Ch3 - KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS

Q. What is Mahabharata? How its critical edition was prepared ?

Ans : Mahabharata is one of the most colossal epics of sub-continent. This epic, in its
present form , has over one lack verses. It also depicts a wide range of social
categories and situations . It was composed over a period of 1000 years. Some of its
stories may be circulation over earlier
The central story of Mahabharata is about two sets of warring cousins. It also contains
sections laying down norms of behaviour for different social groups. The principle
character of this epic occasionally seem to follow these norms.
Critical Edition of Mahabharata : A very ambitious project was started in 1919 CE
under the leadership of noted Sanskrit scholar V.S. Sukthankar. Many scholars
collectively decided to prepare a critical edition of Mahabharata. Initially Sanskrit
manuscripts of the epic, written in different scrips and in different parts of the country,
were
collected.
This team, comprising of scholars, worked out a method of comparing verses from each
manuscript. They selected all those verses which were appeared common in all
manuscripts. They published all these in several volumes running into 13,000 pages.
Around 47 years took to complete this project. Two things became apparent in whole of
the process.
(i) First one was that there, were similarities in many elements of Sanskrit version of the
story. This similarity found in all the manuscripts stretched in whole of the sub continent
from Kashmir and Nepal in north and Kerala, Tamil Nadu in South.
(ii) Second one was that a number of regional variations came in front in the ways in
which the epic had been transmitted over the centuries. These variations were written
as foot notes and appendices to the main texts. More than half of the total pages are
devoted
to
these
variations
when
they
were
taken
together.
Actually these variations could be reflected in the complete process that shaped early
and later social histories through dialogues between dominant traditions and resilient
local ideas and practices. These dialogues are featured by moments of conflict as well
as consensus.
Our information about all these processes is mainly based on those Sanskrit texts which
were written by Brahmans for themselves. Historians in 19th and 20th century, first time
explored these texts while concentrating on different issues of social history. They
believed that whatever is written in the texts, could have been actually practised. Later
on scholars also studied other trathtions with the help of Pali, Prakrit and Tamil texts.
These studies indicated that the ideas contained in normative Sanskrit texts were
recognised as authoritative. But they were also questioned and sometimes even
rejected.
Q. Who were called the Chandals ? What were their duties ? What do the Chinese
travellers named Fa Xian
and Xuan Zang write about them?
Ans. i.The Brahmans did not consider some people as part of the Varna system. They
believed in sharp social division. They classified a few social categories as untouchable.

They complicated the inequalities that already existed in society. They believed that the
activities connected with the performance of rituals were sacred and pure.
ii.Such sacred people did not accept food from the untouchables. In contrast to this
purity aspect, the Brahmans considered some activities as polluting. These activities
included the handling of corpses and dead animals. Those who performed such
polluting activities were designated as Chandals. These Chandals were placed at the
very bottom of the hierarchy. Those who were at the top of the social order, i.e., the
Brahmans considered them as polluting and untouchables. They considered them not
only untouchables but also abominable to see.
The Duties of Chandals
The list of the duties of Chandals is found in Manu Smriti. These duties were as follows
(i) They had to live outside the village.
ii. They used discarded utensils.
(iii) They wore clothes of the dead.
(iv) They wore ornaments of iron.
(v) They were not allowed to walk about in villages and cities at night.
(vi) They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives.
(vii) They served as executioners.
Descriptions by the Chinese Pilgrims.:Fa Xian, the Buddhist Monk of China in the 5th
century CE, wrote that the Chandals had to sound a clapper in the streets so that the
people might avoid to see them. Similarly Xuan Zan, another Chinese pilgrim of the 7th
century, observed that executioners and scavengers were compelled to live outside the
city. In other words, the Chandals lived a life of neglect and degradation.
Q. What did the Right to Property mean in the context of women and men in the
period
of
Mahabharata?
Ans. There was a fierce competition and rivalry for long between the Kauravas and the
Pandavas So Duryodhana invited Yudhisthira to a game of dice. In the game,
Yudhisthira lost all his gold, elephants, chariots, slaves, army, treasury, kingdom, the
property of his subjects, his brothers and finally himself. In fact he lost everything. He
was deceived by his rival. At last he staked their common wife Draupadi. He also lost
her in this game of dice. It shows that during those days, wife was considered as the
property of the husband. It also shows that the eldest brother enjoyed special rights on
property.
Divisions of Property Among Sons. :The Dharamasutras and Dharmashastras also
deal with the issues of ownership. According to the Manu Smriti, the paternal estate was
to be equally divided among all the sons after the death of their parents. However the
eldest son enjoyed a special share. But the women could not claim any share in this
estate.
Stridhana : Literally, the stridhana means the wealth of the woman. The women were
allowed to retain the gifts that they received on the occasion of their marriage. Her
husband had no claim on her wealth. But her children could inherit it. The Manu Smriti
warned the women not to hoard family property. They were also forbidden to hoard their
valuables without the permission of their husbands.
Upper class women and resources (wealth):. However the upper class women like
the Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta could have an access to resources. However the
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land, the cattle and the money were controlled by men. In fact, social differences
between men and women were sharpened because of the differences in access to
resources.
Q. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote
about the Mahabharata : Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an
entire literature..., and contains so much and so many kinds of things (it) give (s)
us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.
Discuss.
Ans. There is no denying the fact that Mahabharata represents whole of literature and
shows a very beautiful picture of all the aspects of public life of contemporary Indian
society. It describes thoughts and every thing profound depths of the soul of the Indian
folk. This epic throws following light on the life of Indians :
(i) Social Life (a) Four Varnas :Society was divided into four Varna and Verna system
was not strict. There was no restriction on people to adopt their hereditary occupation.
For example Parshuram was known as Kshatriya even if
he was a Brahmana. Brahmanas place in the society was not supreme.
(b) Status of Women : Women had very good status in the society. They were
respected. They had the right to select their husband through the custom of `Svyamvar
(c) Age of Courage : Age of Mahabharata was an age of valour and bravery. Dying a
the battlefield was considered as very prestigeous. People believed that one who dies in
the battlefield goes straight to heaven. Protection of weaker section was also
considered an act of bravery
(d) Social Evils: Some social evils also existed in the society. Playing the game of dice,
endogamy, betraying the enemy were common things prevailed in the society.
(ii) Political Life
(a) Large empires Many large empires were established in this age. Pandu, Kosal,
Panchal
etc.
were
such
empires.
(b) Power of King : King was the head of the state and all the powers of the state
vested in his hands. There was no restriction on these powers. However there were
ministers to advice king in administrative functions but the kings were not bound to
accept their advice.
(c) Life of King : Kings used to live with great pomp and show. They had very splendid
palaces. They used to adopt many titles. They had an ambition to become Chakravarti
King. For this, they used to organize Ashvamedha yajna. There were many
shortcomings in their characters as well. They had many dancers in their courts.
Drinking liquor and gambling were part of their characters.
(iii) Economic Life
(a) Agriculture :Agriculture was the main occupation of the people Even kings
themselves used to plough the land. Land was very fertile.
(b) Animal Rearing : Animal rearing was another occupation of the people. Cow, Bull,
horses and elephants were important rearing animals.
(c) Trade : Trade made huge progress in this age. Guilds were made by traders. They
were given many facilities by the state.
(d) Other Occupations : Except the given occupations, people were also engaged. in
other occupations like carpenter, jeweler, potter, iron smith etc.
(iv) Religious Life
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(a) Worshipping New gods and goddesses : In Mahabharata age, people started to
worship new gods and goddesses, except Vedic gods and goddesses, and some of
them
were
Parvati,
Durga,
Vishnu,
Brahma
etc.
(b) Believe in Incarnation : People also believed that god takes birth. It was believed
that god Vishnu took birth in the form of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna and people
started
to
worship
them
as
well.
(c) Karma theory and Recarnation : People also believed in Karma theory and
recarnation. They believed that one has to face all of his good or bad deeds in his next
life or birth.
(d) Stress on Yajnas : People in this epic age greatly stressed on yajnas. Many new
methods of yajnas were started in this age.
Actually, like any other epic, Mahabharata is an epic which shows a live picture of wars,
forests, palaces and towns. Culturally also Mahabharata is very important. This epic has
given
a
content
to
sculptors,
plays
and
dance
forms.
Q. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single
author.
Ans. It is not possible that a single author would have written the Mahabharata. It seems
to have been composed between 500 BC to 1000 BC. As a result, many episodes have
been incorporated in it from time to time. Some of the stories mentioned in it were
already popular among the people. As the Mahabharata was written in a very long time,
it seems as if no single author would have written it.
Different Authors
The following suggestions are given regarding the authors of Mahabharata
(i) The original story of Mahabharata was written by Bhatt-Sarthis. They v called as
Sutas. They generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield. So they
composed poems to celebrate the victories and achievements of various warriors These
compositions
were
circulated
through
oral
method.
(ii) From the 5th century BCE, the Brahmans took over the story and began write it in
the form of an epic. The story moved around the Kurus. As the Kurus and Panchalas
had attained kingdom from chiefdom, it is possible that these new might have wanted
their history to be recorded and preserved in a more systematic Besides the old social
values were replaced by new norms. So it is possible that upheavals might have
necessitated
the
re-writting
of
the
epical
story.
(iii) Another phase in the composition of the epical task of Mahabharta started between
200 BCE and 200 CE. This was the time when the worship of Vishnu was become quite
important. Krishna who was one of the most important characters in. the epic, identified
with Vishnu.
(iv) So between 200 and 400 CE, many didactic sections resembling the Manus were
added in the main story. Originally the text of Mahabharata had 10000 verses. But after
addition
of
didactic
section,
it
comprised
1,00,000
verses.
(v) However the enormous composition of Mahabharata is traditionally attribute to
Vyasa,
a
famous
sage.
Q . How important were gender differences in early societies ? Give reasons for
your
answer
Ans. There were three main reasons of gender differences in early societies and., these

were
(i) Gender inequality patrilineal system
(ii) Gotra of woman
(iii) Right over property
(i) Gender inequality:Earlier societies were male dominated societies and were running
according to patrilineal system. Thats why male child was desired in every type of
family as sons were important for the continuity of the partilineage. Daughters were
viewed rather differently in this system. They had no right over ancestral resources .
They were expected to marry out of their gotras. This custom of marriage is known
exogamy. It means that young girls and women of reputed families were regulated in a
way that they could marry at right time and with right person. This gave rise to belief that
Kanyadana
was
an
important
religious
duty
of
the
father.
(ii) Gotra of Women : From C 1000 BCE onwards, people were classified gotras by
Brahamanas. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer as all the members of that
gotra were assumed as the descendants of that seer. There were two important rules of
gotras
(a) Woman had to adopt gotra of her husband after her marriage.
(b) Members of same gotra could not marry with each other.
i.But some evidences have been found in which these rules were not obeyed. For
example some of the Satavahana rulers had more than one wife (palygynous). A study
of the names of wives of Satavahana rulers revealed that few of them had names
derived from gotras such as Gotama and Vasistha which were their fathers gotras.
ii.They probably had retained these names instead of adopting names of their husbands
gotras. Some women also belonged to the same gotra as of their husbands. This fact
was against the rules of exogamy. This fact actually exemplified an alternative practice
that of endogamy or marriage within the kin group.
iii.This type of marriage still exists in many communities of South India. These sorts of
marital relations give strength to organised communities.
Satavahana rulers were identified through the names derived from that of the mother.
Although this may suggest that mothers were important but we should note down the
fact that succession to the throne, among Satavahanas, was generally patrilineal.
(iii) Access to Property :i. According to Manusmriti, ancestral property of parents
should be distributed (after their death) equally among all the sons. But eldest son
should be given special share. Women could not demand their share in these ancestral
resources.
ii. But they had the right over the gifts given to her at the time of her marriage. It was
known as stridhana or womans wealth. This wealth could be inherited by her children.
Their husbands had no right over this wealth.
iii.But Manusmriti restricts women to secretly collect any valuable goods or familial
property without the permission of their husbands.
Some evidences indicate that yet women of upper class had resources within their
reach but still land, animals and wealth were under the control of males. In other words,
social differences among men and women were increased because of the difference in
access of resources or property.
Q. Discuss the evidences that suggest that Brahmanical prescriptions about
kinship and marriage were not universally followed.
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Ans. i.The Brahmans considered their view-point as universally accepted. They believed
that their rules were followed every where. But in reality, it was not so. In fact, there was
no universal impact of the Brahmans because of regional diversities and lack of proper
communication.
ii. In other words, we can say that the rules framed by the Brahmans were not adhered
to every where. The following evidences have been found in this regard.
(i) Diversity in Family Life:i. We accept family life usually with ease. But all families are
not the same. There is always diversity in human relations and activities. In reality,
family is a part of a big group. It is a part of larger network of people defined as relatives
or kinfolk.
ii.However the familial ties are natural as they are based on blood relations. For
example, such relations are kept in different ways. Some societies regard cousins as
blood
relatives
whereas
others
do
not
think
so.
iii.We can know a lot about elite families. But it is very difficult to have a full view of the
relationships of ordinary people. The historians have made efforts to analyse and
examine attitude towards family and kinship. The Mahabharata is a story of a war
between two groups of cousins i.e. the Kauravas and the Pandavas. This war was
fought for land and power. It was fought for eighteen days in which the Pandavas
emerged
victorious.
(ii) Rules of Marriage. i.The sons were considered important to continue the
patriineage. So the daughters had no claims to the resources of the house-hold. They
were married into families outside the kin. This system was called exogamy which
literaly meant marrying outside ones kin or gotra. The women of high status families
were married to the right persons at right time. Thus Kanayadana or the gift of a
daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.
ii.As the new towns emerged, the social life became more complex. The people bought
and sold their products in the cities. So they shared the views with each other. Hence
the Brahmans laid down codes of social behavior in great detail. They expected all the
Brahmans in particular and the others in general to follow these rules.
iii.Later on these rules were enshrined in Dharamashastras. These texts recognised
eight forms of marriage out of which four were considered as good and the other four
were considered as condemnable. The condemnable marriages were solemnized by
those who did not accept Brahmanical norms. Inscriptions of Satavahana rulers indicate
that they thd not followed the method of exogamy of Brahmanas. They
had many queens and even from their own gotra. This fact is an example of endogamy
method or marital relations within kinfolk.
Q. What do you know about origin and progress of Caste system in India? How it
advantaged and disadvantaged Indian society?
Ans. The meaning of caste system is by those classes in which our ancient society was
divided. Each caste had its own customs and members of each caste had to follow
those customs. Earlier there were four castes namely Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras but later on their number was increased. At present, more than 3,000
castes and sub-castes exist in India.
Origin of Caste System : Following theories are given about the origin of caste
system
:(i) On the basis of Colour. Some scholars are of the view that first of all society was
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divided, in different castes, on the basis of colour. White colour meant the Aryan people
and black colour meant for non-Aryan people. White people hardly liked to live with
black people. In this way society was divided into two classesAryans and non-Aryans.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

(ii) On the basis of Purush Sukta. Few other scholars are of the view that caste
system is given by the God. According to Purush Sukta, Brahmanas were originated
from the mouth of God, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishyas from thighs and Shudras from
feet of the God.
(iii) On the basis of division of Labour. Modern historians are of the view that caste
system originated due to division of labour. Powerful and healthy persons were given
the work of protection of the country. So a specific caste of soldiers i.e. Kshatriyas was
originated. In this way yajnas could be performed by only few people. These few people
became Brahmanas. People engaged in trade and agriculture came to be known as
Vaishyas. People who served these three castes came to be known as Shudras.
Advantages of Caste System:
Indians hardly kept contacts with foreigners. As a result Indian culture remained
safe from external impact.
Only because of. caste system, people used to marry within their own caste. It led
to maintenance of purity of blood.
People used to adopt occupation of their family right from their childhood. As a
result, they became efficient ,specialists in their respective fields.
People with bad intentions were generally thrown out of their castes. Thats why
people hardly try to move on a wrong path.
Members of each caste used to help the needy and poor members of their caste.
It led to encouragement to sense of social service and sense of sacrifice.
People had to adopt their hereditary occupation in caste system. Thats why there
was no problem of finding occupation for self as it was available exactly after the birth.
(vii) According to caste system, main function of Brahmanas was to give
education. He used to teach free of cost to his pupils.
(viii) People of other castes could convert to Hinduism through the powers of
Shuddhi.
Thats why many invaders like Shakas, Greeks etc. became part of Hindu society.
Disadvantages of Caste System:
(i) Caste system was a severe blow to the sense of nationalsim. People began to
think about their own
caste instead of national interests.
(ii) Because of caste system, only Kshatriyas were allowed to take military training.
As a result
military training was limited to limited number of persons.
(iii) It was very difficult for people to change their hereditary occupation. As a result
individual development of persons stopped to a great extent.
(iv) Brahmanas, Kshatryas and Vaishyas used to consider Shudras as inferior to them
and used to hate them. As a result the sense of untouchability was encouraged.
(v) Brahmanas and Kshatriyas used to consider themselves superior than other castes.
It led to increase in mutual differences.

(vi) Brahmnas started few customs for their interests so that they could be more
benefited. In this way many social evils came in society.
Assignment
Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.
Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona,
Hidimba and Matanga.
4.
In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the
Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta?
5.
This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about
the Mahabharata: just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire
literature and contains so much and so many kinds of things (it) gives(s) us an
insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk. Discuss.
6.
Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
7.
How important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your
answer.
8.
Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and
marriage were not universally followed.
9. Write a short note on Mahabharata. What were the findings of the committee worked
under V.S.Suktankar?
10. What is Gotra? What were the rules to be followed by women in a Gotra?
11. What were the ideal occupations mentioned for the four Varna? What were the
strategies followed by the Brahmans to enforce the norms?
12. Who were the untouchables (OR) Chandalas? What were the duties assigned to them
according to Manu smriti?
13. What were the social implications shaped access to economic resources?
14. What were the several elements historians consider to analyze the text Mahabharata?
15. Discuss the statement given by famous historian Mahabharata represents more than
a literature and contains so much about Indian folk
1.
2.
3.