Running Head: PRECISES

Precises

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November 30, 2016

PRECISES

2
Precises

1) Chapter 1: Commodities
Section 2: The Two-fold Character of the Labour Embodied in Commodities
Author: Karl Marx
Initially, commodity was made of use value and exchange value, but this changed and
labour is now a part of commodity as it finds expression in value. The labour is, therefore, a
significant factor in commodities, and this can be illustrated by giving an example to establish
the political economy. A case where a coat is two times the value of linen, where linen is W, the
coat is 2W. The coat is a value which satisfies a particular need, and its existence facilitates the
satisfaction of productive activity, whose nature can be established by identifying the aim,
operation, subject, as well as the result. The show of the labour use in the application of its
product, or one that shows itself when applied the merchandise a usage value referred to as
useful labour. We, therefore, reflect on its valuable impact. The coat and the linen are seen as two
different use values, and the two kinds of labour also represent two forms of value which are
tailoring and weaving. The labour division is important in the production of different
commodities. The value of labour does not change in the case where the use of a product is
changed. As such, the value of a product is determined by the amount of the social labour
needed to create it, as opposed to the pleasure it gives to the person.
This topic is related to the theory of state in that the concepts of material basis, as well as
relative scarcity are incorporated. According to the theory of state, the labour enables the
production of goods such as food and clothes which then lead to a division of the society into
various classes. The concept outlined in this case, on the other hand, outlines the significance of
labour in the production process. This is established in where it is stated, Labour is a natureimposed necessity for the existence of the human race without which no material exchanges
between man and nature can happen therefore no life (Marxists.org, 2015). This is particularly
in the determination of the value of different products. The value, on the other hand, is a
determination of the different classes of people in the society. This, therefore, shows the
connection between the labour valuation in our case and the theory of state.
Reference
Marxists.org. (2015). Capital: A critique of Political Economy. Retrieved From:
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/download/pdf/Capital-Volume-I.pdf

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2) The Social Contract

Parts 1 and 2: Discourse on the Origins and Foundations of Inequality
Author: Jean-Jacques Rousseau
In the first chapter, of Jean-Jacques Rousseaus book starts with the quote, Man was
born free, and he is everywhere in chains. These chains represent the restriction that is placed
on the citizens. According to Rousseau, this can only be found in nature. This is in the
preservation a father has on his child, and the authority exercised in this case. It is further
explained that the society functions well in cases where the individuals have similar interests in
common. Additionally, the sovereign is inalienable, and it cannot defer its power to one person,
or even to a small group of people. . As such, sovereignty cannot exist where the people have an
active and direct political voice. Further, sovereignty cannot be divided, as the will of people is
expressed as a whole as opposed to a part. In spite of the fact that the general will works towards
the common good, Rousseau concedes that deliberations amongst the people are not always an
expression of the general will.
This book seeks to determine whether there can be political authority which is legitimate,
as opposed to the constraints that are imposed on ones liberty (Rousseau, 2016). Political
thinkers including Grotius have stated that the relation that is present between a ruler and his
subject is similar to the father and child relationship. Here, it is assumed that natural superiority
is present between the rulers and the people being ruled. This authority is, however, maintained
by force rather than nature, hence no basis on the nature argument. These chapters, therefore,
seek to show how the political vision is wrong, its lack of sovereignty. This is as opposed to the
major belief that the democracies in place in the world represent the will of the people.
Reference
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. (2016). Discourse on the Origins and Foundations of Inequality.
Retrieved From: http://www.constitution.org/jjr/ineq.htm

3) Property, Liberty and Government

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Author: John Locke

Second Treatise
The second treatise contains of nineteen chapters and in the first chapter, Locke defines
political power stating that it is the right to make laws for security offered, as well as the laws
regarding property. According to Locke, these regulations are only applicable in a situation
where they are accepted by the people, and they are for the good of the people. The second
chapter establishes that a man is bound by the law of nature, but has the ability to live and act in
the manner he deems fit. Further, human beings, not being bound by the laws of men have a duty
to protect each others interest because all of them are children of God. Additionally, they have
the duty of punishing those that go against the will of God, or harm each other by interfering
with their life, liberty, as well as their possessions. Chapters 3 and four, on the other hand,
summaries the inconsistencies concerning state of nature, and the state of war. Where the
situation is a state of nature, individuals work communally and are ruled by the application of
proper reasoning, as opposed to having a leader. The state of wars is a situation where people
exert unwelcome force on other individuals hence an interference with their freedom, as well as
natural rights, minus communal authority. According to Locke, Being all equal and
independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.
The second treatise is connected to the government in that he explains that he explains
the key concepts applied in the political context. According to Locke, the way in society and in
nature is differs due to the time it ends (Locke, 1954). In society, war can be said to end in a case
where the act of violence is over. The war in nature, on the other hand, ends when the aggressive
party offers repair for damage they caused. This, therefore, establishes the exact occurrences in
the political context where a war ends but the individuals involved are not fully compensated.
The Treatise also critiques the government establishing that the most practical choice of
government as the rule of majority. This is in line with the political position in most nations
which is also referred to as democracy where representatives are elected making the government.
References
Locke, J. (1954). The second treatise of government. New York: Liberal Arts Press.

4) Selections from. The Prince and the Discourses.

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Author: Niccolo Machiavelli

Machiavelli outlines some traits which are innate among humans. According to him,
people are self-interested, and their affections can be won and lost. Further, the individuals will
be contented in times free of affiliation and oppression, and are trustworthy in the successful
times. In adverse times, however, these people tend to be selfish, deceitful, and are driven by
profits. He does not use the nature argument unlike the other political theorists and prefers to
outline the human nature. He further states that goodwill is never absolute, and loyalties are won
and lost. These statements may justify his advice to prince, including his position that a prince
ought not to trust mercenary leaders. He refers to them as, disunited, ambitious, and without
discipline, unfaithful, valiant before friends, cowardly before enemies. He also outlines the
ways prince can come to power which include; Prowess or personal ability, fortune or through
charity friends, crime such as assassination, coup, as well as conspiracy. The last manner is
constitutional where he gets official support from the common people or nobles.
Machiavellis political theory relies on one depiction on the human nature which is
relevant to the political vision (Machiavelli, 1985). His methods of evaluating people and
situations may seem immoral, but these are facts. The nature of people, for instance, shows the
correct depiction of individuals in the public. The ways of getting to power may also be seen to
be extreme including fortune and crime. These are, however, ways that happen in the real
political world. As such, the evils outlined by Machiavelli may seem to disregard the virtuous
way of carrying out affairs but these are the reflection of the political vision.
Reference
Machiavelli, N. (1985). The prince. New York: Macmillan Pub. Co.

5. The English Works of Thomas Hobbes

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Leviathan
Author: Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes argument goes the laws of nature which establish that human beings should
maintain peace and the establishment of contract, outlining that hunger for power is a threat to
contract. He further establishes that it is important to have a common power, where there is
sovereign authority where people are forced to uphold the contract. People should be involved in
the establishment of this sovereign is done by the individuals being part of the agreement and
endowed with the mandate to hold those breaking the covenant accountable. The sovereign is
operated by the use of fear, as well as the threats of punishments which ensure the laws of nature
are followed, hence continued operation of social contract. According to Hobbes, The only way
to erect such common power is to concrete their power and strength to one man or upon an
assembly of men reducing their wills to one will.
Hobbes, therefore, supports the democratic form of government. Unlike other political
theorists, he disregards the nature argument since it is not applicable in a society where order
needs to be maintained. This is because where people lack a proper form of authority things are
bound to go wrong (Hobbes, & Missner, 2008). As such, the arguments in this case support the
current political vision in most modern settings globally. There are, however, some rules that are
extreme, and may not be applicable in the society. Such a law is the right and responsibility of
the sovereign leader to outline legislatives. In such a case, the leader may take advantage of these
rules and this may cause oppression to the public. As such, some of the points raised can be
discussed in the context of our political vision in the current times.
Reference
Hobbes, T., & Missner, M. (2008). Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan. New York: Pearson Longman.

6. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), On Liberty

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Author: John Stuart Mill

On Liberty
Chapter one of Mills book seeks to establish the meaning of civil liberty outlining that it
is the limit that requires to be set towards the power the society has over each other. The citizens,
however, have the liberty to come to common groups which do not hurt anyone. In the second
chapter, Mill establishes that it is illegitimate for an individual to infringe on anothers right to
express their views on different issues. This is in spite of how farther such a viewpoint is from
the persons views. The people should also practice dissent where they can hold unpopular
views. Chapter three, on the other hand, seeks to establish whether individuals can hold
unpopular opinions without being cast out of the society. According to Mill it is important for the
law to limit actions, to prevent the individuals from hurting each other. Further, instances where
liberty can be limited are discussed, as well as the accountability of individuals to their actions.
He states, A person may cause evil to others not only by his action but by his inaction, and in
either case he is justly accountable to them for injury.
On Liberty is written on the elements of individual freedom in the context of Mills ideas
on the state, as well as history (Mill, 2016). He seeks to establish the progress of the concept of
society from lower to upper stages, and this leads to the introduction of a democracy which is
representative. As such Mills views the growth of liberty through the form of a government.
This shows the application of the government and the political vision in the current times. The
concept outlined by Mill shows a representation of most of the government systems in the world
which seek to establish liberty amongst its citizens. Mill also identifies the limits of liberty, as
well as the instances where liberty is necessary for individuals. This is an aspect that is important
in the political scene.
Reference
Mill, J. S. (2016). On Liberty. London.

7. Aristotle: The Complete Works

Author: Aristotle

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Aristotle argues that even an individual who is fully committed on the principles of
democracy would not want to build a town on these principles exclusively. He further states, We
become just by the practice of just actions, self-controlled by exercising self-control, and
courageous by performing acts of courage. He adds that such a situation would undermine the
principles of democracy on which it is founded. Instead, the government should bring forth the
principles and outline the best approach to apply them in consideration with the people in
question. Liberty, according to Aristotle, is the underlying principle, but it can be interpreted in
two different ways (Aristotle, 2013). Liberty is taken to refer to the freedom amongst citizens in
an even manner. This means that there should be sovereignty of the majority, as well as equality
of all individuals before the law. The other system takes freedom to imply the freedom for
individuals to do what they want. This means that one is not punished for actions committed
which may hurt another person, a system which is inappropriate in a democratic setting.
Aristotle supports a system where democracy and oligarchy are compromised, and
sovereignty granted to the part with the greatest absolute wealth. As such, his argument impacts
the political vision since he weighs on the proper system of governance. He further argues that
the best democracy is where farmers are involved since they will need to work, and leave the
affairs of the government, The shopkeepers, laborers, as well as mechanics, on the other hand,
entail the worst kind of democracy since they take part in active politics, since they are crowded
in towns hence encouraging mob rule. According to him, the best democracy is not one that
applies extreme policies but rather that which facilitates the survival of democracy. This,
therefore, is a direct contribution towards the political systems in application.
Reference
Aristotle. (2013). Aristotle's Politics. Chicago [u.a.: Univ. of Chicago Press.

8. The Communist Manifesto

Author: Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels

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Parts 1 and 2
The communist manifesto starts by stating, A spectre is haunting Europethe spectre of
communism, Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels, in the communist manifesto seek to establish the
fact that class antagonisms cannot be eliminated by the use of political reforms. This is
attributable to the configuration in the community, where class is the reflection of extension of
the incomes. Such a financial organization offers others the ability to take advantage of others,
and where this organization is in place, a group of exploited individuals and the exploiting class
will be present. As such, the reforms may lead to better living standards for the exploited class,
but this will not change the fact that these individuals remain powerless socially. According to
Marx, the advocates of these classes are referred to as Conservative Socialists. Such socialists
are misguided since they fail to understand that the struggle is part of the society and as such it is
unavoidable in the capitalist system.
The notion presented in the communist manifesto represents the nature of the society.
This can be shown in the manner the political system is set up where the majority who are
supposed to protect the rights of the citizens are the advantage din the society. This is done when
the minority suffers, a situation that cannot be changed. Marx adds that the property rights which
the group of bourgeoisie seeks to protect are the property rights of the bourgeois. This is because
these are the same individuals who own the property. As such, if the private property is changed
into communal property, only the social nature of the property is changed. This argument applies
to other issues such as religion, law, as well as philosophy (Marx, & Engels, 1998). All these
notions fail to protect the universal truths, but rather protect the rights of the ruling class. This
situation reflects the manner things are run in the society.
Reference
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1998). The Communist Manifesto. Waiheke Island: Floating Press.