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UNIT-I
StaticElectricfields
Inthischapterwewilldiscussonthefollowings:
Coulomb'sLaw
ElectricField&ElectricFluxDensity
Gauss'sLawwithApplication
ElectrostaticPotential,EquipotentialSurfaces
BoundaryConditionsforStaticElectricFields
CapacitanceandCapacitors
ElectrostaticEnergy
co
Laplace'sandPoisson'sEquations
ld
.
UniquenessofElectrostaticSolutions
MethodofImages
Sm
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or
SolutionofBoundaryValueProblemsinDifferentCoordinateSystems.
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Introduction
InthepreviouschapterwehavecoveredtheessentialmathematicaltoolsneededtostudyEM
fields.Wehavealreadymentionedinthepreviouschapterthatelectricchargeisa
fundamentalpropertyofmatterandchargeexistinintegralmultipleofelectroniccharge.
Electrostaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofelectricchargesatrest.Electricfieldshavetheir
sourcesinelectriccharges.
(Note:Almostallrealelectricfieldsvarytosomeextentwithtime.However,formany
problems,thefieldvariationisslowandthefieldmaybeconsideredasstatic.Forsomeother
casesspatialdistributionisnearlysameasforthestaticcaseeventhoughtheactualfieldmay
varywithtime.Suchcasesaretermedasquasistatic.)
Inthischapterwefirststudytwofundamentallawsgoverningtheelectrostaticfields,viz,(1)
co
Coulomb'sLawand(2)Gauss'sLaw.Boththeselawhaveexperimentalbasis.Coulomb's
tousewhenthedistributionissymmetrical.
or
Coulomb'sLaw
ld
.
lawisapplicableinfindingelectricfieldduetoanychargedistribution,Gauss'slawiseasier
Coulomb'sLawstatesthattheforcebetweentwopointchargesQ1andQ2isdirectly
proportionaltotheproductofthechargesandinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthe
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distancebetweenthem.
Pointchargeisahypotheticalchargelocatedatasinglepointinspace.Itisanidealized
Sm
modelofaparticlehavinganelectriccharge.
Mathematically,
,wherekistheproportionalityconstant.
InSIunits,Q1andQ2areexpressedinCoulombs(C)andRisinmeters.
ForceFisinNewtons(N)and
iscalledthepermittivityoffreespace.
(Weareassumingthechargesareinfreespace.Ifthechargesareanyotherdielectric
medium,wewilluse
insteadwhere
dielectricconstantofthemedium).
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iscalledtherelativepermittivityorthe
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Therefore
.......................(1)
AsshownintheFigure1letthepositionvectorsofthepointchargesQ1andQ2aregivenby
.Let
representtheforceonQ1duetochargeQ2.
co
and
ld
.
or
Fig1:Coulomb'sLaw
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Thechargesareseparatedbyadistanceof
and
.Wedefinetheunitvectorsas
..................................(2)
Sm
canbedefinedas
SimilarlytheforceonQ1duetochargeQ2canbecalculatedandif
representsthisforcethenwecan
write
Whenwehaveanumberofpointcharges,todeterminetheforceonaparticularcharge
duetoallothercharges,weapplyprincipleofsuperposition.IfwehaveNnumberof
chargesQ1,Q2,.........QNlocatedrespectivelyatthepointsrepresentedbytheposition
vectors , ,......
,theforceexperiencedbyachargeQlocatedat isgivenby,
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.................................(3)
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ElectricField:
Theelectricfieldintensityortheelectricfieldstrengthatapointisdefinedastheforce
perunitcharge.Thatis
.......................................(4)
or,
TheelectricfieldintensityEatapointr(observationpoint)dueapointchargeQlocated
at
(sourcepoint)isgivenby:
..........................................(5)
isobtainedas
,......
,theelectricfield
or
ld
.
intensityatpoint
co
ForacollectionofNpointchargesQ1,Q2,.........QNlocatedat ,
........................................(6)
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continuousdistributionofcharges.
Theexpression(6)canbemodifiedsuitablytocomputetheelectricfiledduetoa
Infigure2weconsideracontinuousvolumedistributionofcharge(t)intheregion
Sm
denotedasthesourceregion.
Foranelementarycharge
,i.e.consideringthischargeaspointcharge,
wecanwritethefieldexpressionas:
.............(7)
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Fig2:ContinuousVolumeDistributionofCharge
Whenthisexpressionisintegratedoverthesourceregion,wegettheelectricfieldat
thepointPduetothisdistributionofcharges.Thustheexpressionfortheelectricfield
co
atPcanbewrittenas:
ld
.
..........................................(8)
Similartechniquecanbeadoptedwhenthechargedistributionisintheformofaline
........................................(9)
........................................(10)
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chargedensityorasurfacechargedensity.
Electricfluxdensity:
AsstatedearlierelectricfieldintensityorsimplyElectricfield'givesthestrengthofthe
fieldataparticularpoint.Theelectricfielddependsonthematerialmediainwhichthe
fieldisbeingconsidered.Thefluxdensityvectorisdefinedtobeindependentofthe
materialmedia(aswe'llseethatitrelatestothechargethatisproducingit).Foralinear
isotropicmediumunderconsiderationthefluxdensityvectorisdefinedas:
................................................(11)
Wedefinetheelectricfluxas
.....................................(12)
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Gauss'sLaw:Gauss'slawisoneofthefundamentallawsofelectromagnetismandit
statesthatthetotalelectricfluxthroughaclosedsurfaceisequaltothetotalcharge
co
Fig3:Gauss'sLaw
enclosedbythesurface.
ld
.
LetusconsiderapointchargeQlocatedinanisotropichomogeneousmediumof
dielectricconstant.Thefluxdensityatadistanceronasurfaceenclosingthechargeis
or
givenby
...............................................(13)
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Ifweconsideranelementaryareads,theamountoffluxpassingthroughthe
But
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elementaryareaisgivenby
.....................................(14)
,istheelementarysolidanglesubtendedbythearea
atthelocation
ofQ.Thereforewecanwrite
Foraclosedsurfaceenclosingthecharge,wecanwrite
whichcanseentobesameaswhatwehavestatedinthedefinitionofGauss'sLaw.
ApplicationofGauss'sLaw:
Gauss'slawisparticularlyusefulincomputing or
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wherethechargedistributionhas
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somesymmetry.WeshallillustratetheapplicationofGauss'sLawwithsomeexamples.
1.Aninfinitelinecharge
AsthefirstexampleofillustrationofuseofGauss'slaw,letconsidertheproblemof
determinationoftheelectricfieldproducedbyaninfinitelinechargeofdensityLC/m.Let
usconsideralinechargepositionedalongthezaxisasshowninFig.4(a)(nextslide).
Sincethelinechargeisassumedtobeinfinitelylong,theelectricfieldwillbeoftheform
asshowninFig.4(b)(nextslide).
IfweconsideraclosecylindricalsurfaceasshowninFig.2.4(a),usingGauss'stheorm
wecanwrite,
co
.....................................(15)
ld
.
ConsideringthefactthattheunitnormalvectortoareasS1andS3areperpendicularto
theelectricfield,thesurfaceintegralsforthetopandbottomsurfacesevaluatestozero.
Sm
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or
Hencewecanwrite,
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Fig4:InfiniteLineCharge
.....................................(16)
2.InfiniteSheetofCharge
AsasecondexampleofapplicationofGauss'stheorem,weconsideraninfinitecharged
sheetcoveringthex-zplaneasshowninfigure5.Assumingasurfacechargedensityof
fortheinfinitesurfacecharge,ifweconsideracylindricalvolumehavingsides
co
placedsymmetricallyasshowninfigure5,wecanwrite:
Sm
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or
ld
.
..............(17)
Fig5:InfiniteSheetofCharge
Itmaybenotedthattheelectricfieldstrengthisindependentofdistance.Thisistruefor
theinfiniteplaneofchargeelectriclinesofforceoneithersideofthechargewillbe
perpendiculartothesheetandextendtoinfinityasparallellines.Asnumberoflinesof
forceperunitareagivesthestrengthofthefield,thefieldbecomesindependentof
distance.Forafinitechargesheet,thefieldwillbeafunctionofdistance.
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3.UniformlyChargedSphere
Letusconsiderasphereofradiusr0havingauniformvolumechargedensityofrv
C/m3.Todetermine
everywhere,insideandoutsidethesphere,weconstruct
Gaussiansurfacesofradiusr<r0andr>r0asshowninFig.6(a)andFig.6(b).
Fortheregion
thetotalenclosedchargewillbe
or
ld
.
co
.........................(18)
...............(19)
Sm
Therefore
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ByapplyingGauss'stheorem,
Fig6:UniformlyChargedSphere
..............................................(20)
Fortheregion
thetotalenclosedchargewillbe
...........................................................(21)
ByapplyingGauss'stheorem,
.......................................(22)
ElectrostaticPotentialandEquipotentialSurfaces
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Intheprevioussectionswehaveseenhowtheelectricfieldintensityduetoachargeor
achargedistributioncanbefoundusingCoulomb'slaworGauss'slaw.Sinceacharge
placedinthevicinityofanothercharge(orinotherwordsinthefieldofothercharge)
experiencesaforce,themovementofthechargerepresentsenergyexchange.
Electrostaticpotentialisrelatedtotheworkdoneincarryingachargefromonepointto
theotherinthepresenceofanelectricfield.Letussupposethatwewishtomovea
positivetestcharge
fromapointPtoanotherpointQasshownintheFig.8.The
forceatanypointalongitspathwouldcausetheparticletoaccelerateandmoveitout
oftheregionifunconstrained.Sincewearedealingwithanelectrostaticcase,aforce
movesfrom
equaltothenegativeofthatactingonthechargeistobeappliedwhile
is
co
PtoQ.Theworkdonebythisexternalagentinmovingthechargebyadistance
givenby:
Sm
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or
ld
.
.............................(23)
Fig8:MovementofTestChargeinElectricField
Thenegativesignaccountsforthefactthatworkisdoneonthesystembytheexternal
agent.
.....................................(24)
ThepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsPandQ,VPQ,isdefinedasthework
doneperunitcharge,i.e.
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...............................(25)
Itmaybenotedthatinmovingachargefromtheinitialpointtothefinalpointifthe
potentialdifferenceispositive,thereisagaininpotentialenergyinthemovement,
externalagentperformstheworkagainstthefield.Ifthesignofthepotentialdifference
isnegative,workisdonebythefield.
Wewillseethattheelectrostaticsystemisconservativeinthatnonetenergyis
exchangedifthetestchargeismovedaboutaclosedpath,i.e.returningtoitsinitial
position.Further,thepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsinanelectrostaticfieldisa
inJoules/CoulombwhichisreferredtoasVolts.
Sm
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or
ld
.
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LetusconsiderapointchargeQasshownintheFig.9.
pointfunctionitisindependentofthepathtaken.Thepotentialdifferenceismeasured
Fig9:ElectrostaticPotentialcalculationforapointcharge
FurtherconsiderthetwopointsAandBasshownintheFig.9.Consideringthe
movementofaunitpositivetestchargefromBtoA,wecanwriteanexpressionforthe
potentialdifferenceas:
...................(26)
Itiscustomarytochoosethepotentialtobezeroatinfinity.Thuspotentialatanypoint(
rA=r)duetoapointchargeQcanbewrittenastheamountofworkdoneinbringinga
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unitpositivechargefrominfinitytothatpoint(i.e.rB=0).
..................................(27)
Or,inotherwords,
..................................(28)
LetusnowconsiderasituationwherethepointchargeQisnotlocatedattheoriginas
or
ld
.
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showninFig.10.
Fig10:ElectrostaticPotentialdueaDisplacedCharge
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ThepotentialatapointPbecomes
Sm
..................................(29)
Sofarwehaveconsideredthepotentialduetopointchargesonly.Asanyothertypeof
chargedistributioncanbeconsideredtobeconsistingofpointcharges,thesamebasic
ideasnowcanbeextendedtoothertypesofchargedistributionalso.Letusfirst
considerNpointchargesQ1,Q2,.....QNlocatedatpointswithpositionvectors , ,
.......
.Thepotentialatapointhavingpositionvector canbewrittenas:
..................................(30a)
OR
...................................(30b)
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Forcontinuouschargedistribution,wereplacepointchargesQnbycorresponding
chargeelements
or
or
dependingonwhetherthechargedistribution
islinear,surfaceoravolumechargedistributionandthesummationisreplacedbyan
integral.Withthesemodificationswecanwrite:
(31)
Forlinecharge,
.................................(32)
Forvolumecharge,
.................................(33)
ld
.
co
Forsurfacecharge,
Itmaybenotedherethattheprimedcoordinatesrepresentthesourcecoordinatesand
or
theunprimedcoordinatesrepresentfieldpoint.
Further,inourdiscussionsofarwehaveusedthereferenceorzeropotentialatinfinity.
.................................(34)
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Ifanyotherpointischosenasreference,wecanwrite:
whereCisaconstant.Inthesamemannerwhenpotentialiscomputedfromaknown
electricfieldwecanwrite:
..(35)
Thepotentialdifferenceishoweverindependentofthechoiceofreference.
.......................(36)
Wehavementionedthatelectrostaticfieldisaconservativefieldtheworkdonein
movingachargefromonepointtotheotherisindependentofthepath.Letusconsider
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movingachargefrompointP1toP2inonepathandthenfrompointP2backtoP1
overadifferentpath.Iftheworkdoneonthetwopathsweredifferent,anetpositiveor
negativeamountofworkwouldhavebeendonewhenthebodyreturnstoitsoriginal
positionP1.Inaconservativefieldthereisnomechanismfordissipatingenergy
correspondingtoanypositiveworkneitheranysourceispresentfromwhichenergy
couldbeabsorbedinthecaseofnegativework.Hencethequestionofdifferentworks
intwopathsisuntenable,theworkmusthavetobeindependentofpathanddepends
ontheinitialandfinalpositions.
Sincethepotentialdifferenceisindependentofthepathstaken,VAB=VBA,andover
aclosedpath,
co
.................................(37)
ld
.
ApplyingStokes'stheorem,wecanwrite:
............................(38)
......................(39)
or
fromwhichitfollowsthatforelectrostaticfield,
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Anyvectorfieldthatsatisfiesiscalledanirrotationalfield.
Sm
Fromourdefinitionofpotential,wecanwrite
.................................(40)
fromwhichweobtain,
..........................................(41)
Fromtheforegoingdiscussionsweobservethattheelectricfieldstrengthatanypointis
thenegativeofthepotentialgradientatanypoint,negativesignshowsthat
is
directedfromhighertolowervaluesof .Thisgivesusanothermethodofcomputing
theelectricfield,i.e.ifweknowthepotentialfunction,theelectricfieldmaybe
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computed.Wemaynoteherethatthatonescalarfunction
thatthreecomponentsof
containalltheinformation
carry,thesameispossiblebecauseofthefactthatthree
componentsof areinterrelatedbytherelation
EquipotentialSurfaces
Anequipotentialsurfacereferstoasurfacewherethepotentialisconstant.The
intersectionofanequipotentialsurfacewithanplanesurfaceresultsintoapathcalled
an equipotential line. No work is done in moving a charge from one point to the other
alonganequipotentiallineorsurface.
Infigure12,thedasheslinesshowtheequipotentiallinesforapositivepointcharge.By
symmetry,theequipotentialsurfacesaresphericalsurfacesandtheequipotentiallines
Sm
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or
ld
.
co
arecircles.Thesolidlinesshowthefluxlinesorelectriclinesofforce.
Fig12:EquipotentialLinesforaPositivePointCharge
MichaelFaradayasawayofvisualizingelectricfieldsintroducedfluxlines.Itmaybe
seenthattheelectricfluxlinesandtheequipotentiallinesarenormaltoeachother.In
ordertoplottheequipotentiallinesforanelectricdipole,weobservethatforagivenQ
andd,aconstantVrequiresthat
isaconstant.Fromthiswecanwrite
tobetheequationforanequipotentialsurfaceandafamilyofsurfacescan
begeneratedforvariousvaluesofcv.Whenplottedin2Dthiswouldgiveequipotential
lines.
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Todeterminetheequationfortheelectricfieldlines,wenotethatfieldlinesrepresent
thedirectionof inspace.Therefore,
,kisaconstant.............................................(42)
.................(43)
Forthedipoleunderconsideration
=0,andthereforewecanwrite,
..................................(44)
ElectrostaticEnergyandEnergyDensity:
co
Wehavestatedthattheelectricpotentialatapointinanelectricfieldistheamountof
workrequiredtobringaunitpositivechargefrominfinity(referenceofzeropotential)to
ld
.
thatpoint.Todeterminetheenergythatispresentinanassemblyofcharges,letusfirst
determinetheamountofworkrequiredtoassemblethem.Letusconsideranumberof
or
discretechargesQ1,Q2,.......,QNarebroughtfrominfinitytotheirpresentpositionone
byone.Sinceinitiallythereisnofieldpresent,theamountofworkdoneinbringQ1is
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zero.Q2isbroughtinthepresenceofthefieldofQ1,theworkdoneW1=Q2V21where
V21isthepotentialatthelocationofQ2duetoQ1.Proceedinginthismanner,wecan
write, the total work done
Sm
....................(45)
Hadthechargesbeenbroughtinthereverseorder,
................(46)
Therefore,
....
............(47)
HereVIJrepresentvoltageattheIthchargelocationduetoJthcharge.Therefore,
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................(48)
Or,
Ifinsteadofdiscretecharges,wenowhaveadistributionofchargesoveravolumev
................(49)
thenwecanwrite,
where
isthevolumechargedensityandVrepresentsthepotentialfunction.
Since,
,wecanwrite
or
ld
.
,wecanwrite
co
Usingthevectoridentity,
.......................................(50)
................(51)
Intheexpression
variesas
,forpointcharges,sinceVvariesas andDvariesas
whiletheareavariesasr2.Hencetheintegralterm
Sm
,thetermV
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variesatleastas andtheassurfacebecomeslarge(i.e.
tendstozero.
)theintegralterm
ThustheequationforWreducesto
................(52)
,iscalledtheenergydensityintheelectrostaticfield.
PoissonsandLaplacesEquations
Forelectrostaticfield,wehaveseenthat
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................................................................(53)
Formtheabovetwoequationswecanwrite
................................................(54)
................(55)
Usingvectoridentitywecanwrite,
Forasimplehomogeneousmedium, isconstantand
.Therefore,
................(56)
co
ThisequationisknownasPoissonsequation.Herewehaveintroducedanewoperator
ld
.
,(delsquare),calledtheLaplacianoperator.InCartesiancoordinates,
...............(57)
or
Therefore,inCartesiancoordinates,Poissonequationcanbewrittenas:
ar
tz
...............(58)
Sm
Incylindricalcoordinates,
...............(59)
Insphericalpolarcoordinatesystem,
...............(60)
Atpointsinsimplemedia,wherenofreechargeispresent,Poissonsequationreducesto
...................................(61)
whichisknownasLaplacesequation.
Laplaces and Poissons equation are very useful for solving many practical electrostatic field
problemswhereonlytheelectrostaticconditions(potentialandcharge)atsomeboundariesare
knownandsolutionofelectricfieldandpotentialistobefoundhroughoutthevolume.Weshall
considersuchapplicationsinthesectionwherewedealwithboundaryvalueproblems.
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Sm
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or
ld
.
co
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Sm
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or
ld
.
co
Conventionandconductioncurrent:
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or
ld
.
co
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or
ld
.
co
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or
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or
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CapacitanceandCapacitors
WehavealreadystatedthataconductorinanelectrostaticfieldisanEquipotentialbodyandany
charge given to such conductor will distribute themselves in such a manner that electric field
ld
.
co
conductoratagivenpotential,thisadditionalchargewillincreasethesurfacechargedensity
or
conductorwillalsoincreasemaintainingtheratiosame
.Thuswecanwrite
wherethe
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= Q. Thus capacity of an isolated conductor can also be defined as the amount of charge in
Coulombrequiredtoraisethepotentialoftheconductorby1Volt.
Sm
Of considerable interest in practice is a capacitor that consists of two (or more) conductors
carryingequalandoppositechargesandseparatedbysomedielectricmediaorfreespace.The
conductorsmayhavearbitraryshapes.Atwoconductorcapacitorisshowninfigurebelow.
Fig:CapacitanceandCapacitors
Whenadcvoltagesourceisconnectedbetweentheconductors,achargetransferoccurswhich
resultsintoapositivechargeononeconductorandnegativechargeontheotherconductor.The
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conductorsareequipotentialsurfacesandthefieldlinesareperpendiculartotheconductor
surface.IfVisthemeanpotentialdifferencebetweentheconductors,thecapacitanceisgivenby
.Capacitanceofacapacitordependsonthegeometryoftheconductorandthe
permittivityofthemediumbetweenthemanddoesnotdependonthechargeorpotential
differencebetweenconductors.ThecapacitancecanbecomputedbyassumingQ(atthesame
timeQontheotherconductor),firstdetermining usingGaussstheoremandthen
determining
.Weillustratethisprocedurebytakingtheexampleofaparallelplate
capacitor.
or
ld
.
co
Example:Parallelplatecapacitor
Fig:ParallelPlateCapacitor
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Fortheparallelplatecapacitorshowninthefigureabout,leteachplatehasareaAandadistance
hseparatestheplates.Adielectricofpermittivity fillstheregionbetweentheplates.The
Sm
electricfieldlinesareconfinedbetweentheplates.Weignorethefluxfringingattheedgesof
theplatesandchargesareassumedtobeuniformlydistributedovertheconductingplateswith
densities
and
ByGaussstheoremwecanwrite,
Aswehaveassumed
.......................(1)
tobeuniformandfringingoffieldisneglected,weseethatEis
constantintheregionbetweentheplatesandtherefore,wecanwrite
parallelplatecapacitorwehave,
........................(2)
SeriesandparallelConnectionofcapacitors
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.Thus,fora
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Capacitorsareconnectedinvariousmannersinelectricalcircuitsseriesandparallelconnections
arethetwobasicwaysofconnectingcapacitors.Wecomputetheequivalentcapacitanceforsuch
connections.
SeriesCase:Seriesconnectionoftwocapacitorsisshowninthefigure1.Forthiscasewecan
write,
Sm
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Fig1.:SeriesConnectionofCapacitors
or
ld
.
co
.......................(1)
Fig2:ParallelConnectionofCapacitors
Thesameapproachmaybeextendedtomorethantwocapacitorsconnectedinseries.
ParallelCase:Fortheparallelcase,thevoltagesacrossthecapacitorsarethesame.
Thetotalcharge
Therefore,
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.......................(2)
ContinuityEquationandKirchhoffsCurrentLaw
LetusconsideravolumeVboundedbyasurfaceS.AnetchargeQexistswithinthisregion.Ifa
net current I flows across the surface out of this region, from the principle of conservation of
charge this current can be equated to the time rate of decrease of charge within this volume.
Similarly,ifanetcurrentflowsintotheregion,thechargeinthevolumemustincreaseatarate
equaltothecurrent.Thuswecanwrite,
.....................................(3)
co
......................(4)
or,
ld
.
Applyingdivergencetheoremwecanwrite,
.....................(5)
ingeneralmaybeafunctionofspaceandtime,partialderivatives
or
Itmaybenotedthat,since
areused.Further,theequationholdsregardlessofthechoiceofvolumeV,theintegrandsmust
Thereforewecanwrite,
................(6)
Sm
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beequal.
Theequation(6)iscalledthecontinuityequation,whichrelatesthedivergenceofcurrentdensity
vectortotherateofchangeofchargedensityatapoint.
Forsteadycurrentflowinginaregion,wehave
......................(7)
Consideringaregionboundedbyaclosedsurface,
..................(8)
whichcanbewrittenas,
......................(9)
whenweconsidertheclosesurfaceessentiallyenclosesajunctionofanelectricalcircuit.
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TheaboveequationistheKirchhoffscurrentlawofcircuittheory,whichstatesthatalgebraic
sumofallthecurrentsflowingoutofajunctioninanelectriccircuit,iszero.
Questionbank:
Sm
ar
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or
ld
.
co
1stunit
Bits:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Displacementcurrentinaconductorisgreaterthanconductioncurrent(yes/no)
Electricdipolemomentisavector (yes/no)
Electricsusceptibilityhastheunitofpermittivity(yes/no)
Capacitancedependsondielectricmaterialbetweentheconductors(yes/no)
TheunitofpotentialisJoule/coulomb(yes/no)
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(yes/no)
7. Coulombsforceisproportionalto
8. Theunitofelectricfluxiscoulombs
9. Theelectricfieldonxaxisduetoalinechargeextendingfrom
10. Potentialatallpointsonthesurfaceofaconductoristhesame
11. Laplaceequationhasonlyonesolution
12. Exampleofnonpolartypeofdielectricisoxygen
13. Theelectricsusceptabilittyofadielectricis4,itsrelativepermittivityis5
14. BoundaryconditionforthenormalcomponentofEontheboundaryofadielectricis
om
=
15. Potentialduetoachargeatapointsituatedatinfinityis0
ld
.c
16. Relationtimeis
17. Theforcemagnitudeb/wQ1=1CandQ2=1Cwhentheyareseparatedby1minfree
spaceis9*109N
Sm
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or
=0isinpointform
=0
18.
19. Directionofdipolemomentisindirectionofappliedelectricfield
20. Ifaforce,F=4ax+ay+2aZmoves1 Cchargethroughadisplacementof4ax+2ay6aZ
theresultantworkdoneis6 J
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Sm
ar
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or
ld
.
co
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