STUDENT WORKSHEET 1

BLOOD STRUCTURE
Objective : Students are able to
understanding structure of blood
(trombosyt, erythrosit, and
leucosyt ).

Instrument and Material :

Microscope
Slides of blood sample (trombosyt,
erythrosit, and leucosyt)

Working steps :

1. Prepare the microscope and slides of blood sample.

2. Take the trombosyt, erythrosit, and leucosyt then
observe it by microscope.
3. Draw the observation result and give explanation.

Discussion :

1. Pay attention the picture which observed, mention the

structure
2. Decide locations and the function of its tissue !

Blood structure based on our observation :

nucleus
Blood structure based on internet :

a erythrocytes;
b neutrophil;
c eosinophil;
d lymphocyte.
a erythrocytes;

Erythrocytes consist mainly of hemoglobin, a complex

metalloprotein containing theme groups whose iron atoms
temporarily link to oxygen molecules (O2) in the lungs or gills and
release them throughout the body. Oxygen can easily diffuse
through the red blood cell's cell membrane. Hemoglobin in the
erythrocytes also carries some of the waste product carbon
dioxide back from the tissues; most of the carbon dioxide, however,
is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-) dissolved in the blood
plasma. Myoglobin, a compound related to hemoglobin, acts to store
oxygen in musclecells.

The color of erythrocytes is due to the heme group of

hemoglobin. The blood plasma alone is straw-colored, but the red
blood cells change color depending on the state of the hemoglobin:
when combined with oxygen the resulting oxyhemoglobin is scarlet,
and when oxygen has been released the resulting deoxyhemoglobin
is darker, appearing bluish through the vessel wall and skin. Pulse
oximetry takes advantage of this color change to directly measure
the arterial blood oxygen saturation using colorimetric techniques.

The sequestration of oxygen carrying proteins inside

specialized cells (rather than having them dissolved in body fluid)
was an important step in theevolution of vertebrates as it allows for
less viscous blood, higher concentrations of oxygen, and better
diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the tissues. The size of
erythrocytes varies widely among vertebrate species; erythrocyte
width is on average about 25% larger than capillary diameter and it
has been hypothesized that this improves the oxygen transfer from
erythrocytes to tissues.[7]

The only known vertebrates without erythrocytes are the

crocodile icefishes (family Channichthyidae); they live in very
oxygen rich cold water and transport oxygen freely dissolved in
their blood.[8] While they don't use hemoglobin anymore, remnants
of hemoglobin genes can be found in their genome.
Nucleus
Erythrocytes in mammals are anucleate when mature,
meaning that they lack a cell nucleus. In comparison, the
erythrocytes of other vertebrateshave nuclei; the only known
exceptions are salamanders of the Batrachoseps genus and fish of
the Maurolicus genus with closely related species.[10][11]

Secondary Functions
When erythrocytes undergo shear stress in constricted
vessels, they release ATP which causes the vessel walls to relax and
dilate so as to promote normal blood flow.[12]

When their hemoglobin molecules are deoxygenated,

erythrocytes release S-nitrosothiols which also acts to dilate vessels,
[13]
thus directing more blood to areas of the body depleted of
oxygen.

Erythrocytes also play a part in the body's immune response:

when lysed by pathogens such as bacteria, their hemoglobin
releases free radicals that break down the pathogen's cell wall and
membrane, killing it.

b neutrophil;

Neutrophil granulocytes, generally referred to

as neutrophils, are the most abundant type of white blood cells in
mammals and form an essential part of the innate immune system.
They form part of the polymorphonuclear cell family (PMNs)
together with basophils andeosinophils. (For an overview of
neutrophils and their function, see recent reviews by Carl
Nathan[1] and Witko-Sarsat et al. [2] Also see Klebanoff & Clark[3].)

The name, neutrophil, derives from staining characteristics

on hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) histological or cytological preparati
ons. Whereasbasophilic white blood cells stain dark blue
and eosinophilic white blood cells stain bright red, neutrophils stain
a neutral pink. Normally neutrophils contain a nucleus divided into
2-5 lobes.

Neutrophils are normally found in the blood stream. However,

during the beginning (acute) phase of inflammation, particularly as
a result ofbacterial infection and some cancers[4][5], neutrophils are
one of first-responders of inflammatory cells to migrate toward the
site of inflammation, firstly through the blood vessels, then through
interstitial tissue, following chemical signals (such as Interleukin-
8 (IL-8), Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), and C5a) in a process
called chemotaxis. They are the predominant cells in pus,
accounting for its whitish/yellowish appearance.

c eosinophil;

Eosinophil granulocytes, usually called eosinophils (or, less

commonly, acidophils), are white blood cells that are one of
the immune system components responsible for combating
multicellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. Along
with mast cells, they also control mechanisms associated
with allergy and asthma. They are granulocytes that develop
during haematopoiesis in the bone marrowbefore migrating into
blood.

These cells are eosinophilic or 'acid-loving':

Normally transparent, they appear brick-red
after staining with eosin, a red dye, using theRomanowsky method.
The staining is concentrated in small granules within the
cellular cytoplasm, which contain many chemical mediators, such
as histamine and proteins such as eosinophil
peroxidase, ribonuclease (RNase), deoxyribonucleases, lipase, plas
minogen, and major basic protein. These mediators are released by
a process called degranulation following activation of the eosinophil,
and are toxicto both parasite and host tissues.
In normal individuals eosinophils make up about 1-6% of white
blood cells, and are about 12-17 micrometers in size.[1] They are
found in themedulla and the junction between the cortex and
medulla of the thymus, and, in the
lower gastrointestinal tract, ovary, uterus, spleen, andlymph nodes,
but not in the lung, skin, esophagus, or some other internal
organs[vague] under normal conditions. The presence of eosinophils in
these latter organs is associated with disease. Eosinophils persist in
the circulation for 812 hours, and can survive in tissue for an
additional 812 days in the absence of stimulation

d lymphocyte.

Microscopically, in a Wright's stained peripheral blood smear,

a normal lymphocyte has a large, dark-staining nucleus with little to
no eosinophiliccytoplasm. In normal situations, the coarse, dense
nucleus of a lymphocyte is approximately the size of a red blood cell
(about 7 micrometres in diameter).[3] Some lymphocytes show a
clear perinuclear zone (or halo) around the nucleus or could exhibit
a small clear zone to one side of the nucleus. Polyribosomes are a
prominent feature in the lymphocytes and can be viewed with
an electron microscope.[3] The ribosomes are involved in protein
synthesis allowing the generation of large quantities
of cytokines and immunoglobulins by these cells.

It is impossible to distinguish between T cells and B cells in a

peripheral blood smear.[3] Normally, flow cytometry testing is used
for specific lymphocyte population counts. This can be used to
specifically determine the percentage of lymphocytes that contain a
particular combination of specific cell surface proteins, such
as immunoglobulins or cluster of differentiation (CD) markers or that
produce particular proteins (for example,cytokines using
intracellular cytokine staining (ICCS)). In order to study the function
of a lymphocyte by virtue of the proteins it generates, other
scientific techniques like the ELISPOT or secretion assay techniques
can be use
STUDENT WORKSHEET 2
BLOOD TYPE TEST
Objective :
To study and understand the type of blood

Instrument and Material :

Object Glass
Needle
Cotton
Marker
Toothpick
Pipette
Alcohol 70%
Anti A And Anti B Serum

Working steps :

1. Choose one of your friends and take his or her

blood.
2. Clean the shoot of finger by cotton which given
alcohol first. Suck the needle in shoot of finger.
Then put it on the object glass and give A and B
code.
3. Give anti A serum in A code and anti B serum in B
code.
4. Scramble the blood by toothpick.
5. Observe for about five minutes whether any
agglutination or not.
6. Decide the blood type of your friends :
If the blood in A code is occurring agglutination
and in B code isnt. The type blood is A.
If the blood in B code is occurring agglutination
and in A code isnt. The type blood is B.
If the blood in B code is occurring agglutination
and in A code too. The type blood is AB.
If the blood in B code isnt occurring
agglutination and either do A code. The type
blood is O.

Discussing :

1. What is the antigen contains in cells of your blood

friend ?
My friends has A antigen. Because in A
2. What is the type blood of your friend ?

Discussing :
Basic principle classification of blood and transportation
system of man

1. Explain classification the type of blood based on

aglutinogen and rhesus system !
A blood type (also called a blood group) is a
classification of blood based on the presence or absence
ofinherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood
cells (RBCs). These antigens may
be proteins,carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids,
depending on the blood group system, and some of these
antigens are also present on the surface of other types
of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell
surface antigens, that stem from one allele (or very closely
linked genes), collectively form a blood group system.[1]

Blood types are inherited and represent contributions

from both parents. A total of 30 human blood group
systemsare now recognized by the International Society of
Blood Transfusion (ISBT).[2]

Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a different

blood type from their own, and the mother can form
antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal
antibodies are IgG, a small immunoglobulin, which can cross
the placenta and cause hemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn
can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn, an illness of low
fetal blood counts which ranges from mild to severe
ABO and Rh blood grouping

Agglutination of blood cells tested with antibodies for determination of blood type
in the laboratory. The discovery of this type of agglutination was an important
medical breakthrough.

Anti-A and Anti-B, the common IgM antibodies to the RBC

surface antigens of the ABO blood group system, are sometimes
described as being "naturally occurring"; however, this is a
misnomer, because these antibodies are formed in infancy by
sensitization in the same way as other antibodies. The theory that
explains how these antibodies are developed states that antigens
similar to the A and B antigens occur in nature, including in food,
plants, and bacteria. After birth an infant's gut becomes colonized
with normal flora that express these A-like and B-like antigens,
causing the immune system to make antibodies to those antigens
that the red blood cells do not possess. People who are blood type A
will have Anti-B antibodies, blood type B will have Anti-A antibodies,
blood type O will have both Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies, and blood
type AB will have neither. Because of these so called "naturally
occurring" and expected antibodies, it is important to correctly
determine a patient's blood type prior to transfusion of any blood
component.

These naturally occurring antibodies are of the IgM class,

which have the capability of agglutinating (clumping) and damaging
red blood cells within the blood vessels, possibly leading to death. It
is not necessary to determine any other blood groups because
almost all other red blood cell antibodies can develop only through
active immunization, which can occur only through either previous
blood transfusion or pregnancy. A test called the Antibody Screen is
always performed on patients who may require red blood cell
transfusion, and this test will detect most clinically significant red
blood cell antibodies.
The RhD antigen is also important in determining a person's
blood type. The terms "positive" or "negative" refer to either the
presence or absence of the RhD antigen irrespective of the presence
or absence of the other antigens of the Rhesus system. Anti-RhD is
not usually a naturally occurring antibody as the Anti-A and Anti-B
antibodies are. Cross-matching for the RhD antigen is extremely
important, because the RhD antigen is immunogenic, meaning that
a person who is RhD negative is very likely to make Anti-RhD when
exposed to the RhD antigen (perhaps through either transfusion or
pregnancy). Once an individual is sensitized to RhD antigens, his or
her blood will contain RhD IgG antibodies, which can bind to RhD
positive RBCs and may cross the placenta.

Blood group systems

A total of 30 human blood group systems are now recognized
by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT).[2] A
complete blood type would describe a full set of 30 substances on
the surface of RBCs, and an individual's blood type is one of the
many possible combinations of blood-group antigens. Across the 30
blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been
found,[6] but many of these are very rare or are mainly found in
certain ethnic groups.
 Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life,
but very rarely an individual's blood type changes through addition
or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy,
orautoimmune disease.[7][8][9][10] An example of this rare phenomenon
is the case of Demi-Lee Brennan, an Australian citizen, whose blood
group changed after a liver transplant.[11][12]Another more common
cause in blood-type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-
marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and
lymphomas, among other diseases. If a person receives bone
marrow from someone who is a different ABO type (eg, a type A
patient receives a type O bone marrow), the patient's blood type will
eventually convert to the donor's type.

Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other

diseases; for example, the Kell antigen is sometimes associated
with McLeod syndrome.[13] Certain blood types may affect
susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to
specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy
antigen.[14] The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of natural
selection, is less common in ethnic groups from areas with a high
incidence of malaria.[15]

ABO blood group system

ABO blood group system - diagram showing the carbohydrate chains that
determine the ABO blood group
 The ABO system is the most important blood-group system
in human-blood transfusion. The associated anti-A antibodiesand
anti-B antibodies are usually "Immunoglobulin M", abbreviated IgM,
antibodies. ABO IgM antibodies are produced in the first years of life
by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria,
and viruses. The "O" in ABO is often called "0" (zero/null) in other
languages.

Phenotyp
Genotype
e

A AA or AO

B BB or BO

AB AB

O OO

Rhesus blood group system

The Rhesus system is the second most significant blood-group
system in human-blood transfusion. The most significant Rhesus
antigen is the RhD antigen because it is the most immunogenic of
the five main rhesus antigens. It is common for RhD-negative
individuals not to have any anti-RhD IgG or IgM antibodies, because
anti-RhD antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization
against environmental substances. However, RhD-negative
individuals can produce IgG anti-RhD antibodies following a
sensitizing event: possibly a fetomaternal transfusion of blood from
a fetus in pregnancy or occasionally a blood transfusion with RhD
positive RBCs.[5] Rh disease can develop in these cases.
 2. Explain the transfusion of blood !

Transfusion medicine is a specialized branch

of hematology that is concerned with the study of blood groups,
along with the work of a blood bank to provide a transfusion service
for blood and other blood products. Across the world, blood products
must be prescribed by a medical doctor
(licensed physician or surgeon) in a similar way as medicines. In the
USA, blood products are tightly regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration.

Main symptoms of acute hemolytic reaction due to blood type mismatch.[52][53]

Much of the routine work of a blood bank involves testing

blood from both donors and recipients to ensure that every
individual recipient is given blood that is compatible and is as safe
as possible. If a unit of incompatible blood is transfused between
a donor and recipient, a severe acute hemolytic
reaction with hemolysis (RBC destruction), renal failure and shock is
likely to occur, and death is a possibility. Antibodies can be highly
active and can attack RBCs and bind components of
the complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the
transfused blood.

Patients should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific

blood products to minimize the chance of a transfusion reaction.
Risks can be further reduced by cross-matching blood, but this may
be skipped when blood is required for an emergency. Cross-
matching involves mixing a sample of the recipient's serum with a
sample of the donor's red blood cells and checking if the
mixture agglutinates, or forms clumps. If agglutination is not
obvious by direct vision, blood bank technicians usually check
for agglutination with a microscope. If agglutination occurs, that
particular donor's blood cannot be transfused to that particular
recipient. In a blood bank it is vital that all blood specimens are
correctly identified, so labeling has been standardized using
a barcode system known as ISBT 128.

The blood group may be included on identification tags or

on tattoos worn by military personnel, in case they should need an
emergency blood transfusion. Frontline German Waffen-SS had
blood group tattoos during World War II.

Rare blood types can cause supply problems for blood

banks and hospitals. For example Duffy-negative blood occurs much
more frequently in people of African origin,[54] and the rarity of this
blood type in the rest of the population can result in a shortage of
Duffy-negative blood for patients of African ethnicity. Similarly for
RhD negative people, there is a risk associated with travelling to
parts of the world where supplies of RhD negative blood are rare,
particularly East Asia, where blood services may endeavor to
encourage Westerners to donate blood.