Theories in Education

THEORIES IN EDUCATION
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Celeste Riches
ED312: Section 3
Lary N. Duque, PhD
March 2, 2013
Theory Paper
Theories in Education
Introduction
There are many reasons why a student may succeed or fail. There are many theories that
match up with these reasons as to why some students fail while others succeed. One of these
theories is the Deficit Theory. This theory places all of the blame on a person. However, this
theory does not adequately describe any students success or failure. There are three other
theories that do a fair job at explaining this question. These theories are the Resistance Theory,
the Cultural Incompatibilities Theory, and the Theory of Care. These three theories do a
reasonable job explaining why some students succeed while others fail. However, according to
Nietos theory all theories are incorrect and that one theory cannot explain why all students
succeed or fail. Nieto also explains the characteristics of a multi-cultural education (MCE) to go
along with her theory. Even within this theory there are faults. This is why there is a need for a
new theory, the Theory of Potential. We will discuss the failing deficit theory, four adequate
theories, and my personal theorythe Theory of Potential to show that there are many ways to
classify what causes a student to succeed or fail in their education and in their life experiences.
Deficit Theory
Deficit theory is a theory that places the blame on individuals and matters that are outside
of the students control. Nieto explains this theory when she states it is a theory that genetic or
cultural inferiority is the cause of academic failure has been a recurrent theme in the United
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States educational history (Nieto, 2012, p. 257). Therefore if a student is from an inferior race or
community, they will fail academically because they do not have what is needed in the formula to
succeed. This theory does not have any positive results they are all negative. In this theory,
blaming occurs whether it is to the students culture, family, social economic status (SES),
genetics, or the teacher. Other effects of this theory cause different races to be stereotypes it is
said that the traditions of the past reoccur, and the students will follow their self-fulfilling
prophecy. A self-fulfilling prophecy is when students perform in a way that teachers or parent
expect them to. As an example of this using the Deficit Theory is if a teacher thinks very low of a
student and does not believe they can succeed due to the fact that they come from a low SES
family and are Native American, this student will follow the thought that they are of low worth
and cannot succeed in school because they come from a low SES family and are Native
American.
Deficit theory is an inaccurate interpretation of how students succeed or fail can be seen
through Marisol Martinez case study. In her case study it states:
Marisols parents are older than most of her friends parents, and, because of medical
problems, neither her mother nor her father work. Both seem to have a firm hold on their
children and are involved in their lives, particularly in educational matters Marisols
parents also graduated from high school, although more than half of Latino adults in this
city do not have a high school diploma. (Nieto, 2012, p. 163)
Marisol has done well in school and her parents have been supportive of her education even
though they are living in poverty. This is proof that the deficit theory is not true in all cases. It is
rare that Marisols parents received a high school diploma from what statistics say but it is
understandable that because they endured their education to receive their diplomas, her parents
want the same for their own children. I find it so incredible that all of her siblings have also
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graduated with high school diplomas no matter everything else going on in their neighborhood
and poor family situation. Each childincluding Marisolreceived love, care, and support from
their parents which have helped them all to succeed in life. According to the Deficit theory,
Marisol was supposed to fail in school because she came from an inferior background as well as
her parents.
A reason why the Deficit theory is still being used in schools is because we are a people
who like to find the differences in each other and places other as inferiors. Frerie explains this
tendency we have.
We have a strong tendency to affirm that what is different from us is inferior. We start
from the belief that our way of being is not only good but better than that of others who
are different from us. This is intolerance. It is the irresistible preference to reject
differences. (Frerie, 1998, p. 71)
As we see our way as better than others or the best way to handle a situation we make ourselves
better than those around us. Teachers see a child who struggles in school and notices that they
come from a bad home. They would then blame the students parents as the reason why the
student may act up in class or does not do well on assessments. Teachers may blame the students
failure on a genetic disability. A student has Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and that is why
the student does not do well in school because they are constantly fidgeting and never focused on
the subject at hand.
The articles Cultural Deficit Model (2009) and Blaming the Victim (1971) give more
information on the Deficit theory. In the article Cultural Deficit Model, it states that students of
color and low-income students often fail to do well in school because of perceived cultural
deprivation or lack of exposure to cultural models more obviously congruent with school
success (Anderman, 2009, para. 2). Once again the inferiority created by society is the reason
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why some students fail. They are deprived of culture and they are said to lack exposure to those
things that will help them to succeed in school. This is not a good enough reason why students
fail in school. Students who are considered part of the inferiority groups might be exposed to so
much culture around them; therefore the reason why they fail cannot be explained by a
deprivation in culture or a lack of exposure to those things that will help them succeed in school.
In the article Blaming the Victim, it makes an interesting remark. They are, most crucially,
rejecting the possibility of blaming, not the victims, but themselves. They are all unconsciously
passing judgments on themselves and bringing in a unanimous verdict of Not Guilty (Ryan,
1971, p. 36). So many people do not understand or even think that it is them that are a reason why
students of minorities fail in school. We encourage and support stereotypes and do not even
notice it. So much of the time, we blame the student and their life that is the reasoning behind
why they do not succeed in education. This should not be the case. Yes, living in a poverty life is
very hard and it can cause a student to lose focus during the day and possibility miss out on
important information concerning tests, what to study, or what assignments are due when. A
teacher should work with each individual to produce the best student he/she can be. A student
who is constantly failing would have a pattern to what and why they are failing. Teachers should
be able to recognize this and seek out help for the individual. In Lareaus article Moments of
Social Inclusion and Exclusion Race, Class, and Cultural Capital in Family-School
Relationships it states, An individual's class and racial position affect social reproduction, but
they do not determine it (Lareau, 1999, p. 50). This statement shows that a students class or
racial position cannot determine their academic success or failure. This is something they cannot
control. However, the Deficit theory likes to use these characteristics to explain a students
success or failure. A person can come from any race, have any color, have any culture, and any
home life, and although it affects the childs social and educational life it does not have to
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determine it. The only way a persons home life or race or color or culture can determine their
education and social goals is if the student makes that so by believing in the stereotypes and not
believing that they have potential to succeed. The only way Deficit theory can be used to explain
success or failure of students in school is only if the student believes that is why they are failing
or succeeding.
Resistance Theory
Another way to explain why students succeed and fail is through the Resistance theory.
Nieto describes, According to this theory, not learning what schools teach can be interpreted as a
form of political resistance. . . Resistance theory is helpful because it attempts to explain the
complex relationship between disempowered communities and their schools (Nieto, 2012, pp.
266-267). In this theory it is up to the student to succeed or fail. They are given the responsibility
to decide their future in education. When a student is in a school climate that rejects [their]
identit[y] and fails to engage them in meaningful work (Nieto, 2012, p. 268) they will resist
learning and therefore fail. Teachers need to be aware of the students and be aware that they must
challenge their students or they will not care to learn and they will resist, causing their failure in
their academics.
In Marisol Martinez case study it gives an example of how Marisol took her education
into her own hands and made it her responsibility. It states:
[Marisol] is following an academic course of study, and her grades are all As and Bs.
She likes all of her classes, especially biology and geometry, and she expects to go to
college, although her plans are still relatively uncertain. When she was interviewed, she
said she was thinking of either modeling or nursing as a career. If she does go to college,
she will be the first in her family to do so. (p 164)
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Marisol has made her way in school to get good, high grades. She realizes that it is up to her to
receive a good education and to make the best out of the situations that she is in. She knows her
dreams and she knows what she does not want in the world and she goes out and tries to reach her
goals. She is very brave that she wants to go to college and be the first of her family to do so.
Marisol is a driven individual who knows what she wants. In Marisols interview she said, I
dont think theres anything stopping me. I dont think there should be anything stopping me. If I
know I can do it, I should just keep on trying (p. 165). Marisol has a determined attitude to do
what she wants to do and do what she needs to do in order to achieve her goals. She does not see
anything stopping her from making the decisions and goals she is and she will not let anything
stop her. She worries a lot about becoming those students that drop out or become pregnant at a
young age and drop out. She is doing all that she can to ensure this does not happen to her so she
can go forward with her goals. She is determined in the fact that she knows her limits and she is
willing to do whatever she can to achieve her goals.
We can see through Marisol that if the curriculum of the school is one that will challenge
and help students they will succeed. If teachers are willing to teach their students that they can do
what they want then it gives the students the responsibility of their education. There are many
different ways a student can learn to not resist learning. Some of these ways are to teach the
students to be responsible for their decisions, give them choiceswhether to take a test or do a
group projectif a teacher shows respect for the students the students will respect the teacher,
and a teacher can help the students develop their own self-esteem. However, this theory has
weaknesses. There is no set consequence for the students choices and there could be a deeper
issue to why a student rebels in class other than the material is not challenging or they just do not
want to work. This stick-it-to-the-man theory is helpful in explaining why some students
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succeed while others fail but this is not a foolproof theory to describe everything that may be
influencing a students life.
Cultural Incompatibilities Theory
In the Cultural Incompatibility theory it consists of when students culture does not match
the schools culture. School culture and home culture are often at odds, the result is a cultural
clash that produces school failure (Nieto, 2012, p. 262). When the cultural clash that occurs
causes the student to fail in their academics. If a students culture matches the schools culture
then the student it perceived to succeed. Lareau explain that when the teachers repeatedly
praised parents who had praised them. They liked parents who were deferential, expressed
empathy with the difficulty of teachers' work, and had detailed information about their children's
school experiences. In addition, the teachers often stressed the importance of parents
"understanding" their children's educational situations, by which they meant that the parents
should accept the teacher's definitions of their children's educational and social performance
(Lareau, 1999, p. 43). In these situations those parents who want to help their students in school
but feel like they do not belong at the school are being pushed away and the student does not have
a high chance in succeeding in school. Laraeu then explains that in contrast, some poor black
parents who were concerned about racial discrimination handled the matter differently. Some saw
a separation between home and school (Lareau 1989) and did not seek to intervene in the school
process (Lareau, 1999, p. 45). When parents want to be involved in the childrens education it
can greatly improve the students school experience. However, a parent needs to stay respectful
or the teachers as they discuss issues. A teacher should also respect the parents when they state
their opinions. There is a slight separation between home and school due to the fact of at school
the teacher has a responsibility over the child while at home the parent does. However, parents
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need to be interested and involved in their childrens schooling to help them succeed. When
parents cannot do this it creates the cultural clash that was discussed earlier.
There are positives to this theory where there was not many for the previous theories
discussed. Classrooms that believe in the Cultural Incompatibility theory will be more likely to be
a class where multicultural education (MCE) is taking place. If MCE is taking place then teachers
will be working on creating an inclusive classroom culture (ICC) and promote learning together
as a class. Students will understand that they each bring to the table different cultures and
different perspectives and they will respect others and they will believe that their specific
strengths will add to the others. Teachers in these classrooms can be bridge-builders between the
different cultures and become cultural translators and negotiators as the students learn about each
others cultures. However there is the negative that there are so many different cultures. Each
individual student brings a different culture to the school and a school cannot necessarily adapt to
accommodate each culture being brought into school. There will still be some cultural clash
occurring throughout the school.
In Yolanda Piedras case study and in Ron Morris case study we can see how their lives
have been affected by Cultural Incompatibilities theory. In Yolandas case study there is a mutual
interaction and support between home and school environments the students will succeed more
because of the mutual support they are receiving. Yolandas case study showed that the support
of both her mother and her teachers were the same and thus this helped Yolanda to succeed in
school and continue in her learning. With Ron, he would be focused in school until what he was
learning became too easy and was no longer a challenge. Ron says:
And then the work started getting boring to me cause it started getting easier and easier.
Then it was getting repeated and repeated. It was like, Rons gonna come to school now
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every day and be destructive because hes not learning anything new. And I would have
that in my mind. (p. 291)
Rons teachers did not challenge him enough, so Ron lost focus in school. Rons culture clashed
with the schools which caused him to quite learning and not pay attention. He was constantly
being kicked out of school because of his behaviors and lack of focus. The schools he was kicked
out of could be explained that they did not match his culture resulting in a clash causing him to be
kicked out. The Cultural Incompatibilities theory does a better job at describing why some
students succeed and why some fail; however, there are still some flaws to be worked out.
Theory of Care
The Theory of care gives a better explanation as to why some students succeed while
others fail. Nieto explains that Noddings postulates that whether and how teachers and schools
care for students can make an immense difference in how students experience schooling . . . Care
means loving students in the most profound ways: through high expectations, great support, and
rigorous demands (Nieto, 2012, p. 255-256). This theory states that if the teacher cares for the
student he/she will succeed and if the teacher does not show care for the student then he/she will
fail. Dunn and Burton explain the particularity of relations is fundamental to the ethics of care.
Each relation consists of at least two people, the one-caring and the cared-for (Dunn & Burton,
2008). In the theory of care it deals with two individuals, the teacher and the student. This theory
is valid in explaining why some students succeed; teachers and school officials show their care
for their students in many ways.
There have been arguments over if a teacher or school official can care too much. Each
school official and teacher has their own definition of what it means to care and from this they
each show their care for students in different ways. However, there are some practices and
protocol that should be taken into consideration and avoided. Teachers can show their love in a
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variety of ways. One way a teacher can show they care by sacrificing their time to help students
understand a topic or to talk to the teacher about something that is bothering them. Dunn states,
It is not enough to hear the teachers claim to care. Does the student recognize that he or she is
cared for? Is the teacher thought by the student to be a caring teacher (Dunn & Burton, 2008).
Teachers can go in with an attitude to care for the students but it is not until the teacher meets the
individual student that makes the teacher learn to really care for that individual. The students are
what help the teacher to care and love them. It is the students job to be respectful and learn and it
is the teachers job to love and teach the students.
A teacher can care too much about a student. There are many experiences where a teacher
did not cover the material but rather spent all class period trying to be the cool teacher. This is
not beneficial to the learning of the students and the teacher would not seem like he/she cared for
me, it seemed as if he/she cared most about himself to try to be cool to gain acceptance from
the students in his class. Other teachers who care too much will do the work for the students
because they feel sorry for that student so the teacher will baby them. If a student is babied,
he/she will learn that it is acceptable to rely on other people to do the work for them and this will
cause problems for this student when he/she goes to find a job or is put in a class where the
teacher does not baby him/her. This will only cause the student to struggle and fail in school. If
a teacher does not allow enough growth in these areas they will not learn the necessary
characteristics to succeed in life. Another way a teacher can care too much is if the teacher
attaches oneself to the student and tries to fix things in the home life which are out of the control
of the teacher. This can cause problems for the teacher if he/she is too attached to the student and
something bad were to happen the teacher may not be able to handle the situation emotionally.
This could also cause problems legally if the teacher starts to care for a student as more than just
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a student. It is best overall to keep caring for students in a way that allows them to grow and
develop educationally.
A way a teacher can show that he/she cares for his/her students is to critique and give
them constructive criticism and feedback. When a teacher gives a student critique and
constructive criticism and feedback it shows the student that the teacher cares because the teacher
wants the student to succeed and the teacher knows the individual has a great potential to learn
and grow exponentially. Haberman teaches that whenever students are involved with applying
ideals such as fairness, equality, or justice to their world, it is likely that good teaching is going
on (Haberman, 1991). Teachers who care will bring in real-life experiences and apply it to what
they are learning about. Whenever students are directly involved in a real-life experience, it is
likely that good teaching is going on (Haberman, 1991). When teachers take time to plan a field
trip or examples of how what they are studying relates to the students lives this will show the
students that the teacher cares about what they are learning and wants to interest them in learning
more. Teachers can do many things to show their care and love toward each individual student.
We can see examples of the Theory of Care in the case study of Rich Miller. One of the
influences Rich had in his life was the lessons he had learned from his family. The biggest lesson
he learned was that his mom had a great appreciation and passion for school and learning. She
wanted the best for her children so she stressed the point to go and receive a college education.
She expressed why this would help and told that the way to succeed in life is to go to school and
receive and education. If Rich did not have his mothers support in his decisions for school, his
life and future would become very different. If his mother did not care about education the way
she does, he might not have been able to go to the non-neighborhood school to continue his music
and he may not have had a chance to talk to the guidance counselor who supported him in
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anything and also have the supportive friends he did. His life would be very different. It is all
thanks to his mother for showing devotion towards learning and education that was transferred to
the emotions of her son, Rich, and his ideas. Because of his mothers care for him to succeed he
was able to succeed in his schooling. The theory of care does a good job of explaining why some
students succeed while others fail; however, there are some areas that impact a student that the
Theory of Care cannot explain.
Nietos Theory
Nieto explained the other theories but what is hers? Nietos theory is precisely:
It is clear that no single explanation of academic achievement is sufficient to explain why
some students succeed in school and others fail. Rather, we need to understand school
achievement as a combination of personal, cultural, familial, political, relational, and
societal issues, and this requires an understanding of the sociopolitical context in which
education takes place. (Nieto, 2012, p. 277)
Nietos theory is very broad so that it can incorporate more students into this theory however,
there are many aspects that are still missing from her theory. Her theory does not say how
students succeed, it does not answer the question of why do some students succeed while others
fail. It only states that we need to examine many aspects of a students life that affect their
sociopolitical context. This does not show how students will succeed or fail. This theory does not
take into account the students choices. It could be argued that that is covered under the
personal aspect discussed in her theory but it is not clarified. Nieto does not explain how
students academic achievements will be measured.
Nietos Definition of MCE and how it relates to Her Theory
Nieto (2012) describes MCE as a process of comprehensive school reform and basic
education for all students . . . challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in
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schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism that students, their communities, and
teachers reflect . . . permeates the schools curriculum and instructional strategies . . . it uses
critical pedagogy . . . [and] promotes democratic principles of social justice. In order to create a
MCE classroom, we must be able to adapt to the society and help all the students as individuals.
The classroom environment, pedagogy, and curriculum must promote anti-racist education,
basic education, education for social justice, and have a critical pedagogy (Nieto, 2012).
Whatever is done in the classroom must correspond with these key aspects to MCE. To create a
MCE classroom a teacher could use the 5 Fs: fun, food, fiesta, focus on a culture group, and
focus on safe heroes, however, the use of the 5 Fs is limited because there are many more
ways to implement MCE in a classroom. The 5 Fs do not cover the Inclusive Classroom
Culture (ICC) discussed by Tiedt and Tiedt (2010). They believe that a MCE classroom should
be one of an ICC. This means that there is a certain community, organization, values taught,
evaluation of the classroom and students, and rules set in place. These things are also needed to
create a MCE classroom. The 5 Fs are limited in the fact that society is constantly changing
and therefore the 5 Fs also need to be changing.
Nietos theory relates to her definition of MCE by the fact that Nieto did not describe the
aspects of how students can succeed or fail in detail or the reasoning of academic achievement
and how it will be measured. Through Nietos definition we can better understand her theory and
what it will look like in the classroom. In Nietos classroom, promoting her theory, we would see
she would get to know her students as individuals and as people not just as statistics. She would
get to know the cultures and family backgrounds of each individual student. She would also know
what role her students family plays in the community. She would not teach the same way in
every subject. For each topic discussed there would be multiple methods of teaching provided to
help each student succeed in their own learning pattern. Nietos theory is one that has done the
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best at explaining what we need to look for in order to see why a student may succeed or fail in
school. However, her theory does not provide a lot of information needed to know why students
succeed or fail.
Theory of Potential
The world is constantly changing and so should our school systems and our theories that
coincide with them. In Gorskis article A Brief History of Multi-cultural Education, he
expresses that there is constant change in our country, especially in our society. [T]he cultural
landscape of the United States continued to become less visibly white Christian and more visibly
rich with cultural, racial, ethnic, and religious diversity, underscoring the necessity for everyone
to develop a set of skills and knowledge that the present system was failing to provide all
students (para. 8). It is necessary to constantly reevaluate theories in our lives and our methods
we use. Gorski (1999) states, In order to maintain a multicultural school environment, all
aspects of the school had to be examined and transformed, including policies, teachers' attitudes,
instructional materials, assessment methods, counseling, and teaching styles (para. 6). In order to
create a well explanatory theory of why some students succeed while others fail, we need to look
at all of the aspects in the students lives including those of the teacher and schools. I have
developed a theory called the Theory of Potential. The Theory of Potential is a combination of all
the greats of the theories. It states that a student will succeed if they know their potential as an
individual.
High Expectations
Part of the Theory of Potential is that teachers must give high expectations to their
students. This can be shown that if teachers do not challenge their students with high obtainable
expectations that the teacher does not care about them as much as they should and that if they do
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not provide a challenge, students will become bored and resist learning. In Yolandas case study
we can see how this happens.
At school, [Yolanda] believes that teachers create barriers, too. She criticizes attitudes or
practices that she feels detract from a positive learning environment. One of these is the
low expectations teachers have of some students (materials are too low). (Nieto, 2012,
p. 247)
Yolanda discussed how some of the teachers created barriers and this detracted from a positive
learning environment. When teachers have low expectation or the material is not challenging
enough, the students fell like they are not worth it and that they are not as smart as they are. This
can also give of the impression that the teacher does not believe that you can do more than what
they are offering. We need to challenge our students to do all they feel they can do and let them
decide how much is too much to handle with our guidance.
Individuals
Yolanda makes a valid point that all teachers need to know. We need to treat each student
as an individual and as the person that they are. This includes all aspects to their culture. Yolanda
describes:
When a teacher becomes a teacher, she acts like a teacher instead of a person. She takes
her title as now shes mechanical, somebody just running it. Teachers shouldnt deal with
students like were machines. Youre a person. Im a person. We come to school, and we
all act like people. (Nieto, 2012, p. 232)
I have seen examples of this when I was in school and I do not want to become a mechanical
teacher. The best way to relate with our students will be to be like them not as their best friend
but as a friend who is still in authority. This relationship may take a while to create but all
relationships take time and effort. If we are an authoritative friend figure to our students we will
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be able to relate to them on a personal level and as their teacher, all the time keeping things
professional. Treating our students as individuals will help create an environment our students
will want to come and be a part of.
Realize Their Dreams
Part of the Theory of Potential is to help our students learn they can aspire to their dreams
and do anything that they can put their mind to. They need to know the universe of their dreams,
the language with which they skillfully defend themselves from the aggressiveness of their world,
what they know independently of the school, and how they know it" (Frerie, 1998, p. 72-73). This
quote is important for us as teachers to understand. It helps us understand that students come from
many different backgrounds and it is not until we, the teachers, teach in a way that can be
connected to those many backgrounds that a student can learn and understand. Many of their
background are harsh situations or unsafe. We will need to make our classrooms a safe
environment for all students to grow into their potential.
Variety of Teaching Methods
In Okazakis article Baskets and Bottles, she states that there are many different
containers to hold fruit but they all do the same job. We can relate this to the many different
teaching methods that can teach the same principle.
The basket and the bottle are different containers, but the content is the same: fruit for a
family. Is the bottle right and the basket wrong? No, they are both right. They are
containers appropriate to the culture and the needs of the people. And they are both
appropriate for the content they carry, which is the fruit. (Okazaki, 1996, para. 8)
In this comparison the containers are appropriate for the culture and the person who is using it.
This is just like the pedagogy we as teachers use. Each method of teaching will be different
depending on each student. Each student has a different background and culture. No one in the
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class will have the same experiences in life; although some might have very similar they will
never be the same. There is not just one technique or method to teach students and we as teachers
must understand that in order to teach all cultures we will have to modify our pedagogy as we go
along to accommodate all those in our class.
Conclusion
There are many ways we can describe why a student can succeed or fail. Ultimately, there
is no right answer as to what theory best explains a student. We can try to analyze and decipher
all the parts of a students life and put it to a specific theory, but the truth is the individual will
constantly be changing as will the world around them. Therefore, the theory used to explain their
situation will also be changing. We do not live in a static world; we live in one that is vastly
dynamic.
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