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THE BAND THEORY

Formation of energy bands in a solid
In a solid, atoms are very close to each other.
This allows electrons from neighbouring atoms to interact with each other.
As a result of this interaction, each discrete energy level that is associated with an isolated
atom is split into many sub-levels.
These sub-levels are so close to one another that they form an energy band.
Electrons cannot take energy values between the bands.
Valence Band is the highest energy band completely filled with electrons.
Conduction Band is the lowest unoccupied energy band.

Forbidden Band (gap between the valence band and conduction band) is the range of energies
that an electron cannot have or is the minimum energy needed by an electron in the valence
band to move into the conduction band. The forbidden band determines the electrical
properties of a solid.
The diagrams below show the difference in the forbidden band in insulators, intrinsic
(without impurities) semiconductors and metals
Energy bands of
(a) insulators (b) intrinsic semiconductors
energy
energy

(c) metals

energy

Conduction band
Large forbidden gap 5 Conduction
eV
band forbidden gap 1 eV
Small

Valence band

Valence band overlaps conduc

Valence band

METALS
In a metal the valence band overlaps the conduction band such that there is no forbidden band
(the top of the valence band is above the bottom of the conduction band). This allows
electrons in the valence band to move easily to the conduction band with a small amount of
energy. There are always electrons in the conduction band at any temperature. This is why the
electrons in a metal are said to be free or delocalised.
INSULATORS
In an insulator, the valence band is fully occupied by electrons, the conduction band is empty
and the forbidden band (gap) is large
When an electric field is applied across the insulator, no conduction of electricity occurs as
there are no electrons in the conduction band
In a very strong electric field or at very high temperatures, some electrons have enough
energy to move in the conduction band, causing the insulator to break down.
INTRINSIC (PURE) SEMICONDUCTORS
There are two types of semiconductors: intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors.
In intrinsic (pure) semiconductors, there are equal numbers of negative and positive
charges (the 2 types of charge carriers).
Extrinsic (impure) semiconductors are semiconductors to which impurities (e.g arsenic),
called dopants, have been added to modify the number and type of charge carriers. This is
called doping.

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors: n-type conductors & p-type conductors.
In n-type conductors, there are more negative charges (electrons) than positive charges
(holes) such that the majority charge carriers are electrons and the minority charge carriers
are holes.
In p-type conductors, there are more positive charges (holes) than negative charges
(electrons) such that the majority charge carriers are holes and the minority charge carriers
are electrons.
energy

In an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor, e,g silicon and

germanium, at 0 K, the valence band is fully occupied and
the conduction band is empty. An electron in the valence
band cannot move by an electric field as there are no
unoccupied states for it to jump into. There are no
electron
electrons in the empty conduction band. So, at 0 K, there
are no mobile charge carriers for conduction in a +
semiconductor, hence its resistance is said to be very large. +
-e
+
Above 0 K, some electrons in the valence band gain enough
+e
energy by thermal excitation to cross the narrow forbidden +
band and move into the conduction band, leaving behind +
vacancies or holes (regions where there is an excess of
hole
E-field
positive charge) in the valence band. A rise in temperature
creates equal numbers of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band
(electron-hole pairs). When an electric field is applied by a battery connected across the
semiconductor, electrons in the conduction band move as there are many unoccupied states,
and an electron nearby a hole in the valence band move to the hole, creating a new hole in its
old position. Thus the hole in the valence band appears to move opposite to the valence
electron flow and so acts as a positive charge carrier. The electric current in an intrinsic
semiconductor above 0 K is due to movement of electrons (negative charge carriers) in the
conduction band and holes (positive charge carriers), moving in the opposite direction in the
valence band.
Using band theory to explain
(i) the decrease in resistance of an intrinsic semiconductors with temperature rise
In a semiconductor, valence band and conduction band are separated by a small forbidden
band. At 0 K, valence band is full and conduction band is empty. As temperature rises above
0 K, electrons in the valence band gain energy to move into the conduction band, forming
holes in the valence band. Lattice vibration also increases with temperature, scattering more
electron-hole flow. The effect of increase in number of electrons in the conduction band and
number of holes in the valence band is greater than the effect of increase in lattice vibration.
Overall, the electrical resistance of the pure conductor decreases with temperature rise.
(ii) the increase in resistance of a metal with temperature rise
In a metal, the valence band overlaps the conduction band such that there are always
electrons in the conduction band. As temperature rises, the number of free electrons in the
conduction band does not change and lattice vibration increases. The only effect of the
increase in lattice vibration is to slow down electron flow by collisions, hence decreasing
electric current and increasing resistance of the metal.

C.B

V.B

(iii) the decrease in resistance of an LDR with increasing light intensity

An LDR is made of a semiconductor. Photons in light transfer energy to valence electrons so
that some have enough energy to enter the conduction band, producing electron-hole pairs to
allow electrical conduction. Increasing the light intensity increases the rate of incident
photons and hence increases the rate of number of valence electrons promoted to the