Wave Optics

In our discussion of lenses, mirrors and optical instruments we use the model of geometric optics
in which we represent light as rays which are straight lines that are bent at a reflecting or
refracting surface. Many aspects of the behavior of light cant be understood on the basis of
propagation of rays.
How can light be treated as a wave ?
In 1679, Huygens proposed the wave theory of light in which he said that each point of a source
of light sends out waves in all directions. The locus of all particles vibrating in the same phase is
called wavefront. Each point of the wavefront acts as a centre of new disturbance and emits its
own set of wavelets. The locus of these wavelets in the forward direction gives the position of
the new wavefront at subsequent times.
Light is fundamentally a wave and in some situations we have to consider its wave
properties explicitly.
If two or more light waves of the same frequency overlap at a point, the total effect depends on
the phases of the waves as well as their amplitude.
The resulting patterns are as a result of the wave nature of light and cant be understood on the
basis of rays.
Two monochromatic sources of the same frequency and with any definite, constant phase
relation (not necessarily same phase) are said to be coherent.
The phase difference between two waves at a point will depend upon :
(i) the difference in path lengths of the two waves from their respective sources.
(ii) the refractive index of the medium
(iii) initial phase difference, between the sources, if any.
(iv) Reflections, if any, in the path followed by waves.
In the case of light waves, the phase difference on account of path difference

where is the wavelength in free space.

In the case of reflection, the reflected disturbance differs in phase by with respect to the
incident one if the wave is incident on a denser medium from a rarer medium.
No such change of phase occurs when the wave is reflected in going from a denser medium to a
rarer medium
Optical Path

Let a light wave travel through a distance x in a medium of refractive index .

The velocity of the light wave in the medium is v (let) and that in free space is c.
The time taken by the light wave to cover the distance x in the medium is
t = x/v .(1)
The distance covered by the same light wave in free space during the same interval of time t is
given by
X = c.t
X = c. x/v
X = . x . (2)
Where = c/v is the absolute refractive index of the medium.
The path length X is called optical path of the light in the medium of refractive index
Change in wavelength and velocity

The frequency of a wave is the characteristic of its source. Thus it does not change due to
medium.
Thus the velocity of a wave changes from one medium to another medium due to its change
in wavelength.
In a medium of absolute refractive index , the velocity of wave is

v = n where is wavelength in this medium

In free space, c = n
Therefore

Example : A light wave of wavelength 6000 A in free space is needed to be its wavelength
reduced by 10%. What should be the refractive index of the medium through which it is to be
passed for the purpose?
Solution: = 6000 A
1 = 5400 A
We know, 1 = /
i.e. = /1
= 6000/5400
= 10/9
Exercise 1 : What would be the ratio of optical paths of a light traveling 10 cm in a liquid ( =
1.17) and in a solid ( = 1.6) ?
Interference

The term interference refers to any situation in which two or more waves overlap in space.
When this occur, the total wave at any point at any instant of time is governed by the principle
of superposition , which states:
When two or more waves overlap the resultant displacement at any point and at any
instant may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be produced at
the point by the individual waves if each were present alone.

Interference effects are most easily seen when we combine sinusoidal waves with a single
frequency f and wavelength .
In optics,
Sinusoidal waves are characteristic of monochromatic light (light of a single colour.) as we
analyze characteristic of interference, we will assume that we are working with monochromatic
wave (unless we explicitly state otherwise.)
The conditions for sustained interference are given as follows :
(a) The initial phase difference between the interfering waves must remain constant.
(b) The frequencies and the wavelengths of the two waves should be equal. If not, the phase
difference will not remain constant and so the interference will not sustain.
(c) The light should be monochromatic. This eliminates overlapping of patterns as each
wavelength corresponds to one interference pattern.
With sound waves, as we have studied, the interference pattern can be observed without much
difficulty because the two interfering waves maintain a constant phase relationship; this is also
the case with the microwaves.
However, for light waves, due to the very process of emission, which is at atomic level one
cannot observe interference between the waves from two independent sources . It can be
obtained by deriving two interfering sources from the same source.
The methods to achieve this can be classified under two broad categories as :
(i) Division of wave front
(ii) Division of amplitude
In the first case two interfering beams are produced from the same wave front and in the second
case intensity of a beam is divided to produce interference.
Constructive and destructive interference

We consider two identical sources of monochromatic waves S1 and S2 along the y-axis ,
equidistant from the origin.

Consider a point a on X-axis. From symmetry the two distances from S1 to a & S2 to a are
equal; waves from the two sources thus require equal times to travel to a.
Hence waves that leaves S1 and S2 in phase arrive at a in phase. The two waves add and the
total amplitude at a is twice the amplitude of each individual waves. This is true for any point
on the x-axis.

Similarly, the distance from S2 to point b is exactly two wavelengths greater than the distance
from S1 to b.
A wave from S1 arrives at b exactly two cycles earlier than one emitted at the same time from S2
and again the two waves arrive in phase. As at point O, the total amplitude is the sum of the
amplitudes of the waves from S1 and S2.
In general, when waves from two or more sources arrive at a point in phase, the amplitude of
resultant wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual wave; the individual waves
reinforce each other. This is called constructive interference.

Let the distance from S1 to any point P be r1 and let the distance from S2 to P be r2.
For constructive interference to occur at P, the path difference r2 r1 for the two sources must be
an integral multiple of the wavelength
r2 r1 = m , (i)
where (m = 0, 1, 3 . . . )
At point C ,
r2 r1 = 2.5 , which is a half-integral number of wavelengths waves from the two sources
arrive at point C exactly a half cycle out of phase.
A crest of one wave arrives at the same time a trough of the other wave. The resultant amplitude
is the difference between the two individual amplitudes. If the individual amplitudes are equal,
then the total amplitude is zero. This cancellation or partial cancellation of the individual waves
is called destructive interference.
r2 r1 = (m + 1/2 )

. . . . (ii)

where (m = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . )
The path difference at C satisfies with m = -3.
Youngs double slit experiment

Let us consider two coherent sources S1 and S2 generating monochromatic waves of angular
frequency , corresponding linear frequency n and wavelength .
The light wave from S1 covers an optical path x and the wave from S2 covers an optical path
x+x to reach at P simultaneously to superimpose.

The wave equation for the light wave at P from S1 is given by,
y1 = a1 sin ( t kx) (1)
where k = 2/ and a1 is the amplitude of the wave from S1. The wave equation for the light wave
from S2 at P is
y2 = a2 sin [t k (x + x)] (2)
Where a2 is the amplitude of the light wave from the source S2 .
y2 = a2 sin [(t kx) ]
where = kx is the phase difference between the two waves.
After superposition the resulting wave is given by,
y = y 1 + y2
= a1 sin (t kx) + a2 sin [(t kx) ]
= (a1 + a2 cos ) sin (t kx) (a2 sin ) cos (t kx)
y = A sin [(t kx) ]. (3)

Where
Intensity of interfering waves

The intensity of the interfering wave from S1 is

I1 a12
I1 = k a12

Where K is a constant.
The intensity of the interfering wave from S2 is
I2 a22
I2 = k a22
Therefore , On dividing

Intensity of the resulting wave in interference

The amplitude of the resulting wave interference is given by

where is the phase difference between the interfering waves.

Now A = Amax when cos = +1
i.e. = 2p
where p = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ,
=> = 2p

=> x = p
=> x = 2p /2

Therefore when the optical path difference between the interfering waves is even multiple of
/2 , the waves interfere constructively. The amplitude, hence the intensity of the resulting wave
becomes maximum.
Amax = a1 + a2
Imax = K (a1 + a2 )2 (i)
where K is a constant.
Similarly A = Amin when cos = 1
=> = (2p + 1)/2 where p = 0, 1, 2, 3,
=> 2 x/ = (2p+1)/2
=> x = (2p + 1) /2
That is when the optical path difference between the interfering waves is odd-multiple of /2 ,
the waves interfere destructively. The amplitude and hence intensity of the resulting wave
becomes minimum
Therefore Amin = (a1 a2)
Hence Imin = K Amin 2
Imin = K (a1 a2)2 (ii)
Diving equation (i) and (ii)

Expression for intensity of the resulting wave

The amplitude of the resulting wave is given by

I = KA2
= K a12 + K a22 + 2 Ka1a2 cos
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos
Where I1 and I2 are the intensities of the interfering waves.
If the amplitude of the interfering waves are equal
i.e. a1 = a2 = a (let) then,
from above we obtain
Imax = K(4a2) and
From above) we obtain
Imin = 0
The intensity vs phase difference () curve of the resulting wave is shown in figure below:

Illustration : The intensity of the light coming from one of the slits in a Youngs double slit
experiment is double the intensity from the other slit. Find the ratio of the maximum intensity
to the minimum intensity in the interference fringe pattern observed.

Solution: The intensity of the light originating from the first slit is double the intensity from the
second slit. The amplitudes of the two interfering waves are in the ratio 2 : 1 , say 2 A and A .
At the point of constructive interference, the resultant amplitude becomes (2 + 1) A. At the
points of destructive interference , this amplitude is (2 1)A.
The ratio of the resultant intensities at the maxima to that at the minima is
(2 + 1)A2(2 1)A2 =34
Illustration : Youngs double slit experiment is carried out using microwaves of wavelength
= 3cm. Distance between the slits is d = 5 cm and the distance between the plane of slits and
the screen is D = 100 cm.
(a) Find the number of maximas, and
(b) their positions on the screen.
Solution : (a) The maximum path difference that can be produced = distances between the
sources. (5 cm) Thus in this case we will have only 3 maximum. One central maxima and two on
its either side for a path difference of (3 cm.)
Exercise : The width of one of the two slits in a Youngs double slit experiment is double of
the other slit. Assuming that the amplitude of the light coming from a slit is proportional to
the slit width, find the ratio of the maximum to the minimum intensity in the interference
pattern.
Diffraction Of Light

Under what condition can light bend ?

When light falls on obstacles or small apertures whose size is comparable to the wavelength of
light used, then a departure from the rectilinear propagation of light occurs. The light tends to
bend round the corners of the obstacle and this phenomenon is called diffraction of light.
How can this phenomenon be practically realised ?
Consider a slit AB of width a. Let it be illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light
of wavelength , normally. The diffracted light is focussed by a convex lens L on a screen.. In
terms of wave theory each point in AB sends out secondary wavelets in all direction. Rays
proceeding in the same direction are focussed at O while those diffracted at at angle are
focussed at P. The path difference (p) between the wavelets from A to B in the direction is ,

p = AB sin = a sin.
Therefore the phase difference = (2/)a sin

The resultant amplitude due to all the wavelets at P can be calculated and is given by,
AR = A.Sin/ Where = (/)a sin
is half of the phase difference i.e. = /2
For position of minima Sin/ = 0

is the condition for minima in a single slit diffraction pattern.

The resultant intensity will be given as

Illustration: What is the intensity of the nth secondary maxima in a diffraction pattern.?
Solution: In case of diffraction at single slit, position of nth minima is given by
a sin = n

. (1)

The nth secondary maxima lies approximately half way between nth and (n+1)th minima .

= (n +1/2)
Intensity maxima is obtained for

Imax or maximum intensity is obtained when Sin/ = 1

i.e. when 0.
This is obtained at the centre.
The seocnd intensity maximum is given as,

and so on ..