Reactive Power Control

Reactive Power Control, Course Outline
Module 1 (Lecture 1-4) :

What is RP?
Importance of RP
Complications Associated with RP
Basic Equations related to RP
Power Quality
Stability
Components of an AC Power System and Reactive Power i.e.
Generators, Transformers, Transmission Lines, Cables etc.

Solutions related to RP Control & Management in a Power
System; Conventional Methods and FACTS Devices
Reactive Power Control, Associated Topics

Power Systems Basics
Transmission Line Characteristics

Distribution System Characteristics
Power System Stability
Voltage Stability
Power Quality
Books & Material

Reactive Power Management by D.M. Tagare
Power System Analysis by Grainger & Stevenson
EHVAC and HVDC Transmission Engineering by S. Rao
Product Catalogues (ABB , SIEMENS)

Internet/Web (Authentic sources only)
What is Reactive Power?

Reactive Power describes the background energy movement in an AC
power system arising from the production of electric & magnetic fields.
Devices which store energy by virtue of a magnetic field produced by a

flow of current are said to absorb reactive power.
Devices which store energy by virtue of electric fields are said to
generate reactive power.
While active power is the energy supplied to run a motor, heat a home,
or illuminate a bulb; reactive power is the energy consumed to manage
the pulsating electric and magnetic fields of a power system.
Reactive power provides the important function of regulating voltage in
an AC system.
Reactive Power Analogies

1. The Beer Mug Analogy
2. The Marbles In a Tube Analogy
3. The Horse Pulling a Boat Analogy
4. The Lift / Flight Analogy
5. The Loft / Ball Throw Analogy

6. The Bicycle Analogy
7. Walking on Trampoline Analogy
Reactive Power, Basic Equations
Pr = (Vs*Vr Sin)/X
Pr2 + (Qr* Vs2)/X < Vs4/4X2

i.e. Pr2 + Qr = Const.
Prmax = Ssc/2, Qrmax = Ssc/4
Reactive Power Control, Re-Cap of Lect 1
What is RP?
What are the Analogies?
Sources and Sinks of RP
Sources of RP?
Sinks of RP?
S = P +jQ
S = VI*
S = Vs (Vs*-Vr*/-jX)
Ss = VxVrSin /X+ j(Vs2 - VsVrCos)/X
Ps = Pr = VsVrSin/X
Qs = Vs2-VsVrCos/X
Qr = VsVrCos-Vr2/X
i.e. Qs = Pmax/X (1-Cos)
Thus :
P and are closely coupled.
Q and V are closely coupled.
Reactive Power can not be transferred over long distances.
Q : Let Vs = 1.0 pu and Vr=0.95 pu, load angle = 30 deg.

Find the value of Ps, Pr, Qs, Qr and comment.
Impact of Load Angle on RP

Q = EV Cos -V2/X
dQ/dV = 1/X(Ecos -EVSin .d/dE-2V)
But P = EVSin/X,
So dP/dE = V/XSin +EV/X Cos .d /dE
Demand is constant so dP/dE=0,
So, d /dE =-tan /E
Hence, dQ/dV =1/X(E/Cos -2V)
Voltage Regulation
E-V= Vi +jVq = (Ip-jIq)(R+jX)
=IpR +jIpX-jIqR+IqX
= IqX+jIpX
= Qr(X/V) + j Pr(X/V)
Series Reactive Loss and Trans. Voltage

Qsl = I2X = (S/V)2 / X
dQsl/dV = ?
Series Reactive Loss and Trans. Voltage

Q: There are 03 sets of double circuit 400kV EHV lines
having an impedance of 50 ohm per phase per line and
carrying a line current of 1000A. Find how much
additional series reactive loss will occur in case of
outage of one line?
Why Reactive Power Is Needed?

Voltages experienced at various points across the system form
a 'voltage profile.
A voltage profile is uniquely related to the prevailing real and

reactive power supply and demand of the system.
Reactive Power is required to maintain the voltage through
transmission lines.
The farther the transmission of power, the higher the voltage
needs to be raised.
When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage sags

down and power demanded by loads can not be pushed
through the lines.
Why Reactive Power Is Needed?

If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power
cannot be supplied.
W/o appropriate injections of reactive power at correct locations
along the power system, the voltage profile of the system will
deviate from the statutory planning & operational limits.
Voltage control in electrical power system is very important for

proper operation of electrical equipment to:
1. Prevent damages such as overheating of generators & motors
2. Reduce transmission losses
3. Maintain the ability of the system to withstand and prevent
voltage collapse. (A voltage collapse occurs when the system
tries to serve much more load than the voltage can support.)
Voltage Control and Reactive Power

National grid must manage voltage levels on a local level to meet varying
systems needs. Voltage Control and Reactive-Power Control are two aspects of
a single activity that :
1) Ensures system reliability
2) Facilitates commercial transactions across transmission networks.
In an AC power transmission system, voltage is mainly controlled by managing
the production & absorption of reactive power.
Significance of Reactive Power

There are three reasons why it is necessary to manage reactive power and to
control voltage:
1.
Both customer and power-system equipment are designed to operate

usually within 5% of the nominal voltage. At low voltages, many types
of equipment perform poorly (light bulbs provide less illumination,
induction motors can overheat and be damaged, and some electronic
equipment will not operate at). On the other hand, high voltages can
damage
the
equipment
and
shorten
their
lifetimes.
2.
Reactive power consumes transmission and generation resources. To

maximize the amount of real power that can be transferred across a
congested transmission interface, reactive-power flows must be
minimized. Similarly, reactive-power production can limit a generators
real-power capability.
3.
Moving reactive power on the transmission system incurs real-power

losses. Both capacity and energy must be supplied to replace these
losses.
The P-V Curve
The P-V Curve
Limitations of Reactive Power

Reactive power can not travel very far (why ?)
Usually necessary to produce it close to the location where it is
needed.
Reactive power transport is closely tied to the ability to
deliver active power.
Conclusions !!
Stability
Power Quality
Reliability is the degree to which the performance of the elements of an
electrical power system results in power being delivered to consumers within
accepted standards and in the amount desired.
Reliability can be addressed by considering two basic functional aspects of the

power systems:
Adequacythe ability of the power system to supply the aggregate electric
power requirements of the customer at all times, taking into account scheduled
and unscheduled outages.
Securitythe ability of the power system to withstand sudden disturbances
such as electric short circuits or non anticipated loss of system components.
Stability
Stability refers to the attribute of a power system which enables it to develop
restoring forces equal or greater than the disturbing/destabilizing forces.
Stability limit is the max. power flow through some point in the system where
the entire system is operating with stability.
Voltage stability refers to the max. power transfer through a transmission line
beyond which voltage collapse occurs and stability is lost.
Limits of system ?
Thermal Limits (current based)
Dielectric Limits (voltage based)
Stability Limits (Load flow based)
What is a disturbance ?
Deviation from the normal condition.
Effect of disturbance ? It depends on :
Nature of disturbance, Magnitude of disturbance, Duration of disturbance
Stability
Stability
Definition:
Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a
given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium
after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system
variables bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact.
Rotor Angle Stability:
Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of synchronous machines of an
inter-connected power system to remain in synchronism after being
subjected to a disturbance.
It depends on the ability to maintain/restore equilibrium between
electromagnetic torque and mechanical torque of each synchronous
machine in the system.
Instability, that may result, occurs in the form of increasing angular
swings of some generators leading to their loss of synchronism with other
generators.
Stability
Consider the power angle curve shown below :
Suppose the system is operating in steady state delivering a power of Pm at an
angle of 0 when due to malfunction of the line, circuit breakers open reducing
the real power transferred to zero. Since Pm remains constant, the accelerating
power Pa becomes equal to Pm .
The difference in the power gives rise to the rate of change of stored kinetic
energy in the rotor masses. Thus the rotor will accelerate under the constant
influence of non-zero accelerating power and hence the load angle will
increase.
Now suppose the circuit breaker re-closes at an angle c. The power will then
revert back to the normal operating curve. At that point, the electrical power
will be more than the mechanical power and the accelerating power will be
negative. This will cause the machine decelerate. However, due to the inertia of
the rotor masses, the load angle will still keep on increasing. The increase in
this angle may eventually stop and the rotor may start decelerating, otherwise
the system will lose synchronism.
Stability
Stability
Frequency Stability:
Frequency Stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain
steady frequency following a severe system upset resulting in a
significant imbalance between generation and load.
system generation and load, with minimum unintentional loss of load.
Instability that may result occurs in the form of sustained frequency
swings leading to tripping of generating units and/or loads.
Stability
Voltage Stability:
Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain
steady voltages at all buses in the system after being subjected to a
disturbance from a given initial operating condition.
load demand and load supply from the power system.
Instability that may result occurs in the form of a progressive fall or

rise of voltages of some buses.
Large-disturbance voltage stability: Refers to the systems ability to

maintain steady voltages following large disturbances such as system
faults, loss of generation, or circuit contingencies.
Stability
Small-disturbance voltage stability : Refers to the systems ability to
maintain steady voltages when subjected to small perturbations such
as incremental changes in system load.
Short-term voltage stability involves dynamics of fast acting load
components such as induction motors, electronically controlled loads
and HVDC converters. The study period of interest is in the order of
several seconds (0-10 sec).
Long-term voltage stability involves slower acting equipment such as

tap-changing transformers, thermostatically controlled loads, and
generator current limiters. The study period of interest may extend to
several or many minutes.
Stability
Stability Indices
Loading Margin :
Loading Margin is the most basic and widely accepted method to approximate a
voltage collapse in the power system.
For a current operating point, the total increment of load that would cause a
voltage collapse is called the loading margin.
The PV and QV curves are used to determine the loading margin of a power
system at an individual load bus.
Stability
With Q-V curve, it is possible to know the maximum reactive power
that can be achieved or added to a bus before reaching the minimum
voltage limit.
The reactive power margin is the MVAR distance from the operating
point to the bottom of the Q-V curve. The Q-V curve can be used as
an index for voltage instability. The point where dQ/dV is zero is the
point of voltage instability.
Stability
Line Stability Index
Line stability index is based on the power transmission concept in a
single line, in which the discriminator of the voltage quadratic
equation is set to be greater or equal than zero to maintain stability.
For Lmn less than 1, system is stable; and when it exceeds 1, the system loses its
stability and voltage collapse occurs.
Stability
Voltage collapse prediction index
VCPI is based on voltage phasor information of the buses in the system
and the network admittance matrix.
The technique is derived from basic power flow equations which are
solved by Newton Raphson method and the index at bus k is written as
follows:
Where,
VCPI varies between 0 and 1.

If it is zero, the voltage at bus k is stable and if it is unity, a voltage collapse is
said to occur.
Stability
A power system undergoes voltage collapse if post-disturbance voltages are
below acceptable limits.
Voltage collapse may be due to Voltage OR Angular instability.
Main factor causing volt. instability is the inability of power system to maintain
a proper balance of reactive power and voltage control.
The driving factor of voltage instability is usually the load.
Causes of V. Instability :
Increase in load, switching of transmission lines, outage of transmission
lines, RP sources reaching their reactive power limits, tap changing
operation of OLTCs, load switching / load recovery dynamics.
Possible outcome of voltage instability :
Loss of loads, Loss of integrity of entire power system
Hence, the voltage and RP must be properly managed and controlled:

1.
To provide adequate service quality
2.
To maintain the stability of the power system
Stability
Voltage stability timeframes:
Short term/transient voltage instability: 0 - 30 seconds
long-term voltage stability: 1 60 minutes
Possible Solutions to Voltage Issues:

1. Install/Operate Shunt Capacitor Banks
2. Add dynamic Shunt Compensation in the form of SVC/STATCOM to mitigate
transient voltage dips
3. Add Series Compensation on transmission lines in the problem area
4. Implement under-voltage load shed (UVLS) program
5. Construct transmission/generation facilities
RP Requirement of Utilities
Fixed:
Keep the Trafos. Energised
Min. Base Load
Variable:
Load Increases
Add. System demand
Requirement of a Trafo:
1. It requires magnetizing current / kVAR at all times. Magnetizing Current has
02 comp. (Active Comp-Losses at no load, Reactive Comp-To hold the
magnetizing field)
2. Its load current also has a reactive comp. (determined by the PF of load)
which is transferred to primary side.
3. When load current increases, it causes internal voltage drop.
4. Tap changing also increases inductive voltage drop.
Trafo.
1.
PF of a Trafo on No Load is ~ 0.2-0.25
2.
Constant Mag. Current is required from no load to full load (~1.8% of Ifl)
3.
Tap changing can increase the internal reactance upto 6%; Full rated
current passes through it, demanding increased reactive power
4.
Hence it is preferable to use cap. rather than OLTC for voltage support
5.
Low PF Load requires increased reactive power; Trafo itself requires more
reactive power while working on reduced pf loads.
6.
High reactive loading increases the internal losses of the transformer; At

full load the reactive power requirement can be doubled for 1% lower pf.
7.
Reactive power requirement of the trafo is because of the leakage flux.
8.
Reactive power requirement of the trafo is dependent on its percentage

impedance and load.
RP Requirement of Utilities
Trafo.
Sources of RP
1. Sources with reactive power output as secondary function
Synchronous generators
Synchronous motors
EHV Transmission lines
2. Sources whose primary function is to produce reactive power
Synchronous Condensers
Electric Power capacitors
Static VAR regulators
STATCONS etc.
Synch. Gen
Synchronous generators are rated in terms of the maximum kVA
output at a specified voltage and power factor (usually 0.8 or
0.85 lagging) which they can carry continuously without
overheating.
The active power output is limited by the prime mover capability
to a value within the MVA rating.
The continuous reactive power output capability is limited
by three considerations: armature current limit, field current
limit and core end heating limit.
Synch. Gen.
Synch. Gen
Leading PF Loads
Many electrical loads incorporate elements that can impose a
leading power factor on the power source.
While these loads are typically not a problem for utility power
sources, they can cause generator set failures or the failure of
certain loads to operate properly on a generator set.
The problems seen when attempting to operate generator sets
with leading power factor loads may seem mysterious, but in
reality, they are not too much different from another energy
absorption problem: the limited ability of a generator set to
absorb real kW power from loads some elevator drives, and in
crane applications.
Synch. Gen
Q: A 480V, 50Hz, Y connected, 6 pole genertor is rated at 50kVA,
0.8pf lag with Xs=1ohm and is run by a 45kW Turbine.
Draw its capability curve.
Find the value of Q at Pmax.
Find the value of Qmax that can be delivered by the gen.
It is connected to a 56A,0.7 lag load. Check if it is within the
desired limits of operation of the generator?
Synch. Gen
Q: Xs = 1.724pu, Vt =1<0 deg, pu, Iload = 0.8pu at 0.9 lag.
Find P & Q ?
Find the variation in Q with 20% variation (plus and minus) in
excitation voltage?
Synchronous Condenser
The leading power factor of a synchronous motor can be exaggerated by
removing the mechanical load and over exciting the field of the synchronous
motor. Such a device is known as a synchronous condenser.
The leading power factor can be adjusted by varying the field excitation. This
makes it possible to nearly cancel an arbitrary lagging power factor to unity
by paralleling the lagging load with a synchronous motor.
A synchronous condenser is operated in a borderline condition between a
motor and a generator with no mechanical load to fulfill this function. It can
compensate either a leading or lagging power factor, by absorbing or
supplying reactive power to the line. This enhances power line voltage
regulation.
Since a synchronous condenser does not supply a torque, the output shaft
may be dispensed with and the unit easily enclosed in a gas tight shell. The
synchronous condenser may then be filled with hydrogen to aid cooling and
reduce windage losses.
Synchronous Condenser
The ability of synchronous condensers to absorb or produce reactive power
on a transient basis stabilizes the power grid against short circuits and other
transient fault conditions. Transient sags and dips of milliseconds duration are
stabilized. This supplements longer response times of quick acting voltage
regulation and excitation of generating equipment.
The synchronous condenser aids voltage regulation by drawing leading
current when the line voltage sags, which increases generator excitation
thereby restoring line voltage. A capacitor bank does not have this ability.
Helps to prevent harmful oscillations in the system.
Provides additional short circuit support at the node at which it is connected.

As it is a rotating machine, so it has inherent stability issues / problems
associated with rotating machines.
Synchronous Condenser vs Capacitor

Synchronous condenser gives smooth, stepless reactive power while
capacitors provide the same in blocks/steps. If smoothness is required, no.
of steps to be increased which increases the cost.
If volatge drops, capacitor output drops while synchronous condenser can
give more output by field current adjustments to support voltage.
Synchronous condenser has higher inertia so it can absorb small load
fluctuations due to load changes / switching e.g. starting of a large
induction motor. Capacitors has no such functionality.
For shorter periods of time, synchronous condenser can be overloaded, if
required. Capacitors can not be overloaded.
Synchronous condensers improve the fault level of the system and

contributes to feed the short circuit (increased fault over-ride). Capacitors
has no such feature.
Synchronous condensers can both absorb and supply reactive power.
Capacitors can only supply.
Capacitors are low cost.
Synchronous Condenser vs Capacitor

Losses in capacitors are low (~0.1%) while losses in synchronous
condensers are high (~2%)
Capacitor banks are mobile and flexible and can be shifted easily.
Synchronous condensers require special foundation pads and fixing
arrangements.
A single capacitor failure doesnt affect the entire bank and the bank can
still be functional (with reduced capacity)
Capacitors can not contribute to short circuit and can not increase the
short circuit level, so cost of other equipment is reduced (lower short
circuit rated CBs, Isolators etc.)
Synchronous condenser has inherent rotating machine problems e.g.
bearing worn out, mechanical wear and tear etc.
Synchronous condensers have higher maintenance cost and longer break
down times in case of failure.
Special Applications of Synch. Condenser

To control flicker.
Specially used on AC Side of HVDC Systems.
Used with SVCs to fine tune the capacitive output requirement; the
combination of condenser with SVC makes the overall solution cost
effective.
Capacitors
Easy to install, portable source of RP
Reduction in PF Penalty
Reduction in Bill Demand Charges (Reduced/Lower Tariff)
Support Bus Voltages (By reducing reactive current)
Reduction in harmonics when used as filters

Reduction in plant losses specially those spreaded in wide areas
Selection of Capacitors
kVAR Requirment
Voltage Level where Cap. Needs to be installed
Type of end user
Nature of load / load characteristic
Harmonics
Ambient conditions
Availability
Cost Factor (Based on Dielectric Type)
Q: A 3 Phase, 50 kW Induction Motor has a PF of 0.75 lagging. What size of
Capacitor is required to improve the PF to 0.90?
Motor input = P = 50 kW, Original P.F = Cos1 = 0.75, Final P.F = Cos2 = 0.90
1 = Cos-1 = (0.75) = 41.41; Tan 1 = Tan (41.41) = 0.8819
2 = Cos-1 = (0.90) = 25.84; Tan 2 = Tan (25.50) = 0.4843
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve PF from 0.75 to 0.90 = P x (Tan 1 - Tan 2)
= 50kW x (0.8819 0.4843)
= 19. 9 kVAR ~ 20kVAR
And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase
19.9/3 = 6.63 kVAR
Q: An Alternator is supplying a load of 650 kW at PF of 0.65. What size of
Capacitor is required to raise the PF to unity ? And how many more kW can the
alternator supply for the same kVA loading when PF is improved to unity?
Supplying kW = 650 kW, Original P.F = Cos1 = 0.65, Final P.F = Cos2 = 1
1 = Cos-1 = (0.65) = 49.45; Tan 1 = Tan (41.24) = 1.169
2 = Cos-1 = (1) = 0; Tan 2 = Tan (0) = 0
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90 = P (Tan 1 - Tan 2)
= 650kW (1.169 0) = 760 kVAR

Now,
PF= Cos = kW/kVA . . .or kVA = kW / Cos = 650/0.65 = 1000 kVA
When Power Factor is raised to unity (1)

kW = kVA x Cos = 1000 x 1 = 1000kW
Hence increased Power supplied by Alternator
1000kW 650kW = 350kW
U/G Cables
An underground (U/G) power cable has the capability to store and release
electrical energy with the voltage variation.
It works as a shunt capacitance generating a capacitive current which is in

quadrature with the resistive or load current.
The capacitive or charging current has a limiting effect on cable rating capacity
(MW).
This effect is quantified by the fact that when intended to supply energy to a
resistive receptor (active load consumer) in a radial network, via a power cable
circuit, it is needed to inject a higher current at the source to compensate for
cable capacitance.
The charging current is calculated with the following equation:

Ic=wCVx10^-6
where:
Ic = charging current (A/km)
w= 2^f ; f = System frequency
C = capacitance per unit length (F/km)
V = Applied voltage (V)
U/G Cables
The charging current generates heat losses in cable which are of significant
magnitude in very long high and extra high AC U/G power cable connections.
As the capacitance and the charging current increase linearly with the length of
the cable circuits the generated heat losses by the charging current could be as
high as its entire thermal rating capacity.
In other words, it could be said that for long and uncompensated cable circuits
the entire cable rating capacity could be consumed by the circulation of charging
current; i.e. no real power transmitted without overheating the cable.
The length of a cable at which its thermal capacity was consumed by the
charging current is called critical length and it is calculated with the following
formula:
Lc = I *3 x 10^3 (km)
wCV
where:
w= 2pif ; f = System frequency
V= Line (phase to phase) voltage (kV)
I = phase current (A)
U/G Cables
The maximum transmitting power of a radial cable circuit is given by:
PL= SG2- (w . C. L. V2. 10_ 3)2 (MW)
Where,
PL = Active power at load receptor (MW)
SG = Apparent power at injecting point (MVA)
w= 2f ; f = System frequency
V= Line (phase to phase) voltage (kV)
L = Length of cable (km)
It could be seen that the critical length LC is determined by the system voltage
and frequency and by cable rating which is determined by the conductor size,
environmental and installation conditions and cable capacitance.
The larger active current transmitted on cable the longer the critical length; i.e.
the charging current is of a lesser importance.
Transmission Lines
The series inductive reactance causes voltage drop which is a function of load
current, so it absorbs reactive power Qind.
This inductance increases with the length of line.
The shunt cap. reactance supplies reactive power Qcap which is a function of
voltage V.
The supply and absorption of reactive power varies along the length of line.
If the load is such that Qcap = Qind, it is called SIL.
The line is then said to have Natural Load or unit SIL.
Profile
Reactive power should be supplied during heavy loads (switching of shunt cap.)
Reactive power should be absorbed during low loads (switching of shunt
reactors)
Reactive power requirement increases with length, so intermediate substations
are needed.
Transmission Lines
Transmission lines are generally designed for a common value of surge imp.
Charging an EHV line is equivalent to charging a capacitor high inrush
A charged EHV line supply stead state kVAR, irrespective of load current.
During the day, it provides reactive support, during the night it increases system
voltages.
Surge impedance and charging kVAs are calculated as follows:
1.
Series reactance = 0.8 ohm/Mile
2.
Shunt capacitance = 0.2 Mohm-mile
3.
Surge imp. = 400 ohm
SIL (in kW) = (Voltage, line-line)2/400
Charging kVA = 5000*(L/100)* (Voltage, line-line/100)2

line in miles
where L is length of
Transmission Lines Shunt Compensation

Todays AC Power systems are very complex. Load patterns also vary daily,
seasonally and geographically.
This makes the reactive compensation difficult to plan. Some part must be
fixed and some part must be variable as per load patterns.
Fixed line capacitors are used to cover the base kVAR requirements - which
mainly is the magnetizing kVARs of the transformers connected to the line.
As per 2/3rd rule developed by Neogle & Sampsons, these capacitors are
installed at two third the distance of line.
For switched portion, automatically switched line capacitors, usually upto 600
kVAR for 11 kV voltage levels.
132 kV Capacitors are used for voltage support, 20-30 MVAR
132/220/500kV Reactors are used to cater for over voltages, 60-100 MVAR
Shunt Compensation
Q: A 4 MVA, 33/11 kV Substation has a minimum load of 0.5MW, 0.8 PF lag and a
maximum load of 2.8 MW, 0.78 PF lag.
It is required to hold the PF at 0.9 lag through out the day as required by the local
utility company. Propose the value of fixed and switched capacitor banks?
kVAR max = P* (tan 1 tan 2) = 2800 (tan cos inv0.78 tan cos inv0.9) = 900
KVAR min = 500 (tan cos inv 0.8 tan cos inv0.9)= 135
150 fixed + 750 switched kVARs, as per standard available ratings.
Q=I*Xc , C =I/wQ,
Capacitor Switching Transients

The switching of shunt capacitor banks at utility substations and on
distribution feeders creates voltage and current transients in the power
system which may be damaging to power system equipment.
Transient over voltages due to the energizing of capacitor banks are the most
common source of over voltages on many power System.
The high incidence of capacitor-switching induced over voltages is a result of a
marked increase in the number of shunt capacitor banks used on transmission
and distribution systems as well as the frequent switching thereof (in most
instances at least one close-open operation per day).
When the capacitor-bank switching device is closed to energize the capacitor
bank, the voltage of the switched capacitor bank bus suddenly collapses to
the level of the voltage on the capacitor bank (which is zero when capacitor is
discharge).
The bus voltage then attempts to return to its normal power-frequency value,
but overshoots this value and oscillates about the normal power-frequency
wave until the oscillations are damped.

If the bank is energized at peak voltage, a peak over voltage of typically 1.5
to 1.8 per unit of voltage results.
The initial collapse of the bus voltage is very rapid usually on the order of
a few microseconds whereas the oscillatory recovery of the bus voltage
has a typical frequency of 300 to 800 Hz. This frequency is determined by
the source inductance and the capacitance of the bank.
The oscillatory transient overvoltage at the switched capacitor bank bus can
excite other near-resonant portions of the power system, creating a
magnified
oscillatory overvoltage at the sites of other capacitor banks, e.g., other
substation shunt capacitor banks, pole mounted distribution capacitor
banks, and power-factor correction capacitors at large industrial
installations.
These over voltages can cause nuisance tripping, and possibly failure of
sensitive electronic equipment.
Cap. Bank Switching Transients

Multiple Capacitor Bank Switching Transients occur when a capacitor bank is
energized in close proximity to capacitor bank that is already energized -Back
to back Switching.
Such a switching operation is common in multi-step automatic capacitor
banks. Upon energization of the uncharged bank, the adjacent charged bank
dumps a high frequency high magnitude current into the uncharged bank.
This high frequency high magnitude current is limited by the impedance

between the capacitor stages (resistance and reactance of bus work, fuses,
vacuum switches, etc.).
The high magnitude current is not seen by the power system as it occurs
between the parallel banks.
Reduction in Cap. Switching Transients

Several devices are commercially available and are used to reduce /
eliminate the effects of capacitor-switching transients.
These devices include pre-insertion resistors and inrush current limiting
reactors for capacitor switching.
Pre-insertion resistors furnish an impedance, which is frequency dependent,
in series with the bank capacitance during the initial energization of the
capacitor bank. This impedance reduces the collapse in bus voltage by the
amount of voltage developed across it during the inrush of current into the
bank.
Inrush current limiting reactor increases the magnitude of the surge
impedance, effectively reducing the peak value of the inrush current.
Since the impedance of the inductor is frequency-dependent, its value
appears to be quite large during initial inrush current into the bank when the
frequency is quite high. Thereafter, the effective impedance is reduced when
the steady state, 50/60 Hz current value is attained.
Reactive Power Compensation Tools

Why we need Reactive Power Compensation Tools ?
1.
Voltage Stability
2.
Reduced Transmission Losses
3.
Maintain Balance of Sources & Sinks
4.
Alternator Stability / Angular Stability
5.
Increased Real Power Transfer
6.
Overall Stability of Transmission System
7.
Financial Aspects
Fixed Series Compensation (FSC)

Series compensation principle:
In a transmission system, the maximum active power transferable over a
certain power line is inversely proportional to the series reactance of the
transmission line.
Thus, by compensating the series reactance to a certain degree, using a
series capacitor, an electrically shorter line is realized; and hence a higher
active power transfer is achieved.
Since the series capacitor is self-regulated, i.e. its output is directly (without
control) proportional to the line current itself, it will also partly balance the
voltage drop caused by the Tx line reactance.
Consequently, the voltage stability of the transmission system is increased.
Why Series Compensation
P = (Vs*Vr Sin)/X,
So either we increase V or we decrease X for increased power transfer.
Series Capacitor cancel out the inductive line reactance of Tx line.
Vector Diagram :
After compensation, Pmax = (Vs*Vr )/(X-Xc),

So main advantage is increased power transfer capability.
Series Compensation
Advantages of SC:
1. Automatic V. Reg
2. Instant V. Reg Mitigation of Flickers
3. Reduction in transmission losses
4. Increased active power transfer
5. Adjustment of line impedance Control of power flow
6. Effective for severe fluctuating loads e.g. Arc Furnace
7. To serve loads far away from gen.
8. Saves the cost of new Tx line
9. Environmental effect Saves environment, land, forest
10. Reduced right of way cost
Issues / Problems with SC:
1. Steep voltages under Short Cct.
2. Value & Cost is proportional to V2
3. Compromised Robustness of Tx Line
4. Can not carry full short cct.
5. Issues of Sparking at capacitor under fault/short circuit
Fixed Series Comp.

FSC has long been the preferred solution for optimizing the performance of
very large bulk transmission line.
Installing a series capacitor in a long (typically more than 200 km)
transmission line reduces both the angular deviation and the voltage drop,
which increases the load-ability and stability of the line.
Since the current through the transmission line directly "drives" the MVAr
output from the capacitor, the compensation is "self-regulating, and this
straightforward principle makes series compensation an extremely cost
effective solution.
Series compensation provides increased transient angular stability of a
power corridor and increased voltage stability of the grid.
It also improves the voltage profile along the transmission line and
optimizes
the
power
sharing
between
parallel
circuits.
Fixed Series Comp.

Series compensation technology:
Because series capacitors are installed in series on a transmission line, the
equipment must be housed on a platform that is fully insulated for the
system voltage (usually one phase per platform)
Protection is a key design factor, as the capacitor bank must be able to
withstand the throughput fault current, even at a severe nearby fault.
The protection scheme typically involves a non-linear metal-oxide varistor
(MOV), a Fast Protective Device and a fast Bypass Switch.
Fixed Series Comp.
Fixed Series Comp.
Fixed Series Comp.
Fixed Series Comp.
Fixed Series Comp.

To protect series capacitors against over-voltages caused by faults in the
surrounding network, each installation is equipped with a scheme in which a
MOV (or Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Varistor) provides the main protection.
During normal conditions, all power flows through the series capacitor.
When a fault arises, the highly nonlinear varistor limits the voltage across
the series capacitor to safe values. When the fault is cleared, the varistor
immediately ceases to conduct and the series capacitor instantly reverts to
normal operating conditions.
Depending on the environment in which the series capacitor is to operate, a

MOV scheme with or without FPD (Fast Protective Device) is used.
In cases where the varistor energy absorption capability be exceeded, e.g.
internal faults, or external faults of an extreme nature, a Fast Protective
Device is utilized to by-pass the varistor (FPD fully discharges the capacitor).
Closing a by-pass switch follows as the next step in order to by-pass the series
capacitor in case of extreme/persistent faults. On fault clearing, the series
capacitor is reinserted into operation by opening the switch.
Fixed Series Comp.

Damping Circuit : The purpose of the current limiting damping circuit is to limit
and damp the discharge current caused by FPD/Spark gap operation or closing
the bypass switch.
The current limiting damping circuit normally consists of an air core reactor or a
combination of reactor + resistor (if high damping is required).
By-Pass Switch : The bypass switch is usually an automatic SF6 circuit Breaker
(with auto reclosure duty cycle) for EHV Series Capacitor applications.
Fixed Series Comp.

Above is the typical protective bypass system consists of a metal oxide
varistor, bypass gap (Spark Gap or FPD), damping reactor, and bypass switch /
circuit breaker.
The varistor serves to provide overvoltage protection of the series capacitor
during power system faults.
The bypass gap is controlled to spark over in the event of excess varistor
energy.
The bypass switch / breaker closes automatically in the case of prolonged

gap conduction or other platform contingencies.
The breaker also allows the operator to insert or bypass the series capacitor.
The damping reactor limits the capacitor discharge resulting from gap
sparkovers or bypass breaker closure.
The communication of platform connection (current monitoring & control
commands) to the ground is accomplished using fiber optics.
Fixed Series Comp.

There are basically two types of faults of concern for series capacitor
installations.
If the fault occurs within the section of transmission line where the series cap
bank is located, it is referred to as an internal fault while if the fault occurs on
another section of the transmission line, it is considered an external fault.
The difference between the two is only the magnitude of the fault. A nearby
internal fault will result in significant fault current and significant duty on the
varistors. A distant fault on an external section can result in a few percent
higher than the normal maximum rated current of the cap bank.
These two faults are handled differently by the control system and the MOVs.
If the control system senses a high current internal fault it sends a signal to
the triggered gap to bypass immediately. This pulls the MOVs out of the
circuit before any significant accumulation of energy takes place. If the fault
prolongs, the bypass switch is operated.
When an external fault of lower magnitude occurs, the protection is provided
by the MOVs.
SSR
Resonant frequencies below the fundamental frequency are called subsynchronous frequencies.
Sub-synchronous resonance (SSR), occurs due to interaction between series
capacitors and nearby turbinegenerators.
Application of series capacitors in long electric power transmission lines is a
costeffective method to increase power transfer but use of series capacitors
has sometimes been limited because of the concerns for sub-synchronous
resonance (SSR).
Turbinegenerators have rotating shaft systems comprised of large inertial
masses that are interconnected with shafts that act as springs.
These large masses and shafts create torsional resonant frequencies some of
which are also subsynchronous.
If the transmission line resonant frequency is close to the complementary
mechanical system frequency of the generating machine, then the two
oscillatory systems can interact with each other.
SSR
In some operating conditions, the interaction can result in damaging shaft
torques on a turbinegenerator shaft.
This interaction is called SSR, and it occurs because of the interchange of
energy between the series capacitors on the transmission lines and the mass
spring system of the turbinegenerator shaft.
This interchange occurs at the subsynchronous resonance frequency by
modulating the 50 Hz wave form.
The SSR phenomenon actually occurred at some generating plants resulting
in shaft failures.
SSR
SSR Mitigation
Installing SSR blocking filters to block the currents at SSR frequencies flowing
through the generator stepup transformer.
Installing supplemental excitation damping controls (SEDCs) to provide
damping at the SSR frequencies.
Torsional relays with proper design of TCSC.
Torsion relay monitors shaft speed at one or two locations and trips the unit
or a line that isolates the affected turbinegenerator from the source of
torsional stimulus.
Torsion Relay is the most wideused technique for addressing risks
due to SSR.
Bypassing series capacitors.
Amortisseur windings on generator rotors.
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC)

TCSC offers Variable Series Compensation.
TCSC configuration comprises of controlled reactor (TCR Branch) in parallel
with a series capacitor bank.
This combination allows smooth control of the capacitive reactance over a
wide range.
The thyristor valve contains a string of series connected high power thyristors
while the inductor is of air-core design.
A metaloxide varistor (MOV) is connected across the capacitor to prevent
overvoltage.
TCSC has added a number of important benefits in the application of series
compensation methodology such as:
Elimination of sub-synchronous resonance risk
Damping of active power oscillations
Post-contingency stability improvement
Dynamic power flow control
Better Protection of SC
Reduction of Short Cct. Current

Worlds first 3 phase, 2 X 165 MVAR, TCSC was installed in 1992 in Kayenta
substation, Arizona-USA.
It raised the transmission capacity of transmission line by 30%.
Further, it was soon realized that the device is also a very effective means for
providing damping of power oscillations.
A third possible application of TCSC emerged from the on-site observations
that it can provide series compensation without the risk for sub-synchronous
resonance (SSR) as a fixed series capacitor.
Worlds first TCSC for sub-synchronous resonance (SSR) mitigation was
installed in Stode, Sweden in 1998, by ABB.
Specifically this period makes a valiant period for TCSC and makes the
researchers to turn on to TCSC.
TCSC Basic Scheme

The basic operation of TCSC can be easily explained from circuit analysis.
It consists of a series compensating capacitor shunted by a Thyristor
controlled reactor (TCR).
TCR is a variable inductive reactor XL controlled by firing angle .

Modes Of Operation:
There are three modes of operation of TCSC depending upon the firing angle of
the thyristors.
Thyristor Blocked Mode:
Thyristor valve is not triggered and no current from inductor branch.
In this mode, the TCSC performs like a fixed series capacitor.
The TCSC module is thus reduced to a fixed series capacitor as TCSC

reactance is capacitive.
This mode also known as the waiting mode.

Thyristor Bypassed Mode:
In the bypass mode, the thyristors are made to fully conduct with a
conduction angle of 180 deg.
The TCSC module behaves like a parallel capacitor-inductor combination.
The resulting module impedance is inductive (close to the value of inductor L)
This mode is employed for control purposes during fault conditions.
The voltage across capacitor in this mode is less, so this mode offers a
protection to the series capacitor against over-voltages.
It is also called capacitor protective mode.

Partially Conducting Thyristor OR Vernier Mode:
This mode allows the TCSC to behave either as a continuously controllable

capacitive reactance or as a continuously controllable inductive reactance.
It is achieved through thyristor firing angle control in the desired and appropriate
range.
In this mode, thyristors conduct for part of a cycle.
For small conduction times (larger firing angle), the resulting impedance is
capacitive while for larger conduction times (smaller firing angle), it becomes
inductive.

Capacitive Boost mode:
In capacitive boost mode, a trigger pulse is supplied to the thyristor having
forward voltage just before the capacitor voltage crosses the zero line, so a
capacitor discharge current pulse will circulate through the parallel inductive
branch.
This discharge current adds to the line current through the capacitor and
causes a capacitor voltage that adds to the voltage caused by the line current
(Iline + Idischarge).
The capacitor peak voltage is thus increased in proportion to the charge that
passes through the thyristor branch.
The resulting capacitive reactance is controllable between 1.0 to 3.0 pu.
From the system point of view, this mode inserts capacitors to the line up to
nearly three times the fixed capacitor.
This is the normal operating mode of TCSC.

Inductive Boost Mode: In inductive boost mode the direction of circulating
current is reversed and it flows in the TCSC thyristor branch .
In this mode, large thyristor currents result and further the capacitor voltage
waveform is very much distorted from its sinusoidal shape.
The poor waveform and the high valve stress make the inductive boost mode
less attractive for steady state operation.
This mode is used for special applications (e.g. SSR Mitigation).

In interconnected power systems, the actual transfer of power from one
region to another might take unintended routes depending on impedances of
transmission lines connecting the areas.
TCSC is a useful means for optimizing power flow between regions for varying
loading and network configurations.
It becomes possible to control power flows in order to achieve a number of
goals:
Minimizing system losses
Reduction of loop flows
Elimination of line overloads
Optimizing load sharing between parallel circuits
Directing power flows along contractual paths
Oscillations of active power in power transmission systems may arise in corridors

between generating areas as a result of poor damping of the interconnection,
particularly during heavy power transfer.
Such oscillations can be excited by a number of reasons such as line faults, switching of
lines or a sudden change of generator output.
The presence of active power oscillations acts to limit the power transmission capacity
of interconnections between areas or transmission regions.
TCSC offers a cost-effective, robust power oscillation damper, insensitive to its location
in the system and non-interacting with local oscillation modes. In a number of cases, it
turn out to be the best practicable solution.
Ideal Shunt Compensator

Voltage Profile :
Ideal Shunt Compensator :

An ideal current source that only supplies reactive power and no real power to
the system.
Ideal Shunt Compnsator

The apparent power from the source at sending end is given by :
Similarly, the apparent power at receiving end is given by :
Hence, the active power transmitted over the line is :
Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

A SVC is comprises of shunt connected static var generators and/or absorbers
whose outputs are varied to control power system quantities.
The term static is used to denote that there are no moving components
Basic types of SVCs:
thyristor-controlled reactor
thyristor-switched capacitor
A comprehensive static var system (SVS) is an aggregation of SVCs and
mechanically switched capacitors / reactors whose outputs are coordinated.
SVC is the first generation shunt compensator. It has been around since 1960s.
In the beginning it was used for load compensation such as to provide var
support for large industrial loads, for flicker mitigation etc.
With the advancement of semiconductor technology, the SVC started
appearing in the transmission systems in 1970s. Today a large number of SVCs
are connected to many transmission systems all over the world.

The benefits of SVC to power transmission:
Stabilized voltages in weak systems
Reduced transmission losses
Increased transmission capacity - defer or eliminate the need for new lines
Higher transient stability limit
Power oscillation damping
Greater voltage control and stability

Mitigation of Flickers

The benefits of Thyristor Switched Capacitors:
PF correction is ultra rapid and is achieved within few hundred milliseconds.
Fast PF correction reduces maximum demand more effectively, hence more
savings on account of reduction in MDI charges.
Capacitors are switched through thyristors at "zero current crossover
threshold so the capacitor switching-in to the line is always smooth, transient
free and absolutely without generation of harmonics and voltage spikes.
Very high no. of switching operations possible.
In the active control range, current and reactive power is varied to regulate
voltage (Vref) according to a slope / droop characteristic.
The slope value depends on the desired sharing of reactive power
production between various sources, and other needs of the system. The
slope is typically 1-4 %.
At the capacitive limit, the SVC becomes a shunt capacitor (V= - I/Bcmax).
At the inductive limit, the SVC becomes a shunt reactor (V= - I/Blmax).
STATCOM
STATCOM or Static Synchronous Compensator is a shunt device, which uses power

electronics to control power flow on electrical power networks.
STATCOM basically performs the same function as of SVC but with some advantages.
The term Static Synchronous Compensator is derived from its operating principle,
which is similar to rotating synchronous compensators / condenser, but without any
moving part & obviously faster operation .
A STATCOM is composed of following main components / modules:

1- Voltage-Source Converter (VSC)
The voltage-source converter transforms the DC input to output AC voltage.
2- DC Source / Capacitor
This provides the DC voltage for the inverter (Usually a DC Capacitor is used).
3- Inductive Reactance (X)
It connects the inverter output to the power system (usually a coupling trafo).
4- Harmonic Filters
To mitigates harmonics / high frequency components due to the inverter.
STATCOM
Basic Principle of Operation:
If two AC sources, which have the same frequency are connected through a
series reactance, then the power flows will be:
1.
2.
Active or Real Power flows from the leading source to the lagging source.
Reactive Power flows from the higher to the lower voltage magnitude
source.
Consequently, the phase angle difference between the sources decides the active
power flow while the voltage magnitude difference between the sources
determines the reactive power flow.
Based on this principle, a STATCOM can be used to regulate the reactive power
flow by changing the output voltage of the voltage-source converter with respect
to the system voltage.
STATCOM
STATCOM
STATCOM
Modes of Operation
The STATCOM can be operated in two different modes:
1- Voltage Regulation Mode (Normal mode of operation)
It regulates voltage at its connection point by controlling the amount of reactive
power that is absorbed from OR injected into the power system through VSC.
The voltage V2 generated by the VSC through the DC capacitor is in phase with the
system voltage V1 i.e. =0, so only reactive power is flowing (=0 , P=0).
1. When system voltage is high, the STATCOM will absorb reactive power
(inductive)
2. When system voltage is low, the STATCOM will generate and inject reactive
power into the system (capacitive).
Subsequently, the amount of reactive power flow is given by the equation:
Q = [V1(V1-V2)] / X
2- VAR Control Mode
In this mode, the STATCOM reactive power output is kept constant , independent of
other system parameters.
STATCOM
STATCOM
Usually a large DC capacitor is used to supply dc power to the three-phase
rectifier/inverter.
The rectifier uses PWM to from an AC (usually 48 pulse operation).
The voltage across capacitor is maintained so that STATCOM is able to
exchange reactive power with the ac power network i.e., to a value high
enough for the STATCOM to be able to produce ac voltage at the value
required.
The voltage across the capacitor is maintained by continually adjusting the
magnitude and polarity of the active component of the current at the ac side
of the STATCOM.
When the voltage across the capacitor needs to be increased, the STATCOM
adjusts the magnitude and polarity of the active component of the current
at its ac side so that active power is drawn from the ac power system and
converted to dc power in order to charge the capacitor.
Conversely, when the voltage across the capacitor needs to be decreased,
the STATCOM adjusts the magnitude and polarity of the active component of
the current at its ac side so that active power is returned to the ac power
system, thereby discharging the capacitor.
STATCOM
Comparison between STATCOM and SVC:
Both STATCOM
and SVC are commonly used for voltage profile
maintenance, reactive power compensation, and power factor correction.
Both STATCOMs and SVCs are commonly installed in ac transmission lines or
in industrial applications with large random peaks of reactive power
demand.
Depending on the design criteria of the system to which they are connected,
either a STATCOM or an SVC can be more efficient, practical or simply
cheaper to use than the other, and thus better suited for that particular
application.
STATCOMs and SVCs each possess characteristics that differentiate one from
the other during normal operation.
The main operating characteristic differences between STATCOMs and SVCs
are summarized in the following table:
STATCOM
STATCOM
One of the main differences between STATCOMs and SVCs is that STATCOM
operation in under voltage conditions is as good as in normal conditions,
while SVC operation in under voltage conditions is limited.
This difference is very crucial, since under low-voltage conditions is precisely
where the reactive power compensation is most needed.
This operating difference gives an advantage to STATCOMs over SVCs.
Another important advantage of STATCOMs over SVCs is faster response
time. STATCOMs begin to compensate the reactive power requirements of a
system approximately 1 cycle before SVCs.
In dynamically variable systems (such as ac transmission lines or industrial
applications operating with large random peaks of reactive power), this
faster response time can have a significant impact on the effectiveness of
the reactive power compensation.
For example, the use of a STATCOM is necessary in industrial applications
operating with large random peaks of reactive power to reduce the light
flicker phenomenon to an acceptable level, so STATCOMs have an advantage
over SVCs in systems requiring a critically fast response time.
STATCOM
Finally, the installation size and costs differ between STATCOMs and SVCs.
STATCOM installations are smaller in size than SVC installations, but are
significantly more expensive.
Size and cost can be a decisive factor in choosing between a STATCOM and an
SVC, depending on the available space and budget for any given application.
For example, if the large size of an SVC installation is not feasible for a
particular application, it might be necessary to install a STATCOM even if it is
more expensive than an SVC.
In summation, STATCOMs are capable of operating at lower voltages, operate

at faster speeds, and can be smaller in size than SVCs, but are also more
expensive.
The cost of STATCOMs can be a restrictive factor when the installation of an
SVC yields acceptable results.
As STATCOM technology becomes more and more widespread and installation
costs for STATCOMs are dropping, it is expected that STATCOM technology will
gradually replace SVC technology due to its superior performance.
STATCOM
Typical STATCOM Applications:
Utilities with weak grids or fluctuating reactive loads
Unbalanced loads
Arc furnaces
Wind farms
Wood chippers
Welding operations
Car crushers & shredders
Industrial mills
Mining shovels, hoists and mills
Harbor cranes
STATCOM
STATCOM
STATCOM
STATCOM
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) injects a voltage in series
in the transmission line where it is connected.
SSSC usually injects the series voltage in quadrature with line current i.e.
pure inductive or pure capacitive injection.
SSSC contains a solid-state voltage source inverter, connected in series with
the transmission line through an insertion / coupling transformer.
This connection enables the SSSC to control power flow in the line for a wide
range of system conditions.
SSSC is able to rapidly provide both capacitive and inductive impedance
compensation independent of the power line current.
An SSSC can also be used to improve the damping of power oscillations
(POD) in the transmission network.

SSSC works similar to a STATCOM, except that it is serially connected to the
line instead of shunt.
SSSC is able to transfer both active and reactive power to the system,
permitting it to compensate for both the resistive and reactive voltage
drops.
It can maintain high effective X/R that is independent of the degree of series
compensation.
However, this is costly as a relatively large energy source is required. If
control is limited to reactive compensation only, then a smaller supply is
enough.
SSSC provides fast control and is inherently neutral to sub-synchronous

resonance because of no physical capacitor installed in the line.

In Capacitive mode of operation, the series injected voltage Vse of SSSC is
made lag by 90deg with transmission line current.
In this case the SSSC operates like series capacitor with variable capacitance
kXc, i.e. Vse = - kXc*I, where k is variable.
By this, the total reactance of transmission line is reduced while the voltage
across the line is increased. This leads to increase in the line current /
transmitted power.
In the case of inductive mode of operation, the series injected voltage Vse of
SSSC is made to lead by 90 deg with transmission line current, i.e. Vse = kXc*I.
This leads to increase in the transmission line reactance, which results in a
decrease in line current / transmitted power.
The SSSC can control the power flow through the transmission line by
controlling the magnitude of Vse and injecting it in qudrarture with
transmission line current.

Both active & reactive powers can be injected by injecting voltage at an angle
other than 90 deg. (at 90 deg. only reactive power is inserted)
In addition to series reactive compensation, with an external DC power supply
it can also compensate the voltage drop across the resistive component of the
line impedance.
The compensation of the real part of the impedance can maintain high X/R
ratio even if the line has a very high degree of series compensation.
Reduction of Short Cct. Current
No classical network resonance risk
Flexibility to inject any reactive (or active) power independent of line current.
UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC)

The UPFC concept was first proposed by Gyugyi in 1991.
UPFC is able to control (simultaneously or selectively) all the 03 parameters
affecting power flow in the transmission line i.e., voltage, impedance and
phase angle.
The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is the most versatile member of the
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) family using power electronics to
control power flow on power grids.
The UPFC uses a combination of a shunt controller (STATCOM) and a series
controller (SSSC) interconnected through a common DC bus/coupling.
This FACTS topology provides much more flexibility than the SSSC alone for
controlling the line active and reactive power because active power can now
be transferred from the shunt converter to the series converter, through the
DC bus.
Contrary to the SSSC where the injected voltage Vs is usually constrained to
stay in quadrature with line current I, the injected voltage Vs can now have any
angle with respect to line current.

Basic Functions of Shunt Inverter:
Voltage regulation at point of connection
Controlling active power at the point of connection
Balancing the real power flow exchanged between series inverter and
transmission line
To provide independent shunt compensation (if needed) at point of
connection
Maintenance of DC Link voltage

Basic Functions of Series Inverter:
Controlling the real power flow at series connection point
Controlling the reactive power flow at series connection point
Voltage regulation (Voltage Control)
Active + Reactive Series Compensation (Impedance Control)

Phase Shifting (Phase Angle Control)
PHASE SHIFTERS
Phase Shifting or Phase Angle Regulating transformers (phase shifters) are used to
control the flow of electric power over transmission lines.
Both the magnitude and the direction of the power flow can be controlled by
varying the phase shift across the series transformer.
The phase shift is obtained by extracting the voltage of one phase and injecting a
portion of it in series with another phase.
This is accomplished by using two transformers:

1. The regulating or magnetizing transformer, which is connected in shunt
(Exciting Transformer) and
2. The series transformer (Boosting Transformer)
The two transformers are quite large, and because of transport limitations they are
usually placed in separate tanks.
The angle of a phase shifter is normally adjusted by using an on-load tap-changer

(OLTC). The series voltage can be varied by the OLTC determined by the taps on the
regulating winding.
OLTC is usually located on the secondary side of Exciting Trafo.
Thyristors are used in the switching network to control the mangitude of phase
shift.
PHASE SHIFTERS
PHASE SHIFTERS
PHASE SHIFTERS
Load Sharing of Parallel Lines
Any difference in impedances will cause unbalanced line loading. A PST inserted
in the line that does not pick up sufficient load shall provide an advance phase
shift, meaning that the load side voltage phasor should lead the source side
voltage. Alternatively, a PST with retard phase angle could be inserted in the line
that tends to overload.
Mitigation of post contingency overloads
When two systems are coupled via long and highly loaded transmission lines, the
trip of one line may cause a significant phase difference. Such a phase shift may
be too large to allow immediate re-closure. By using a PST, the phase difference
can be compensated, allowing the lines to be reconnected immediately
Mitigation of unwanted power transfer
PSTs placed in one or several of the infeeds can balance the phase angle
difference given by the external transmission network and eliminate the transfer
flows.
PHASE SHIFTERS
PHASE SHIFTERS
FACTS COMPARISON
FACTS COMPARISON
RP PRICING
Reactive Power Pricing Options :
There are two general ways to compensate generators for providing
reactive power.
One way is the capacity payment option, in which the generator is paid
in advance for the capability of producing or consuming reactive power.
The payment could be made through a bilateral contract or through a
generally applicable tariff provision.
Once the generator is paid, it could be obligated to produce or consume
reactive power up to the limits of its commitment without further
compensation when instructed by the system operator.
To ensure that the generator follows instructions in real time, the
generator
could face penalties for failing to produce or consume when instructed.
Currently, this is the most common method for compensating reactive
power providers.
RP PRICING
The other way is the real-time price option.
In this option the generator is paid in real-time for the reactive power
that it actually produces or consumes.
Under this option, the generator is paid only for what it produces or
consumes, but it pays no penalty for failing to produce when instructed.
It is also possible to combine some of the features of each of these
options.
For example, a generator might receive a capacity payment in advance in
exchange for the obligation to produce or consume reactive power
within a specified power factor range upon instruction by the system
operator, but might also receive a spot price for producing or consuming
additional reactive power beyond the specified range.
RP PRICING
Under the capacity payment option, there are at least four methods for
determining the capacity payment:
1. A cost-based payment based on estimated costing of equipement.
2. Capacity market payment. A generators installed capacity obligation

would include an obligation to provide reactive power within a specified
power factor range and the generators compensation would be bundled in
with its capacity payment.
3. Prices determined through auction. The ISO or RTO could hold an auction
for reactive power capability and the winners of the auction would receive
the contract.
4. Pay nothing based on the view that each generator should be obligated
to provide reactive power as a condition of interconnecting with the grid.
RP PRICING
Under the real-time pricing option, there are at least four methods for
determining the spot price:
1. Pay nothing at least for reactive power produced within a specified
power factor range.
2. Unit-specific opportunity costs. Pay a generator for the unit-specific

opportunity cost it incurs due to reduced real power production, either for
any reactive power produced or, alternatively, only for reactive power
produced outside a specified power factor range.
3. Prices determined through auction. Determine real time prices based on
a spot market auction for reactive power.
4. Prices (or a pricing formula) announced in advance. This method is
currently used in some countries e.g. United Kingdom and India.

Reactive Power Control

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Reactive Power Control

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Reactive Power Control, Course Outline

Module 1 (Lecture 1-4) :

Module 3 (Lecture 10-16) :

Reactive Power Control, Associated Topics

Transmission Line Characteristics

Books & Material

Product Catalogues (ABB , SIEMENS)

What is Reactive Power?

Devices which store energy by virtue of a magnetic field produced by a

Reactive Power Analogies

5. The Loft / Ball Throw Analogy

Reactive Power Analogies

Reactive Power Analogies

Reactive Power Analogies

Reactive Power Analogies

Reactive Power, Basic Equations

Pr2 + (Qr* Vs2)/X < Vs4/4X2

Reactive Power Control, Re-Cap of Lect 1

What are the Analogies?

Sources and Sinks of RP

i.e. Qs = Pmax/X (1-Cos)

Reactive Power can not be transferred over long distances.

Q : Let Vs = 1.0 pu and Vr=0.95 pu, load angle = 30 deg.

Impact of Load Angle on RP

Series Reactive Loss and Trans. Voltage

Series Reactive Loss and Trans. Voltage

Why Reactive Power Is Needed?

A voltage profile is uniquely related to the prevailing real and

When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage sags

Why Reactive Power Is Needed?

Voltage control in electrical power system is very important for

Voltage Control and Reactive Power

Significance of Reactive Power

Both customer and power-system equipment are designed to operate

Reactive power consumes transmission and generation resources. To

Moving reactive power on the transmission system incurs real-power

The P-V Curve

The P-V Curve

Limitations of Reactive Power

Reliability can be addressed by considering two basic functional aspects of the

Instability that may result occurs in the form of a progressive fall or

Large-disturbance voltage stability: Refers to the systems ability to

Long-term voltage stability involves slower acting equipment such as

VCPI varies between 0 and 1.

Hence, the voltage and RP must be properly managed and controlled:

To provide adequate service quality

To maintain the stability of the power system

Voltage Control and Reactive Power

Voltage Control and Reactive Power

Possible Solutions to Voltage Issues:

PF of a Trafo on No Load is ~ 0.2-0.25

High reactive loading increases the internal losses of the transformer; At

Reactive power requirement of the trafo is because of the leakage flux.

Reactive power requirement of the trafo is dependent on its percentage

Provides additional short circuit support at the node at which it is connected.

Synchronous Condenser vs Capacitor

Synchronous condensers improve the fault level of the system and

Synchronous Condenser vs Capacitor

Special Applications of Synch. Condenser

Reduction in harmonics when used as filters

Cost Factor (Based on Dielectric Type)

= 650kW (1.169 0) = 760 kVAR

When Power Factor is raised to unity (1)

It works as a shunt capacitance generating a capacitive current which is in

Charging kVA = 5000(L/100) (Voltage, line-line/100)2