered and/or glacial area which comprise a major portion of total geographic area.
The main anthropogenic factor responsible for wasteland generation is the ever increasing population of human and animals that place
enormous pressure on land resources. For example, India which has only 2.4% of the worlds geographical area today supports over 16% of the

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worlds population. It has 0.5% of the world's grazing area but supports over 18% of the world's cattle population (10th five year plan, India). Such
pressures have led to drastic changes in the proportion of land utilized for agricultural activities, urbanization and industrial development.
Agricultural practices that rely heavily on water, chemical fertilizers and pesticides have caused water logging and salinity in many parts of the
country. The quest for increased agricultural productivity and monoculture crops has led to intensive cultivation of marginal lands which is
causing their degradation. Small and medium farmers, unable to make ends meet and drawn to the ever-growing cities, gradually left these lands
to the destructive forces of wind and water erosion. Besides, shifting cultivation which currently supports between 300-500 million people
worldwide has led to the generation of low fertility lands as the fields are used for a few years and are then left to grow in a wild state for many
years. Destruction of forests for commercial purposes like for building material, fodder for domesticated animals, and commercial logging has
converted forests into wastelands, resulting in indigenous forest cover of only 21% of the earths land surface. Mining and industrial activities
also result in denudation of the vegetative cover as well as contamination of the soil with toxic pollutants.

1.3. Categories of wastelands

Wastelands can be broadly categorized into two groups, i.e. barren/unculturable lands (steep mountains, deserts etc.) and culturable land.
Further classification also exists which is based either on the root cause of genesis or on the nature and extent of efforts required for reclamation.
However, the estimates of degraded land vary considerably (due to definitional and coverage inconsistencies) and the extent of land degradation
is yet to be determined precisely. A study sponsored by three United Nations agencies (Food and Agricultural Organisation, United Nations
Development Programme and United Nations Environment Programme) estimated the severity and costs of land degradation in South Asia. Its
finding was that the countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan) are losing at least US$10 billion
annually as a result of losses resulting from land degradation. This was equivalent to 2% of the region's Gross Domestic Product, or 7% of the
value of its agricultural output.

1.4. Reclamation of wastelands

The reclamation of wasteland should involve some basic land preparation and water conservation measures before planting selected hardy plant
species which should be able to survive under harsh conditions. Although often employed in conjunction with each other for the sake of
discussion the reclamation measures have been categorized into the following:

1.4.1. Physical methods

These measures are essential and useful for those areas that have topographical/geographical problem like hilly areas or foothills devoid of
vegetation. By adopting soil conservation measures such as contour or staged trenches and gully plugging successful tree plantation can be
achieved. Wherever good soil pockets exist pits are dug and well developed seedlings are planted during the rainy season. Making step like
fields and then planting trees on the borders of the fields and the agricultural crops can be grown in the fields. Other physical measures include
provision of soil bunds or constructed ponds for water conservation.

1.4.2. Chemical methods

These methods are applicable where loss of soil fertility can be replenished by the addition of inorganic or organic amendments, e.g. acidic
soils can be neutralized by the addition of lime. For alkaline soils, application of gypsum may be beneficial. It acts as a reclamation agent by
replacing the exchangeable sodium and it converts the sodium clay back into calcium clay. Besides, sulphuric acid, iron and aluminum sulphates
as well as organic matter amendments can also be used to reclaim alkaline soils effectively. The acidity developed during the course of their
decomposition in soil neutralizes the alkalinity. The use of industrial wastes such as molasses, press mud and basic slag for improving soil
conditions is also possible.

1.4.3. Biological methods

Biological method implies the use of plants and weeds for reclamation of wasteland. Plants are solar powered systems which are the centre
of primary production in all ecosystems. There are several advantages of reclaiming wasteland through plants such as natural regeneration
ability, multidimensional improvement in soil properties (due to leaf-litter and beneficial rhizosphere microbiota) and multipurpose utilization of the
produced biomass (as fuel, fodder, food, etc.). Further, revegetation of wastelands also improves the aesthetic beauty and supports valuable wild
life. But this again is not a simple task as not every plant can grow on harsh conditions prevailing there. However, there are different plant
species suitable for growth on different types of problematic soils such as those arising due to acidity, alkalinity and accumulation of heavy
metals etc. Investigations show that planting of salt-tolerant tree species (halophytes) could have a significant impact on soil properties, which
could help to rehabilitate the sodic wastelands in the long run. Garg (1998) observed that Dalbergia sissoo and Prosopis juliflora were more
efficient than Acacia nilotica or Terminalia arjuna in rehabilitating sodic land. Litter production by the first two was greater than that provided by
the latter two which subsequently caused depletion in soil pH and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) values. Besides, multipurpose plants
can be selected which not only are resistant to the harsh conditions but at the same time provide us with some value added products. For
example, Salvadora persica can be grown on saline/alkaline lands and has immense industrial applications. The dried seeds contain 30 to 40%
oil which is of great economic significance. Purified oil is used in soap making and detergent industries as a substitute for coconut oil (Zodape
and Indusekhar 1997). Jatropha curcas also produces oil-rich seeds and is known to thrive on eroded lands with very limited amounts of water,
nutrients and capital inputs. This plant offers the option both to cultivate wastelands and to produce vegetable oil suitable for conversion to biodiesel (Francis et al. 2005). Combination of trees and grasses is quite beneficial in terms of total foliage production and stabilization of sand
dunes. Singh et al. (1994) reported that Prosopis juliflora-leptochloa fusca silvipastoral model was found to be excellent for fuelwood and forage
production and for the amelioration of high pH soils while Eucalyptus tereticornis, Populus deltoides and Tectona grandis based agroforestry
were promising for reclaiming salt-affected lands.

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Role of Biotechnology
The above discussion indicates that different categories of problematic soils can be reclaimed by planting different kinds/combinations of trees.
However, successful establishment of plants in problematic soil and their proper vegetative/reproductive growth is a tough challenge. The use of
biotechnology can help overcome such problems in various ways. Micropropagation (raising of plantlets from the tissue of shoot tips and other
suitable plant parts) can ensure mass production of plants, which are free from any disease and more resistant to drought. But this method is
very expensive and success rate in the fields is very low. Apart from this, there are several beneficial microorganisms which are comparatively
cheaper biofertilizers. An excellent example of this is the symbiotic association of fungi with roots of higher plants, the mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizal
fungi promote biological weathering and nutrient mobilization on one hand and degrade complex substrates, thus increasing the nutrient
availability on the other hand. They are termed as the extended arms of the plants which not only enhance the nutrients and water absorption but
also prevent plant from other pathogens and increase the longevity of roots. Experimental evidence supports the fact that mycorrhizal fungi are
beneficial in bringing wastelands under cultivation (Gaur et al. 2000). It has been observed that inoculation of two arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Glomus fasciculatum and Glomus macrocarpum alone or in combination leads to enhanced growth of Acacia auriculiformis in a wasteland soil
under nursery and field conditions (Giri et al. 2004). Availability of nitrogen and phosphorus is a must for proper plant growth. Therefore, there
are bright prospects for the use of nitrogen-fixing and phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms in wasteland reclamation. Plants belonging to the
Leguminosae harbor symbiotic N2-fixing bacteria and hence can improve the N content of infertile soil (Sanginga et al. 1994, Cheung et al. 2000).
It is reported that leguminous trees are highly tolerant and survive in arid, infertile and metal-contaminated areas (Musil 1993, Cheung et al.
2000, Vajpayee et al. 2000). The use of Rhizobium has been reported to be a key factor for plant establishment under xeric and nutrient
unbalanced conditions (Barea et al. 1996, Requena et al. 1996). The dynamics of this interaction are discussed elsewhere in the book.

1.4.4. Integrated methods

Wasteland reclamation is a labor/money intensive tough task and until some economic returns can be clubbed to the reclamation project it is
very difficult to implement. It usually requires a long-term multidimensional approach using a combination of physical/chemical and biological
methods. Land reclamation commonly fails when carried out as a single-phased attempt, even when indigenous species are used for
plantations. Revegetation with hardy species must also be preceded or combined with other complementary measures like soil and water
conservation to effectively and inexpensively regenerate most degraded lands for crop production. A beautiful example of such efforts was put
forth by Auroville (2001) in Tamil Nadu, India regarding wasteland reclamation through rehabilitation of eroded soil. The red lateritic soils here
were characterized by extensive loss of topsoil, leaving behind a barren, stony, rugged area. The reclamation approach followed combined
physical techniques such as formation of contour bunds at regular intervals (earth bunds stabilized with local grasses) and water harvesting
ponds in the gullies followed by plantations of prudently selected consortium of plants comprising two exotic species Acacia holosericea (coleii),
Stylosanthes hamata and two indigenous species Dodonaea viscose and Cassia auriculata. After about three years of growth of these pioneer
species, secondary species of economic importance (fruit/oil/timber yielding plants) could be successfully planted.
To conclude this section, wasteland reclamation is being taken up intensively now and efforts are on to make the whole process more
economically and socially acceptable. In this sense utilization of unwanted waste products that could prove beneficial for enhancing soil fertility
would be an attractive option. One such waste product is fly ash. On one hand fly ash is a problematic waste acquiring a substantial area on the
land and on the other hand we are facing the problem of reclamation of vast stretches of culturable wastelands. It would be wonderful if such a
land demanding waste could be utilized for revegetation and reclamation of wastelands. This concept, which directly links us to the next section,
has been the motivation of the present article.

2. FLY ASH
Fly ash is the byproduct of coal combustion. It is the finely divided particles of ash suspended in gases resulting from the combustion of fuel. It is
produced in large amounts from thermal power plants and poses a great threat to humans and nearby environment. However, recent research
has demonstrated that fly ash application to land can help improving the soil properties and plant growth. Before describing how fly ash can be
used for reclamation of problematic soils/wastelands some aspects related to production, characteristics and alternate uses of fly ash are
discussed below.

2.1. Generation and disposal of fly ash

In the US alone over 118 million tons (mt) of coal combustion products are generated each year (ACCA 1998). India which primarily depends on
coal-based thermal power plants to meet its energy needs (70%) presently generates 112 mt fly ash annually and is projected to exceed 175 mt
by 2012 considering the plans to double the power generation over the next 10 years (Kumar and Singh 2005). Fly ash is disposed off using
either a dry or wet disposal scheme. In dry disposal the fly ash is transported by truck, chute or conveyor at a site and disposed off by
constructing a dry embankment (dyke); in wet disposal the fly ash is transported as slurry through a pipe and disposed off in an impoundment
termed an "ash pond".

2.2. Problems associated with fly ash

Both the dry and the wet disposal methods for fly ash ultimately lead to the dumping of fly ash on open land, which degrades the soil and
endangers human health and the environment. Repeated exposure to fly ash can cause irritation in eyes, skin, nose, throat and respiratory tract
and result in arsenic poisoning (Davison et al. 1974, Carlson and Adriano 1993, Belkin et al. 1999). The main problem arises from the massive
amount of generated fly ash and the difficult handling of this waste. In India, nearly 1,500 mt of unutilized fly ash have eventually accumulated in
ash ponds of different Thermal Power Plants. This large volume of fly ash occupies nearly 60,000 acres of land. Moreover, it can reach the subsoil and ultimately cause siltation, clogging of the natural drainage system and contamination of the ground water with heavy metals.
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2.3. Characteristics of fly ash

Fly ash has a hydrophilic surface and is extremely porous with a small particle size. It generally has a silt loam texture with 65-90% of the
particles having diameters of less than 0.010 mm (Chang et al. 1977). Often smaller ash particles tend to be more reactive (Iyer and Scott 2001).
In general fly ash has low bulk density (1.01-1.43g/cm3), hydraulic conductivity, and specific gravity (1.6-3.1 g/cm3; Mattigod et al. 1990).
However, the physical properties and chemical composition of fly ash vary depending on the type of coal burned, boiler type and collector setup.
Ash from bituminous coal is usually finer than that produced by the burning of lignite. Chemically 90-99% of fly ash is comprised of Si, Al, Fe, Ca,
Mg, Na and K with Si and Al forming the major matrix. Many trace elements including As, B, Ca, Mo, S, Se and Sr in the ash are concentrated in
smaller amounts. Other trace elements present in ash (such as Cd) play no known role in nutrition and may be toxic to both plants and animals if
they become bioavailable.

2.4. Current utilization practices for fly ash

Keeping in mind the ever increasing demand for energy and the associated rise in generation of fly ash, sustained utilization of this waste is very
much required. Realizing the fact that fly ash can act as a resource rather than a waste, the Government of India had promptly initiated a Fly
Ash Mission in 1994 which is now recognized as the Fly Ash Utilization Program (FAUP). Due to concerted efforts of FAUP fly ash utilization in
India has increased from 1 mt per year in 1994 to 42 mt in 2005 and has also gathered considerable momentum to reach higher levels with
diverse applications (Kumar and Singh 2005). It is being used in cement manufacturing/substitution (49%) followed by use in roads and embankments (22%) as a filler in low lying areas (17%), brick manufacturing (2%), dyke raising (4%), mine fills (2%), agriculture (1%) and others (3%).
Apart from the above areas other niches for fly ash applications are also being explored. The use of fly ash for preparation of ferric alum,
utensil washing powder and black board chalks has been demonstrated (Goswami and Das 1998). Recent investigations have shown that it can
act as an adsorbent for the removal of several persistent pollutants such as chlorophenols, or the herbicides alachlor and metachlor from the soil
(Albanis et al. 1998). It has also been successfully tested for removal of metals (Kapadia et al. 2000), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), dyes
(Haribabu 1992, Rao 1992, Viraraghavan 1993, Matani 1998, Viraraghavan 1999) and fluoride (Chaturvedi et al. 1990) from water, wastewaters
and sewage sludge. Sewage sludge when co-composted with fly ash removes the pathogenic microorganism like fecal coliform, Salmonella and
Streptococcus (Wong et al. 1997).

3. FLY ASH FOR RECLAMATION OF WASTELANDS AND FLORICULTURE

As discussed above fly ash has many applications but still the amount of fly ash generated is much more than what is being utilized. Hence, to
overcome the environmental menace due to fly ash we need to explore more effective and eco-friendly ways of utilizing this waste in bulk. This
can be achieved either by vegetating the fly ash dumps by amending them with suitable materials so as to make up the nutrient deficiency and
improve the inhospitable conditions of the fly ash or by applying fly ash to various problematic soils or agricultural fields in order to correct their
nutrient deficiency and unfavourable conditions.

3.1. Plant growth potential of pure fly ash

Microbial diversity which is an essential component for maintaining soil fertility is very less due to inertness and inhospitable conditions prevailing
in fly ash. Though fly ash is the reservoir of many essential elements plants are not able to thrive on pure fly ash as it is deficient in major
nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which are almost absent or present in a negligible concentration. Thus, natural colonization of fly ash
dumps is very slow (Hodgson and Townsend 1973) and only resistant plant species are able to grow on weathered fly ash that has an increased
microbial diversity (Rippon and Wood 1976, Wong and Wong 1986). The pioneering species found to inhabit fly ash dumps were Funaria
hygrometrica, which appeared in 2 months old fly ash basins followed by Digitaria setigera, Euphorbia spp., Ageratum conyzoides, Evolvulus
nummularius, Cassia tora, Amaranthus sp. and others (6-8 months old fly ash basin) and Calotropis procera, Lantana camera, and Ipomea
carnea that made their appearance after 1 year. The succession shows that fly ash can support vegetation if provided with favorable conditions.
However, due to serious limitations on the growth of the majority of plants on neat fly ash, it is best used in conjunction with soil.

3.2. Effect of fly ash amendments on properties of agricultural soils and plant growth
Fly ash has a vast potential for use in agronomy as an amendment, especially due to the physical condition and the presence of macro- and
micronutrients that are conducive for plant growth. The advantages and disadvantages of fly ash applications to improve the properties and
fertility of agricultural soils have been published by a large number of researchers in India and abroad (Menon et al. 1993, Schwab 1993, Saxena
et al. 1998). Fly ash, when amended with soil improves the texture of soil which further improves aeration, percolation and water retention
capacity of the soil. It can affect a substantial increase in the pH of the acidic soils. Moreover as the fly ash is the reservoir of essential minerals it
provides micronutrients like Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, and macronutrients like K, P, and Ca and enhances the nutritional status of the soil. At low levels
of application to barley (Hordeum vulgare L.var. Leduc) fly ash resulted in increased plant height and grain yield (Sale et al. 1996). Application of
50% fly ash to soil results in increased growth and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum) with effects comparable to those of soil with compost and
an NPK (nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium) fertilizer (Tripathy and Sahu 1997). In another study on wheat increased growth was seen with
addition of fly ash and fly ash leachate (Karpate and Choudhary 1997). In the case of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum), an increased yield
was observed in loam soil amended with up to 60% (w/w) of coal fly ash (Khan and Khan 1996). Long-term studies on the effect of fly ash on soil
fertility and crop yields carried out by Saxena and Asokan (2001) revealed that it can be used as a enriching medium for improving the yield of
most of the crops, vegetables and cereals without affecting the food quality and soil fertility. Apart from the increased biomass generated in the
plot due to fly ash treatment during the first year, it further contributed to enrich the fertility status of soil in subsequent years. The above
examples depict that fly ash amendments can contribute towards enhanced yields and improvement in properties of the agricultural soils in a
vast majority of crop-soil combinations and in different agro-climatic regions. Therefore, there is an ample scope that fly ash amendments can
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also enhance the productivity of marginal and degraded lands. Somehow the majority of studies have focused on agricultural uses of fly ash as a
soil ameliorant and very few have examined the performance of non-agricultural plants on fly ash (El-Mogazi et al. 1988). Therefore, the next
part of the article describes how fly ash has proved beneficial in reclamation of degraded soils and wastelands primarily using non-agricultural
plants.

3.3. Reclamation of wastelands and degraded soils using fly ash

Improving the productive capacity of degraded soils is particularly important for sustainable development. It has been recognized that soils have
the ability to restore their fertility (Blum 1994, Szaboles 1994, Zhao 1995, Lal 1997) but the intrinsic soil properties and endogenous factors affect
the restoration ability (Zhang and Xu 2005). Management is an important external factor because some soil constraints can be alleviated by
judicious land use and various inputs, e.g. low pH can be modified by liming and nutrient deficiency can be overcome by the addition of fertilizers.
However, easy availability and low cost of such inputs is desirable as far as wasteland reclamation projects are concerned and one such waste
product that can be used in this capacity is fly ash. Application of fly ash containing base cations and trace elements to soils may be beneficial in
stimulating growth of commercially important tree species. Further, due to its versatile nature fly ash can find application in reclamation of varying
categories of problematic soils. For example, fly ash additions to an easily clodded, clay loam soil not only decreased bulk density, increased
aggregation and decreased the modulus of rupture (Sale et al. 1997) but also increased porosity, water-holding capacity, pH, conductivity etc. In
sandy soil its application decreased the particle size distribution, porosity and thus increased the water holding capacity (Saxena and Asokan,
2000). Being a reserve of several nutritionally important trace elements, fly ash has a great potential for improving the nutrient deficient soils
(Wong and Wongz 1987). In fact fly ash addition in selenium and boron deficient soils has yielded better productivity (Sale et al. 1996, Jiang et al.
1999). The following discussion along with Table 1 further elaborates the potential application of fly ash for reclamation of commonly found
problematic soils.
Table 1 Application of fly ash for reclamation of problematic soils.
Wasteland/eroded
land
Calcareous soil and
acidic soil

Amendments (FA alone or FA/manure

mix. etc.)
FA @ 8% by wt. & sequential cropping of
native desert sp. followed by barley

Effect on soil
properties
Increased pH, EC,
Ca, Mg, Na, B & SO4

Nutrient deficient
sandy soils

FA & PM in different ratios

Acidic clay textured

soils

FA @ 167 t/ha

pH & conc. of B
increased

Acidic soils (pH:4.55.8)

Alkaline FA (pH:8.5-8.9) @ 5, 20 and 50

g/kg soil

FA increased pH &
EC

Waterlogged sodic
soils
(pH:9.07, EC:3.87
dS/m, ESP:26.0)

Acidic FA (pH:5.9) alone @ 0-7.5%, and/or

in combination with gypsum (10-100%) &
soil (10%), respectively for effect on padiwheat rotation crops

FA decreased pH &
EC; 60% Gypsum +
3% acidic FA
recommended

Sandy soils

Alkaline FA (pH:8.5) + compost

amendments

Effect on growth of plants

Any other issue/concern

Reference

Shoots dry wt. of desert sp.

& barley yield grain
significantly improved
PM alone: increases yield;
PM+FA: Response depends
on crop (Brassica) species
B tolerant alfa grown well

Availability of P, Zn, Fe, & Mn

diminished but low Cu: Mo
ratios in harvested plants
With increase in FA, tissue
concentrations of Zn and Mn
decreased while Mo increased
Beneficial liming effect up to
110 t/ha FA; Uptake of As & Se
not studied
Increased uptake of B and P;
alkaline FA (low B conc.) @ 20
g/kg recommended
FA increased N, K, Ca, Mg, S,
Fe, Mn, B, Mo, Al, Pb, Ni, Co,
but decreased Na, P and Zn in
the seeds and straw of paddy
and wheat crops
Fe & Mn in tomato leaves were
within permissible range

Elseewi et
al. 1980

FA increased dry biomass

yield of ryegrass (Lolium
perenne L.)
FA up to 4.5% increased the
straw & grain yield of padi &
wheat crops

FA @ 12.5% enhanced
tomato plant growth but
inhibited turf grass

Wong and
Wongz
1987
Warren
1992
Matsi and
Keramidas
1999
Kumar and
Singh 2003

Chou et al.
2005

FA- fly ash, EC- electrical conductivity, PM- poultry Manure

3.3.1. Acidic soils

Fly ash presents a reasonable choice of disposal to acidic soils as it acts effectively as liming agent by increasing soil pH. But at the same
time care should be taken to keep soil pH within acceptable limits as the increase in pH makes certain elements like Zn (Mulford and Martens
1971), P (Page et al. 1979) and Mn (Carlson and Adriano 1993) unavailable. The quantity of fly ash required to reclaim acidic soils will therefore
depend upon the pH and state of weathering of fly ash as well as on the pH of the land to be reclaimed. Fly ash when applied to a calcareous
and acidic soil and planted with a native desert plant species (Encelia farinosa) followed by barley resulted in increased pH, EC (electrical
conductivity), Ca, Mg, Na, B, and SO4 in soil (Elseewi et al. 1980). Warren (1992) reported a beneficial liming effect of fly ash up to 110 t/ha in
acidic clay textured soils. Similarly Matsi and Keramidas (1999) found that its application on acidic soils (pH 4.5-5.8) increased the dry biomass
yield of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), pH, electrical conductivity and uptake of phosphorus at a recommended fly ash dose of 20 g/kg soil.
However, most of the authors also addressed to the concern of build up of certain toxic elements in soil and plant tissues (Table 1). Although it
was found that the accumulation of elements such as Fe, Mn, Mo and others occurred, often these were within permissible limits. Still care
needs to be taken as far as boron toxicity is concerned due to excessive uptake of B in several cases. Finally the results suggest the use of fly
ash of low B and salt content as a liming agent in acid soils, at amounts that depend on the acid-neutralizing capacity of the fly ash and the
buffering capacity of the soils. Leaching, lagooning and stockpiling of fly ash could appreciably solve this problem, minimizing boron toxicity and
other ill effects of unweathered fly ash (Mulford and Martens 1971, Phung et al. 1978, Page et al. 1979). Cultivation of boron-tolerant plants is
further expected to mitigate these side effects.

3.3.2. Alkaline/sodic soils

Although usually fly ash is extremely alkaline (pH 10-12) because of hydroxides and carbonate salts of Ca and Mg, it can at times be
extremely acidic (pH 3-4). Khan et al. (1996) reported the effect of varying levels of acidic fly ash on pH, EC, and available major plant nutrients
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in an alkaline fine sandy loam soil of India. Their results showed a decrease in soil pH and increase in EC with an increasing quantity of fly ash.
Water-logged sodic soils under paddy-wheat systems were also subjected to acidic fly ash treatments in combination with gypsum over a period
of two years (Table 1). There was a marked improvement in soil properties and finally a dose of 60% gypsum and 3% acidic fly ash was
recommended.

3.3.3. Mining wasteland

Coal mining has resulted in hectares of land which are physically, nutritionally and biologically poor in nature. These lands are characterized
by poor water-holding capacity, infertility, high acidity or salinity of the soil (Moffat and McNeill 1994). The solution for these degraded lands lies
in the establishment of an economically feasible and permanent cover of vegetation on the mine spoils. But the natural succession on these
lands takes longer (Wali 1987, Jha and Singh 1992) as low pH is the major negative determinate in natural revegetation of surface-mined coal
lands (Skousen et al. 1994). Further, due to extreme variability in chemical composition of mine dumps the ability of different plant species to
modify mine spoil characteristics (based on their relative tolerance to different types of toxic materials) has been found to differ considerably
(Alexander 1989a 1989b). A successful afforestation on the mine area of Amarkantak, India showed Gravellia pteridifolia, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Pinus roxburgii and Pongamia pinnata to be the most suitable species on the basis of growth performance (Chaturvedi 1983).
Fly ash acts as an alternative to lime for neutralization and stabilization of the acidic mine spoils (Haering and Daniels 1991, Carlson and
Adriano 1993, Stehouwer et al. 1995a 1995b). It can contribute Ca and other basic cations to improve soil structure and increase the pH of
acidic soils. Additions of alkaline fly ash to mine spoils also decreases soil bulk density, increases water-holding capacity and reduce compaction
(Capp 1978, Jastrow et al. 1981, Fail 1987, Taylor and Schumann 1988). Due to these factors fly ash addition has helped in the successful
reclamation of mine spoils and abandoned mines in different parts of the world (Table 2). Nevertheless, the concern for potential accumulation of
toxic elements has always been there. Srivastava and Chhonkar (2000) using a pot culture experiment on Sudan grass (Sorghum sp.) and oats
(Avena sativa) demonstrated that at all levels of application, fly ash and lime were comparable in significantly increasing the pH, availability and
uptake of phosphorus, sulphur and exchangeable potassium in acidic coal mine spoils. At the same time, no symptoms of elemental toxicity
were observed. On the other hand, Hammermeister et al. (1998) observed B toxicity symptoms and suggested that B-tolerant plant species
should be grown while using fly ash.
Fly ash has been recommended as an amendment for pyritic mine tailings in western USA (Sonderegger and Donovan 1984) where it
facilitated the establishment of vegetation at barren sites by bringing about changes in the soil pH and acted as source of plant nutrients (Capp
1978). Pyrite (FeS2) in wastes and mine spoils is oxidized to form sulphuric acid, resulting in highly acidic conditions (Adams et al. 1971, Fail and
Wochok 1977, Capp 1978, Jastrow et al. 1981). Fly ash was reported to suppress the pyrite oxidation (Keefer 1993) by acting as a blanket to
prevent oxygen diffusion. Spoil areas having pH of 4.4-5.0 were reclaimed by fly ash at 70 mt/ha (Fail and Wochok 1977) while highly acidic
spoils with pH of 2.0-3.5, required 335-1790 t/ha of fly ash (Adams et al. 1972). Planting of halo-tolerant plant species has been recommended
to partially reduce this quantity (Capp et al. 1975, Capp 1978). The best initial planting mixture on mine spoil is a combination of grasses and
legumes, particularly Kentucky 31 fescue (Festuca arundinacea), red top (Agrostis alba L.), ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), orchard grass
(Dactylis glomerata L.) and birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). After several years trees and shrubs like crab apple (Malus sp.), European
alder, Scotts pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) could be planted (Capp 1978). Soil depth appears to be a
positive factor in establishing white pine (Pinus strobes) on mine-spoil (Andrews et al. 1998). Thus, fly ash incorporation within increased depths
of soil, or the effective rooting zone could be beneficial. Apart from its plant growth promoting nature, fly ash also has several other applications.
Menghini et al. (2005) reported that fly ash can be used for filling up pits caused by surface mining at Pennsylvania (Table 2) and the authors
noticed that there was no contamination of groundwater by fly ash over a 15 year monitoring period. It has also been observed that when fly ash
is mixed with wood chips and applied to abandoned mine sites at West Virginia it helped to reduce erosion of the top soil (Gorman et al. 2000).
Thus, it is clearly evident from the above examples that fly ash can be used in various ways to restore mining sites.
Table 2 Application of fly ash for reclamation of mining wastelands.
Wasteland /
eroded land
Mine soil,
Edmonton, Alberta

Amendments (FA alone

or FA/manure mix. etc
FA @ 0- 400 t/ha

Abandoned mine
sites West Virginia

FA-wood waste mixtures

with 10% and 20% slope

Acidic coal mine

spoils, area

Alkaline FA

Surface mines,
Pennsylvania

FA to fill the pits of around

10-20 acres pits

Surface Mine in
Mpumalnga
province, South
Africa

Class F fly ash and

Sewage sludge

Effect on soil
properties
Increased B, Mo,
Ca, Cr, K, Mg, Mo,
Na, P, Se, and Sr
concentration
FA alone reduced
infiltration &
increased erosion
FA increased pH, P,
K, S & decreased
the bulk density
Abandoned surface
mine pits reclaimed
with fly ash
Increase in available
P, K and pH

Effect on growth of plants

Any other issue/concern

Reference

FA @ upto 200 t/ha increased yield

of barley silage but @ 400 t/ha
significantly reduced it

B Toxicity symptoms in barley,

symptoms less severe for brome and
alfalfa; Cu:Mo ratio decreased

Hammermeister
et al.1998

FA-wood chips mixture are less

erodable; increased vegetation
(mosses and fungi) reduced erosion
Increased yield & uptake of P, K, S
in Sudan grass (Sorghum
studanens) and Oats (Avena sativa)
Extensive wild life habitat plantings
established

Gorman et al.
2000
No elemental toxicity, FA as potential
alternative to lime recommended

Srivastave and
Chhonkar 2000

No significant findings of
environmental damage or growund
water pollution observed over 15
years monitoring period

Menghini et al.
2005

Revegetation with Teff (Eragrostis

tef), rhodegrass (Chloris gayana),
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon),
Smutsfinger grass (Digitaria
erianthra), Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)

FA- fly ash

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3.3.4. Fly ash dumps/ponds

Ash ponds cover thousands of hectares of land (Kumar and Sharma 1998, Jamwal 2003). Some of these ash ponds which are completely
filled and abandoned create serious environmental problems and health hazards including several allergenic diseases like silicosis, asthma and
other breathing problems. Further, surface/ground water close to the abandoned ash pond may also get contaminated due to leaching of toxic
trace metals and radionuclides during successive years from these ash ponds. Phytoremediation or revegetation of fly ash landfills and disturbed
lands by plantation of suitable and multipurpose trees would (Figs. 1a-c) develop the bioaesthetic environment and reduce dispersal of fly ash
(Vajpayee et al. 2000, Rai et al. 2002). Therefore, there is an urgent need for development of eco-friendly technologies for reclamation of
abandoned ash ponds on a sustainable basis.
As discussed earlier, solely fly ash cannot support plant growth, but when amended with organic manure and mycorrhizae it can support
vegetation on fly ash dumps without amending it with soil (Adholeya 1997). The mycorrhizal fungi live in the roots of the plants and help
absorbing nutrients from the fly ash, thus making survival possible for the plants. Adholeya et al. (1997) observed that fly ash when amended
with 5% farm yard manure and inoculated with mycorrhiza improved its physico-chemical properties like pH, EC, P, total N, organic C, etc. and
biological environment which resulted in initiation of vegetation in fly ash dumps. Fly ash dumps which once was a hazard to the environment
turned into lavish green with flowers like marigold (Calendula sp.), carnation (Dianthus sp.), sunflower, lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus),
tuberose (Polianthus tuberosa), corn flag (Gladiolus sp.) and lily (Lilium sp.) blooming on it. Ram et al. (2005) also demonstrated the successful
flowering of bougainvillea on pond ash by amending it with biological materials like sewage sludge, biofertilizers like Rhizobium and
Phosphobacterium cultures, humic acid etc. Thus, revegetating fly ash dumps require an integrated approach that envisages appropriate
blending of fly ash with organic waste from domestic and industrial sources and the application of biotechnological means involving biological N2
fixation and phosphate mobilization. With such inputs vast ash dumps in Indian Thermal Power Plants have been covered with luxurious
flowering plants (Table 3) as well as Biodiesel yielding Jatropha and other medicinal plants (Ram et al. 2005, Sharma and Adholeya 2005).
Table 3 Floriculture on fly ash dumps or fly ash amended soils.
Soil type/growth medium
Amendments
Flowers grown

Effect on growth medium

Fly ash overburdens, India

(pH:7.41, EC:1.13, P:11.6,
total N%:0.014, organic C%:
0.60

Fly ash + 5% farm yard

manure + mycorrhiza
inoculation

Properties of fly ash

improved pH:6.60, EC:1.51,
P (20.5), total N% (0.31),
organic C% (1.84)

Low fertility soil, South Africa

(20% Silt & 80% Sand)
P (5 ppm), Ca (270 ppm), Mg
(125 ppm), K (20 ppm)
Commercial Peat Moss/FA
mixed media

95% Soil + 5% SLASH

(27% Sewage
sludge+64% Fly ash+9%
Lime on dry matter basis)
Alkaline FA @ 25-100%

Pond ash, India

Sewage sludge, biofertilizers like Rhizobium

and Phosphobacterium
cultures, humic acid, etc.

Calendula sp., Dianthus

sp., sunflower,
Cymbopogon citratus,
Polianthus tuberose,
Gladiolus sp., Lilium sp.
Aster sp. (Asters)

Chrysanthemums

Bougainvellia sp

Increase in pH, P content:

61 ppm, Ca:1845 ppm,
Mg:145 ppm; Improvement
in soil texture
Increase in alkalinity &
surface tension predicted
Decrease in pH and
increase in organic carbon
and available NPK

Effect on growth of
flowering plants
Good growth and flower
production

Reference

Significant increase in
plant height, biomass
and some increase in
flower production
Plant height and quality
decreased with increase
in FA
Increase in microbial
activity and population

Rethman et
al. 1999

Adholeya et
al. 1998

Chou et al.
2005
Ram et al.
2005

3.4. Role of additives to fly ash

The discussion in the above sections clearly indicates that the potential
use of fly ash in agronomy/wasteland restoration has been significant
but sole fly ash is also not sufficient enough to supply all the nutrients to
the disturbed lands as it lacks essential nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorus. Therefore, additives in terms of inorganic fertilizers,
organic amendments and microbial consortium are very important
components of the fly ash utilization concept that are separately
discussed below.

3.4.1. Organic amendments

Various organic materials including mulch from biomass,
agricultural residues, bioprocess waste materials such as biosolids and
Fig. 1 Fly ash dump (a) barren
even industrial wastes such as pulp and sludge from paper production
(b) plantations (c) revegetated fly
have been used to amend fly ash-soil mixtures for revegetation of
ash dump.
disturbed lands (Haering et al. 2000). Poultry biosolid is an important
byproduct that presents disposal problems such as surface run-off, eutrophication (Ogg 1999, Cabrera and Sims 2000), volatilization of ammonia
and methane (Moore et al. 1998). Co-application of fly ash and poultry biosolids has proved beneficial in restoration of eroded lands with no
adverse effect on the nutrient status of soil and environment (Punshon et al. 2002).
Large quantities of neutral coal fly ash could be profitably used (Abbott et al. 2001) by co-application of a lime-stabilized biosolid for the
reclamation of acid mine spoil. Beneficial effects of mixing fly ash with biosolids appear to include a reduction in certain metal toxicities from
contaminated sewage biosolids, increased supply of nutrients and addition of buffering capacity. There is a reduction of metal uptake (e.g. Zn,
Cd, Cu) in plants grown in fly ash and sewage biosolids compared with those grown without fly ash (Wong 1995). This has been observed in
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sandy soils perhaps as a result of an increase in soil pH. Sewage biosolids have been mixed with alkaline industrial byproducts also to make a
commercial soil substitute that has beneficial effects on moisture-holding capacity when applied at rates of 500 t/acre (Logan and Harrison 1995).
Fly ash mixed with poultry manure or sewage biosolids (1:1) was beneficial to growth of sudangrass (S. bicolor) at 25 t/acre, and fly ash mixed
with dairy manure increased growth at rates to 50 t/acre (Sajwan et al. 1996). These beneficial effects have been seen in other studies with
varying amounts of fly ash but occasionally with B toxicity at high applications (Wong and Su 1997). Fly ash amended with various other
biological amendments like soil, vermicompost, cocopeat, humic acid and biofertilizer etc. has provided better results in vegetation of the mining
area by various plants like Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbek, Acacia auriculiformis, Cymbopogan flexuosus and Vetiveria zizanoides (Ram et al.
2005). This kind of package produced various beneficial effects on texture, fertility status and microbial activities, without any adverse effect of
carryover of toxic trace and heavy metals and radionuclides.

3.4.2. Microbial consortia

Microbes like fungi, bacteria and blue-green-algae have proved to be good tools in improving and maintaining soil fertility under conditions
of stress. The beneficial effects of soil microbes in hastening the reclamation process in wastelands have been duly recognized and emphasis is
being given on the use of microbial inoculants in revegetation programmes. The role of microbes in improving the performance of plant
communities on wastelands and reforestation sites has been discussed in a recent review (Rout et al. 1999). Here we concentrate specifically on
the microbial consortia that have been used to enhance the growth of plants on fly ash dumps/soil-fly ash mixtures (Tables 2, 3). The microbial
diversity of fly ash is assumed to be very low and very little effort has been made to identify the microflora associated with fly ash. Thapliyal and
Upadhyay (2003) identified the native microbes isolated from fly ash as Pseudomonas spp., Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp. The authors
also demonstrated that if the same fly ash is inoculated with an augmented population of each native microorganism, there was significant
increase in plant (Cicer arientinum) growth, which was even better when a mixed population of native and exotic mycorrhizal microorganism was
inoculated. This may be attributed to the synergistic effect of the microorganism in promoting plant growth.
Leguminous plants have the ability to fix atmospheric nitorgen in their root nodules in symbiosis with rhizobium and they exhibit greater
tolerance towards fly ash stress, which makes them a suitable candidate to revegetate the fly ash dumps (Cheung et al. 2000, Vajpayee et al.
2000). Besides, rhizobium-inoculated plants also showed a significantly higher accumulation of metals in roots than in shoots, which indicates a
positive and safer phytoremediation strategy. The application of nitrogen-fixing blue-green algal inoculants to enhance N and P status and
reduce metal toxicity of fly ash has recently been reported (Rai et al. 2000). It was also observed that blue green alga Anabena doliolum growing
on fly ash accumulates metals like Cu, Zn, Ni and Fe, thereby reducing toxic impact on the plant growth. The accumulation of theses metals
being more in roots than in shoots, showing less translocation of metals from the underground part to the aerial part. There is every possibility to
use fly ash for land application with bacteria, alga etc. which can accumulate the heavy metals from the fly ash thus reducing its toxicity to plants
and contamination of the nearby environment. Fly ash amended with the phosphate solubilising bacteria Pseudomonas striata has been found to
enhance both the yield and P uptake by the plant (Gaind and Gaur 2002). P-solubilising bacteria makes the unavailable P into the available form
and their population can be increased by amending the fly ash with cow dung and inoculating earthworms (Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay
2002). Fly ash in conjunction with soil has been explored as a carrier for diazotrophs and phosphobacteria (Gaind and Gaur 2004). Application of
mycorrhizal technology for revegetation of fly ash dumps has already been discussed earlier (Adholeya 1997).

3.5. Prospects for floriculture

Floriculture is an ancient farm activity with immense potential for generating remunerative self-employment among small and marginal farmers.
Floriculture activity is growing in the world at around 6-10% per annum as there is an increasing demand from developed countries of Europe,
America, Australia, Japan and Singapore. The climatic conditions in most of these countries does not favor year around cultivation of flowers and
many of them import flowers from other countries.
As discussed earlier successful attempts have been made to use fly ash in floriculture but it is still at a nascent stage (Table 3).
Revegetation of fly ash dumps with ornamental plants like Polyanthus tuberose, Helianthus, aromatic species like marigold, carnation, sunflower,
lemongrass, tuberose, gladioli, and lily has been demonstrated. Moreover, fly ash mixed with sewage sludge and lime can be applied to low
fertility soils, resulting in a significant increase in plant height, biomass and flower production of Aster sp. (Rethman et al. 1999). The efforts also
caused significant improvement in soil texture coupled with an increase in P and Ca levels of the soil. Fly ash mixed with materials like
commercial peat moss has also been used for cultivating Chrysanthemums (Chou et al. 2005). However, the authors observed a decline in plant
growth with an increase in fly ash dose, which has been correlated with an increase in alkalinity and surface tension. Therefore, all the flowering
plants may not respond similarly to fly ash applications and the results may also vary due to the diverse nature of the fly ash used in the various
studies. There is a need to come up with specific recommendations for a particular fly ash-flowering plant combination as well as the most
appropriate dose of the fly ash. Nevertheless, the most fascinating aspect is that the risk of food contamination (with toxic metals etc. present in
fly ash) and biomagnification through food chain is avoided while practicing floriculture (rather than growing food crops) on these sites.
Investigating further prospects in this direction can be very fruitful as the developing countries are expected to emerge as world players in the
import and export of floriculture products.

4. CONCLUSION
Wastelands and degraded soils are occupying vast stretches of land and their reclamation assumes great significance in order to meet the
demands of a growing population. A variety of usage options for fly ash have been demonstrated but still the total amount utilized is only a small
fraction of the present fly ash generation. Therefore, application of fly ash in wasteland reclamation could provide an attractive option for its bulk
utilization. The results discussed in this article clearly indicate that due to its versatile nature fly ash can be consumed in successful revegetation
of wastelands and degraded soils. However, it should be kept in mind that since there are diverse types of wastelands and fly ash samples, no
solution can be universally applied. On one hand alkaline fly ash can be beneficial for restoration of acidic soils and mining wastelands and on
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the other hand acidic fly ash can be used for restoring alkaline/sodic soils. Therefore, the need is to find out a complementary fly ash-degraded
soil combination and the optimum doses of application. The provision of low cost organic amendments and microbial inoculants can further
improve this phenomenon by increasing the success rates and reducing the toxic side effects of fly ash application on land.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One of the authors (AM) gratefully thanks Dr. Hitendra K. Malik for his immense help in carefully checking the whole manuscript and giving constructive criticisms. The
Department of Science and Technology, Government of India is thankfully acknowledged for the financial support.

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