Final Report

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower
ABOUT THE COMPANY

Udyogamandal Division
FACT commenced operation at Udyogamandal with the commissioning of a 50,000 tonnes
per annum Ammonium Sulphate Plant in 1947.
In the decades that followed multi stage expansion programs were undertaken bringing in
the latest technologies of the day which were quickly mastered and successfully
implemented. Today the division is a mostly mix of 35 year old small capacity plants and 2
year old state of the art technology plants.
The latest addition to this unit is a 900 tonnes per day ammonia complex set up with an
investment of RS 642 crores. FACT Udyogamandal division is 14001 certified.
Cochin Division
FACT Cochin Division has set up in the 1970's at Ambalamedu 30 km from
Udyogamandal and adjacent to the Cochin Refineries. Phase-I of the division saw the
setting up of an integrated Ammonia urea complex utilizing Indian Engineering skills. A
large scale complex fertilizer plant of 485,000 TPA was set up as phase-II of Cochin
Division and sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid plant of marketing capacity.
Petrochemical Division
FACT diversified into petrochemicals in 1990 with the production of caprolactam. This
versatile petrochemical is the raw material in the manufacture of nylone-6, which finds
extensive application in textiles, tyre cord and engineering products. Thanks to its high
quality the products have been acknowledge as among the best in the world.
1
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, SSET
The division is located adjacent to the Udyogamandal division. Co-product ammonium

sulphate is transferred for processing to the fertilizer plant of udyogamandal division.
Our Petrochemical Division is ISO 9002 and 14001 certified.
PETROCHEMICAL DIVISION
PLANT
CAPROLACTAM
INSTALLED
CAPACITY (TPA)
50,000
FEEDSTOCK
BENZENE
YEAR OF
COMMISSIONING
1990
BY-PRODUCTS
1. NITRIC ACID
2. SODA ASH
3,800
4,750
1990
1990
FACT Engineering & Design Organization (FEDO)

FACT Engineering & Design Organization (FEDO) was established in 1965 for utilizing
the considerable indigenous plant building expertise accumulated by FACT in its process of
nurturing the nascent chemical fertilizer industry.
FEDO is today one of India's premier project engineering organization, catering to a wide
spectrum of industries like petrochemicals, refining, pharmaceuticals, hydrometallurgy etc
as well as petroleum storage, environmental engineering, offsite facilities etc.
The division undertakes project execution on consultancy and turnkey basis, handling the
intricacies of the technology sourcing, design and engineering, hardware procurement and
construction with practiced ease.
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FEDO is ISO 9001 certified.
FERTILISERS
PETROCHEMICALS
CHEMICALS
AMMONIUM SULPHATE, COMPLEX

FERTILISERS
CAPROLACTAM
AMMONIA, SULPHURIC ACID,
SODA ASH, NITRIC ACID
Finished products
Ammonium Sulphate - Udyogamandal Division
Ammonium Phosphate / Complex fertilisers / Factamfos - Udyogamandal Division

& Cochin Division
Caprolactam - Petrochemical Division
Biofertilisers - Research & Development Division
Exported Products
Caprolactam - Petrochemical Division
Ammonium Sulphate - Udyogamandal Division
Byproducts
Nitric Acid & Soda Ash - Petrochemical Division
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Gypsum - Udyogamandal Division & Cochin Division
Carbon Dioxide Gas - Udyogamandal
Intermediary Products
Ammonia - Udyogamandal & Cochin Division
Synthesis Gas - Udyogamandal Division
Sulphuric Acid - Udyogamandal & Cochin Division
Oleum - Udyogamandal Division
SO2 Gas - Udyogamandal Division
Phosphoric Acid - Udyogamandal & Cochin Division
PRODUCT MIX
Straight Fertilisers
Ammonium Sulphate - Containing 20.6% N in ammonical form and 24% sulphur,

an important secondary nutrient.
Ultraphos - FACT markets imported Rock Phosphate containing 32% P2O5 under
brand name "Ultraphos". This high analysis fertiliser is found suitable for
application especially in Coconut/ Rubber/ Oil Plam/ Tea Plantation.
Complex Fertilisers
Factamfos 20:20:0:15 - NPK complex fertiliser - Factamfos or Ammonium

Phosphate contains 20% N in ammonical form, 20% P in water soluble form and
15% sulphur; a secondary plant nutrient, which is now attaining great importance in
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agriculture. Factamfos also can be used for foliar spraying.
NPK Mixtures
NPK Mixtures - FACT prepares crop specific standard mixtures for all crops in
Kerala and also special NPK mixtures for plantation crops like Tea, Coffee,
Cardamom, Rubber etc.
Rose Mixture - A fertiliser tonic for Roses.
Vegetable Mixture - A special blend exclusively prepared for vegetable.
Garden Mixture - A special nutrient combination for both flowering and foliage
ornamental plants.
Imported/ Traded products - FACT has entered into direct import of MOP and
Ammonium Sulphate and also trading of Imported Urea.
Bio fertiliser - FACT produces and markets 'N' fixing Bio fertilisers - Rhizobium,
Azospirillium and 'P' solubilising bio fertiliser - Phosphobactor.
Chemicals
Anhydrous Ammonia - FACT produces Ammonia of over 99.96% purity.
Sulphuric Acid - FACT has one of the largest plants in Asia and we manufacture
Sulphuric acid of 98% purity.
Caprolactam - It is the raw material for Nylon-6. The product quality of FACT
caprolactam is among the best available in the world.
Nitric Acid and Soda Ash - Small qualities of these are obtained from caprolactam
plant as byproduct.
o Nitric acid (55%)
Capacity
3800 TPA
Concentration (by weight)
55% (min.)
5
Ammonium Nitrate (by weight) :
1% (max.)
Specific gravity at 20 Deg.C
1.339
Delivery
Ex-factory - tanker load
o Soda ash (off grade)
Capacity
4750 TPA
Total alkalinity (as Na2CO3) (by wt) :
95% (min.)
Sulphate (as Na2SO4) (by weight)
1.5 to 3%
Bulk density (g/L)
1.35 to 1.50
Delivery
Ex-factory - bulk
The total sales of fertilisers during 2004-05 was 7.84 Lakh MTs and 9.83 Lakh MTs in
2005-06 with a sales turnover of Rs. 1394 crores.
Realizing the importance of bringing the essential agricultural inputs and facilities for
advisory service under single roof, FACT has converted its major selling points into Agro
Service Centres rendering service to farmers. These centres advise the farmers on modern
farm management techniques, credit availability, marketing prospects etc. It also prepares
detailed farm plants for each farmer.
FACT is the pioneer in fertiliser education and sales promotion programs. These consist of
fertiliser festivals, study classes, seminars, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKS), crop
campaigns, crop demonstrations etc., with an ideal blend of information and entertainment
to drive home the message of balanced fertiliser use for increasing crop production. Our
creative and novel education programs like village adoption gained national recognition.
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CONCISE PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND DIAGRAM

E-amino-caprolactam ,further called lactam, is prepared ,purified and concentrated in several
steps:
Oxime preparation and ammonium sulphate stripping.

Rearrangement and neutralization.
Ammonium sulphate extraction and stripping.
Lactam extraction and stripping.
Re-extraction and washing.
Benzene distillation .
Ion exchange.
Hydrogenation.
Evaporation.
Distillation .
Flaking
Hoot water system.
OXIME PREPARATION AND AMMONIUM SULPHATE STRIPPING
In several reactors the cyclohexanon from section5 and the hyam sulphate solution from section1
are reacted with simultaneous suplly of ammonia water , to form cyclohexanone oxime and
ammonium sulphate. The reaction takes place in two steps ,each step being followed by a
separation .
In the second step ,fresh anone is supplied in such excess that all hyam is converted ,forming a
mixture of anone/oxime and ammonium sulphate. After separation the ammonium sulphate
solution is discharged to a stripper. The remaining anone/oxime mixture is discharged to first
step.
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In this part , all the anone reacts with fresh hyam sulphate which is now in excess , forming a
mixture oxime, hyam sulphate and ammonium sulphate.
After separation ,the oxime is discharged to the rearrangement , while the hyam/ammonium
sulphate is dischsrged to the second step to react with fresh anone.
In this way , at correct reaction conditions ,about 99.5 mole % of the anone is converted to
oxime .
Ammonium sulphate formed still contains a small amount of anone which is removed in a
stripper .
After condensation , this anone is recycled to the second teaction step. The treated ammonium
sulphate is discharged to battery limits for further processing in the ammonium sulphate plant.
REARRANGEMENT AND NEUTRALIZATION
The produced oxime is rearranged to caprolactam , which , though having the same molar
composition ,differs in structure .
The rearrangement is carried out by mixing of the oxime with oleum,from battery limits,in a
specially mdesigned reactor. The choice of the proper mixing ratio of oxime and oleum is of
major importance for the reaction efficiency and for the quality of the reaction product.also the
so3 concentration in the oleum is of consequence as well as the reaction temperature. Under the
optimum reaction conditions,the efficiency of the so called Beckmann arrangement amounts to
about 98.5 %. The heat of reaction is removed by circulation over a cooler.
The reaction product is a rather viscous mixture of lactum and oleum. For removal of lactum,the
mixture is neutralized with ammonia water. The heat of neutralization is discharged by
circulating the neutralized mixture over a cooler. As a result of the neutralization two layers are
formed,the separation being due to the difference in specific density.the bottom layer consists of
an ammonium sulphate solution in water and the top layer consists about 70% by weight of
crude lactum in water organic and inorganic impurities.
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AMMONIUM SULPHATE EXTRACTION AND STRIPPING
The ammonium sulphate solution still contains a small amount of caprolactum. In order to
recover this caprolactum,the ammonium is extracted with benzene before being further
processed.
In an extraction column the ammonium sulphate solution and benzene are contracted in counter
flow,so that the caprolactum is transferred from the ammonia sulphate solution into the benzene.
The ammonium sulphate which now contains a small amount of benzene,is treated in a stripper
to recover this benzene.
After stripping,the ammonium sulphate is discharged to battery limits for further processing in
the ammonium sulphate plant.
LACTUM EXTRACTION AND WASHING
The crude lactum from the rearrangement is contacted with countercurrent benzene in an
extraction column. The benzenic lactam from the ammonium sulphate extraction is supplied to
this column.
T hough caprolactum is better soluble in water than in benzene,by using a sufficient excess of
benzene good extraction can be achieved,with minimized caprolactam losses with the extraction
residue discharged from the bottom of this column. All impurities with better solubility in water
than in benzene are left behind in the extraction residue and are carried away with it.
The top product of the column is a 20% solution of caprolactam is benzene,in which also the
impurities that are soluble in benzene are present.
The botton product is sent to a small stripper where traces of benzene are recovered,after which
the aqueous residue is discharged to the incinerator.
In order to decrease the conductivity of the benzenic lactam is washed with water in 2 steps
before it is supplied to the re-extraction.
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RE-EXTRACTION AND STRIPPING
To remove the benzene soluble impurities , the benzenic lactam is re-extracted with process
condensate in counterflow .
In this re-extraction , the impurities which are better soluble in benzene than in water are left
behind in the benzene .
Thebenzenic lactam is fed to the bottom of the column .
The aqueous lactam solution formed which leaves the the bottom of the re-extraction column has
a concentration of about 30% of lactam. As this solution contains some dissolved benzene ,
which may bring about damage to the ion exchange resin , the solution is supplied ta stripper .
After stripping , the aqueous lactam is further purified in a series of ion exchangers .
The topproduct of re-extraction column is benzene from the stripper is supplied to the storage
tank , via a pump vessel , to be used again .
BENZENE DISTILLATION
The benzene which is recovered in re-extrsction will contains some impurities.

As the benzene will be re-used in the ammonium sulphate the lactam extractions a portion of the
recirculating benzene is purified in a distillation column ,to prevent accumulation of
impurities .
The impurities that are less volatile than benzene are removed discontinuously with the residue
from this distillation coumn .
After it is pumped to the sulphate and lactam extractions together with the non-purified benzene
from the storage tank .
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ION EXCHANGE
To remove ionic impurities , mainly ammonium sulphate ions , the aqueous lactam is sent
through a set of ion exchangers .
In an anionic exchanger the so4 ions are of the solutions are replaced by 2 OH ions .
In a cation exchanger the NH ions are replaced by h ions .After the cation exchanger the solution
is again passed through an anion exchanger , since the cation exchanger capacity is twice as
large as that of the anion exchanger .
After some time the exchangers become saturated with ions and have to be regenerated .
The solution is then sent through a second set of exchangers while the first one is treated with
diluted nitric acid and caustic soda .
HYDROGENATION
The lactam solution still contains some unsaturated impurities which can not be removed by
distillations as the boiling point of these impurities equals the lactam boiling point .
By means of hydrogen and Raney-nickel catalyst these unsaturated compounds are converted to
saturated ones with a hogher or lower boiling point than lactam so that they can be removed in
the distillation section .
After hydrogenation , the lactam is passed through a filter to remove the catalyst .
EVAPORATION
In this system the aqueous lactam is concentrated from 30 wt % to almost 100% in two steps .
In the first step the oncentration is increased to about 90 wt % in a triple effect evaporation to
save energy.
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To obtain this concentration at the lowest possible temperature the third effect operates under
vacuum conditions .
In the second step the concentration is concentration is increased to about 100% . as this
requires high temperatures , which would effect the lactam quality , in this step a higher vacuum
than in the first step is applied .
The evaporated water is after condensation and cooling re-used as reflux in this system and as
extracton medium in the re-extraction .
The excess of water is discharged with the lactam water from the distillation to neutralization .
DISTILLATION
In this system the lactam is purified by distillation under very high vacuumconditions to remove
the last traces of impurities.
The produced lactam final product is supplied to the storage tanks ,from where it is discharged to
the flaking section .
The bottom product of the main distillation is again distilled in a so-called residue column to
recover as much lactam as possible . this lactam is recycled to the distillation feed tank .
The bottom product from the residue column is once more distilled in the so-called super
residue distillation.
The distilled lactam top product is also recycled to the distillation feed tank .
The remaining bottom product , the super-residue ,is recycled to the rearrangement
neutralization system after having been diluted with other lactam-containing flows.
FLAKING
In this system , lactam is solidified on an internally cooled rotary drum . The solidified lactam is
scraped from the drum to form flakes ,which are bagged.
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HOT WATER SYSTEM
To prevent solidification of lactam during production or storage , many lines and equipments are
traced or jacketed .For this purpose two separate hot water systems are installed .one provides
the production part with hot water and the other is used in the storage and flaking facilities.
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BLOWERS
Most manufacturing plants use fans and blowers for ventilation and for industrial
processes that need an air flow. Fan systems are essential to keep manufacturing processes
working and consist of a fan, an electric motor, a drive system, ducts or piping, flow control
devices, and air conditioning equipment (filters, cooling coils, heat exchangers, etc). An example
system is illustrated in Fig 1. The US Department of Energy estimates that 15% of electricity in
the US manufacturing industry is used by motors. Similarly, in the commercial sector, electricity
needed to operate fan motors composes a large portion of the energy costs for space conditioning
(US DOE,1989).
Fans, blowers and compressors are differentiated by the method used to move the air and
by the system pressure they must operate against. The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) uses the specific ratio, which is the ratio of the discharge pressure over the
suction pressure, to define fans, blowers and compressors (see table).
Equipment
Specific Ratio
Fans
Up to 1.11
Blowers
1.11 to 1.20
Compressors
More than 1.20
Table: Difference between Fans, Blowers and Compressors
Types of blowers
Blowers can achieve much higher pressure than fans, as high as 1.20 kg/cm2. They are
also used to produce negative pressures for industrial vacuum systems. The centrifugal blower
and the positive displacement blowers are two main types of blowers.
Centrifugal blowers
Centrifugal blowers look more like centrifugal pumps than fans. The impeller is typically
gear-driven and rotates as fast as 15000 rpm. In multi-stage blowers, air is accelerated as it
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passes through each impeller. In single-stage blower, air does not take many turns and hence it is
more efficient.
Centrifugal blowers typically operate against pressures of 0.35 to 0.70 kg/cm2, but can achieve
higher pressures. One characteristic is that airflow tends to drop drastically as system pressure
increases, which can be a disadvantage conveying systems that depend on a steady air volume.
Because of this, they are most ofen used in application that are not prone to clogging.
Positive displacement blowers
Positive displacement blowers have rotors, which trap air and push it through housing.
These blowers provide a constant volume of air even if the system pressure varies. They are
especially suitable for application prone to clogging, since they can produce enough pressure
(typically up to 1.25 kg/cm2) to blow clogging materials free. They turn much slower than
centrifugal blowers (eg : 3600rpm) and are often belt driven to facilitate speed changes.
BELT (MECHANICAL)
A belt is a looped strip of flexible material, used to mechanically link two or more rotating
shafts. They may be used as a source of motion, to efficiently transmit power, or to track relative
movement. Belts are looped over pulleys. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the
pulleys in the same direction, or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the shaft is
opposite. As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to
continually carry a load between two points.
Power transmission
Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially
aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The demands
on a belt drive transmission system are large and this has led to many variations on the theme.
They run smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes,
albeit with less strength than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt engineering allow
use of belts in systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears.
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Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of
tension and belt velocity:[1]
P = (T1 T2)v
Where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They are
related as:
where, is the coefficient of friction, and is the angle subtended by contact surface at the
centre of the pulley.
Flat belts
The drive belt: used to transfer power from the engine's flywheel. Here shown driving a
threshing machine.
Flat belts were used early in line shafting to transmit power in factories. They were also used in
countless farming, mining, and logging applications, such as bucksaws, sawmills, threshers, silo
blowers, conveyors for filling corn cribs or haylofts, balers, water pumps (for wells, mines, or
swampy farm fields), and electrical generators. The flat belt is a simple system of power
transmission that was well suited for its day. It delivered high power for high speeds (500 hp for
10,000 ft/min), in cases of wide belts and large pulleys. These drives are bulky, requiring high
tension leading to high loads, so vee belts have mainly replaced the flat-belts except when high
speed is needed over power.
Round belts
Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60 degree Vgroove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) Oring type belts are used. The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus
increasing friction. Nevertheless, round belts are for use in relatively low torque situations only
and may be purchased in various lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, a metallic
connector (in the case of hollow plastic), glueing or welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early
sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to a great effect.
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Vee belts
Vee belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is
now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed
of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless, and their
general cross-section shape is trapezoidal. The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in
the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge
into the groove as the load increases the greater the load, the greater the wedging action
improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width
and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high
reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less
than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 10007000 ft/min. V-belts need
larger pulleys for their larger thickness than flat belts
Multi-groove belts
A multi-groove or poly groove belt is made up of usually 5 or 6 "V" shapes along side each
other. This gives a thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus is more flexible, although often
wider. The added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as less energy is wasted in the internal
friction of continually bending the belt. In practice this gain of efficiency is overshadowed by the
reduced heating effect on the belt, as a cooler-running belt lasts longer in service.
A further advantage of the poly groove belt, and the reason they have become so popular, stems
from the ability to be run over pulleys on the ungrooved back of the belt. Although this is
sometimes done with vee belts and a single idler pulley for tensioning, a poly groove belt may be
wrapped around a pulley on its back tightly enough to change its direction, or even to provide a
light driving force.
Ribbed belt
A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates from contact
between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley. Its single-piece structure is reported to
offer an even distribution of tension across the width of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a
power range up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off the back
of the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration. The
ribbed belt may be fitted on various applications : compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural
machinery, food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc.
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Film belts
Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist of a very
thin belt (0.5-15 millimeters or 100-4000 micrometres) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber.
They are generally intended for low-power (10 hp or 7 kW), high-speed uses, allowing high
efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen in business machines, printers, tape
recorders, and other light-duty operations.
Timing belts
Timing belts, (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a positive transfer
belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed
pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often
used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their name). They are often
used in lieu of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary.
Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts.
Timing belts need the least tension of all belts, and are among the most efficient. They can bear
up to 200 hp (150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min. Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design
are available. The helical offset tooth design forms a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to
engage progressively. The chevron pattern design is self-aligning. The chevron pattern design
does not make the noise that some timing belts make at idiosyncratic speeds, and is more
efficient at transferring power (up to 98%).
Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially fabricated toothed
pulleys, less protection from overloading and jamming, and the lack of clutch action.
Specialty belts
Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However, designs for
continuously variable transmissions exist that use belts that are a series of solid metal blocks,
linked together as in a chain, transmitting power on the compression side of the loop.
Rolling roads
Belts used for rolling roads for wind tunnels can be capable of 250 km/h.
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Flying rope
For transmission of mechanical power over distance without electrical energy, a flying rope can
be used. A wire or manila rope can be used to transmit mechanical energy from a steam engine
or water wheel to a factory or pump which is located a considerable distance (10 to 100s of
meters or more) from the power source. A flying rope way could be supported on poles and
pulleys similar to the cable on a chair lift or aerial tramway. Transmission efficiency is generally
high.
BEARING
A bearing is a device to allow constrained relative motion between two or more parts, typically
rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be classified broadly according to the motions they
allow and according to their principle of operation as well as by the directions of applied loads
they can handle.
Principle of operation:
There are at least six common principles of operation:
plain bearing, also known by the specific styles: bushings, journal bearings, sleeve
bearings, rifle bearings
rolling-element bearings such as ball bearings and roller bearings
jewel bearings, in which the load is carried by rolling the axle slightly off-center
fluid bearings, in which the load is carried by a gas or liquid
magnetic bearings, in which the load is carried by a magnetic field
flexure bearings, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends.
There are many types of bearings, each used for different purposes. These include ball bearings,
roller bearings, ball thrust bearings, roller thrust bearings and tapered roller thrust bearings.
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Ball Bearings
Ball bearings, as shown below, are probably the most common type of bearing. They are found
in everything from inline skates to hard drives. These bearings can handle both radial and thrust
loads, and are usually found in applications where the load is relatively small.
In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the outer race to the ball, and from the ball to the
inner race. Since the ball is a sphere, it only contacts the inner and outer race at a very small
point, which helps it spin very smoothly. But it also means that there is not very much contact
area holding that load, so if the bearing is overloaded, the balls can deform or squish, ruining the
bearing.
Roller Bearings
Roller bearings like the one illustrated below are used in applications like conveyer belt rollers,
where they must hold heavy radial loads. In these bearings, the roller is a cylinder, so the contact
between the inner and outer race is not a point but a line. This spreads the load out over a larger
area, allowing the bearing to handle much greater loads than a ball bearing. However, this type
of bearing is not designed to handle much thrust loading.
A variation of this type of bearing, called a needle bearing, uses cylinders with a very small
diameter. This allows the bearing to fit into tight places.
Ball Thrust Bearing

Ball thrust bearings like the one shown below are mostly used for low-speed applications and
cannot handle much radial load. Barstools and Lazy Susan turntables use this type of bearing.
Roller Thrust Bearing
Roller thrust bearings like the one illustrated below can support large thrust loads. They are often
found in gear sets like car transmissions between gears, and between the housing and the rotating
shafts. The helical gears used in most transmissions have angled teeth -- this causes a thrust load
that must be supported by a bearing.
Tapered Roller Bearings

Tapered roller bearings can support large radial and large thrust loads.
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Tapered roller bearings are used in car hubs, where they are usually mounted in pairs facing
opposite directions so that they can handle thrust in both directions.
Self aligning ball bearings

It has two rows of balls and a common concave sphered raceway in the outer ring. The bearing is
consequently self-aligning and insensitive to angular misalignments of the shaft relative to the
housing. It is particularly suitable for applications where considerable shaft deflections or
misalignment are to be expected. Additionally, the self-aligning ball bearing has the lowest
friction of all rolling bearings, which enables it to run cooler even at high speeds.
Angular contact ball bearings

Angular contact ball bearings have raceways in the inner and outer rings that are displaced with
respect to each other in the direction of the bearing axis. This means that they are designed to
accommodate combined loads, i.e. simultaneously acting radial and axial loads.
The axial load carrying capacity of angular contact ball bearings increases with increasing
contact angle. The contact angle is defined as the angle between the line joining the points of
contact of the ball and the raceways in the radial plane, along which the load is transmitted from
one raceway to another, and a line perpendicular to the bearing axis
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CONDITION MONITORING
Introduction
Condition monitoring pre-supposes knowledge of machines condition and its rate of
change, which can be ascertained by selecting a suitable parameter for measuring deterioration
and recording its value at intervals either on a routine or continuous basis. This is done while the
machine is running. The data obtained may then be analyzed to give a warning on failure. This
activity is called as condition monitoring.
Condition monitoring essentially involves regular inspection of equipment using
human sensory facilities and a mixture of simple aids and sophisticated instruments
The central emphasis is however on the fact that most inspections should be preferably done
while the machine is running.
Condition monitoring is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of signals from
sensors and transducers installed on operational machinery, employing sensors positioned
outside the machine, often remove from the machine components being monitored, normally
does the monitoring of a machine condition and health, using established techniques, the analysis
of information provided by the sensor output and interpretation of the evaluated output is the
needed to establish what actions to be taken.
Condition monitoring can also be a test and quality assurance, system for continuous
processes as well as discrete component manufacture. It maximizes the performance of the
companys assets by monitoring their condition and ensuring that they are installed and
maintained correctly, it aims of detecting condition leading to catastrophic breakdowns and loss
of service, reducing maintenance overhauls, fine turning of operating equipment increasing
production and operating efficiency and minimizing the replacement parts inventory. This is
because a readily monitor able parameter of deterioration can be found in every plant, Machinery
and probabilistic element in future prediction is highly reduced or almost eliminated thus
maximizing the items life by minimizing the effect of failure
22
Condition Monitoring Techniques

There are only seven main techniques of condition monitoring.
They are:
a) Visual monitoring
b) Contaminant or debris monitoring
c) Performance and behavior monitoring
d) Corrosion monitoring thermograph
e) Sound monitoring.
f) Shock pulse monitoring.
g) Vibration monitoring.
a. Visual Monitoring
Visual monitoring involves the inspections and recording of surfaces to detect
Such as surface cracks and their orientation. Oxide films, weld defects and the presence of
potential sources such as sharp notches or misalignment.
b. Contaminant Monitoring
Debris analysis is well proving in all types of industrial and works on the
principle of taking or known quantity. Sample example: a gear box, then for analyzing the
amount and type of foreign particles present in the sample. This will be show such problems, as
gear wear, to the sample detects particles of gear material .oil analysis differs from debris
analysis so for as this technique allows an assessment of the actual condition of the oil in use.
That is whether the oil quality is good enough for the application after period of use or it is burnt
or exceeded its useful use.
c. Performance and Behavior Monitoring
Performance and behavior monitoring involves checking the performance of machine or
component to see whether it is behaving correctly. Monitoring the performance of the bearing by
measuring its temperature to see whether it is carrying out its function.
23
d. Corrosion Monitoring
Corrosion monitoring has actually applied to the fixed plane containing aggressive
material to monitor the rates of internal corrosion of walls of the equipment. It is the system
systematic measurement of corrosion or degradation of an a item of equipment, with the aim of
assisting and understanding the correct corrosion process of obtaining information for the use of
controlling corrosion
e. Thermography
Thermograph is a rapidly developing; it provides color cameras and videos,
clean indicator of heat loss, hot spot, cold spot, such as switchgear or any piece of plant or
production where temperature or its effects is important, it can be used both as maintenance tools
or a quality assurance tool. Shock pulse method is unique technique for monitoring the true
operation of the bearing by measuring the pressure wave generated by the instantaneous
mechanical impact.
f. Sound Monitoring:
Human operators are normally highly sensitive to the detection of defects as a
result of sudden change of sound due to the looseness of component results of wear or
slackening of fastening are particularly susceptible to such forms monitoring The most widely
available micro phones for sound or piezoelectric moving coils and condensers.
g. Vibration Monitoring:
Vibration monitoring measures the frequency and amplitude of vibrations. It is
Known that readings will change as machinery wear sets in. such readings can be interpreted as
indicators of the equipments condition, and timely maintenance actions can be scheduled
accordingly. Electrical machines and mechanical reciprocating or rotating machines generate
their own vibration signatures (patterns) during operation. However such raw signals contain a
lot of background noise, which makes it difficult or even impossible to extract useful, precise
information by simply measuring the overall signal. It is thus necessary to develop an
24
appropriate filter to remove the operationally and environmentally contaminated components of

signals (the background noise) so as to reveal the clear signals generated by the events under
study. To capture useful condition monitoring data, vibration should be measured at carefully
chosen points and directions.
Vibration monitoring is a well established method for determining the physical
Movements of the machine or structure due to imbalance mounting an alignment this method can
be obtained as simple. Easy to use and understand or sophisticated real time analysis, vibration
monitoring usually involves the attachment of a transducer to a machine to record its vibration
level special equipments is also available for using the output from sensor to indicate nature
vibration problem and even its precise cause.
Transducers for the measurement of vibrations employ electromagnetic electrodynamics,
capacitive, piezoelectric, or strain gauge principles out of these piezoelectric accelerometers is
most widely used since the recent past, Among the monitoring techniques vibration monitoring
as gained considerable importance because of following fundamental factors
1) All rotation and reciprocating machines vibrate either to a smaller or greater extent
machines vibrate because of defects or incurrence in system
2) When inaccuracies or more it results in increased vibration each kind of defect
provides a vibration characterized in the unique way.
Therefore vibration characteristics reveal the health condition of machine.
25
BASICS OF VIBRATION
Definition
Vibration can be defined as simply the cyclic or oscillating motion of a machine or
machine component from its position of rest. Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an
equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random
such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.
Fig. basic vibration representation

Vibration is occasionally "desirable". For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in
a woodwind instrument or harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration,
necessary for the correct functioning of the various devices.
More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound
noise. For example, the vibration motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device
in operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can be caused by imbalances in the rotating
26
parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimize unwanted
vibrations.
IMPORTANCE OF VIBRATION MONITORING
Deteriotation in the machine running condition always produces a corresponding increase in the
vibration level. By monitoring vibration level it is therefore possible to obtain information about
a machine condition. In any machine or machine component, the low level of vibration indicate
low vibrating forces which in turn result in improved machine life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION
The main characteristics are:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Vibration frequency
Vibration displacement
Vibration velocity
Vibration acceleration
Vibration phase
Vibration Frequency:
It is a measurement of the number of complete cycle that occurs in a specified period of
time frequency of vibration is usually expressed as the number of cycle that occurs in each
minute.That is,in CPM or hertz, 1 hertz= CPM/60
27
Vibration Displacement:
The total distance travelled by the vibrating part from one extreme limit of the travel to
the other extreme limit of travel is referred to as the peak to peak displacement. This is usually
expressed in micrometre.
Vibration Velocity:
The velocity of the motion is constantly changing throughout the cycle. The velocity is great as
the vibrating part passes through the neutral position and is known as peak velocity and is
selected for measurement. It can be expressed in mm/sec.
Vibration Acceleration:
Acceleration of the part is maximum at the extreme limit of travel where the velocity is zero.
Vibration acceleration is usually expressed in mm/sec^2. As the velocity of part increase the
acceleration decreases. At neutral position the level is maximum and acceleration is zero.
Vibration Phase:
Phase measurements a convenient way to compare one vibration motion with another to
determine how one part is vibrating relative to another part. Phase is defined as the position of
vibrating part at a given instant with reference to the fixed point or another vibrating part.
The force causing vibrations are generated through the rotating motion of the machine parts.
Different machinery problems causes different frequency of vibration.
The displacement, velocity and acceleration characteristics of vibration are measured in order to
determine the severity of vibration. Their characteristics are often referred to as the amplitude of
vibration. The greater the amplitude, the more severe the problem.
a) When to use velocity measurement?

Vibration velocity is directly related to vibration severity. As a rule the vibrations
occurring in the 600-60000 cpm frequency range are generally best measured using
vibration velocity.
28
b) When to use displacement measurement?

Under the condition of dynamic stress,displacement alone may be a better indicator of
severity. Generally at low frequencies, displacement may be the best indicator of
vibration severity, in the frequency range below 600cpm.
c) When to use acceleration measurements?
Acceleration is closely related to force and relatively large forces can occur at high
frequencies even though the displacement and velocity may be small. Thus for high
frequencies 60000cpm and up acceleration may be the best indicator of vibration
severities.
TYPES OF VIBRATION
Some of the important types of vibration are as follows:
1) Free and Forced vibration:
After disturbing the system the external excitation is removed, and the system vibrates on its
own. This type of vibration is known as free vibration. Simple pendulum is one of the examples.
Vibration which is under the influence of external

Machine tool, electric belt.
force is called forced vibration. Eg.
2) Linear and non-linear vibration:

If in a vibratory system,mass,spring and damper behave in a linear manner, vibration caused is
known as linear in nature. Linear vibrations are governed by linear differential equations. They
follow the law of super-position.
If any of the basic components of vibrating system behaves non-linear for very large amplitude
of vibration. It does not follow the law of super-position.
29
3) Damped and undamped vibration:

If the vibratory system has a damper,the motion of the system will be opposed by it and the
energy of the system will be dissipated in the form of friction. This type of vibration is called
damped vibration.
On the contrary
On the contrary, the system having no damper is known as undamped vibration.
4) Deterministic and random vibration:
If in the vibratory system, the amount of external excitation is known as in magnitude,it causes
deterministic vibration.
Contrary to it, the non deterministic vibrations are known as random vibrations.
What Causes Vibration?

Forces generated within the machine cause vibration. These forces may be one that :
Change in direction with time, such as the force generated by a rotating unbalance.
Change in amplitude or intensity with time, such as the unbalanced magnetic forces
generated in an induction motor due to un equal air gap between the motor armature
and stator (field).
Result in friction between rotating and stationary machine components in much the
same way that friction from a rosined bow causes a violin string to vibrate.
Cause impacts, such as gear tooth contacts or the impacts generated by the rolling
elements of a bearing over flaws in the bearing raceways.
Cause randomly generated forces such as flow turbulence in fluid handling devices
such as fans, blowers and pumps, or combustion turbulence in gas turbines or boilers.
What is Machine Vibration?

30
Most of us are familiar with vibration; a vibrating object moves to and fro, back and
forth. A vibrating object oscillates. We experience many examples of vibration in our daily lives.
A pendulum set in motion vibrates. A plucked guitar string vibrates. Vehicles driven on rough
terrain vibrate, and geological activity can cause massive vibrations in the form of earthquakes.
Fig . Examples of vibration

There are various ways we can tell that something is vibrating. We can touch a vibrating
object and feel the vibration. We may also see the back-and-forth movement of a vibrating
object. Sometimes vibration creates sounds that we can hear or heat that we can sense.
What is machine vibration? Machine vibration is simply the back and-forth movement of
machines or machine components. Any component that moves back and forth or oscillates is
vibrating. Machine vibration can take various forms. A machine component may vibrate over
large or small distances, quickly or slowly, and with or without perceptible sound or heat.
Machine vibration can often be intentionally designed and so have a functional purpose.
At other times machine vibration can be unintended and lead to machine damage.
Most times machine vibration is unintended and undesirable. This book is about the monitoring
of undesirable machine vibration. Shown below are some examples of undesirable machine
31
vibration.
Fig. vibrating parts
Vibration and Machine Life
Your first question may be: "Why worry about a machine's vibration?" obviously, once a
machine is started and brought into service, ft will not run indefinitely. In time, the machine will
fail due to the wear and ultimate failure of one or more of its critical components. And, the most
common component failure leading to total machine failure is that of the machine bearings, since
it is through the bearings that all machine forces are transmitted. Of course, the next question is:
"How long will be bearings last?" Although an exact answer to this question is impossible, the
manufacturers of rolling element bearings attempt to estimate bearing life using the following
calculation:
32
L 10 LIFE (HOURS) = 16.666/ RPM X (RATE / LOAD)3

Where: RPM
= Machine rotating speed in Revolutions per Minute
RATE = the rated load capacity of the bearing (lbs.)

Load
= the actual load to which the bearing is subjected.
This includes not only the static load due to the weight of the rotor, but the dynamic load
due to forces of unbalance, misalignment, etc., FORCES THAT CAUSE VIBRATION.
According to this calculation to estimate bearing life, doubling the rotating speed from,
say 1800 RPM to 3600 RPM, would cut bearing life in half. However, by cutting the load on the
bearing by one-half would increase its service life by eight times (2-cubed or 2 x 2 x 2 = 8). Of
course, this estimate of bearing life does not take into consideration other factors such as
inadequate lubrication, lubricant contamination or damage from improper storage or installation
techniques.
From the above calculation, it can be seen that bearing load, including dynamic load from
vibratory sources such as unbalance and misalignment, has a significant effect on bearing life
and, ultimately, machine life. Further, the amount of vibration exhibited by a machine is directly
proportional-to the amount of force generated. In other words, if the unbalance force is doubled,
the resultant vibration amplitude will be doubled also. Or, if the unbalance force is cut in half the
unbalance -generated vibration will be cut in half also.
Therefore, the answer to the question: "Why worry about a machine's vibration?" is
simple:
1. Increased dynamic forces (loads) reduce machine life.
2. Amplitudes of machinery vibration are directly proportional to the amount of dynamic forces
(loads) generated. If you double the force, you double the Vibration.
3. Logically then, the lower the amount of generated dynamic forces, the lower the levels of
machinery vibration and the longer the machine will perform before failure
It's that simple. Low levels of vibration indicate low vibratory forces which, in turn,
results in improved machine life.
With few exceptions, when the condition of a machine deteriorates, one of two possibly both
things will generally happen:
33
The dynamic forces generated by the machine will increase in intensity, causing an
increase in machine vibration. Wear, corrosion or a build-up of deposits on the rotor may
increase unbalance forces. Settling of the foundation may increase misalignment forces
or cause distortion, piping strains, etc.
The physical integrity (stiffness) of the machine will be reduced, causing an increase in
machine vibration.
Loosening or stretching of mounting bolts, a broken weld, a crack in the foundation,
deterioration of the grouting, increased bearing clearance through wear or a rotor loose
on its shaft will result in reduced stiffness to control even normal dynamic forces, Thus, it
should be obvious that an increase in machinery vibration is a positive indicator of
developing problems. In addition, each mechanical or operational problem generates
vibration in its own unique way. As a result, it is also possible to identify the specific
nature of the problem by simply measuring and noting its vibration characteristics. The
techniques of identifying specific defects and problems are presented in the section on
VIBRATION ANALYSIS.
INSTRUMENTS FOR VIBRATION DETECTION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction
Instruments for measuring and analyzing machinery vibration are available in a wide
array of features and capabilities, but are generally categorized as:
1. Vibration meters.
2. Vibration frequency analyzers
The Vibration Transducer
Regardless of the vibration instrument being used, the "heart" of every instrument is the
vibration transducer. This is the device that is held or attached to the machine to convert the
machine's mechanical vibration into an electrical signal that can be processed by the associated
34
instrument into measurable characteristics of vibration amplitude, frequency and phase. Many
different varieties of vibration transducers have been used over the years. However, with few
exceptions, the transducer provided as standard with nearly all present-day vibration meters,
analyzers and data collectors is the vibration accelerometer.
An accelerometer is a self-generating device that produces a voltage output proportional
to vibration acceleration (G's). The amount of voltage generated per unit of vibration
acceleration (G) is called the sensitivity of the accelerometer and is normally expressed in milli
volts-per-G (mv/G), where 1 milli volt equals one-thousandth of a volt (1 mv = 0.001 volt).
Accelerometers are available with sensitivities ranging from less than 1 mv/G to 10,000 mv/G;
however, most accelerometers for general purpose vibration detection and analysis applications
will have sensitivities ranging from 10 to 100 mv/G.
Theory of Operation
Figure shows a simplified diagram of typical accelerometer construction. The component
of the accelerometer that generates the electrical signal is called a "piezoelectric" element. A
piezoelectric material is a non-conducting crystal that generates an electrical charge when
mechanically stressed or "squeezed". The greater the applied stress or force, the greater the
generated electrical charge.
Many natural and man-made crystals have piezoelectric properties. There are also a
35
number of ceramic (polycrystalline) materials which can be given piezoelectric properties by the
addition of certain impurities and by suitable processing. These are called "Ferro-electric"
materials. Most commercially available accelerometers used today incorporate Ferro-electric
materials because they can be fabricated in a variety of shapes and their piezoelectric properties
can be controlled more easily than crystals to suit many applications.
Referring to the diagram in Figure 4-1 the accelerometer consists of a mass (usually a
stainless steel disk) compressed against a "stack" of piezoelectric disks. The size and number of
piezoelectric disks used in an accelerometer determines not only its sensitivity (mv/G), but its
usable frequency range as well. When the accelerometer is held or attached lo a vibrating object,
the piezoelectric elements will be subjected to resultant "inertia" forces of the mass. Thus, a
forces proportional to the vibration acceleration is applied to the piezoelectric elements, resulting
in an electrical charge signal proportional to vibration acceleration.
The operation of an accelerometer used for measuring and analyzing machinery vibration
is exactly the same as that of a ceramic cartridge used on phonographs and record players, where
the vibration of a phonograph needle riding in the grooves of a record is converted to an
equivalent electrical signal.
The amount of electrical signal generated by the piezoelectric element is relatively small
and many times must be transmitted by an interconnecting cable to the vibration instrument or
analyzer which may be some distance away.
For this reason, a common practice is to
incorporate an electronic amplifier directly inside the accelerometer to amplify the signal so it
can be transmitted through long cables without worrying about signal loss or interference Horn
radio frequencies (RF interference) or high voltage electro-static interference or high voltage
transformers, electrical fields around motors, etc.
Accelerometers built-in amplifiers can
normally be used with interconnecting cables up to 1000 feet (330 meters) in length without
appreciable signal loss or interference.
Where to Take the Readings
36
Fig: Direction for placing the sensor

Since vibratory forces generated by the rotating components of a machine are passed
through the bearings, vibration readings for both detection and analysis should be taken directly
on the bearings whenever possible.
FFT means:
The term "FFT" stands for "Fast Fourier Transform". Nearly 200 years ago, French
mathematician, Baron Jean Baptist Joseph Fourier established that any periodic function (which
includes machinery vibration signals) can be represented mathematically as a series of sines and
cosines. In other words, it is possible to take a vibration time waveform, whether simple or
complex, and mathematically calculate the vibration frequencies present along with their
amplitudes. The process is called a "Fourier Transform". Although a Fourier Transform can be
done manually, the process is extremely time consuming. However, with the introduction of
digital technology, the process can be carried out very fast. Hence the term: Fast Fourier
Transform or FFT. Digital vibration analyzers and data collectors actually include a computer
chip programmed to perform the FFT function.
Analog Signal
The FFT process begins with an analog signal from a vibration transducer. Normally, the
transducer will be a vibration accelerometer; however, signals from other types of transducers
can be processed as well such as microphones, pressure transducers, current transformers, etc.
37
Input
Since a vibration accelerometer is normally used for vibration detection and Analysis, it
may be necessary to convert the acceleration signal to velocity by "single integration" or to
displacement by "double integration". These functions are carried out at the input section.
Calibration of the analog signal, based on transducer sensitivity, is also performed at the input.
VIBRATION PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM
It is natural to associate the condition of a machine with its level of vibration and it is natural for
a machine to vibrate. Even machine in the best of operating condition will have some vibration
because of minor defects. The vibration predictive maintenance program consists of 3 logical
steps:
1) Detection
2) Analysis
3) Correction
Detection:
This involves measuring and trending vibration levels at marked locations on each
machines. Generally machines are checked on a monthly basis. Critical machines are
checked on a frequent basis. The objective is to reveal significant increase in a vibration lead
to warn of developing programs.
Analysis:
Once machinery problems have been detected by manual or online monitoring, the next is
to determine the specific problem. This is the purpose of analysis to pinpoint specific machinery
problem by identifying its unique vibration characteristics or signature. This is done with special
instruments such as motor analysers or shock pulse meters. This instrument has the provision for
38
measuring the final details of vibration characteristics of the machine. Trouble cab is identified
by comparing these detailed readings with other informations about the machines,operating
speed, top of bearings and couplings and part vibration history.
Correction:
Once we have analyzed the course of vibrator problem and established the severity of the
problem we can schedule correction for a time that best suites the companies operating schedule.
Machinery faults such as bad bearings, looseness or misalignment facility gear etc, can be
corrected using procedure that is well established.
BENEFITS OF VIBRATION MONITORING
1) Prolongs machinery life

2) Minimize unscheduled down time
3) Eliminates unnecessary overhauls
4) Estimates standby equipments
5) Provide more efficient operation
6) Increases machinery safety
7) Improves analyzer performance
8) Improves customer satisfaction
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
39
INTRODUCTION
There are literally hundreds of specific mechanical and operational problems that can result
in excessive machinery vibration. However, since each type of problem generates vibration in a
unique way, a thorough study of the resultant vibration characteristics can go a long way in
reducing the number of possibilitieshopefully to a single cause. A simple, logical and
systematic approach that has been proven successful in pinpointing the vast majority of the most
common day-to-day machinery problems.
DEFINE THE PROBLEM

The following lists some of the reasons for performing a vibration analysis:
1.
Establish "baseline data" for future analysis needs. At the beginning of a
predictive
maintenance program, even machines in good operating condition should be thoroughly

analyzed to establish their normal vibration characteristics. Later, when problems do develop,
this baseline information can be - extremely useful in performing a follow-up analysis to show
precisely the vibration characteristics that have changed.
2.
Identify the cause of excessive vibration. Referring to the vibration severity guidelines
machines in service that have vibration levels in the "rough" regions or greater should be
thoroughly. Analyzed to identify existing problems for immediate correction. Once corrections
have been made, a follow-up analysis should be performed to insure that problems have been
solved and the machine returned to satisfactory condition. If all significant problems have been
solved, the follow-up analysis data will serve as the baseline data for future analysis as outlined
in (1) above.
3.
Identify the cause of a significant vibration increase. Once a developing problem has
been detected by routine, periodic checks, the obvious next step is to perform a detailed vibration
analysis to identify the problem for correction. Here also, a follow-up analysis will verify that
the problems have been corrected and provide a baseline for future comparison
4.
Identify the cause of frequent component failures such as bearings, couplings, seals,
shafts, etc.
5. Identify the cause of structural failures such as the structure or foundation, piping etc.
6. Identify the source of a noise problem.
40
DETERMINE MACHINE DETAILS

Some of the important detailed features of the machine that need to be known for
Accurate analyses include:
1. The rotating speed (RPM) of each machine component: Of course, direct-coupled
machines have only one rotating speed (RPM) that needs to be known. However, machines that
include gear drives will have more than one.' For single gear increasers or reducers, both the
input and output speeds are needed. For multiple gear increasers or decreases, the rotating
speeds of the various intermediate gears must be known along with the input and output speeds.
2. Types of bearings: Of course worn or defective sleeve or plain bearings will have different
vibration characteristics than defective rolling-element bearings. Therefore, it is most important
to know whether the machine has plain or rolling element bearings. If the machine has rollingelement bearings, it is also beneficial to know the number of rolling elements and other details of
bearing geometry; with this information, the vibration analyst can actually calculate the
frequencies of vibration caused by specific bearing defects such as flaws on the outer and inner
raceways, rolling elements, etc. Details on determining specific bearing defect frequencies are
presented in the ANALYSIS OF ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS section of this chapter.
3.
Number of fan blades: Knowing the machine RPM and number of blades on a fan will
enable the analyst to easily calculate the "blade-passing" frequency. This is simply the product of
the number of fan blades times fan RPM. This frequency of vibration is also called the
"aerodynamic pulsation frequency.
4. Number of impeller vanes: Similar to fans and blowers, knowing the number of vanes on a
pump impeller allows the analyst to calculate the vane-passing frequency, also called the
"hydraulic-pulsation" frequency.
5. Number of gear teeth: The rotating speed and number of teeth on each gear must be known
in order to determine the possible "gear-mesh" frequencies.
6.
Type of coupling: Gear and other lubricated types of couplings can generate some unique
vibration characteristics whenever their lubrication breaks down or if lubrication is inadequate.

7.
Machine critical speeds: Some machines such as high speed, multi-stage centrifugal
pumps, compressors and turbines are designed to operate at speeds above the natural or
"resonant" frequency of the shaft. The resonant frequency of the shaft or rotor is called its
"critical" speed, and operating a near this speed can result in extremely high vibration
41
amplitudes. Therefore, knowing the rotor critical speed relative to machine RPM and other
potential exciting force frequencies are very important.
8. Background vibration sources: Many times the vibration being measured on a machine is
actually coming from another machine in the immediate area. This is particularly true for
machines mounted on the same foundation or that are interconnected by piping or other
structural means. Therefore, it is important to be aware of potential "background" contributions.
This is especially true with machine tools, due to the low levels of vibration required! If possible,
the machine under analysis should be shut down and readings taken to directly determine the
amount and significance of background vibration.
VISUAL INSPECTION
Before collecting data, the vibration analyst should first make a visual check of the
machine to determine if there are any obvious faults or defects that could contribute to the
machines condition. Some obvious things to look for include;
1. Loose or missing mounting bolts
2. Cracks in the base, foundation or structural welds
3. Leaking seals
4. Worn or broken parts
5. Wear, corrosion or build-up of deposits on rotating elements such as fans.
Slow Motion Studies

Another test that is helpful in a visual inspection of the machine is slow motion
observation of the various rotating elements of the machine with a high-intensity stroboscopic
light. The strobe light must be one that has an adjustable flash rate. Simply adjust the strobe to
flash at a rate which is slightly faster or slightly slower than the rotating speed (1 x RPM) of the
machine. This will make the rotating components appear to rotate slowly.
Slowing down the rotating motion of the machine makes it possible to visually detect
problems that may be difficult to detect any other way. Visual run out of a shaft may pinpoint or
verity a bent shaft condition. Eccentricity of "V" belt sheaves and pulleys can be easily detected
in slow motion. Slow motion studies are especially useful in evaluating problems with belt
42
drives. Worn grooves in pulleys or belts with variations in thickness can easily be seen by
observing the action of the belt riding up and down in the pulley grooves. On multiple-belt
drives, belt slippage can be determined by observing the belts in slow motion.
PROBING STUDIES
The tendency in vibration analysis is to concentrate on analyzing vibration data taken at
the bearings of the machine. While this data is definitely an important part of any vibration
analysis, in many cases the vibration that is occurring at the machine's bearings is actually the
result of problems elsewhere in the "system. For example, in one case a vertical pump had a
vibration of 0.7 in/sec measured at the top bearing of the pump motor. However, overall
vibration readings taken on the pump base, foundation and piping revealed that the discharge
piping was vibrating at a level of 3.0 in/sec or over four times higher than the pump motor itself.
The problem turned out to be resonance of the discharge piping and not a problem with the pump
itself. The pump and drive motor in this case were simply responding to the piping problem.
The only way other problems in the system can be detected, such as the piping resonance
described above, is to go looking for them. Depending on the anticipated vibration frequencies,
select overall displacement, velocity or acceleration for measurement. Some of the areas that
should be checked include:
1. Suction and discharge piping on pumps: Take overall measurements in three directions. On
long piping runs, take readings at several locations along the piping.
2. Externally mounted components such as exciters, lube-oil pumps, surge bottles, etc. Here also,
take overall measurements in three directions
3. Take overall measurements on nearby machines that may contribute background vibration. If a
nearby machine has higher vibration amplitudes than the one being analyzed, it is very likely
some of the vibration is coming from the background source.
4. Compare overall vibration readings across all mounting interfaces to detect obvious signs of
looseness or weakness.
5. In addition to taking comparative overall readings across the mounting interfaces
To detect Obvious looseness problems, the vibration, amplitudes taken vertically at The
mounting points of a machine, such as the four feet of a motor, can be compared to reveal the
possibility distortion or "soft-foot or distortion conditions caused by uneven mounting or foot
43
will usually be indicated if one or more of the feet reveals a significantly higher amplitude than
the other feet. If this is defected, the condition should be verified and Corrected before further
analysis is carried out. Soft-foot conditions can be checked by placing a dial indicator directly on
the foot and carefully loosening the mounting bolt while observing the indicator reading. Any
movement or "spring" in excess of 0.002 - 0.003 inch is generally considered excessive and
should be corrected.
OBTAIN HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL AND AXIAL SPECTRUMS
(FFTS)
AT EACH
BEARING OF THE MACHINE TRAIN
In many cases, the analysis steps carried out thus far may be sufficient to pin point the
specific problem causing excessive vibration. If not, the next step is to obtain a complete set of
amplitude-versus-frequency spectrums or FFTs at each bearing of the machine train. For a proper
analysis, the machine should be operating under normal conditions of load, speed, temperature,
etc.
In order to insure that the analysis data taken includes all the problem-related vibration
characteristics and, yet, is easy to evaluate and interpret, the following recommendations are
offered;
Interpreting the Data
Once horizontal, vertical and axial FFTs have been obtained for each bearing of the
machine train, the obvious next question is: "What is this data telling me?" Essentially,
amplitude-versus-frequency spectrums or FFTs serve two very important purposes in vibration
analysis:
1. Identify the machine component (motor, pump, gear box, etc.) of the machine train that has
the problem And
2.
Reduce the number of possible problems from several hundred to only a limited few.
Identifying the Problem Component Based On Frequency

Figure 5-1 shows a fan operating at 2200 RPM, belt driven by an 1800 RPM motor. The
rotating speed of the belts is 500 RPM. Assume that a vibration analysis was performed on this
machine and the only significant vibration detected had a frequency of 2200 CPM or 1 x RPM of
the fan. Since the vibration frequency is exactly related to fan speed, this clearly indicates that
44
the fan is the component with the problem. This simple fact eliminates the drive motor, belts and
possible background sources as possible causes.
Most problems generate vibration with frequencies that are exactly related to the rotating
speed of trip in trouble. These frequencies may be exactly 1 x RPM or multiples (harmonics) of
1 x RPM such as 2x, 3x, 4x, etc. In addition, some problem's may cause vibration frequencies
that are exact sub harmonics of 1 x RPM such as 1/2x, l/3x or 1/4 x RPM. In any event, the FFT
analysis data can identify the machine component with the problem based on the direct
relationship between the measured vibration frequency and the rotating speed of the various
machine elements.
Identifying the Problem Component Based On Amplitude
Identifying the fan as the source of vibration based on vibration frequency was quite easy
in the above example because of the notable differences in the rotating speeds of the various
machine components. The obvious question, of course is: What about direct-coupled machines
that is operating at exactly the same speed?" In this case, the component with the problem is
normally identified as the one with the highest amplitude. For example, consider a motor direct
coupled to a pump. Examining the analysis data, it is noted that the highest vibration amplitude
on the motor is 1.0 in/sec compared to 0.12 in/sec on the pump. In this case, the motor is clearly
the problem component since its vibration amplitude is nearly 8 times higher than that measured
on the pump.
In general, the machine component that has the problem is usually the one with the
highest amplitude of vibration. The forces that cause vibration tend to dissipate in strength at
increased distances from the source. However, there are exceptions to this rule such as the
example given earlier where a vertical pump was vibrating excessively due to a resonance
problem with the discharge piping. In this case, the exciting force was actually generated by the
motor/pump but was being amplified by the resonant condition of the piping.
Another exception to this rule involves misalignment of direct coupled machines. Sir
Isaac Newtons third law of physics slates that "whenever one body exerts a force on another, the
second always exerts on the first a force which is equal in magnitude but oppositely directed." In
other words, "for every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction." In the case of coupling
misalignment, the vibratory force (action) is generated at the coupling between the driver a
driven components. As a result, the "reaction" forces on the driver and driven unit; will be
45
essentially equal, resulting in reasonably comparable vibration amplitudes. The only reason one
component may have a slightly higher or lower amplitude than the other is because of
differences in the mass and stiffness characteristics of the two components. But, in most cases
with the coupling misalignment, the vibration is fairly uniformly "shared" by the driver and
driven units.
FiG. Different components generate different vibration frequencies

Reducing the List of Possible Problems Based On Frequency
In addition to identifying the problem machine component based on frequency and/or
amplitude characteristics, the second purpose of FFT analysis data is to limit or reduce the list of
possible problems based on the measured vibration frequencies.
As stated earlier, each mechanical and operational problem generates its own unique
vibration frequency characteristics. Therefore, by knowing the vibration frequency, a list of the
problems that cause or generate that particular frequency can be made, which greatly reduces the
long list of possibilities.
The chart lists the most common vibration frequencies is they relate to machine rotating
speed (RPM), along with the common causes for each frequency. To illustrate how to use the
chart, assume that the belt-driven fan pictured in Figure 4-1 has excessive vibration at 2200 CPM
which is 1 x RPM of the fan. Of course, this clearly indicates that the fan is the component with
the problem and not the drive motor or belts. In addition, since the vibration frequency is 1 x
RPM of the fan, the possible causes listed on the chart are:
1. Unbalance
2. Eccentric pulley
3. Misalignmentthis could be misalignment of the fan bearings or misalignment of the fan and
46
motor pulleys.
4. Bent shaft
5. Looseness
6. Distortionfrom soft foot or piping strain conditions
7. Bad beltsif belt RPM
8. Resonance
9. Reciprocating forces
10. Electrical problems
Using this simple chart, along with the fact that the vibration frequency is 1 x RPM of the
fan has reduced the number of possible causes from literally hundreds to only ten (10) likely
causes, A little common sense can reduce this list even further. First, since the vibration
frequency is not related to the rotating speed (RPM) of the drive belts, possible belt problems
can be eliminated as a possible cause. Secondly, since this is a reciprocating machine such as a
reciprocating compressor or engine, the possibility of reciprocating forces can be eliminated
from the remaining list. Finally, since the frequency is not related to the drive motor or AC line
frequency. In any way, the possibility of electrical problems can be eliminated. Now, the number
of possible causes of excessive vibration has been reduced to only seven (7) by simply knowing
that the vibration frequency in this case is 1 x RF of the fan.
VIBRATION FREQUENCIES AND THE LIKELY CAUSES
47
Frequency in
Most Likely causes Other possible causes & Remarks
Terms Of RPM
1x RPM
2 x RPM
3 x RPM
Less than
1x RPM
Synchronous
(A.C line
frequency)
2xSynch.
Frequency
Many Times
RPM
(Harmonically
Related Freq.)
Unbalance
Eccentric journals, gears or pulleys

Misalignment or bent shaft if high axial
vibration
3) bad belts if RPM of belt
4} Resonance
5) Reciprocating forces
6) Electrical problems
Mechanical looseness 1) Misalignment if high axial vibration
3) Resonance
4) bad belt if 2 x RPM of belt
Misalignment
Usually a combination of misalignment and
excessive axial clearance (looseness).
Oil Whirl {Less than 1) Bad drive belts
1/2 x RPM
2) Background vibration
3) Sub-harmonic resonance
4) "Seat" Vibration
Electrical Problems Common electrical problems include broken rotor
bars, eccentric rotor, and unbalanced phases in
poly-phase systems, unequal air gap.
Torque Pulses
Rare as a problem unless resonance is excited
Bad Gears
Aerodynamic Forces
Hydraulic forces
Mechanical
Looseness
Reciprocating Forces
High Frequency Bad
Anti-Friction
(Not
Harmoni- bearing
cally Related)
1)
2)
Gear teeth times RPM of bad gear

Number of fan blade times RPM
Number of impeller vane times RPM
May occur at 2, 3, 4 and sometimes higher
harmonics if severe looseness
1) Bearing vibration may be unsteady amplitude
and frequency
2) Capitation, recirculation and flow turbulence
causes random high frequency vibration
3)Improper lubrication of journal bearings
4)rubbing
48
CASE STUDY
INTRODUCTION
We visited the lactam plant of the petrochemical division at FACT. We were under the guidance
of Mr. T.B. Sivaraman( Deputy Chief Mechanical Engineer of Maintenance Dept). We were
given the task to access the reasons for the unusual vibrations that occur in the blower and
thereby to find the reasons for frequent failure of the bearing used in that blower. The blower
under our inspection is coded as K-7801. It is a centrifugal blower and it is used as an exhaust
blower in the lactam plant.
PURPOSE OF THE BLOWER IN LACTAM PLANT
This centrifugal blower acts as an exhaust blower in the lactam plant. The final stage in the
process of lactam formation is carried out by this blower. The lactam powder enters a closed
container along with air. Here, water is sprayed over the mixture of lactam powder and air.
Lactum powder settles on the lower part of the container and the air in the container is driven out
by the exhaust centrifugal blower.
DEFINITION TO THE PROBLEM
Ever since centrifugal fans have been manufactured they have been subject to vibration related
problems. These problems range from simple unbalance conditions caused by mass variations on
the fan rotor to much more complex issues related to shaft alignment, bearing fatigue, or
resonance issues. In many cases excessive vibration levels in fans lead to unplanned, forced
outages to perform maintenance.
Once to this stage, these outages are necessary to maintain safety. However, most often, they are
costly both from a maintenance and lost production standpoint. Standards have been set as to
what are acceptable vibration levels for corresponding operating speeds.
49
The centrifugal blower which we inspected was said to have high vibrations and its bearings
faced failure after almost every 2 years. The reason for this bearing failure is the high level of
vibration in the system.
LAYOUT OF THE BLOWER
50
SPECIFICATIONS OF THE BLOWER
Actual speed
: 3200 rpm
Rated efficiency: 63.87 %

Rated bhp
: 26.72
Rotor type
: self cleaning, slightly curved bladed type
No. of stage
: single
Bearing type
: anti friction (self aligning ball bearings)
Lubrication
: Grease
Existing suction flange dimensions are as given below:

51
Inside diameter
320 mm
Outside diameter
384 mm
Bolt size
M10
No. of bolts
12 nos.
Thickness
6 mm
TO CHECK THE CAPACITY OF THE BEARINGS

LOAD CALCULATION:
Diameter of the shaft d = 55 mm
Axial load on the bearing Fa = 1000 N
Radial load on the bearing Fr = 3000 N
Required life of the bearing in hours Lh = 15000 hours
Life of the bearing in millions of revolution Ln = (60 * N * Lh) / 10^6
= ( 60 * 3200 * 15000) / 10^6
= 2880 millions of rev
From the machine design databook,
we selected a bearing for shaft diameter 55 mm.
we selected self aligning ball bearing model 2311.
Load capacity of the bearing is:
dynamic load capacity C = 56390 N
static load capacity Co = 28050 N
Fa / Co = 1000 / 28050 = 0.0356
Corresponding to this value,
value of x and y from the databook table,
x= 0.56
y=1.914
v=1
The equivalent load P on the bearing = (x * v * Fr) + (y* Fa)
= (.56 * 1 * 3000) + ( 1.914 * 1000 )
= 3594 N
For ball bearings,
Ln= ( C/P ) ^ 3
2880= ( C/3594 ) ^ 3
C= 51133.898 N ( < 56390 )
52
Therefore the design of the bearing is safe.
VIBRATION MEASURING PROCEDURE

Vibration is measured using vibrometer. It consists of a probe, an accelerometer and a deflection
scale. It is recommended to take readings at bearings as the vibrations in any part of the blower
can be found from the bearings. Vibration measurement is normally in two types:
1) Radial measurements:
a) Horizontal position
b) Vertical position
2) Axial measurements
Here the vibrations are measured at 2 bearings which are near the blower side.
We measured the rms value of the vibration on the bearings in horizontal, vertical and axial
directions on 22.12.2011
The readings are:
VIBRATION VELOCITY
BEARING A
BEARING
11.0
5.0
18.0
6.0
4.0
14.0
From the readings obtained, we found out that the axial vibrations are dangerously high. The
vertical vibration of the blower is in the limit. Horizontal vibration of the blower slightly out of
the limits. But it is tolerable.
We also went through the records of the inspection department to get more details of the K-7801
blower. From the records we got the readings taken using the vibrometer on 2.2.2001
The readings are:
VIBRATION VELOCITY
BEARING A
H
BEARING
A
B
A
53
4.0
4.5
7.0
8.0
6.2
7.8
From the readings, it is clear that the readings are tolerable. Actually, the RMS value of
vibration should be less than 5. In this case, it is slightly higher than 5. But it is acceptable.
Comparing the readings taken on both the dates, we understood that the blower initially had less
vibration. But now, it is having high vibration. From the readings we found out that it is mainly
the axial vibration which is very high.
We consulted with the engineers of the inspection department and maintenance department and
we came to know that following were the possible reasons that caused unusual vibrations in the
blower:
Imbalance:
A heavy spot in a rotating component will cause vibration when the unbalanced weight rotates
around the machines axis, creating a centrifugal force. Imbalance could be caused by
manufacturing defects (machining errors, casting flaws) or maintenance issues (deformed or
dirty fan blades, missing balance weights). As machine speed increases the effects of imbalance
become greater. Imbalance can severely reduce bearing life as well as cause undue machine
vibration.
Misalignment/shaft runout:
Vibration can result when machine shafts are out of line. Angular misalignment occurs when the
axes of (for example) a motor and pump are not parallel. When the axes are parallel but not
exactly aligned, the condition is known as parallel misalignment. Misalignment can be caused
during assembly or develop over time, due to thermal expansion, components shifting or
improper reassembly after maintenance. The resulting vibration can be radial or axial (in line
with the axis of the machine) or both.
Wear:
As components such as ball or roller bearings, drive belts or gears become worn, they might
cause vibration. When a roller bearing race becomes pitted, for instance, the bearing rollers will
cause a vibration each time they travel over the damaged area. A gear tooth that is heavily
chipped or worn, or a drive belt that is breaking down, can also produce vibration.
Looseness:
54
Vibration that might otherwise go unnoticed can become obvious and destructive if the
component that is vibrating has loose bearings or is loosely attached to its mounts. Such
looseness might or might not be caused by the underlying vibration. Whatever its cause,
looseness can allow any vibration present to cause damage, such as further bearing wear, wear
and fatigue in equipment mounts and other components.
Mechanically Loose Connections
Looseness in any mechanical connection between bearing caps, bearing pedestals, or foundations
can cause excessive vibration levels or amplify an already existing unbalance problem. Vibration
caused by mechanically loose connections is often misdiagnosed due to the presence of subharmonic vibration levels.
A second type of vibration caused by mechanically loose connections can take place if there is
looseness in the connection between the fan rotor and fan shaft. In many cases this will induce an
extremely high unbalance related vibration level that is not necessarily at 1X operating speed.
This type of vibration can be very difficult to determine, but easily corrected if found. In most
cases, properly designed interference fits between the rotor hub and fan shaft can be
implemented to avoid this condition.
Structural Vibrations
Another reason for the high vibration of the centrifugal blower may be due to the structural
vibrations which are caused due to improper foundation. The vibrations in the suction pipe and
delivery pipe also comes under the structural vibrations. In our case, the suction pipes and
delivery pipes are provided with rubber bellows which can reduce the vibration and also undergo
thermal expansion when necessary. The base of the blower is a heavily reinforced concrete slab.
Thus structural vibrations are minimised in our K-7801 blower.
Vibration due to starvation

In normal blowers, air is taken from atmosphere. Thus there is no pressure variation. But in
case of an exhaust blower like K-7801, the air is taken from a closed vessel in the lactum plant.
The availability of air may not be uniform throughout. This results in a condition called
55
starvation. Starvation is the condition in which only less amount of air enters the suction pipe.
Due to insufficient amount of air in the suction pipe, it tends to vibrate. The vibration due to
starvation is reduced by providing an extra container between the main container and the suction
pipe. This new container is used to store only the air from the main container. Air is sucked by
the centrifugal blower from the new container which provides almost uniform amount of air.
After analysing the above causes, we decided to conduct a spectrum analysis of vibration on the
K-7801 blower in order to find out the actual causes of vibration.
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Vibration analysis is done by a spectrum analyser.
Spectrum analyser
A spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the
full frequency range of the instrument. The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum
of known and unknown signals. The input signal a spectrum analyzer measures is electrical,
however, spectral compositions of other signals, such as acoustic pressure waves
and optical light waves, can be considered through the use of an appropriate transducer.
By analyzing the spectra of electrical signals,
dominant frequency,power, distortion, harmonics, bandwidth, and other spectralcomponents of a
signal can be observed that are not easily detectable in time domain waveforms. These
parameters are useful in the characterization of electronic devices, such as wireless transmitters.
The display of a spectrum analyzer has frequency on the horizontal axis and the amplitude
displayed on the vertical axis. To the casual observer, a spectrum analyzer looks like an
oscilloscope and, in fact, some lab instruments can function either as an oscilloscope or a
spectrum analyzer.
56
The spectrum analyser which we used is ADASH VA4 PRO.
Adash VA4Pro is a professional and robust 4 channel Vibration Analyzer / Recorder, which is a
valuable tools for maintenance engineer for fault diagnosis, balancing and data collection /
recording.
VA4Pro contains these measurement modes:
Recorder
Signal Analyser
Data Collector (Route measurements)
Run Up (Coast Down) measurements
Balancer
Signal Recorder
57
Measurement of 4 channel simultaneously gives a lot of flexibility in fault diagnosis. For

instance, you can get a good insight of the aligment by measuring the radial and axial vibration
across the coupling of the motor and pump.
We conducted the spectrum analysis on K-7801 blower on

27-12-2011 and obtained the following readings.
FAN SIDE BEARING (0 peak values)
RPM : 3200
58
Radial
10.9 mm/sec @ 3180 cpm

1.9 mm/sec @ 6360 cpm
Vertical
5.53 mm/sec @ 3180 cpm

0.773 mm/sec @ 25500 cpm
18.3 mm/sec @ 3180 cpm
Axial
2.73 mm/sec @ 6360 cpm
1.02 mm/sec @ 18120 cpm
PULLEY SIDE BEARING( 0-peak values)
RPM : 3200
3.16 mm/sec @ 6360 cpm

Radial
2.36 mm/sec @ 3180 cpm
59
1.06 mm/sec @ 25500 cpm
3.68 mm/sec @ 3180 cpm

1.11 mm/sec @ 6360 cpm
Vertical
0.931 mm/sec @ 31860 cpm

15.0 mm/sec @ 3180 cpm
Axial
2.92 mm/sec @ 6360 cpm
0.79 mm/sec @ 12720 cpm
From the readings, it is observed that the highest values of vibration readings are obtained at
3180 cpm. This is equal to 1*rpm.
VIBRATION FREQUENCIES AND THE LIKELY CAUSES

Frequency in
Most Likely causes Other possible causes & Remarks
Terms Of RPM
1x RPM
Unbalance
1)
2)
Eccentric journals, gears or pulleys

Misalignment or bent shaft if high axial
vibration
3) bad belts if RPM of belt
4} Resonance
60
2 x RPM
3 x RPM
Less than
1x RPM
Synchronous
(A.C line
frequency)
2xSynch.
Frequency
Many Times
RPM
(Harmonically
Related Freq.)
Mechanical looseness 1) Misalignment if high axial vibration

3) Resonance
4) bad belt if 2 x RPM of belt
Misalignment
Usually a combination of misalignment and
excessive axial clearance (looseness).
Oil Whirl {Less than 1) Bad drive belts
1/2 x RPM
2) Background vibration
3) Sub-harmonic resonance
4) "Seat" Vibration
Electrical Problems Common electrical problems include broken rotor
bars, eccentric rotor, and unbalanced phases in
poly-phase systems, unequal air gap.
Torque Pulses
Rare as a problem unless resonance is excited
Bad Gears
Aerodynamic Forces
Hydraulic forces
Mechanical
Looseness
Reciprocating Forces
High Frequency Bad
Anti-Friction
(Not
Harmoni- bearing
cally Related)
Gear teeth times RPM of bad gear

Number of fan blade times RPM
Number of impeller vane times RPM
May occur at 2, 3, 4 and sometimes higher
harmonics if severe looseness
1) Bearing vibration may be unsteady amplitude
and frequency
2) Capitation, recirculation and flow turbulence
causes random high frequency vibration
3)Improper lubrication of journal bearings
4)rubbing
From the chart, it is noted that the main reasons for high vibration in the exhaust blower are the
reasons corresponding to frequencies in terms of 1*rpm. The reasons are:
1)Unbalance:
Unbalance of rotating machine components is, perhaps, the easiest problem lo pinpoint
with confidence. Simple unbalance, uncomplicated by other problems, can be readily identified
by the following characteristics:
1. The vibration occurs at a frequency of 1 x RPM of the unbalanced component. The presence
61
of multiple, harmonic frequencies (i.e. 2x, 3x, 4x, times RPM) usually indicates additional
problems such as looseness, rubbing, etc
2. If a specific machine component such as a motor or fan is the source of unbalance, that
component will have significantly higher amplitudes of vibration at the 1 x RPM frequency.
Unbalance conditions can often be affected by other operating conditions such as load or
temperature. For example, machines operating at elevated temperatures can physically distort or
change shape due to thermal changes, resulting!! a change rotor balance. Large, fabricated boiler
draft fans must often be balanced at operating temperature due to thermal distortion. They may
run smoothly when cold but vibrate excessively when hot.
In addition, due to minor variations in the track and pitch-angle of the fan blades. Large
fabricated fans may show significant changes in the unbalance vibration characteristics with
changes in flow conditions. In other words, a change in the damper setting may result in a
significant change in the unbalance amplitude & phase characteristics. Such affects are referred
to as "aerodynamic unbalance', and [joint out the importance of balancing a rotor under its
normal operating conditions of temperature and flow conditions.
2)Eccentric pulleys :
Of course, no rotor or shaft can be made perfectly round. Some eccentricity or "outof-roundness" will be present on nearly every rotating assembly. Eccentricity is a common cause
of unbalance, and for common machines such as fans, blowers, pumps, etc., normal balancing
procedures can be carried out to minimize the effects of eccentricity. However, in certain
situations, eccentricity can result in "reaction" forces that cannot be totally compensated by
simply balancing the rotor. Probably the most common examples are eccentric belt pulleys and
chain sprockets, eccentric gears and eccentric motor armatures.
62
In the case of an eccentric belt pulley or chain sprocket, each revolution of the eccentric
pulley or sprocket will cause a variation in belt or chain tension. The result will be a vibration
frequency at 1 x RPM of the eccentric element, with a directional force on a line between the
centers of the driver and driven pulleys or sprockets. Although this could be easily mistaken as
an unbalance problem, a simple test for- the directionality of the radial vibration by taking
comparative horizontal and vertical phase readings or by taking multiple radial amplitude
readings will quickly reveal the highly directional nature of the vibration. Slow motion studies
with a stroboscopic light or run out checks with a dial indicator will confirm the eccentricity
problem.
Vibrations Due To Eccentricity

Eccentric gears will cause highly directional vibration at 1 x RPM of the eccentric gear in
a manner similar to that of eccentric belt pulleys and chain sprockets, and can be identified by
taking comparative horizontal and vertical phase readings or by taking multiple radial amplitude
readings as described earlier.
3)Misalignment or bent shaft if high axial vibration

Bent shafts are a common problem encountered on machinery, and are often the result of
manufacturing errors or mishandling and damage during transportation or machine installation.
In addition, a rotor may "bow" as the result of thermal distortion at elevated temperatures or due
63
to excessive unbalance forces.

Regardless of the cause, bent shafts will usually generate a predominant vibration at 1 x RPM,
very similar to simple unbalance. And, like unbalance, the radial vibration caused by a, bent
shaft will be fairly uniform and not highly directional. However, unlike unbalance, bent shaft
conditions will normally cause a relatively significant vibration in the axial direction as well. As
staled earlier, any time the amplitude of vibration measured in the axial direction exceeds 1/2
(50%) o! the highest measured radial vibration, a bent shaft is a very possible cause.
Because bent shafts cause significant vibration in the axial direction, a bent shaft problem
can normally be verified using a phase analysis of the axial vibration. However, there are
actually two different types of bent shaft conditions:
1. Rotors that have a simple "bow and:
2. Shafts that have a bend or "kink", but only near a particular bearing.
Each type of bend will result in significant axial vibration, but each type will cause the
various bearings of the machine to vibrate in the axial direction in a notice-ably different manner.
Therefore, an axial phase analysis cans not only verity a bent shaft condition, but can also help in
identifying the nature and location of the bend as well.
4)Bad belts:
Blower motors are connected to and move the fan in the unit with a belt, which is usually made
of rubber or a similar material and prone to damage after years of constant use. Loud squeals or
shrieks, accompanied by erratic or constant vibration damages or tears the blower belt.
5)Resonance
Resonance is a very common cause of excessive vibration on machines because
1. Machines consist of many individual elements or components such as suction and discharge
piping, bearing pedestals, bases, and accessory items such as exciters and lube oil pumps, etc...
Of course, each component has its own mass and stiffness characteristics and, hence, its own
unique natural frequency.
2. The stiffness of each machine component is different in different directions. As a result, each
64
machine component will likely have several different natural frequencies. For example, consider
a fan bearing. Most likely, the stiffness of the bearing will be different in the horizontal, vertical
and axial directions. As a result, the natural frequencies of this particular machine component
will also be different in the horizontal, vertical and axial directions.
When one considers all of the various machine components, along with the multiple
natural frequencies possible for each component, the reason that resonance is such a common
problem is quite understandable. All that is required is that the natural frequency of one machine
component, in one of its directions of vibration, be the same as one exciting force frequency
inherent to the machine, when this happens, resonance and high levels of vibration will result.
Although machines that are installed and brought into service may not exhibit resonance
problems initially, resonance may become a problem in the future if changes in machine stiffness
occur as the result of bearing wear, grouting deterioration, loosening of mounting bolts or other
problems.
SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM

After studying and analysing the problems of vibration and frequent bearing failures,following
are the solutions which we suggest to reduce the vibration and also to increase the life of the
bearings:
65
Remove the unbalance

The unbalance in the impeller can be removed by balancing it by using a balancing machine.
Balancing is done by adding weights to the impeller. Addition of weights to the impeller is done
by welding the small weights on the impeller surface.
Unbalance can occur due to manufacturing faults. The other cause of unbalance is the
accumulation of dirt on the fan blades. These dirt particles may be of very small mass, but they
can create unbalance when the blower fan is rotating at very high speed. Unbalance created by
such dirt particles can be removed by proper maintenance of the blower fan blades. It should be
cleaned so that dirt particles are not allowed to stick on to the blade surfaces.
Check the eccentricity of the pulleys

The eccentricity of the pulleys should be checked frequently to make sure that the shape of the
pulley remains circular. This can be done by checking the diameter of the pulley at different
points of its circumference.
Remove the misalignment or bend shaft

Misalignment is not easy to detect on machinery that is running. The radial forces transmitted
from shaft to shaft are typically static forces (i.e. uni-directional) and are difficult to measure
externally.
Disappointingly, there are no analyzers or sensors that you can place on the outside of a machine
case to measure how much force is being applied to the bearings, shafts, or couplings.
Consequently what we actually see are the secondary effects of these forces will exhibit many of
the following symptoms...
- Premature bearing, seal, shaft, or coupling failures.
- Excessive radial and axial vibration
- High casing temperatures at or near the bearings .
- Loose foundation bolts.
- Similar pieces of equipment are vibrating less or seem to have a longer operating life.
- The shafts are breaking (or cracking) at or close to the inboard bearings.
66
So the alignment of the shaft should be checked frequently and any misalignment present should
be removed immediately in order to prevent the damage to the blower. The easiest method to
check the alignment of the shaft is using a dial indicator. It is also a cheap method to check the
alignment of the shaft.
Change of lubrication
The lubrication used now in the bearings is grease lubrication. Grease is a highly viscous
lubricant. During the working of the bearing, the grease between the metal parts are thrown away
due to the motion of the bearings. Thus metal-metal contact occurs and wearing of metal surface
occurs which causes bearing failure.
Therefore, we suggest oil lubrication instead of grease lubrication in the bearings. In such
lubrication method the bearing part stays completely immersed in the oil throughout and metalmetal contact does not occur. This increases the life of the bearing. Another advantage of oil
lubrication is that the lubricating oil acts as an heat carrying agent. Thus temperature rise inside
the bearing is controlled. The heat from the oil can be transferred by using a water jacket around
the oil supplying tubes. Thus the life of the bearing can be increased by changing the lubricant
from grease to oil.
Check the belts and replace the worn out belts

The belts should be checked frequently. The worn out belts can be easily understood through
visual inspection. The belt used here is made of rubber which undergo changes in its shape due
prolonged working hours and also due to high temperature. Such belts can cause vibration. So
the belts should be checked and tightened to have optimum tension levels in the belt.
Change of bearing case to single plummer block

At present, the bearings are placed in separate casings. Though the bearings are of self
aligning type, there will be slight misalignment in the bearings. This can be prevented if we are
placing the bearings inside a single plummer block. By placing the bearings inside a single
plummer block, chances of misalignment can be avoided completely.
67
Change of bearings used

The type of bearing used now in the K-7801 blower is model 2311 K which is a self aligning
ball bearing. This type of bearing have self aligning property, permitting angular misalignment of
the shaft relative to the housing. But this type of bearing cannot withstand high axial vibration.
Thus we recommend angular contact ball bearings instead of self aligning ball bearings. Angular
contact ball bearings have raceways in the inner and outer rings which are displaced with respect
to each other in the direction of the bearing axis. Thus, they are particularly suitable for the
accommodation of combined loads, i.e. simultaneously acting radial and axial loads. Therefore
they do not wear off easily due to high axial vibration. Thus frequent bearing failure can be
prevented.
The dynamic and static basic load ratings of the 2311 K bearing are 56390 N and 28050 N
respectively (from the table given in SKF data book). We recommend an angular contact ball
bearing which has more load rating than the present bearing. From the table, we found that
angular contact ball bearing 7311 B has got dynamic and static basic load ratings as 59820 N
and 46580 N respectively.
Therefore, we recommend to use angular contact ball bearing 7311 B instead of self aligning ball
bearing 2311 K.
CONCLUSION
The task before us was to determine the main causes for the abnormal vibrations in the exhaust
blower K7801. After consulting with the engineers of the inspection and maintenance
department, we came to the conclusion that unbalance, misalignment of the shaft and bearings,
eccentric pulley, resonance, wear, starvation, misalignment, structural vibration etc are the
68
common causes of unusual vibration. We also found out that these unusual vibrations more often
damages the bearings of the blower.
Therefore we decided to implement the spectrum analysis of vibration on the exhaust blower
K7801. Thereby we found out that unbalance was the main reason behind the unusual vibrations.
This report mainly contains the causes of vibration and our solutions to remove the excessive
vibrations and thereby preventing the bearing damage.
69

Final Report

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Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

ABOUT THE COMPANY

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

The division is located adjacent to the Udyogamandal division. Co-product ammonium

Our Petrochemical Division is ISO 9002 and 14001 certified.

FACT Engineering & Design Organization (FEDO)

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

FEDO is ISO 9001 certified.

AMMONIUM SULPHATE, COMPLEX

Ammonium Sulphate - Udyogamandal Division

Ammonium Phosphate / Complex fertilisers / Factamfos - Udyogamandal Division

Caprolactam - Petrochemical Division

Biofertilisers - Research & Development Division

Caprolactam - Petrochemical Division

Ammonium Sulphate - Udyogamandal Division

Nitric Acid & Soda Ash - Petrochemical Division

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

Gypsum - Udyogamandal Division & Cochin Division

Carbon Dioxide Gas - Udyogamandal

Ammonia - Udyogamandal & Cochin Division

Synthesis Gas - Udyogamandal Division

Sulphuric Acid - Udyogamandal & Cochin Division

Oleum - Udyogamandal Division

SO2 Gas - Udyogamandal Division

Phosphoric Acid - Udyogamandal & Cochin Division

Ammonium Sulphate - Containing 20.6% N in ammonical form and 24% sulphur,

Factamfos 20:20:0:15 - NPK complex fertiliser - Factamfos or Ammonium

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, SSET

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

agriculture. Factamfos also can be used for foliar spraying.

Rose Mixture - A fertiliser tonic for Roses.

Vegetable Mixture - A special blend exclusively prepared for vegetable.

Anhydrous Ammonia - FACT produces Ammonia of over 99.96% purity.

Concentration (by weight)

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

Ammonium Nitrate (by weight) :

Specific gravity at 20 Deg.C

Ex-factory - tanker load

o Soda ash (off grade)

Total alkalinity (as Na2CO3) (by wt) :

Sulphate (as Na2SO4) (by weight)

Bulk density (g/L)

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

CONCISE PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND DIAGRAM

Oxime preparation and ammonium sulphate stripping.

OXIME PREPARATION AND AMMONIUM SULPHATE STRIPPING

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

REARRANGEMENT AND NEUTRALIZATION

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

AMMONIUM SULPHATE EXTRACTION AND STRIPPING

LACTUM EXTRACTION AND WASHING

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

RE-EXTRACTION AND STRIPPING

The benzene which is recovered in re-extrsction will contains some impurities.

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

HOT WATER SYSTEM

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

More than 1.20

Table: Difference between Fans, Blowers and Compressors

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower

Trouble-shooting of an exhaust blower