CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
 Most industries have smoke or dust problem of some kind. The smoke can
be made up of solid or fluid particles suspended in the gas. Sometimes the particles
are waste which must be removed for reasons of hygiene and comfort before the gas
is released into the atmosphere. Equally, often, the materials may be useful products
which must be recovered for the process to be profitable. For the control of dust,
electrostatic precipitator is often used.

Tough theory of electrostatic precipitation was made known as early as in

the early part of nineteenth century, its commercial application had to wait till the
first decade of twentieth century when high voltage DC generator become
commercial available.
CHAPTER 2
 THERMAL POWER STATION

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven.
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which either drives an
electrical generator ordoes some other work, like ship propulsion. After it passes
through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it
was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle.

The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different
fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities
convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.

Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste
incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas
is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas
turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall
efficiency. Power plants burning coal, oil, or natural gas are often referred to
collectively as fossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants
have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueled
plants, which do not use cogeneration are sometimes referred to as conventional
power plants.

Commercial electric utility power stations are most usually constructed on a

very large scale and designed for continuous operation. Electric power plants
typically use three-phase electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC)
electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz (Hertz, which is an AC sine wave per
second) depending on its location in the world. Other large companies or institutions
may have their own usually smaller power plants to supply heating or electricity to
their facilities, especially if heat or steam is created anyway for other purposes.
Shipboard steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships in the
past, but these days are used most often in large naval ships. Such shipboard power
plants are general lower power capacity than full-size electric company plants, but
otherwise have many similarities except that typically the main steam turbines
mechanically turn the propulsion propellers, either through reduction gears or directly
by the same shaft. The steam power plants in such ships also provide steam to
separate smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity in the ship.
Shipboard steam power plants can be either conventional or nuclear; the shipboard
nuclear plants are mostly in the navy. There have been perhaps about a dozen turbo-
electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which
powers an electric motor for propulsion.

In some industrial, large institutional facilities, or other populated areas, there are
combined heatand power (CHP) plants, often called cogeneration plants, which
produce both power and heat for facility or district heating or industrial applications.
AC electrical power can be stepped up tovery high voltages for long distance
transmission with minimal loss of power. Steam and hot water lose energy when
piped over substantial distance, so carrying heat or energy by steam or hot water is
often only worthwhile within a local area or facility, such as steam distribution for a
ship or industrial facility or hot water distribution in a local municipality.

History

Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources
since the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The
very first commercial central electrical generating stations in New York and London,
in 1882, also used reciprocating steam engines. As generator sizes
increased,eventually turbines took over due to higher efficiency and lower cost of
construction. By the 1920s any central station larger than a few thousand kilowatts
would use a turbine prime mover.
Efficiency

Power is energy per time. The power output or capacity of an electric plant can
be expressed in units of megawatts electric (MWe). The electric efficiency of a
conventional thermal power station, considered as saleable energy (in MWe)
produced at the plant busbars as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed,
is typically 33% to 48% efficient. This efficiency is limited as all heat engines are
governed by the laws of thermodynamics (See: Carnot cycle). The rest of the energy
must leave the plant in the form of heat. This waste heat can go through a condenser
and be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is
instead utilized for e.g. district heating, it is called cogeneration. An important class
of thermal power station are associated with desalination facilities; these are typically
found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants,
freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products.

Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the
absolute temperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency
improvements require use of higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure,
steam. Historically, other working fluids such as mercury have been experimentally
used in a mercury vapour turbine power plant, since these can attain higher
temperatures than water at lower working pressures. However, the obvious hazards of
toxicity, and poor heat transfer properties, have ruled out mercury as a working fluid.
Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal power station
Typical diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station

10. Steam Control valve 19. Superheater

1. Cooling tower
11. High pressure steam 20. Forced draught (draft)
2. Cooling water pump
turbine fan
3. transmission line (3-phase) 12. Deaerator 21. Reheater

4. Step-up transformer(3- 13. Feedwate heater 22. Combustion air intake

phase)

5. Electrical generator (3- 14. Coal conveyor 23. Economiser

phase)

6. Low pressure steam 15. Coal hopper 24. Air preheater

turbine

16. Coal pulverizer 25. Precipitator

7. Condensate pump
26. Induced draught
8. Surface condenser 17. Boiler steam drum
(draft) fan
9. Intermediate pressure
18. Bottom ash hopper 27. Flue gas stack
steam turbine

Steam generator

Schematic diagram of typical coal-fired power plant steam generator highlighting the
air preheater (APH) location. (For simplicity, any radiant section tubing is not
shown.)

In fossil-fueled power plants, steam generator refers to a furnace that burns the
fossil fuel to boil water to generate steam. In the nuclear plant field, steam generator
refers to a specific type of large heat exchanger used in a pressurized water reactor
(PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and secondary (steam plant)
systems, which of course is used to generate steam. In a nuclear reactor called a
boiling water reactor (BWR), water in boiled to generate steam directly in the reactor
itself and there are no units called steam generators. In some industrial settings, there
can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called heat recovery steam generators
(HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process. The steam generating boiler
has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the
steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. A fossil fuel steam generator
includes an economizer, a steam drum, and the furnace with its steam generating
tubes and superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to
avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced
draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash
collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack.

Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam
sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive
or contains excessive suspended solids. Nuclear plants also boil water to raise steam,
either directly generating steam from the reactor (BWR) or else using an intermediate
heat exchanger (PWR).

For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by
installing duplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating
dampers. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be
provided.

Boiler furnace and steam drum

Once water inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent
heat of vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water
by the chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel.
 The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the
economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters
the steam drum it goes

down the downcomers to the lower inlet waterwall headers. From the inlet headers
the water rises through the waterwalls and is eventually turned into steam due to the
heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear waterwalls
(typically). As the water is turned into steam/vapor in the waterwalls, the steam/vapor
once again enters the steam drum. The steam/vapor is passed through a series of
steam and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam
separators and dryers remove water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the
waterwalls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation.

The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter
guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for
observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of
combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the
combustion zone before igniting the coal.

The steam drum (as well as the superheater coils and headers) have air vents
and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has internal devices that
removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating
tubes. The dry steam then flows into the superheater coils.

Superheater

Fossil fuel power plants can have a superheater and/or reheater section in
the steam generating furnace. Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such
sections but produce steam at essentially saturated conditions. In a fossil fuel plant,
after the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the steam drum, it is
piped from the upper drum area into tubes inside an area of the furnace known as the
superheater, which has an elaborate set up of tubing where the steam vapor picks up
more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is now
superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped
through the main steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine.

Reheater

Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by
hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is
rerouted to go inside the reheater tubes to pickup more energy to go drive
intermediate or lower pressure turbines.

Fuel preparation system

In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first
crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers.
The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverizers may be ball
mills, rotating drum grinders, or other types of grinders.

Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than coal. The oil must kept warm
(above its pour point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing
and becoming unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about 100C before being
pumped through the furnace fuel oil spray nozzles.

Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main fuel.
Other power stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that
their main fuel supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners
are provided on the boiler furnaces.
Air path

External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced
draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for
better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall.

The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases
from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid
backfiring through any opening. At the furnace outlet, and before the furnace gases
are handled by the ID fan, fine dust carried by the outlet gases is removed to avoid
atmospheric pollution. This is an environmental limitation prescribed by law, and
additionally minimizes erosion of the ID fan.

Auxiliary systems

Fly ash collection

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic
precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the
furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the
collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is
pneumatically transported to storage silos for subsequent transport by trucks or
railroad cars.

Bottom ash collection and disposal

At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash.
This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down
from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the clinkers and for
conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site.

Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage

Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of

condensate to the boiler, losses due to blowdown and leakages have to be made up to
maintain a desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up
water is added to the boiler water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the
plant generally consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the
water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube
water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts
have to be removed from the water, and that is done by a water demineralising
treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists of cation, anion, and mixed bed
exchangers. Any ions in the final water from this process consist essentially of
hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions, which recombine to form pure water. Very pure
DM water becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere
because of its very high affinity for oxygen.

The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw
water input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for
maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is
continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made
from materials not affected by corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves
are generally of stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or
stainless steel doughnut float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid
contact with air. DM water make-up is generally added at the steam space of the
surface condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not only sprays the water
but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being removed by an air
ejector attached to the condenser.
Steam turbine-driven electric generator

Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station

Main article: Turbo generator

The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work
satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment
generally has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only
supports but also has to be kept in position while running. To minimise the frictional
resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in
which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil
lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface
and to limit the heat generated.

Barring gear

Barring gear (or "turning gear") is the mechanism provided to rotate the turbine
generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the unit is "tripped"
(i.e., the steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts down towards standstill. When
it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if
allowed to remain in one position too long. This is because the heat inside the turbine
casing tends to concentrate in the top half of the casing,

making the top half portion of the shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft
therefore could warp or bend by millionths of inches.

This small shaft deflection, only detectable by eccentricity meters, would be enough
to cause damaging vibrations to the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is
restarted. The shaft is therefore automatically turned at low speed (about one
revolution per minute) by the barring gear until it has cooled sufficiently to permit a
complete stop.
Condenser

Main article: Surface condenser

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is
circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters
the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the
tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary
motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side
to maintain vacuum.

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical
in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the
condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 oC where
the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser
generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensible air into the closed
loop must be prevented. Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if
their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually
coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning.

The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to
reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or
ocean.

Feedwater heater
Main article: Feedwater heater
A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feedwater heater.

In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler,

the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it
changes states from vapour to liquid. The heat content in the steam is referred to as
Enthalpy. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a
feedwater heater. The feedwater heating equipment then raises the temperature of the
water by utilizing extraction steam from various stages of the turbine.

Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam

generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This
reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal
when the feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle.

Superheater

As the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the drum, it is

piped from the upper drum area into an elaborate set up of tubing in different areas of
the boiler. The areas known as superheater and reheater. The steam vapor picks up
energy and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The
superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves of the high
pressure turbine.

Deaerator
Main article: Deaerator
 Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and
horizontal water storage section)

A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of
air and other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion
of the metal.Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of
air and other dissolved gases from the boiler feedwater. A deaerator typically includes
a vertical, domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel
which serves as the deaerated boiler feedwater storage tank.

There are many different designs for a deaerator and the designs will vary
from one manufacturer to another. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical
conventional trayed deaerator. If operated properly, most deaerator manufacturers
will guarantee that oxygen in the deaerated water will not exceed 7 ppb by weight
(0.005 cm/L).

Auxiliary systems

Oil system

An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam
turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's
main inlet steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil
systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms.

At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine
main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.

Generator heat dissipation

 The electricity generator requires cooling to dissipate the heat that it
generates. While small units may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet,
larger units generally require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in
an oil-sealed casing, is used because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient
of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces windage losses. This system
requires special handling during start-up, with air in the chamber first displaced by
carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly flammable
hydrogen does not mix with oxygen in the air.

The hydrogen pressure inside the casing is maintained slightly higher than
atmospheric pressure to avoid outside air ingress. The hydrogen must be sealed
against outward leakage where the shaft emerges from the casing. Mechanical seals
around the shaft are installed with a very small annular gap to avoid rubbing between
the shaft and the seals. Seal oil is used to prevent the hydrogen gas leakage to
atmosphere.

The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a
potential of about 22 kV and water is conductive, an insulating barrier such as Teflon
is used to interconnect the water line and the generator high voltage windings.
Demineralized water of low conductivity is used.

Generator high voltage system

The generator voltage ranges from 11 kV in smaller units to 22 kV in larger

units. The generator high voltage leads are normally large aluminum channels
because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines.
They are enclosed in well-grounded aluminum bus ducts and are supported on
suitable insulators. The generator high voltage channels are connected to step-up
transformers for connecting to a high voltage electrical substation (of the order of 110
kV or 220 kV) for further transmission by the local power grid.

The necessary protection and metering devices are included for the high
voltage leads. Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. In
smaller units, generating at 11 kV, a breaker is provided to connect it to a common 11
kV bus system.

Other systems

Monitoring and alarm system

Most of the power plant operational controls are automatic. However, at

times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors
and alarm systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are
seriously deviating from their normal range.

Battery supplied emergency lighting and communication

A central battery system consisting of lead acid cell units is provided to

supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power
plant's control systems, communication systems, turbine lube oil pumps, and
emergency lighting. This is essential for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the units in
an emergency situation.
Transport of coal fuel to site and to storage

Main article: Fossil fuel power plant

Most thermal stations use coal as the main fuel. Raw coal is transported from coal
mines to a power station site by trucks, barges, bulk cargo ships or railway cars.
Generally, when shipped by railways, the coal cars are sent as a full train of cars. The
coal received at site may be of different sizes. The railway cars are unloaded at site by
rotary dumpers or side tilt dumpers to tip over onto conveyor belts below. The coal is
generally conveyed to crushers which crush the coal to about inch (6 mm) size. The
crushed coal is then sent by belt conveyors to a storage pile. Normally, the crushed
coal is compacted by bulldozers, as compacting of highly volatile coal avoids
spontaneous ignition.

The crushed coal is conveyed from the storage pile to silos or hoppers at the
boilers by another belt conveyor system.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 PRINCIPLE

An electrostatic precipitator is electrical equipment where a DC voltage is

imparted, through emitting electrode creating an electrical field around it. Dust
particles carried by the gas, while passing through the field is charged to saturation
and migrate towards the collecting electrodes, usually in the form of plate curtain,
where they are deposited in layers. By suitable rapping dust is dislodged into the
hopper.

The principle of operation of an electrostatic precipitator may be explained

through a simple model as shown in figure.
 The dust laden gas enters the precipitator at A and the cleaned gas leaves at
B. The electrodes E usually known as emitting electrode and C usually known
as collecting electrode from a large number of gas passages. The C electrodes are
usually curtains of vertically hung plates. The E electrodes usually metal wires
mounted in a framework _ are placed in the space between C-electrodes curtains. A
Rectifier impresses suitable dc voltage between the electrodes depending on the
particular process due to the high electrical field around the E _electrodes the gas
around the electrode is ionised and the region is filled with negative and positive ions.
This is called corona formation.

The dust particles carried by the gas between the electrodes are charged to
saturation immediately after entering the space. The charged particles are then pulled
toward the collecting electrodes. Movement of particles is opposed by viscous drag
and a resultant velocity, called migration or drift velocity is attained by the particles,
the dust is then precipitated onto the plate electrode. Hence a deposit of dust is
formed on the plate. when the is sufficiently thick and agglomerated it is dislodged
from the plates by rapping. the dust cakes slide along the plates into the storage
hoppers.

It is, thus, seen that the principle of electrostatic precipitation has four phases:

Corona formation or ionisation

Charging of particles

Migration and precipitation of particles

 Removal of deposited dust.

Due to the manifold advantages likes low pressure drop, low sensitivity to high
temperature and aggressive gases, high collecting efficiency well in excess of 99.5%,
low maintenance etc, electrostatic precipitator has gained its popularity over other
dust collectors

3.2 PARAMETAERS AFFECTING PRECIPITATOR

Electrostatic precipitator is designed for a set of inlet parameters. Variation of one or

many of these may lead to unsatisfactory performance of the precipitator. A brief
discussions on the effect of such parameters are given below.

The performance of an electrostatic is largely influenced by the following parameters;

o Temperature of gas

o Gas volume

o Moisture content

o Gas velocity within the ESP

 o Inlet dust concentration

o Dust particles size distribution

o Dust receptivity

o Dust composition

3.2.1 TEMPERATURE OF GAS

Temperature has great influence on the ESP performance either directly or indirectly
through receptivity. The electrical properties deteriorate with increase in temperature,
flash over limit decreases thereby operating voltage has to be brought down to avoid
back corona. This weakens field strength and consequent force on the particles.
Moreover gas viscosity increases at higher temperature thereby increasing drag on the
particles which impairs the precipitation rate. Consequent to the above phenomenon
particle migration velocity decreases and thus ESP performance deteriorates. An ESP
thus designed for particular temperature may not perform well higher operating
temperature.The strength of ESP structural may be sufficient enough at higher
operating temperature. then at which it has been designed.

A lower temperature also in determination if falls below acid dew point when
corrosion occurs giving rise to every possible of structural and mechanical aspects of
ESP.

3.2.2 GAS VOLUME

 Increase in gas volume decreases specific collecting area, for witch a precipitator
is sized. Specific collecting area is the ratio between effective collecting area and the
gas volume to be handled. Thus an increase in gas volume over the designed value
reduces the precipitator size, decreasing the ultimate collection efficiency.

3.2.3 MOISTURE CONTENT

Moisture content has a large influence on the performance. It directly influence the
voltage current characteristics and also indirectly through risistivity. Increases in
moisture improve the precipitator performance.

It has been seen in number of occasions that lower operating moisture content then at
witch ESP was designed was the single largest contributor towards they bad
performance of ESP.

3.2.4 GASVELOCITY IN THE ESP

Gas velocity within a precipitator is varying important factor. It affects the migration
velocity on hand and re- entrainment on the other. Fall of migration velocity at is due
to re-entrainment and that at lower gas velocity is due to gas stratification meaning
hot gas passes through the upper zone while the lower zone while the lower zone is
relatively cool.

3.2.5 INLET DUST CONCECTRATION

Increase in inlet dust burden increases outlet emission level even after maintaining
same efficiency.

3.2.6 DUST PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Theoretically precipitator performance should increase with increase in partially

precipitator size for the simple for the simple reason that larger partial receive change
more quickly and attains migration velocity which according to stakes law is
proportional to the diameter of the particle.

Migration velocity is proportional to diameter when d>1um and is independent when

d<1um.

In practical precipitator encounters partial size more than 1um and thus it may be
concluded that more proportion of finance in dust will determination the ESP
perforce.

3.2.7 DUST RESISTEVITY

Resistively is an electrical characteristic of the dust partial which determines

the amount of change, partical may gather under the specific charging condition of
the dust particles. Receptivity is very much dependent on the composition and
morphology of the dust particles

There are two condition mechanisms which determination the resistively of the dust.

-volume condition which is related to the composition of the dust

- Surface condition which depends on absorbed film on the particles surface which
is related

to the composition of gas and dust surface.

The effect of temperature (thermal excitation) on receptivity is worth noting. In

absence of moisture (done dry condition) the receptivity would continue to increase
with decreasing temperature because of less electron exitation. conversely increases
in temperature increases electron flow resulting into lower resistivity. This
phenomenon is related to volume conduction which occurs by means of electron
carrier within the material and is depends on thermal excitation.

At gas temperature below 150 200c, surface condition becomes important mode of
condition provided ample moisture and conditioning agents are present in the gas.
Surface condition is dependent on the presence of a conductive film of absorbed
material on the surface of the particulate. This film of absorbed material provides the
transfer of the electrical charge along the surface
Worst effect of high resistevity is the formation of back corona. When there is dust
layer on the collecting electrodes a voltage drop across the layer on the collecting
electrode a voltage drop occurs the layer. If the dust resistivity is high voltage drop
across the layer becomes so high to cause electrical break down of interstitial gas and
thus breakdown of the layer and spark over between the discharge electrode and the
collecting electrodes occur. This phenomena is called back corona. To prevent such
sparking from becoming excessive it is necessary to lower the operating voltage and
current from becoming with consequence loss in collection efficiency.

3.2.8 DUST COMPOSITION

Performance of ESP is largely influenced by the composition and morphology of the

dust. A brief description of the effect of some of the major, power composition of
dust as normally encountered like cement, power etc are given as follows;

Oxide of Sulphur

SO3 produced during a combination procedure condenses with moisture on the

surface of the partial and thus reduced the resistively. It may be noted that only free
SO3 with water to from H2SO4 has this effect.

- high oxide of sulpher normally produced low resistive dust.

 - Sometimes a large portion of sulpher in combination material, say coal, May as
caso4 which

is resistive and so in such case dust may have high resistive despite high sulphur
content.

- Formation of SO3 from high sulphur content sometimes raises the dew point so
high that the dust is wetted sulohuric acid clogging very low hence ESP
performance determination despised very low dust resistivety.

Alkali metal

Sodium, lithium, potassium in the of heating zone, evaporates and later condense,
oxide and sulphatize SO3 the alkali sulphates thus formed is deposited and increase
the moisture absorption capacity of dust and the dust and thus lower the resistivety.

High alkali metal concentration, particularly sodium, lithium and iron reduce the
surface resistivety. A reduction in sodium content from 3% to 1%,50% decrease in
effective migration velocity occurs which means fifty percent increase in precipitator
size.

Phosphorous

Presence of high level phosphorous in the dust exerts a strong detrimental effect on
precipitation electrical operation and plum opacity.
Calcium and magnesium oxides

Presence of calcium and magnesium oxide in very high amount results in to a

possibility of discharge electrode fouling problems when can suppress corona and
thus make precipitator less efficient

3.3 OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCE PRECIPITATOR PREFORMANCE

3.3.1 GAS DISTRIBUTION

The purpose of gas distribution is to achieve uniform is to gas flow and there by
distribute eventually over the whole cross section of the field, without under utilities
or over burdening a particular zone. Also to stop gas sneak age, no gas should by
pass the electrostatic field either in roof or through hopper region. In practice, a
perfectly at upper and lower excitations, a permissible limit of variation in the
distribution, calculated as co-efficient of variation is kept within 20% to archive the
desired performance.

3.3.2 RAPPING FREQUENCY

Every time collected dust electrode surface is subjected to rapping shock, re-
entertainment of partials takes place in the main flow path and carried a way by the
gas. This phenomenon increases the emission level each time the rapping is done. It is
necessary to reduce the re-entertainment to a minimum level. Hence, first of dust of
significant thickness must be allowed for form so that when it is dislodged by
rapping, the layer breaks into agglomerate masses, sufficiently large to fall in to the
hopper before, being careened out by the moving gas out let duct. Secondly rapping
frequency is to be to optimum levels for each field in accordance with the

concentration type of entering the fired to minimize penetration

CHAPTER 4