Automatic Control

System Modeling and Representation

20-Sep-16

Control System Design Process

Rule of Thumb

control theories
&
analysis techniques

Aims for this chapter

1. Recognize that differential equations can describe the dynamic behavior

of physical systems.
2. Be able to utilize linearization approximations through the use of Taylor
series expansions.
3. Understand the application of Laplace transforms and their role in
obtaining transfer functions.
4. Dynamic behaviors modelling
5. Be aware of block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs) and their role in
analyzing control systems.
6. Transfer function and state space form of the dynamic system.

System Description

Mathematical models of physical systems are key elements in the

design and analysis of control systems.
The dynamic behavior is generally described by ordinary differential
equations.
Therefore, for a given physical system, one must point out the final
design goal and derive its dynamic behavior before the controller
design.
One must understand

what the target you are trying to control.

what the nature responses are.
what the possible constraints/limitations are.

System Description

Dynamic modelling procedure

1. Define the system and its components.

2. Formulate the mathematical model
3. Make fundamental necessary assumptions based on basic principles.
3. Derive the differential equations representing the mathematical
model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. If necessary, re-analyze or redesign the system.

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Mechanical have three passive, linear components. Two of them,

the spring and the mass, are energy-storage elements; one of them,
the viscous damper, dissipates energy.

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Consider the following simple spring systems

Based on Hooks law, one has

For parallel spring configuration, the resulting equivalent spring

constant becomes larger.

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

For n degree of freedom parallel spring configuration, the total force

is
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + + Fn
= k1 x + k2 x + k3 x + + ki x, i = 1,, n

one can derive

F = (k1 + k2 + k3 + + ki )x
= keq x

It is easy to show that the equivalent spring constant is

keq = k1 + k2 + k3 + + ki

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Consider the following simple spring systems

Based on Hooks law, one has

For parallel springs configuration, the resulting equivalent spring

constant becomes smaller.

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

For n degree of freedom serial spring configuration, the force

distribution for each spring is the same, thus one can derive
F = k1 x1 = k2 x2 = k3 x3 = = ki xi , i = 1,, n
x1 =

F
F
F
, x2 = , x3 = ,
k2
k3
k1
F F F
F
+ + +
kn
k1 k2 k3

And the total displacement is x = x1 + x2 + x3 + =

It is easy to show that the equivalent spring constant is

F=

1
x = keq x
1 1 1
1
+ + +
kn
k1 k2 k3

keq =

1
1 1 1
1
+ + +
kn
k1 k2 k3

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Any relative motion between the piston rod and the cylinder is
resisted by the oil because the oil must flow around the piston from
one side of the piston to the other.
Let us obtain the equivalent viscous-friction coefficient beq for each
of the parallel damper systems shown as follows

The force f due to the dampers is

It is usually referred to as damping force (velocity relevant).

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Let us obtain the equivalent viscous-friction coefficient beq for each

of the serial damper systems shown as follows

Again since the force distribution for each damper is the same, it
gives

In terms of the equivalent viscous-friction coefficient, the damping

force is given by

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

For mass (translational) system, Newtons second law states that

x (position)
v (velocity)
a (acceleration)

where

F = u-f is the resultant force acting on the mass in the direction of the
acceleration a.
u is the applied force
f is other external forces.

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Here is a standard mass-damper-spring system

mass displacement

The governing equation is

damping force

spring force

my + by + ky = u

my = F = u f = u (by + ky )

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Consider a mass-damper-spring system attaching on a massless cart.

Note that u is the displacement

Not the applied force!!

Applying Newtons second law to the present system and noting

that the cart is massless

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Consider the higher degree of freedom mass-damper-spring system

The equations of motion for the system are

Or

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Practical Control Engineering

A balance system is a mechanical system in which the center of mass

is balanced above a pivot point.
Lets derive the mathematical model!

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Consider an inverted pendulum system

(xG,yG)

Define the angle of the rod from the vertical line as .

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

To derive the equations of motion for the

system, consider the free-body diagram
For the rod dynamics, it contains two
governing equations:

rotational dynamics
translational dynamics

(xG,yG)

The rotational dynamics (about its center of

gravity) can be described by
applied torque

CW:positive direction

The translational dynamics can be described by

Horizontal:

Vertical:

H: horizontal force
V: vertical force

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

For the cart dynamics, it contains only one

governing equation: translational dynamics
The translational dynamics can be described by

CW:positive direction

(xG,yG)

Therefore, the overall system dynamics are

Rod Dynamics

Cart Dynamics

H: horizontal force
V: vertical force

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

It is clear that the rod dynamics are nonlinear.

To get linear model, system linearization is
applied by considering

CW:positive direction

(xG,yG)

One can obtain

Rod
Dynamics
Cart
Dynamics

H & V removal

Laplace Transform

Up to the present, we have illustrated a couple of mechanical model

and represented the system in the form of ODE.
Now, we are going to transform the time-domain system
representation into a s-domain transfer function (TF) representation
via Laplace transform.
Why Laplace transform?

The transfer function blocks can be organized into block diagrams or

signal-flow graphs to graphically depict the interconnections.
Block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs) are very convenient and natural
tools for designing and analyzing complicated control systems

Open-loop

Closed-loop

Laplace Transform

Let us define
casual system
frequency domain

Then the Laplace transform of f(t) is given by

The inverse Laplace transformation can is give by

Laplace Transform

Transfer Function

In control theory, functions called transfer functions are commonly used to

characterize the input-output relationships of components or systems that
can be described by linear, time-invariant, differential equations.

In other words, the applicability of the concept of the transfer function is

limited to

A. linear
B. time-invariant
C. zero initial condition

There doesnt exist TF for nonlinear system.

Unless system linearization is applied.

differential equation systems

The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation

system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function)
under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

Transfer Function

Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following

differential equation

where y is the output of the system and x is the input.

The transfer function of this system is the ratio of the Laplace
transformed output to the Laplace transformed input when all initial
conditions are zero

Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Here is a standard mass-damper-spring system

mass displacement
dynamic equation
my + by + ky = u

Taking the Laplace transform gives

The transfer function is

L ( y) = s 2Y (s ) sY (0 ) Y (0 ) = s 2Y (s )
L ( y ) = sY (s ) Y (0 ) = sY (s )
L ( y ) = Y (s )
L (u ) = U (s )

Y (s ) ms 2 + bs + k = U (s )
1
Y (s )
= 2
U (s ) ms + bs + k

Transfer Function

Consider again the a mass-damper-spring system

dynamic equation
my + by + ky = bu + ku

Taking the Laplace transform gives

The transfer function is

L ( y) = s 2Y (s ) sY (0 ) Y (0 ) = s 2Y (s )
L ( y ) = sY (s ) Y (0 ) = sY (s )
L ( y ) = Y (s )
L (u ) = sU (s ) U (0 ) = sU (s )
L (u ) = U (s )

Transfer Function

Consider again the higher degree of freedom mass-damper-spring

systemapplied
output1
output2
dynamic equation
force

Taking the Laplace transform gives

Suppose the input is U(s) and outputs are X1(s) and X2(s),
respectively, we have

Transfer Function

The linearized inverted pendulum model

Based on the dynamic equations, one has

m 2l 2
ml
2
I + ml
mgl =
u
(
)
(
)
+
M
m
M
+
m

From the control point of view, we are going

to find the input-output relationship, where
the input is u and the output is .
( s )
ml
=
U (s ) (MI + Mml 2 + mI )s 2 (M + m )mgl
=

1
if I = 0
2
Mls (M + m )g

I=0

Transfer Function

For the translational TF

Taking the Laplace transform gives

(M + m )X (s )s 2 + ml(s )s 2 = U (s )
(I + ml 2 )(s )s 2 + mlX (s )s 2 = mgl(s )

One can derive

I=0

mlX (s )s 2
( s ) =
I + ml 2 s 2 mgl

Then the input U(s) to output X(s) is

)
)

X (s )
I + ml 2 s 2 mgl
=
U (s ) MI + Mml 2 + mI s 4 (M + m )mgls 2

ml 2 s 2 mgl
=
if I = 0
Mml 2 s 4 (M + m )mgls 2

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Basic laws governing electrical circuits are

Kirchhoffs current law

Kirchhoffs voltage law.

Kirchhoffs current law (i.e., node law) states that the sum of
currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
same node.
Kirchhoffs voltage law (i.e., loop law) states that the sum of the
voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a loop.
n

ik = 0

k =1

i1 + ( i2 ) + ( i3 ) + i4 = 0

i1 + i4 = i2 + i3

vk = 0

k =1

( v1 ) + ( v2 ) + ( v3 ) + (v4 ) = 0
v4 = v1 + v2 + v3

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Property of the basic electrical components:

Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for

capacitors, resistors, and inductors

Together with the use of the Kirchhoffs, the above table is very
useful for deriving electrical dynamic equation.

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Consider a simple RC (low-pass filter) circuit consists of a resistor in

series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel with the load.
i1

i2

According to Kirchhoff's laws, it gives that i1 = i2.

The governing equation is v v
dvout
in
out
R

=C

dt

Taking the Laplace transform gives

Vout (s )
1
=
Vin (s ) RCs + 1

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Consider another RC (high-pass filter) circuit consists of

a capacitor in series with a load, and a resistor in parallel with the
load:
i1

i2

According to Kirchhoff's laws, it gives that i1 = i2.

The governing equation is
d (vout vin ) vout
C

dt

Taking the Laplace transform gives

Vout (s )
RCs
=
Vin (s ) RCs + 1

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Consider the electrical RLC circuit.

Input: applied voltage

Output : dropped voltage

The circuit consists of an inductance L (henry), a resistance R (ohm),

and a capacitance C (farad).
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the system, one can obtain the
following equations:
dynamic equation

Modeling of Electrical Systems

For the RLC dynamic equation, assuming zero initial conditions, the
transfer function of the RLC circuit can be represented by

I (s ) = CsEo (s )

As a result, one can obtain the TF

One can transform the s-domain TF back into time domain ordinary
differential equation

This is the standard 2nd order RLC oscillation circuit.

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Consider an RLC parallel circuit. Find the TF between current and the
dropped voltage on the capacity.
Apply the Kirchhoffs current law to the system, one can obtain the
following equations:
is = iR + iL + iC
i=

vR 1 t
dv
+ 0 vL d + C c
R L
dt

Moreover, since vR = vL = vC = vout

one has
1 t
v
dv
i = out + 0 vout d + C out
R L
dt

Thus

1 1

I (s ) = + + Cs Vout (s )
R Ls

Vout (s )
RLs
=
I (s )
RLCs 2 + Ls + R

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Consider the cascade RC circuit, where ei is the input and eo is the

output.

Applying the Kirchhoffs current law leads to

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Based on the system equations, taking the Laplace transforms gives

As a result, the TF from Ei(s) to Eo(s) can be easily find

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Operational Amplifiers (OP), often called op amps, are frequently

used to amplify signals in actuator/sensor circuits.
Drivers for amplifying
control signals (OP amp inside)

1. Control algorithm realization

2. Command generation

Driving Force
Encoder Feedback

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Consider the simplest usage of OP amp.

K

The input-output relation to the amplifier is

where K denotes as a differential gain.

Note that the OP amp amplifies the difference in voltages e1 and e2 .
Such an amplifier is commonly called a differential amplifier.
In the following, we make the assumption that the OP amps are
ideal (ex. Infinity differential gain/bandwidth, zero bias current).

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Inverting Amplifier
Basic properties

Since the OP amp is supposed to be ideal, the current flows into the
amplifier is negligible. Therefore, we have

Based on the feature of OP amp, e' 0

It is clear that the input and output have the same signs, that is why
it is called non-inverting amplifier.

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Non-inverting Amplifier
K

Since

, the above equation can be approximated by

R1
R
eo eo = 1 + 2 ei
ei
R1
R1 + R2

It is clear that the input and output have the same signs, that is why
it is called non-inverting amplifier.

Modeling of Electrical Systems

Inverting 1st-order lag circuit

Basic properties

Noting that the current flowing into the amplifier is negligible, we

have

Again e' 0 , one has

Comparison of Mecanical/Electrical Systems

Laplace Transformation Table

Frequently used Laplace transformation table

Laplace Transformation Table

Laplace Transformation Table

Laplace Transformation Table

Inverse Laplace Transformation Practice

From the previous examples, it is obviously that

for higher order TF, to find the inverse LT, we must convert the function
of a summation of simpler terms for which the LT of each term is known
(or can be easily found via Look-Up table)

Let a TF by

F (s ) =

N (s )
D (s )

where N(s) is the numerator and D(s) is the denominator.

For the polynomial order

If N(s)>=D(s), then N(s) must be divided by D(s), and then take partialfraction expansion.
If N(s)<D(s), then take partial-fraction expansion directly.

Inverse Laplace Transformation Practice

Find the inverse Laplace transform of

The partial-fraction expansion of F(s) is

where a1 and a2 are found as

We have

Inverse Laplace Transformation Practice

Obtain the inverse Laplace transform of

Note that since the degree of the numerator polynomial is higher

than that of the denominator polynomial, it should be represented
by

Note that the LT of the unit-impulse function is 1, it follows the

following inverse LT

Inverse Laplace Transformation Practice

Find the inverse Laplace transform of

Notice that the denominator polynomial can be factored as

Recall that

One can obtain