The Adolescent Role Assessment:

Psychometric Properties and Theoretical Usefulness

Ruth A. Huebner,
Lynnda J. Emery,
Anne Shordike

KEY WORDS
adolescent psychology
career choice
special education

OBJECTIVE. Fostering career adaptability may improve vocational outcomes for adolescents. This study
examined the responses of adolescents on the Adolescent Role Assessment (ARA) to explore its usefulness as
a measure of career adaptability.

METHOD. The ARA was administered to 101 adolescents 12 to 17 years of age. Descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, and factor analysis were generated from the ARA scores. Dominant narrative themes were coded
into the six domains of the ARA and into the domains identified in the factor analysis.
RESULTS. The internal consistency of the ARA was low with few differences in findings across age. The identified factorsdeveloping aspirations, self-efficacy, interpersonal competencies, and autonomyare consistent with constructs of career adaptability found in the literature and differentiated low and high scorers.
CONCLUSION. Major changes to the ARA content and scaling or development of a new assessment of
career adaptability using the factor structure are recommended for clinical and research applications.
Huebner, R. A., Emery, L. J., & Shordike, A. (2002). The Adolescent Role Assessment: Psychometric properties and theoretical usefulness. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 56, 202209.

Ruth A. Huebner, PhD, OTR/L, is Professor, Department of

Occupational Therapy, Eastern Kentucky University,
103 Dizney Building, Richmond, Kentucky 40475;
otshuebn@acs.eku.edu.
Lynnda J. Emery, EdD, OTR/L, is Professor, Department of
Occupational Therapy, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky.
Anne Shordike, MS, OTR/L, is Assistant Professor,
Department of Occupational Therapy, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, Kentucky.

ccupational therapists conceptualize work as contributing to health and wellbeing and believe that the acquisition and sustenance of work skills and work
behaviors is a developmental process that begins in childhood and continues
through adolescence, adulthood, and old age (American Occupational Therapy
Association, 2000, p. 626). Occupational therapy practitioners provide work-related services in many settings, including school-to-work transition programs. To
support intervention and research about practices that help adolescents develop
skills for work, assessments grounded in theory as well as reliable and sensitive to
change are needed.
The Adolescent Role Assessment (ARA; Black, 1976) is a semistructured interview that yields both narrative and quantitative data about worker role development. It was designed to measure the formation of occupational choice on the basis
of the work of Ginzberg (1972), Reilly (1974), and other career development theorists of the time. According to Black (1976), the assessment was formulated on the
premise that the acquisition of skills in the occupational choice process suggests
that deficiencies at an early stage may increase vulnerability at later stages (p. 75).
Black (1976) identified three developmental stages of occupational choice:
childhood play, adolescent socialization, and adulthood work. At the stage of childhood play, occupational choice was thought to emerge through fantasy, games,
interactions with others, role models, and individual interests. During adolescent
socialization, the adolescent explored interests, assumed responsibilities, and developed values and goals through socialization experiences in the family, at school,
and with peers. These experiences were thought to culminate in adolescent occupational choice with positive work attitudes and a plan for entering an occupation.

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Currently, two theoretical approaches, competency and

career adaptability, describe career development for people
with and without disabilities (Szymanski, Hershenson,
Enright, & Ettinger, 1996). In a competency approach, the
emphasis is on matching job expectations with the persons
skills (e.g., Hershenson, 1981; Holland, 1973); work experiences are designed to develop specific work competence.
The occupational choice theory that underlies the ARA
evolved into a career adaptability approach (Savickas, 1997;
Super, 1994) that highlights the lifelong influences of cognitive, affective, and social factors on career development.
In this approach, the emphasis is on the formation of career
aspirations and plans; work experiences are designed to
enlarge and test career aspirations.
For children and adolescents without disabilities, work
competence and career adaptability evolve in a dynamic
adaptation among individual differences and skills, developmental experiences, self-concept, and environmental
context (Kielhofner, 1995; Savickas, 1997; Super, 1994;
Szymanski et al., 1996). In contrast, for persons with disabilities, work competence and career adaptability are likely to be constricted, chaotic, and stressful (Szymanski et al.,
1996). In Wagner, Blackorby, Cameto, Hebbeler, and
Newman (1993), for example, only 57% to 62% of young
adults with a disability achieved functional competence,
such as looking up telephone numbers or buying clothing;
the rates were lower for young adults with multiple disabilities. Adolescents, especially girls, with learning disabilities
are more likely than typical peers to aspire toward low prestige occupations (Rojewski, 1996), be more indecisive
about their future (Morningstar, 1997), and leave school
much earlier (Pledgie, Tao, & Freed, 1998). The National
Longitudinal Study of Special Education Students
(Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Wagner et al., 1993) reported
that high school dropout rates were higher (23%48% in
students with varying disability classifications vs. 12%) and
rates of competitive employment and wages were lower
among students with disabilities compared with peers without disabilities. After high school, persons with disabilities
are likely to face dependency, social isolation, disincentives
for work, and waiting lists for services (Johnson &
Halloran, 1997).
Until recently, the focus on career development for adolescents with disabilities has been on training in job-specific
skills to match the students capabilities with the demands of
a job (Clark & Kolstoe, 1990; Morningstar, 1997).
Consistent with this competency approach, the occupational therapy literature suggests that therapists provide graded
practice in work skills (Chandler, OBrien, & Weinstein,
1996) and develop independent living skills, structure the
environment, and adapt activities to promote transition to

work (Brollier, Shepherd, & Markley, 1994). Concepts related to developing career adaptability, such as self-determination and self-evaluation, are emerging as additional best
practices in special education (Brown, Zager, Brown, &
Price, 1998; Halpern, 1994; Morningstar, 1997).
The skills of occupational therapy practitioners complement that of special educators in developing both work
competence and career adaptability among students in the
school system (Shepherd & Inge, 1999) and enhancing
transition of adolescents into adult social roles (Henry &
Coster, 1997). This practice opportunity, in turn, suggests
the need for an instrument to measure career adaptability
and occupational role acquisition that is consistent with
occupational therapy practices. The 21-item ARA may be
the only occupational therapy instrument available to gather this information (Henry, 1998). Despite its potential
value, occupational therapy practitioners rarely use the
ARA (Vause-Earland, 1991). In the only published study
that we found, Black (1982) used the ARA to discriminate
between adolescents hospitalized with psychiatric conditions and peers without disabilities in the community. The
study reported a testretest reliability coefficient of .91.
The purpose of the current study was to investigate the
usefulness of the ARA to provide clinical and research data
about adolescent career adaptability. To achieve this purpose, the psychometric properties of the ARA were examined. Content analysis of the narrative data amplified the
factor structure themes of career adaptability.

Method
Sample
The method for this research was approved by the human
subjects committee at the institution used in the study. A
convenience sample of 101 adolescents between 12 and 17
years of age was recruited by interviewers. The interviewers
were occupational therapy students at a midwestern university enrolled in a course on adolescent assessment and treatment. As part of the course, the students were required to
use the ARA to interview an adolescent who was not a close
relative or any relative with whom they had regular contact.
Measurement
The ARA examines six domains of functioning: childhood
play, adolescent socialization in family, adolescent socialization at school, adolescent socialization with peers, adolescent occupational choice, and adulthood work. Within
each domain are two to six specific items for a total of 21
items. To score each item, two to four structured interview
questions are asked. For example, under the childhood play
domain, scoring of the interests item is based on two ques-

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203

tions: What kinds of interests did you have as a kid? How

do those interests compare with current interests? On the
basis of the adolescents response to these questions, the
items are rated as a plus (+), indicating appropriate responses; zero (0), indicating marginal responses; or minus (),
indicating inappropriate responses. To illustrate, an appropriate score for the interests item was given if the participant
identifies childhood interests, able to discriminate from
current interests; a marginal score was given if few interests, basically the same as now; and an inappropriate score
was given for lack of childhood interests (Black, 1976, p.
74). For this study, the original scale was converted to a 3point scale as follows: score of (+) = 2, (0) = 1, () = 0. Total
possible scores for the ARA ranged from 0 to 42.
Data Collection
Written and oral instructions on procedures for administration, scoring, and write-up of the ARA results were given
during class by the first author; student interviewers who
volunteered to participate in the study signed an agreement
to follow the research guidelines and maintain confidentiality. Each interviewer administered the demographic information sheet then completed one ARA interview using
Blacks (1976) directions and scoring guidelines. The interveiwers submitted a written report, with the adolescents
narrative responses grouped by item of the ARA to facilitate
the content analysis.

ARA and the adolescent responses were examined for the

themes that defined the factor. The adolescents narrative
responses then were reexamined in two groups (described
later) to differentiate strengths and weaknesses of adolescents in each domain.

Results
Descriptive Results
Of the 121 student interviewers and adolescents invited,
101 adolescents and their parents or guardians consented to
participate in the study. Sample demographics are displayed
in Table 1.
The percentage of adolescents who scored appropriate
(+) for each ARA item is displayed by age in Table 2. The
average percentages of appropriate item scores for the total
sample ranged from a low of 68.3% for time (balancing
time with peers and other obligations), to a high of 95% for
knowledge of the community. The mean total score for the
ARA was 38.04 (SD = 3.74). Because the data were positively skewed, the median of 39.00 was deemed most representative of central tendency.
In examining the usefulness of the ARA, we wanted to
differentiate strengths and weaknesses of adolescents on
career adaptability to identify possible criteria for anchor
Table 1. Sample Characteristics
Characteristic

Data Analysis
Quantitative analysis included generating demographic
statistics and descriptive scores on the ARA by age. A
Cronbachs alpha was calculated for the entire ARA and for
each subscale. To investigate the domains of the ARA, factor
analysis was performed. The factor subscales scores were
used to compare two groups (described later), using analysis
of variance procedures with a Bonferroni correction (Kirk,
1982) of significance level to .01 for four comparisons.
Content analysis of the narrative data occurred in two
stages. In the first stage, a graduate research assistant recorded and tallied all the responses by age and category based on
the 21 items of the ARA. The narrative responses were
reviewed and compared by all three authors to quantify the
descriptions into themes. The authors then collapsed the
responses into age groups of 2 years (i.e., 1213 years
[younger adolescents], 1415 years [middle adolescents],
1617 years [older adolescents]) and compared and contrasted responses within and across each group in each
domain of the ARA.
In the second stage of content analysis, these results
were integrated with the new domains identified in the factor analysis of the ARA. The questions posed in the original

Age (years)
12
13
14
15
16
17
Ethnicity
White
Othera
Missing data
Residence
Rural (< 5,000)
Semirural (5,00010,000)
City (to 59,000)
Urban (> 60,000)
Large urban (> 500,000)
Subdivision in city (> 200,000)
Missing data
Parent marital status
Married and living together
Divorced or separated
Remarried
Single
Other
Attends special education classes
Takes medication for attention or depression
Has a physical illness or disability
Repeated a grade in school

9
25
11
18
20
18

8.9
24.7
10.9
17.8
19.8
17.8

91
3
7

90.1
3.0
6.9

16
27
40
7
1
7
3

15.8
26.7
39.6
6.9
1.0
6.9
3.0

72
11
9
6
3
3
3
4
8

71.3
10.9
8.9
5.9
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
7.9

Note. N = 101. No student reported of being Asian, African-American, or

Hispanic ethnicity.
aA category on form.

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Table 2. Percentage of Sample Scored as Appropriate (+) for 21 Items on the Adolescent Role Assessment
Age Group
Item
Childhood play (developmental stage 1)a
Activities
Rules (2)b
Interactions (2)
Fantasy (1)
Role models
Interests
Adolescent socialization in family
(developmental stage 2)
Interactions
Responsibility (4)
Economics
Adolescent socialization at school
(developmental stage 2)
Consistency (3)
Responsibility (3)
Feedback (3)
Role models (3)
Activities (2)
Adolescent socialization with peers
(developmental stage 2)
Activities (2)
Time (4)
Community (4)
Adolescent occupational choice
(developmental stage 2)
Work attitudes
Stage of choice (1)
Adulthood work
(developmental stage 3)
Goals (1)
Fantasy (1)

12

13

14

15

16

17

Total

66.7
88.9
77.8
55.6
88.9
55.6

80.0
100.0
96.0
76.0
96.0
84.0

100.0
72.7
100.0
90.9
90.9
54.5

94.4
94.4
94.4
77.8
94.4
94.4

90.0
100.0
90.0
75.0
95.0
90.0

83.3
100.0
94.4
55.6
94.4
88.9

86.1
95.0
93.1
72.3
94.1
82.2

88.9
88.9
66.7

92.0
72.0
100.0

72.7
100.0
63.6

94.4
94.4
100.0

90.0
90.0
100.0

83.3
94.4
94.4

88.1
88.1
92.1

66.7
66.7
77.8
100.0
66.7

92.0
76.0
76.0
92.0
96.0

100.0
63.6
72.7
72.7
90.9

83.3
88.9
66.7
88.9
83.3

85.0
75.0
75.0
85.0
80.0

83.3
55.6
66.7
83.3
94.4

86.1
72.3
72.3
87.1
87.1

77.8
66.7
88.9

96.0
68.0
88.0

90.9
63.6
100.0

88.9
77.8
100.0

90.0
70.0
95.0

94.4
61.1
100.0

91.1
68.3
95.0

66.7
44.4

87.0
80.0

70.0
81.8

66.7
88.9

78.9
65.0

88.9
77.8

78.4
75.2

33.3
55.6

76.0
76.0

100.0
54.5

94.4
88.9

80.0
75.0

88.9
66.7

81.2
72.3

aBlack (1976) conceptualized three developmental stages of occupational choice represented by six domains on the Adolescent Role Assessment. bAfter each

item that loaded above a .40 on the factor analysis, the factor number is included in parentheses.

points of a rating scale. We compared two groups: a high

scoring group and a low scoring group. Using a cutoff score
set, somewhat arbitrarily, at 3 points below the median of
39, the high scoring group (n = 81) was defined as having
total scores of 36 or higher, and the low scoring group (n =
20) was defined as having total scores of 35 or lower. Based
on chi-square statistics of distribution, the groups were not
different on age, taking medication for attention or depression, having a physical disability, parent marital status, or
residence. However, significant differences were found
between groups on special education status, 2(1, 101) =
12.52, p = .007, and on having repeated a grade, 2(1, 101)
= 9.97, p = .007. All 3 adolescents in special education and
5 of the 8 who repeated a grade were in the low scoring
group.
Internal Consistency and Factor Structure
The overall internal consistency of the ARA was an alpha of
.75. For each subscale, alpha coefficients were low: adolescent socialization at school (.65), adulthood work (.61),
adolescent socialization with peers (.49), childhood play
(.42), adolescent occupational choice (.37), and adolescent
socialization in family (.20). Because these low alpha coeffi-

cients suggested that the subscales measured heterogeneous

concepts, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to
identify the domains of the 21 items of the ARA. Before the
statistical analysis, the results of the Bartlett Test of
Sphericity (2 = 553.13, df = 210, p = < .0001) and the
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Index (.60) (Pedhazur & Schmelkin,
1991) suggested that the data set and related correlation
matrix satisfied the assumptions necessary for factor analysis. Initially, a principal component analysis was performed
to examine the general factor structure. Seven factors with
an eigenvalue of 1.0 or larger were identified, but the first
factor accounted for only 18.6% of the variance.
Because a principal component analysis will not yield
useful information when less than 50% of the variance is
explained by the first factor (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991),
a point of scree after four factors was identified. A four-factor principal-axis factor analysis with varimax (orthogonal)
rotation to improve interpretability was then performed.
This factor structure was interpretable and is displayed in
Table 3. Factor 1, Developing Aspirations, had an eigenvalue of 2.10 and accounted for 9.93% of the variance. Factor
2, Developing Interpersonal Competencies, had an eigenvalue of 1.98 and accounted for 9.39% of the variance.

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Factor 3, Developing Self-Efficacy, had an eigenvalue of

1.84 and accounted for 8.74% of the variance. Factor 4,
Developing Autonomy, had an eigenvalue of 1.25 and
accounted for 5.95% of the variance. The entire factor
structure accounted for 34% of the variance. Six of the 21
items from the ARA did not load at or above .40 on any factor and were not included in the definition of the factor or
calculation of subscale scores.
Factor Structure Themes
Developing Aspirations. The four items that loaded above .40

on this factor were scored as appropriate by the interviewers for between 72% and 81% of the sample (see Table 2).
The scores were based on questions about adulthood work
goals and future dreams, specific plans for occupational
choice, and childhood fantasy about growing up. On the
basis of these questions and the narrative responses,
Developing Aspirations was defined by a fundamental
future orientation with an ability to fantasize and dream
and to provide a rationale for career choice.
Total subscale scores were calculated for each factor by
summing ARA scores for the items that loaded above .40 on
the factor. The difference of 2.48 points in total scores for
Developing Aspirations between the low scoring group (M
= 4.80, SD = 2.1) and the high scoring group (M = 7.28, SD
= .99) was significant (F = 59.14, df = 1, p = < .001).
Adolescents in the low scoring group tended to have vague
Table 3. Factor Structure for the Adolescent Role Assessment
Domain and Item
Factor 1: Developing Aspirations
Adulthood workgoals
Occupational choicestage of choice
Adulthood workfantasy
Childhood playfantasy
Occupational choicework attitudes
Childhood playactivities
Factor 2: Developing Interpersonal
Competencies
Childhood playrules
Childhood playinteractions
Socialization peersactivities
Socialization schoolactivities
Socialization familyinteractions
Childhood playinterests
Factor 3: Developing Self-Efficacy
Socialization schoolrole models
Socialization schoolconsistency
Socialization schoolresponsibilities
Socialization schoolfeedback
Childhood playrole model
Factor 4: Developing Autonomy
Socialization peerstime
Socialization familyresponsibilities
Socialization peerscommunity
Socialization familyeconomics

Factors
2
3

.73*
.68*
.58*
.46*
.29
.19

.69*
.65*
.59*
.44*
.32
.26
.57*
.55*
.51*
.46*
.38
.53*
.52*
.47*
.32

*Items loaded above .40 on the factor. All Adolescent Role Assessment
items are displayed with their highest loading on a factor; items loading
below .40 on the factor analysis were not included in subsequent analysis.

goals with poorly formulated future plans. They had few

fantasies about the future both as children and as adolescents. Adolescents in the high scoring group fantasized
about an adulthood with a rewarding career; job satisfaction;
financial rewards; and satisfying relationships with family,
friends, and their children. When fantasizing about changes
in the world, about half of the group mentioned specific
changes, such as having their parents get along; the other
half mentioned more universal themes, such as ending
hatred, poverty, racism, hunger, and war. Career fantasies
broadened across age groups, but aspirations toward high
profile roles, such as that of a professional football player,
firefighter, or theatre career, persisted. More then three quarters of the adolescents identified work interests in health
care, education, or business. They chose their career on the
basis of altruistic motives; a match between their skills and
the job demands; aspects of the job, such as pay; or personal experiences with the job or a person doing that job.
Developing Interpersonal Competencies. Eighty-seven
percent or more of the adolescents scored as appropriate on
the four items that loaded on this factor (see Table 2).
Scoring of these items was based on questions about childhood play and interaction, socialization with peers, and
activities with peers and at school. The themes emerging
from these questions and responses related to fitting into a
group (especially a peer group), responding to rules, participating in shared activities and interests with peers at school,
and interacting with others.
The difference of 1.36 in total scores for Developing
Interpersonal Competencies between the low scoring group
(M = 6.50, SD = 1.67) and the high scoring group (M =
7.86, SD = .38) was significant (F = 45.81, df = 1, p = <
.001). The low scoring group expressed few shared interests
with others (many cited watching television as a major
interest); they belonged to few school clubs; and they tended be alone after school.
Adolescents in the high scoring group participated in
multiple activities, often those with rules, such as team
sports and games. As children, they enjoyed active play,
such as playing dolls or riding bicycles, and regularly
engaged in structured games with rules, such as soccer, softball, or board games. They remembered playing with
friends as children, especially same-age peers. Older adolescents reported more diversity in the ages of their friends.
Their peers were supportive persons whom they could confide in, share interests with, seek help from, and mutually
enjoy activities with. During school, adolescents participated in sports, band, cheerleading, and both social and academic clubs. After school, they read, played computer
games, played with pets, watched television, listened to
music, and exercised.

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Developing Self-Efficacy. Seventy-two percent to 87% of

adolescents were scored as having appropriate responses on

items related to this factor (see Table 2). Items loading on
this factor all related to aspects of socialization at school.
This factor was labeled as Developing Self-Efficacy on the
basis of themes of responsibility and consistency in school
work, monitoring and changing performance in response to
feedback, and feelings about teachers as role models.
The difference of 1.86 points in the total score on
Developing Self-Efficacy between the low scoring group
(M = 5.55, SD =1.76) and the high scoring group
(M = 7.41, SD = .89) was significant (F = 44.72, df =1, p =
< .001). Adolescents in the low scoring group tended to
report little engagement and investment in school and
school work. They sometimes believed that teachers did not
like them and saw teachers as unfriendly rather than as role
models.
Adolescents in the high scoring group reported earning
average or above-average grades and feeling satisfied with
their performance. Generally, their school attendance was
regular, and they prepared their homework assignments
completely. Across all age groups, they cited that school performance could be improved if they changed their own
behavior to increase studying and using the library, paying
attention, and working harder. These adolescents believed
that teachers treated them fairly. They reported having a
favorite teacher who was a good listener; used humor, creativity, or enthusiasm; made learning fun; or took a genuine
interest in them.
Developing Autonomy. A wide range in scores was noted
on this factor, with a low of 68.3% (time) and high of
95.0% (community) of the adolescents scored as appropriate (see Table 2). On the basis of ARA items of scheduling
time, community knowledge, and responsibilities in the
family, Developing Autonomy was defined by themes of a
variety of activities throughout the day, independence in
time management, managing responsibilities in the family,
and using the resources of the community.
The difference of .62 points in total scores on
Developing Autonomy between the low scoring group
(M = 5.00, SD = .79) and the high scoring group
(M = 5.62, SD = .73) was significant (F = 10.97, df = 1, p
= .001). The narrative data confirmed that the low scoring
group felt autonomous; however, a few low scorers
described this autonomy as a feeling of being abandoned
and isolated with little guidance from parents or teachers.
Adolescents in the high scoring group reported prioritizing their own activities. Typically, they watched television, dated, played sports, read, spent time on school work,
hung around with their friends, and sometimes daydreamed. Almost all were knowledgeable about their neigh-

borhood and community resources. They had household

chores for which they were often paid and that they perceived as reasonable. Middle and older adolescents also
earned money babysitting, doing seasonal chores, and having part-time jobs.

Discussion
The psychometric properties of the ARA suggest that significant revisions of the assessment or a new measure of career
adaptability are necessary for research or clinical application.
The internal consistency coefficient for each subscale and for
the overall ARA was below the alpha of .80, which is a desired
reliability index for a measurement instrument (Pedhazur &
Schmelkin, 1991). Limited internal consistency may be due
to a restricted range of scores as a result of scaling or homogeneous participants, content heterogeneity, or limited test
length. Our findings suggest that all these factors may have
diminished the reliability of the ARA. Although the total
scores ranged from 24 to 42 points, 55% of total scores fell
in the 39-point to 42-point range, restricting the top range of
scores. This restricted range is likely due to the 3-point scale
and participant homogeneity. The results of the factor analysis demonstrate that the item groupings of the ARA diverge
from the domains of the ARA identified in the new factor
structure. Such heterogeneity of items within domains or
subscales will reduce reliability. Additionally, subscales with
fewer items (e.g., occupational choice with two items) tended to have lower reliability coefficients.
The reliability of the ARA might be improved by
expanding the scaling to a 5-point scale to allow for ratings
of performance of well above average to well below average,
thus reducing the ceiling effect seen in this study. An
expanded rating scale might differentiate more accurately
and reliably among homogeneous groups as used here and
would likely be far more reliable when used with heterogeneous groups or when differentiating between groups. The
results of the factor analysis also could be used to improve
the content homogeneity of items and expand the test
length of subscales to improve their reliability.
The consistency across ages in the themes and examples
identified in the narrative responses suggests that the current ARA did not adequately differentiate tasks specific to
ages. The only developmental trend observed was that 12year-olds tended to be scored as having fewer appropriate
responses, especially in childhood play (see Table 2). The
use of introspective language in formulating a cohesive life
narrative emerges during adolescence (Habermas & Bluck,
2000); a new measure might be designed more appropriately for adolescents 13 years of age or older. Nonetheless,
the factor analysis contains insights into adolescent percep-

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tions and experiences that occupational therapy practitioners could use to provide opportunities for students with disabilities that parallel the experiences of their peers without
disabilities (Brollier et al., 1994; Chandler et al., 1996).
The differences between the high and low scoring
groups on the ARA were most pronounced on measures of
developing aspirations and self-efficacy. Adolescents who
scored low on the ARA tended to have few aspirations, have
vague goals, and be less engaged in school; they also were
more likely to be in special education. These findings are
consistent with those of Farnsworth (2000), who found
that adolescents 13 to 18 years of age on probation were
engaged in passive leisure activities (e.g., watching television) two to three times more often with fewer productive
activities (e.g., school work, school activities) than similarage typical peers. The results of the current study suggest
criteria for anchor points on a new scale that might differentiate students at risk for career challenges.
The factor structure identified in this research is consistent with the existing literature related to career adaptability and may provide a foundation for designing a new
instrument. Savickas (1997) identified playfulness with a
future orientation and active experiences on a variety of jobs
as promoting career adaptability over the life span. These
concepts are consistent with those measured in Developing
Aspirations, a trend toward future planning in all aspects of
transition planning for persons with disabilities (e.g.,
Halpern, 1994; Morningstar, 1997), and concepts of active
engagement in occupation to promote adaptation (Schkade
& Schultz, 1992).
Henry and Coster (1997) highlighted the role of selfefficacy (the belief that one has the capacity to be successful) as influencing effort, persistence, and achievement in
academic, social, and physical spheres. For children and
adolescents with disabilities, the development of self-determination and self-evaluation is thought to be empowering,
to build a sense of self-efficacy, and to improve the quality
of life (Halpern, 1994). An assessment that includes subscales on self-efficacy might facilitate clinical intervention
and research on this important concept.
A need also exists to measure interpersonal competencies and autonomy. Adolescents with disabilities are likely to
have diminished interpersonal competence that inhibits
autonomy (e.g., Wagner et al., 1993), social skill development (Gresham & MacMillan, 1997), and working with
others (Phelps & Hanley-Maxwell, 1997). Autonomy, as
defined by Crittenden (1990) includes the adolescents
decision-making capacities and acceptance of responsibility
(p. 1). Vondracek and Skorikov (1997) found that a range of
activities, including leisure, work, and school, contribute to
both an emerging vocational identity and a self-identity, sug-

gesting the need for occupation-based practice for adolescents with disabilities and measures to guide that practice.
Several practice models illustrate the fit of the factor
structure identified in this study with best practices for
developing career adaptability. Morningstar (1997) recommended that career adaptability be enhanced by providing
opportunities for students with disabilities to develop selfknowledge, to have meaningful work experiences that
include socialization with coworkers, and to dream freely
about their futures. Jackson, Rankin, Siefken, and Clark
(1989) described a career maturation curriculum for occupational therapy that included participating in a social
leisure network, exploring employment options, developing
autonomy in job skills, and establishing linkages with community agencies. In a clinic-based program for children
with arthritis, White and Shear (1992) promoted career
aspirations and planning by asking children at each visit,
What are you going to be when you grow up, and how will
you make it happen?
The results of the present study should be interpreted
cautiously for several reasons. The exploratory factor analysis was based on a relatively small sample size given the 21
items of the ARA. Although student interviewers were
trained in the study procedures, their ratings of adolescent
responses and their interview skills may have introduced an
unknown amount of error, bias, or unreliability. The adolescents in this study were generally homogenous on the
basis of geographical, cultural, and demographic characteristics. Even so, the literature suggests a need for an instrument to measure career adaptability in adolescents with and
without disabilities. The factors identified in this study may
provide directions for new test construction or substantial
revisions of the ARA suitable for occupational therapy practice and research with subsequent psychometric study of a
new measure. s

Acknowledgments
We thank the students at Eastern Kentucky University and
the adolescents and their parents who consented to participate in this study. Kristen Pennington, MS, OTR, assisted
with coding the participant responses. Anne Blakeney,
MSOT, OTR/L, FAOTA, provided well-formulated suggestions to improve the clarity and rigor of this manuscript.

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