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Chapter 13 - The Nervous System

Sensitivity -> ability to respond to stimulus by moving in a way that

benefits itself
Nervous system -> controls bodys activities + how it reacts to
surrounding
Parts: brain, nerves, spinal cord, sense organs
Sense organs -> help to adjust rapidly to changes in envi +

enable parts of body to coordinate with one another


Involuntary vs voluntary action
Involuntary -> automatic and not controlled

consciously
Voluntary -> controlled consciously
Human nervous system -> CNS + PNS
Central nervous system -> brain + spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system -> cranial nerves, spinal nerves,

sense organs
Sense organs -> receive stimuli (receptors), inform CNS by

sending nerve impulses transmitted through nerves


Muscles -> effectors -> responds to the stimuli detected by

the sense organs


Nervous tissue
3 types of neurones
Sensory/receptor -> transmit impulses from sense

organs to CNS
Relay/intermediate -> transmit impulses from sensory

neurons to motor neurons in CNS


Motor/effector -> transmit impulses from CNS to

effector/muscles
Neurones -> hv cell body (nucleus + cytoplasm) + nerve
fibres (extension of cytoplasm from cell body)
Motor neurone structure
Cell body
Nucleus, cytoplasm, cell surface membrane,
other
organelles
Irregular

shape
Dendron
Nerve

fibres

that transmit impulses to cell body


end branches -> dendrites
receive nerve impulses from other neurones

Axon
nerve fibres -> transmit impulses away from cell
body
long in motor neurone
Myelin sheath
layer of fatty substance that insulates the axon
Node of Ranvier
regions with no myelin sheath
nerve impulses -> cant be transmitted through
myelin sheath -> hv to jump from one node to

the next -> faster transmission


Axon terminals
motor neurone -> transmit nerve impulses to
effector
Motor end plate
junction between axon terminal and muscle fibre
nerve impulses transmitted by chemicals ->

stimulate muscles
Sensory neurone structure
circular cell body, one long
dendron, short axon
Synapse -> junction between
two

neurones/neurone

effector (muscles, glands)


nerve
impulses
through

and
transmitted

junctions

by

chemicals

called

neurotransmitters
Nerves -> bundle of nerve fibres in a sheath of connective
tissue
emerge from brain (cranial nerves) or spinal cord

(spinal nerves)
contents:
sensory nerve fibres only (from sense organs)
motor nerve fibres only (to effectors)
mixed fibres (both sensory and motor nerves),
eg. spinal nerves

Brain, spinal cord, spinal nerves


Grey matter -> consists of cell bodies of neurones
brain -> outer layer
spinal cord -> central part
Central canal
contains cerebrospinal fluid -> bring nutrients to spinal
cord

White matter -> mainly consists of nerve fibres


brain -> central part
spinal cord -> outer layer
Dorsal root (spinal cord) -> contains nerve fibres of sensory
neurones
sensory neurones transmit impulses to spinal cord

from receptor
ganglion -> small swelling -> contains cell body of

sensory neurone
Ventral root (spinal cord) -> contains nerve fibres of motor
neurones
motor neurones transmit impulses from the spinal cord

to effector
Sensation -> eg. when touching a piece of ice, you feel the
coldness
impulses transmitted to brain
receptor -> sensory neurones -> transmitted across a
synapse to relay neurones of spinal cord (grey matter)
-> transmitted up the white matter of spinal cord ->

forebrain
Voluntary action -> eg. deciding to raise hand to answer
question in class
impulses transmitted from brain
forebrain -> transmitted across a synapse to relay
neurones of spinal cord -> down the white matter of
spinal

cord

->

grey

matter

of

spinal

cord

->

transmitted across a synapse to motor neurone ->


-

effector
Reflex/involuntary action
immediate response to specific stimulus without conscious

control
reflex centres -> brain and spinal cord
cranial reflexes -> controlled by brain, occur in head

region e. pupil reflex, blinking, salivation


spinal reflexes -> controlled by spinal cord, eg. knee
jerk reflex, sudden withdrawal of hand when touching

hot object
Nerve impulses pathway
receptors
(stimulate
produced)

->

sensory

nerve

endings,

neurone

->

impulses

spinal

cord

(transmitted across a synapse to relay neurone, then


across another synapse to motor neurone) -> motor

neurone -> effectors (eg. muscles contracts or relaxes,

gland secretes or stop secreting substances)


Reflex arc
shortest pathway which nerve impulses travel from

receptor to effector in reflex action


consists of:
receptor (sense organ)
sensory neurone
CNS
motor neurone
effector (muscle/gland)

Chapter 14 - The Human Eye


-

Structure of eye
Front part of eye
Pupil -> hole in centre of iris., allow light to enter eye

Eyelashes -> shield eye from dust particles


Tear gland -> at corner of upper eyelid, secretes tears
] Functions of tears: wash away dust particles,
keep cornea moist for oxygen to dissolve before
diffusing into cornea, lubricate conjunctiva ->

reduce friction when eyelid move


Eyelids -> protect cornea from mechanical damage,
prevent

excessive

light

from

entering

eye

and

damaging the retina (squinting), spread tears over the


cornea and conjunctiva to wipe dust particles off the

cornea (blinking)
Sclera/sclerotic coat -> tough white covering of the
eyeball, continuous with cornea, protects eyeball from

mechanical damage
Conjunctiva -> thin transparent membrane covering
the sclera, mucous membrane, secretes mucus to keep
the front of the eyeball moist, continuous with skin of

eyelid
Iris -> circular sheet of muscle, contains pigment for
eye colour, control the amount of light entering the eye

(by 2 sets of involuntary muscles circular and radial)


Internal structure of the eye

Ciliary body
] thickened
]

region

at

the front end of choroid


contains ciliary muscles
->

control

the

curvature/thickness

lens
Choroid
] middle

layer

of

of

eyeball (between sclera and retina)


pigmented black -> prevent internal

reflection
contains blood vessel -> bring O2 and nutrients

light

to eyeball, remove metabolic waste products


Vitreous chamber
] space behind lens, filled with vitreous humour ->
transparent, jelly like substance, keeps eyeball

firm, helps refract light to retina


Fovea/yellow spot
] small yellow depression in retina, directly behind
]

]
]
Optic
]

lens
where image are normally focused, enabled a
person to hv detailed colour vision in bright light
has greatest concentration of cones
has no rods
nerve
nerve -> transmit nerve impulses to brain when

photoreceptors in retina are stimulated


Blind spot
] region where optic nerve leaves eye
] no cones and rods -> not sensitive to light
Retina
] innermost layer of eyeball, light-sensitive layer,
]

where images are formed


contains light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors)
rods and cones -> connected to nerve endings
from optive nerve
o cones -> see colours in bright light
o rods -> see black and white in dim light

Lens
] transparent, circular, biconvex
] elastic, thickness/shape changes to refract light
to retina
Aqueous chamber
] space between lens and cornea

filled with aqueous humour -> transparent,


watery fluid, keeps the front part of the eyeball

firm, helps refract light into pupil


Cornea
] dome-shaped transparent layer, continuous with
]

sclera
refracts light rays into eye -> causes most of the

refraction of light in the eye


Suspensory ligament
] connective tissue -> attaches edge of lens to
ciliary body
Ciliary body
] thickened region, front end of choroid
] ciliary muscles -> control curvature/thickness of

lens
Functions of photoreceptors in retina (rods and cones)
Cones
] enable us to see colours in bright light
] 3 types: red, blue, green -> hv different
pigments

]
Rods
]
]
]

that

absorbs

light

wave

of

diff.

wavelengths
do not work well in dim light
more sensitive to light than cones
enable us to see in black and white in dim light
sensitive to light with low intensity -> hv
pigment called visual purple -> bleached when
exposed to bright light, takes a while to be
reformed in order to see in the dark -> required

vitamin A -> deficit -> night blindness


How does iris control amt of light entering the eye?
size of pupil determines the amt of light entering the
eye -> amt must be right for a person to be able to see

clearly
size of pupil -> controlled by 2 sets of involuntary and
antagonistic muscles circular and radial muscles of

the iris
] circular -> arranged in a circle around the pupil
] radial -> arranged radially
circular muscle contract, radial muscle dilate -> pupil
becomes smaller/constricts
-> reduce amt of light entering the eye

circular muscle relax, radial muscle contract -> pupil


becomes larger/dilates -> increases amt of light

entering the eye


Pupil reflex
reflex action -> pupil change size as a result of
changes in light intensity
] larger when low intensity, smaller when high
]

intensity
too bright light -> eyelids come closer together
to prevent excessive light from entering the eye

+ damaging retina
nervous pathway:
] stimulus (change in light intensity) -> receptor
(retina) -> sensory neurone (optic nerve) ->

brain -> motor neurone -> effector (iris)


How do we see?
The process
Light rays refracted through cornea and aqueous
humour to lens -> further refracted by lens -> focus in

retina -> stimulates photoreceptors (cones/rods)


Image formed: laterally inverted, diminished, upside

down
Role of the brain
Light falls
transmitted

on
via

photoreceptors
optic

nerves

-> nerve
to

brain

impulses
->

brain

interprets -> see the object upright, the same size and

front to back
Focusing/accomodation -> adjustment of the eye lens so that
clear images of objects at diff distances are formed on the
retina
necessary -> can see object at diff distances clearly
focusing -> adjusting the thickness/curvature of lens

-> allow light rays to be focused on retina


focusing on distant object
] light rays almost parallel to each other -> no
]

need much refraction -> thinner lens


process: ciliary muscles relax -> suspensory
ligament become taut, pull on the edge of lens
->

lens

become

thinner

and

less

convex,

increasing focal length -> light rays sharply


focused on retina -> photoreceptors stimulated

-> nerve impulses transmitted to brain by optic

nerve -> interpreted -> see the distant object


focusing on near object
] diverging
light
rays
->
need
much

refraction/bending -> thicker/more convex lens


process: ciliary muscles contract -> suspensory
ligament slacken, relax pull on the edge of lens
-> lens become thicker and more convex,
decreasing focal length -> light rays sharply
focused on retina -> photoreceptors stimulated
-> nerve impulses transmitted to brain by optic
nerve -> interpreted -> see the near object

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