Professional Documents
Culture Documents
th
25 European Young Geotechnical Engineers Conference
Proceedings of the
25 European Young Geotechnical Engineers Conference
th
Editors
Ernest OLINIC, Sanda MANEA
Proceedings of the
25th European Young Geotechnical Engineers Conference
21-24 June 2016, Sibiu, Romania
Editors
Ernest OLINIC, Sanda MANEA
EDITURA
CONSPRESS
2016
Carte universitar
CONSPRESS
B-dul Lacul Tei nr.124, sector 2,
cod 020396, Bucureti
Tel.: (021) 242 2719 / 300; Fax: (021) 242 0781
ii
th
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Ernest OLINIC Conference Chairperson
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Nicoleta Maria ILIES
Technical University of Cluj Napoca
Iancu Bogdan TEODORU
Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iasi
Daniel MANOLI
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Catalin BURLACU
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
SCIENCIFIC COMMITTEE
Sanda MANEA Chairperson
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Ernest OLINIC Conference Chairperson
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Loretta BATALI
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Nicoleta Maria ILIES
Technical University of Cluj Napoca
Irina LUNGU
Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iasi
Luiza ROMAN
"Politehnica" University of Timisoara
SPONSORS
iii
iv
th
Table of contents
KEYNOTE LECTURES
General presentation of Eurocode 7 on Geotechnical design
Roger FRANK
21
37
53
61
73
Evaluation of ground deformation modulus definition by in situ and laboratory test methods
Sergii POKLONSKYI
83
87
99
Discussion on selected results obtained for fine grained soil treated with fly ash
Karolina KNAPIK
105
113
119
123
133
139
Investigations on energy sheet pile walls for the exploitation of renewable thermal energy
David KOPPMANN
147
153
Dual cell shaft for a 19.5m deep excavation. Design, execution and monitoring
Cristian RADU
163
Eurasia Tunnel Project: The Geotechnical Challenges of the Asian Transition Box
Alexis ROSE
171
177
191
201
209
217
Design of the Temporary Cofferdam and Permanent Intake Channel for the Dublin Waste to
Energy Facility
Brian G. SEXTON
225
237
Selected geotechnical applications of deformation sensing by fibre optics and problems with
gathered data evaluation
Kristna POV
247
Finite Deformation Modelling of Cyclic Sand Behaviour using Bounding Surface Plasticity
Christian CAROW
257
Finite element limit analysis of offshore mudmat foundations subject to combined loads
Helen P. DUNNE
267
Jack-up vessel foundation stability during installation next to a Wind Turbine Generator
Carlos MOLINA, Lindita KELLEZI
275
vi
Numerical analysis of penetration problems in clay with the Particle Finite Element Method
Llus MONFORTE
285
293
303
309
317
Combined geotechnical and structural numerical analysis for cut slope stabilization
Katerina LAKOEVI, Mario STOJANOVSKI
325
Erosion of cuts in flysch: field monitoring by TLS and modelling of slope geometry
development
Goran VLASTELICA
331
341
349
Cohesive soil laboratory investigation using resonant column and torsional shear device
Alexandra Alisa GIN
355
Combined analysis of single station ambient vibration measurements and MASW method
Ftima GOUVEIA, Isabel LOPES, Rui Carrilho GOMES
361
371
377
383
393
Session 8. Geosynthetics
Swelling ability, volume of cracks and hydraulic conductivity of a polymer modified bentonite
subjected to wet and dry cycles
Michela DE CAMILLIS
vii
401
Physical and numerical modeling of an unpaved road structure liable to void forming. The
effect of a biaxial geosynthetic reinforcement.
Andor-Csongor NAGY, Dorin Vasile MOLDOVAN
409
417
423
viii
th
Keynote lectures
th
ABSTRACT
Eurocode 7 on 'Geotechnical design' is now being used in many countries throughout Europe.
Part 1 devoted to the 'General rules' has been published in 2004. National Annexes and
accompanying documents have been prepared for implementation in the various European
countries. Part 2 on 'Ground investigation and testing' was published in 2007. In 2015, the drafting
of a revised version was launched. After describing shortly the history of the development of
Eurocode 7, the contents of the two present documents are given and the main concepts are
described (verification procedures and geotechnical categories, characteristic values, derived
values, ULS verifications, SLS verifications and allowable movements of foundations).
1. INTRODUCTION
The system of Structural Eurocodes
includes 10 following sets of standards
(EN for European Norm):
x EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural
design
x EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on
structures
x EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of
concrete structures
x EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures
x EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of
composite steel and concrete structures
x EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber
structures
x EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of
masonry structures
* presenting author
3. CONTENTS
OF
THE
PRESENT
DOCUMENTS
3.1. Part 1: General rules
Eurocode 7 - Part 1 is a rather general
document giving only the principles for
geotechnical design inside the general
framework of LSD. These principles are
relevant to the calculation of the
geotechnical
actions
on
structures
(buildings and civil engineering works) and
to the design of the structural elements
themselves in contact with the ground
(footings, piles, basement walls, etc.).
Detailed design rules or calculation
models, i.e. precise formulae or charts are
only given in informative Annexes. As
already mentioned, the main reason is that
the design models in geotechnical
engineering differ from one country to the
other, and it was not possible to reach a
consensus, especially when many of
these models still need to be calibrated
and adapted to the LSD approach
Eurocode 7 Part 1 includes the
following sections (CEN, 2004, 2013):
x Section 1 General
x Section 2
Basis of geotechnical
design
x Section 3 Geotechnical data
5
F1
Correlations
F2
C1
1
L1
L2
C2
3
EN 1997-2
EN 1997-1
Information
from other
sources on
the site, the
soils and
rocks and
the project
Cautious selection
Figure 1. General framework for the selection of derived values, characteristic values and design
values of geotechnical properties (CEN, 2007)
10
Symbol
Permanent actions
- unfavourable
- favourable
Value
JG,sup
JG,inf
1.10(1)
0.90(1)
JQ
1.50
0
Variable actions
- unfavourable
- favourable
Symbol
Value
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
(6.10) (6.10a) (6.10b)
Permanent
-unfavourable(1) JGsup 1.35
- favourable(1)
JGinf 1.00
Variable
- unfavourable
- favourable
JQ
1.35
1.00
1.15(2)
1.00
1.50
1.5\0
0
0
(1) all permanent actions from one source are
multiplied by JGsup or by JGinf.
(2) value of [ is 0.85, so that 0.85JGsup = 0.85 u
1.35 # 1.15.
Note 1: choice between expression 6.10 or
expressions 6.10a and 6.10b used together, is
by National decision
Note 2: JG and JQ may be subdivided into Jg
and Jq and the model uncertainty factor JSd. JSd
= 1.15 is recommended.
12
1.50
0
a) DA 1: Combination 1
b) DA 1: Combination 2
Note: for simplicity, only vertical equilibrium is considered and only unfavourable actions are shown.
Figure 2. ULS in p&tds. Design Approach 1 - introduction of partial factors (recommended values)
in the checking of ground bearing capacity (Frank et al., 2004).
Note: for simplicity, only vertical equilibrium is considered and only unfavourable actions are shown.
Figure 3. ULS in p&tds. Design Approach 2 - introduction of partial factors (recommended values)
in the verification of ground bearing capacity (Frank et al., 2004).
14
Note: for simplicity, only vertical equilibrium is considered and only unfavourable actions are shown.
Figure 4. ULS in p&tds. Design Approach 3 - introduction of partial factors (recommended values)
in the verification of ground bearing capacity (Frank et al., 2004).
Ed d Cd (2.10)
or be done through the method given in
2.4.8(4).
(2) Values of partial factors for
serviceability limit states should normally
be taken equal to 1,0.
NOTE The values of the partial factors
may be set by the National annex.'
with Ed the design value of the effect of
actions and Cd the limiting value
(serviceability criterion) of the design value
of effect of actions.
At the same time, Eurocode 7
introduces immediately the possibility to
keep the traditional approach mentioned
above (clause 2.4.8 in EN 1997-1) :
'(4) It may be verified that a sufficiently low
fraction of the ground strength is mobilised
to keep deformations within the required
serviceability
limits,
provided
this
simplified approach is restricted to design
situations where:
a value of the deformation is not required
to check the serviceability limit state;
established comparable experience exists
with similar ground, structures and
application method.'
This clause is to be linked with the one
dealing with the design methods of spread
foundations (paragraph 6.4(5)P in EN
1997-1) :
Use according to
EN 1990
Quasi
permanent
Long
term
appearance
effect
and
5. LIAISONS
WITH
OTHER
CEN
COMMITTEES
Inside the Eurocode system itself, there
are, of course, many links between the
different standards or parts of them.
Eurocode 7 on Geotechnical design is
more precisely linked to the following
ones:
- EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of structural
design which defines the various limit
states and design situations to be
checked, and gives the general rules for
taking into account the actions on/from the
structures and the geotechnical actions;
- EN 1998-5: Design of structures for
earthquake
resistance.
Foundations,
retaining structures and geotechnical
aspects.
The other Technical Committees of
CEN working on standards of interest for
Eurocode 7, and for which coordination
must
be
ensured
are: CEN/TC 341 on Geotechnical
investigation and testing, as mentioned
earlier; CEN/TC 288 on Execution of
geotechnical works; CEN/TC 189 on
Geotextiles
and
geotextile-related
products;
CEN/TC 227
on
Road
materials.
The standards on execution (TC 288) and
on geotechnical tests (TC 341) are
particularly important as they complement
Eurocode 7, which is devoted only to
design.
17
Gs max
smax
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The work for the elaboration of a common
framework for
geotechnical design
throughout Europe, i.e. Eurocode 7,
started over 30 years ago. Given the
progress achieved, the corresponding
standards/codes are now being enforced
in the various countries.
Whatever the precise legal status of
Eurocode 7 in the various countries, it will
prove to be very important for the whole
construction industry. It is meant to be a
tool to help European geotechnical
engineers speak the same technical
language and also a necessary tool for the
dialogue between geotechnical engineers
and structural engineers.
18
EC (2003a). Guidance
Paper
L.
Application and use of the Eurocodes,
ref.: CONSTRUCT 03/629 Rev.1 (27
November
2003),
European
Commission, Brussels.
EC (2003b). Commission recommendation
of 11 December 2003 on the
implementation and use of Eurocodes
for construction works and structural
construction products (2003/887/EC),
Official Journal of the European Union,
19.12.2003, EN, L 332/62 &63.
EC 7 (1990). Eurocode 7: Geotechnics.
Preliminary draft for the European
Communities, Geotechnik, 1990/1.
Frank R. (1991).
Quelques
dveloppements
rcents
sur
le
comportement
des
fondations
superficielles. Rapport gnral, Session
3, Comptes rendus 10me Cong.
Europen Mca. Sols et Tr. Fond.,
Florence, 26-30 mai, vol. 3, pp. 10031030. (English version: Some recent
developments on the behaviour of
shallow foundations. General report,
Proc. 10th European Conf. Soil Mechs
& Fdn Engng, Florence, 26-30 May,
vol. 4, pp. 1115-1141, 1994).
Frank R., Bauduin C., Driscoll R.,
Kavvadas M., Krebs Ovesen N., Orr T. ,
Schuppener B. (2004). Designer's
guide to EN 1997 Eurocode 7
Geotechnical design, Thomas Telford,
London, 216 pages.
Frank, R. & Magnan J.P. (1999).
Quelques rflexions sur la vrification
des tats limites ultimes suivant
lEurocode 7 (in French - A few
thoughts about ultimate limit states
verifications following Eurocode 7).
Workshop on the Eurocodes, Proc.
12th European conf. soil mechs. &
geot. engng, 7-10 June, Amsterdam,
vol. 3: 2179-2183.
Huybrechts N., Patel D., De Vos M.
(2005). The use of the observational
method. Final Report WP3 on
Innovative
design
methods
in
geotechnical engineering European
network 'GeoTechNet'.
20
th
The design of landfill bottom barrier systems on the basis of their performances requires the
modelling of the pollutant transport processes, while taking into consideration both advective and
dispersive-diffusive phenomena. This modelling can be developed in the context of an
environmental and health risk assessment, which allows the specific vulnerability of the site to be
taken into account. A calculation procedure, based on closed-form analytical solutions, which can
be considered suitable for a second-level risk analysis type, according to the ASTM and USEPA
classifications, is presented in this paper. This procedure, although based on a very simple and
intuitive conceptual model, is able to provide useful indications for design choices, at least in the
preliminary dimensioning phase of a project.
1. INTRODUCTION
Geotechnical engineers first began to
dedicate their main efforts towards
problems related to the protection of the
environment from anthropological pollution
in the 1970's. A remarkable impetus in the
development of studies on the interaction
between soils and polluting substances
emerged from the need to manage the
disposal of radioactive materials produced
by nuclear stations with solutions that
would be able to guarantee an adequate
level of safety in the long term (Daniel,
1993). Attention was soon extended to
industrial waste landfills and to the
pollution of the sub-soil by products from
chemical and petrochemical industries.
* presenting author
qh0
dqh
q
dx ,
haq 0
we obtain
where:
c PoE = the concentration at the point of
exposure (mol/m3 or kg/m3).
In the case of landfills, it is possible to
assume, as a first step, that the exposure
point is located within the aquifer below
qh
qh0 q
x
.
haq
(3)
where:
qh = groundwater horizontal volumetric
flux in the aquifer below the landfill (m/s);
23
"
haq
dc x
dq
haqc x h Js
dx
dx
,
dc
haqqh x q c x Js
dx
dq
q
since h
from equation (2).
dx haq
haq
haqqh
x="
dx
q dx
haq
dx
qh haq
d(qh haq )
Js
PL
Js dx
qhhaqc x
ha
qhhaqc x
(5)
c 0 ePL c x
ePL 1
(6)
(4)
dx
dx
dq
qh haq h haqdx
dx
qh haq
Js dx
WASTE
x=0
d
(qhc x ) dx
dx
q
/
(7)
where:
/ = equivalent diffusivity of the multilayer
system (m/s).
The / parameter is given by:
/
1
Li
n
S
i 1
i iDhi
N
(8)
where:
Li = thickness of the i-th layer (m);
Si = saturation degree of the i-th layer (-);
ni = porosity of the i-th layer (-);
Dhi = hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient
of the i-th layer (m2/s).
The Dhi coefficient is determined from
the sum of two contributions, that is, the
mechanical dispersion coefficient (Dmi)
and the effective diffusion coefficient ( Di* ):
d(qhhaqc x )
dx
dx
d(qhc x )
qhhaqc x
haqdx
dx
dx
Dhi
Dmi Di*
(9)
where:
Di = longitudinal dispersivity coefficient
(m), which, in the absence of data
obtained from laboratory or in situ tests,
can be assumed equal to a tenth of the
thickness of the barrier layer (i.e.
Di # 0.1 Li ).
L .
(14)
where:
Wi = tortuosity factor (-);
D0 = free solution diffusion coefficient
(m2/s).
When the seepage velocity tends to
zero, as in the case of a low permeability
mineral layer underlying a geomembrane,
*
it is possible to assume Dhi | Di as a first
approximation.
The volumetric flow, q, in the case of a
multilayer mineral barrier, can be
expressed in the following way:
hp L hb
i 1
q k eq
(13)
where:
ki = the hydraulic conductivity of the i-th
layer (m/s);
N = the number of mineral layers that
make up the barrier (-).
The total thickness of the barrier is
obtained by summing the thicknesses of
the individual layers, that is:
(10)
Di v i
L
Li
i 1 ki
k eq
hp L 2
k1 1
L1 L 2 hb
max(k 2 )
(12)
(15)
where:
keq = the equivalent hydraulic conductivity
of the multilayer system (m/s);
hp = height of ponded leachate above the
barrier (m);
hb height of water level at the bottom of
the barrier (m);
L = total thickness of the barrier (m).
The equivalent hydraulic conductivity
can be calculated as the harmonic mean
of the hydraulic conductivity of the
individual layers:
q k1
25
hp L1
L1
(16)
h
Cq aF0.1 hp0.9 k0.74 1 0.1 p
0.95
Cq
0.21
1.15
(18)
(17)
where:
Q = flow rate through a single circular area
hole (m3/s);
Cq = quality coefficient of the contact
between the geomembrane and the
underlying mineral layer (-);
aF = area of the circular hole (m2);
hp = height of leachate in the drainage
layer above the composite barrier (m);
k = hydraulic conductivity of the mineral
layer (m/s);
L = thickness of the mineral layer (m).
dc x
q
cx F
qh0haq q x
dx
q
c0 F
q h q x
h0 aq
where
26
(20)
ePL
e 1
PL
1
.
1 e PL
K 1exp( PL )
(c 0 c aq0 )
1 K
from which
C2 (qh0haq q x)F ,
(22)
C2 (qh0haq q x)F c 0 .
RC
0) C2 (qh0haq ) c 0
c x (x
c 0 c aq0
(qh0haq )F
RC d
c aq0
AF t
(24)
qh0haq
(c 0 c aq0 )
q h q x
h0 aq
RC
(27)
1
AF
c PoE c aq0
(28)
c 0 c aq0
MCL c aq0
c 0 c aq0
c 0 c aq0
MCL c aq0
(29)
(30)
c aq (c 0 c aq0 )
1
1 exp( PL )
q"
and therefore:
from which
C2
qh0haq
dc x
cx
cx
(26)
where:
q
dx
F
qh0haq q x
ln(c x ) F ln(qh0haq q x) C1
c aq (c 0 c aq0 )
cPoE
(21)
(25)
1
AF
K 1exp( PL )
1
.
1 K
(31)
Attenuation Factor, AF
1.E+6
K
105
1.E+5
104
1.E+4
103
1.E+3
102
1.E+2
10
1.E+1
1.E+0
1.E-5 1.E-4 1.E-3 1.E-2 1.E-1 1.E+0 1.E+1 1.E+2 1.E+3
hp,adv (x)
Peclet number, PL
hp,dis (x)
"
BARRIER
qh0haq
hp,adv (x) haq 1
.
qh0haq q x
ACQUIFERO
(34)
(35)
CONTAMINANT
PLUME
WASTE
hp,dis
Zonadi
2Dv x
(33)
where
hp = plume thickness, varying in the
horizontal distance beneath the landfill
(see Figure 5);
hp,adv = penetration depth due to vertical
advection of water entering the aquifer;
hp,dis = penetration depth due to vertical
dispersion in the aquifer, assumed to be
one
standard
deviation
of
the
concentration distribution;
Dv = vertical dispersivity of the aquifer.
If the linear variation of groundwater
horizontal velocity beneath the landfill,
given by equation (3) is taken into
account, then the advective component of
the plume thickness can be determined as
follows:
q x
haq 1 exp
qh0haq
hp(x)
4
Dv x .
S
(36)
wc
wt
naqDh,h
wc
wc
qh0
q
wx
wy
w 2c
w 2c
naqDh,v 2
2
wx
wy
wc
wy
Dh,v
c 0ePL c
ePL 1
at y
wc
wx
(40)
Dv
qh0
.
naq
(41)
Dv
w 2c
,
wy 2
(42)
(37)
w 2c
.
wy 2
naqDh,v
where:
c c(x,y) = contaminant concentration in
the aquifer as a function of the horizontal
distance (x) and the vertical depth (y);
naq = aquifer porosity;
Dh,h = horizontal hydrodynamic dispersion
coefficient of the aquifer;
Dh,v = vertical hydrodynamic dispersion
coefficient of the aquifer;
qh0 = horizontal water Darcys velocity in
the aquifer;
q = vertical water Darcys velocity in the
aquifer, which is equal to the water vertical
volumetric flux coming from the landfill.
The mass balance given by equation
(37) is related to the following boundary
conditions:
c c aq0 at x 0
(38)
q c naqDh,v
wc
wx
RC
c(x,y) c aq0
c 0 c aq0
y
erfc
2 D x
v
exp J y J 2D v x
(43)
erfc
J Dv x
2 D x
where:
J
q
ePL
.
Dv qh0 (ePL 1)
(44)
(39)
29
Drainage Layer
1m
3m
3m
Aquifer (AQ)
(a)
Drainage Layer
Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL)
k = 110-11 m/s; n = 0.7; W = 0.1
3. EXAMPLES
4m
3m
Aquifer (AQ)
(b)
"= 1000 m
Number of holes of
the
geomembrane nF = 20 holes/hectare
per unit area
Area of the circular
aF = 1 cm2
hole
30
Table 2. Results of the example calculations (RCthin-aq = Relative Concentration for thin aquifer
case; RCthick-aq = Attenuation Factor for thick aquifer case; Cq quality coefficient of the contact
between the geomembrane and the underlying mineral layer, haq aquifer thickness; q vertical
volumetric flux through landfill barrier; PL = Peclet number of landfill barrier).
COMPACTED
CLAY LAYER
GEOSYNTHETIC
CLAY LINER
q = 2.91109 m/s
q = 2.88109 m/s
PL = 13.3
PL = 8.5
COMPACTED CLAY
LAYER +
GEOMEMBRANE
Cq = 0.21
(good contact)
q = 2.061011 m/s
GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY
LINER +
GEOMEMBRANE
Cq = 0.096
(excellent contact)
q = 1.521012 m/s
PL = 0.33
PL = 0.025
THIN AQUIFER
THICK AQUIFER
Average concentration
within the reference
thickness of the plume hp(x)
at the PoE
haq = 100 m
(Dv = 1 m)
RCthin-aq = 0.4926
RCthin-aq = 0.4902
RCthin-aq = 0.0240
RCthin-aq = 0.0203
RCthick-aq = 0.0735
RCthick-aq = 0.0730
RCthick-aq = 0.0020
RCthick-aq = 0.0017
RCthin-aq = 0.0283
RCthin-aq = 0.0280
RCthin-aq = 0.0007
RCthin-aq = 0.0006
Relative Concentration, RC
Relative Concentration, RC
0
0
0.05
0.1
-0.001
0
0.15
x = 10 m
20
x = 1000 m
50
60
40
x = 500 m
50
60
70
70
80
80
0.003
30
x = 500 m
100
0.002
20
x = 1000 m
40
90
0.001
x = 10 m
30
4. CONCLUSIONS
10
10
haq = 3 m
MIGRATE
ANALYTICAL
SOLUTION
90
(a)
100
MIGRATE
ANALYTICAL
SOLUTION
(b)
This
evaluation
requires
basic
knowledge of the transport phenomena in
the subsoil, and the adoption of a
conceptual model that takes into account
the migration paths towards possible
points that are exposed to a risk for
human health.
A risk analysis, which allows the
efficiency of the barrier system to be
quantified, in terms of attenuation of the
risk at an exposure point located
downstream the landfill, has been applied
in this paper to the specific problem of the
evaluation of the performances of the
bottom barrier of a landfill.
The illustrated calculation procedure
should be considered as a second-level
one (Tier 2), i.e. it is based on a simple
conceptual model that leads to closedform analytical solutions. It is necessary to
point out that this is a very conservative
procedure that does not take into
consideration
important
attenuation
factors, such as the finite mass of
contamination produced by a given mass
of waste or the sorption or degradation
phenomena that can occur during the
migration towards a point of exposure. In
some cases, the adoption of more
advanced conceptual models could be
indispensable, such as those, for example,
that take into consideration transient
conditions, in order to obtain results more
close to the physical reality. On the other
hand, the risk analysis methodology
considers a third level of analysis (Tier 3),
in which the transport phenomenon is
modelled in detail through resort to
numerical type solutions. A presentation of
advanced models for the study of the
performances of a landfill bottom liner can
be found in Rowe et al. (2004), who
describe transient solutions in which the
uni-dimensional solute migration from the
landfill in a vertical direction to the
underlying aquifer is associated with a
rigorous bi-dimensional numerical analysis
of solute migration within the aquifer itself.
Another aspect that could be important
to point out is the possibility of applying in
a simple way the proposed procedure not
REFERENCES
APAT/ISPRA (2008). Criteri metodologici
per lapplicazione dellanalisi assoluta di
rischio ai siti contaminati.
ASTM (1995). Emergency Standard Guide
for Risk Based Corrective Actions
Applied at Petroleum Release Sites,
Report E-1739-95.
ASTM (1998). Standard Provisional Guide
for Risk-Based Corrective Action,
Report PS104-98.
Carslaw, H.S., and Jaeger, J.C. (1959).
Conduction of heat in solids, Clarendon
Press, Oxford.
33
35
36
th
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GEOTECHNICAL
DOCUMENTATIONS FOR
CONSTRUCTIONS
* presenting author
Points
limits
Geotechnical
category
6...9
Moderate
10...14
Major
15...22
to
2. groundwater:
no dewatering - 1 point
normal dewatering system - 2
points
eL e
with values between
1 e
0.10 0.30 depending on the plasticity
index Ip = 10 22%, where e is the void
ratio in natural state and eL is the void
ratio at the liquid limit of plasticity, wL of
the soil.
II.1. the index of additional settlement to
wetting under the load of 300 kPa (in
oedometric test im300 > 2%).
II.2. the indexes K and G related to soil
settlement in natural and flooded state (in
plate load test) have values:
s
K i t 5 i G si sn t 3 cm,
sn
I.2. Index I
3. COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
In Romania the loessoid (collapsible) soils
covers about 17% of the territory as it is
indicated in the map from Figure 1.
The soils sensitive to wetting are
defined as unsaturated macroporic
cohesive soils, which in contact with water
are subjected to sudden and irreversible
changes of internal structure, reflected by
additional settlements and decreases of
mechanical geotechnical parameters.
Additional settlement may occur under
the own weight of wetted layer (Img) and
under the action of compressive loads
transmitted by the foundations (Imp).
In terms of how the settlement occurs,
the loess is classified in two groups:
- Group A: loess having additional Img less
than 5 cm;
- Group B: loess having additional Img
equal to or greater than 5 cm.
The minimum specific geotechnical
data necessary to classify a soil as
sensitive to wetting are related to
composition and compressibility in natural
and saturated conditions.
In this connection were imposed
physical
(I)
and
mechanical
(II)
identification criteria as follows:
I.1. cohesive soil with silt 50 80% in
unsaturated state (Sr <0.8) and the natural
porosity n> 40%.
39
Geotechnical parameter
Characteristic
value
Skeleton density, Us
[g/cm3]
2,52 - 2,67
12,0 - 18,0
11,0 - 16,0
Porosity, n [%]
40 - 55
5 22
Index of additional
settlement to wetting
V= 300 kPa, im300 [%]
2 14
Oedomertic modulus,
Eoed 200-300 [kPa]
5000 - 15000
5 25
Cohesion, c [kPa]
10 - 30
40
Figure 6. Additional settlement to wetting due to own weight of wetted layer (Img)
Figure 8. Settlement in natural conditions (without wetting) (s) and settlement after wetting of the
foundation soil (si)
41
42
4. LOESSOID
SOILS MIXED
SAND AND BENTONITE
WITH
5. EXPANSIVE CLAYS
Clayey soils have the property to
significantly modify their volume when
moisture changes: they shrink when
moisture reduces and they swell when
moisture increases. Due to their shrinkswell behaviour, these soils could create
many problems for engineering structures
and for this reason, direct foundation is
not allowed by the legislation in force,
being mandatory to be replaced or
improved by stabilization.
Shrink-swell behavior is caused by the
mineralogical
composition
of
clay
minerals. These minerals determine the
natural expansiveness of the soil, and
6. MECHANICAL
BEHAVIOR
OF
DESTRUCTURATED EXPANSIVE CLAY
6.1. Natural soil properties
The studied site is located in the
Transylvanian plateau; it is approximately
19.5 ha and the level difference ranged
from 265 m to 315 m nMN. In the initial
state, the site was not affected by
landslides (Olinic et al., 2014).
According to STAS 1913/5-85, the
analyzed soils were clayey soils with the
grain size distribution composed of 50-70
% clay (A2 = 40 48 %), 25-40 % silt and
1-10% sand. Determining the plastic and
liquid limits, we observed that the plasticity
index (IP) showed values between 26.7
57.2 %.
Oedometric compression tests were
performed on samples that were initially
saturated to determine the swelling
pressure (SP) with recorded values
between 40200 kPa.
The shearing resistance parameters
were determined in CU and CD conditions
performed on samples with natural
humidity and initially saturated samples.
Table 4 shows the variation of the shear
strength parameters.
11 29
59 160
CUsat
19 28
23 81
CD
19 30
33 80
CDsat
17 23
25 55
November 2012
08.11.2012
27.12.2012
February 2013
25.01.2013
02.02.2012
Figure 16. Clay destructuration at different
periods of time
November 2012
February 2013
Figure 15. Loss of stability on the site
WITH
GRANULAR
Material
characteristics
compacted
samples
/ Optimal
of parameters
compaction
Permeability
of coefficient
Compressibility
characteristics
Shearing
characteristic
s
dmax
[g/cm3]
wopt
[%]
k
[cm/s]
Eoed200-300
[kPa]
pu
[kPa]
[q]
c
[kPa]
1.62
21.0
8.22*10-9
8403
200
24
43
60% C + 40% S
1.77
14.5
7.63*10-9
11905
110
27
35
11.2
1.07*10
-8
11111
110
33
17
4.89*10
-8
7380
75
*25
*35
50% C + 50% SG
70% C + 30% G
1.93
1.87
11.9
47
8. CONCLUSIONS
In completion to the European technical
norms, Romania elaborated several
technical norms and guides for the local
specific site conditions.
All the Romanian technical norms are
accordingly to the Eurocode. All the
European Norms are fully applied in
Romania.
Significant areas of the Romanian
territory are covered by soils classified as
difficult foundation soils.
The paper is focused on the
stabilization of loessoid and expansive
soils by mixing them with different
percentages of granular materials in order
to improve their engineering properties to
use them as soil fillings or foundation
soils. On the basis of the laboratory tests
and field researches, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
Each soil acts differently depending on
its mineralogical and granulometric
composition: for this reason there is no
recipe for the improvement of difficult
soils;
Adding granular materials, for some
addition percentages, the effect of
compaction
is
higher
that
the
desensitization
effect,
resulting
in
materials considered even worse than
the natural sample;
The mixture of loess and granular
material
has
better
mechanical
characteristics and reduced permeability
compared to the one the loess has in its
natural state. From all the solutions
proposed (compacted loess, mixture of
loess and sand and mixture of loess, sand
and bentonite) the one with sand and
bentonite, mixed with loess after drying,
seems to be the optimal one due to the
wide domain in which optimal compaction
parameters are reached;
Concerning mechanical characteristics,
no significant differences seem to exist
between the analysed mixtures, but one
can notice that water sensitivity is
significantly reduced and that, compared
a. October 2013
b. January 2014
c. January 2014
d. February 2014
e. February 2014
f. April 2014
Figure 21. Clay destructuration at different
periods of time
REFERENCES
Burlacu, C., Olinic, E., Manea, S. & U, P.
(2013) Compacted soil columns for
foundations on collapsible soils.
Laboratory and in-situ experimental
study, Proceedings of the 18th
International Conference on Soil
Mechanics
and
Geotechnical
Engineering (Eds: Delage, P., Desrues,
J., Frank, R., Puech, A. & Schlosser,
F.), 2433 2437, Paris, France.
Ivasuc, T., Olinic, E., Manea, S., Soare, B.
(2013) Studies on the stabilization of
expansive soils treated with granular
materials,
13th
International
Multidisciplinary
Scientific
Geoconference SGEM 2013, Science
and
Technologies
in
Geology,
Exploration and Mining Conference
Proceedings, Vol. II, 403-411. Albena,
2013. ISBN 978-945-91818-8-3. ISSN
1314-2704.
Ivasuc T. (2013) PhD Thesis "Foundation
solutions on difficult soils for local
material
constructions",
Technical
University
of
Civil
Engineering
Bucharest, Romania.
Olinic, E., Ivasuc, T. & Manea, S. (2014)
Mechanical
behaviour
of
destructurated expansive clay, 14th
International Multidisciplinary Scientific
Geoconference SGEM 2014, Science
and
Technologies
in
Geology,
Exploration and Mining Conference
Proceedings, Vol. II, 581 - 588. Albena,
50
th
Session 1
In-situ and laboratory tests
52
th
The road structures, industrial and wind turbine foundations are cyclically loaded in a long period of
time and with a numerous repetitions. The knowledge of the soil subbase response to repeated
loads is important for designers when serviceability limit state is calculated. The calculated
modulus from static triaxial tests provides nonsufficient information for proper calculations of
settlements. The long term cyclic loading should be conducted in purpose not only to obtain such
parameters as resilient modulus but also for characterizing the phenomena of permanent strain
accumulation. The cyclic hardening and softening phenomena reported by many researches
highlights the behavior of soils under repeating loading. Nevertheless, such occurrence as the
stiffness degradation in cyclically loaded after numerous of load repetitions should be studied more
closely. The previous studies concerning unbound aggregates, lead to recognize the long term soil
response to cyclic loading as an element of shakedown theory. The shakedown concept should be
also studied and possibility to adopt of part the shakedown concept to cohesive soil behavior
description may be considered. In this paper results of cyclic triaxial test are presented. The
cohesive soil was characterized by series of tests consists of physical and static examinations in
first stage. The long term repeating loading was performed for isotopically consolidated samples of
sandy clay loaded in one way test method in undrained conditions. The results have led to
characterize permanent strain development and fatigue behavior which occur as stiffness
degradation. The cyclic triaxial test results was later analyzed and an empirical formula considering
permanent strain development, which considers the fatigue phenomena, is proposed. The article
ends with conclusion about undrained cyclically loaded cohesive soil and some remarks
concerning future work.
1. INTRODUCTION
The cohesive soils in environment
subjected to human activities are exposed
to cyclic loads generally induced by , e.g.,
machine vibrations or traffic. The reaction
of subgrade soils is usually observed as
* presenting author
log (N )
log N
(2)
The
degradation
phenomena
in
cohesive soil depends on the initial
conditions. The void ratio, pore pressure
and the effective stress p impacts on
clayey soil response to cyclic loading.
Resilient modulus can be obtained from
uniaxial or triaxial tests. The Equation (3)
is employed to calculate Mr value:
Mr
d
r
(3)
(N )
E d ,N
E d ,1
d ,1
d ,N
(4)
P
A
'H r
Hi
(5)
(1)
d ,1
3. RESULTS
Results of cyclic triaxial tests presents
Figures 5 and 6. Figure 5 presents axial
strain development during the test.
stage 1
30.25
5.5
stage 2
68.35
26.9
stage 3
162.35
52.1
stage 4
319.25
205.9
58
4. CONCLUSIONS
The research conducted in this paper and
analysis of the degradation of mechanical
properties phenomena of sandy clay
during cyclic loading lead to the following
conclusions:
x Cohesive soils can behave various
response to cyclic loading. The plastic
strain accumulation may be followed one
of three possible patterns. In this study the
abation of plastic strain was observed.
x The Young modulus values for sandy
clay varied from 433MPa to 0.44MPa.
Such wide range of this mechanical
properties was caused by applied axial
stress.
x The degradation index after 1000
cycles was equal to 0.86 for stages 1 and
2. The value for stages 3 and 4 was
equal to 1.27 and 2.31 respectively.
x The degradation index change versus
Young modulus and number of cycles
Equation was estimated (6).
x The degradation of soil properties in
this studies lead to conclusion that, the
stiffer soil is the grater degradation of its
initial mechanical properties will be
observed. When the initial conditions
allows for soil mechanical properties
improvement, the degradation will be
observes in further cycles.
(6)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author of the paper would like to
thank the Polish Society for Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
for nomination for delegation to 25th
EYGEC. The author would like also to
thank the rector of Warsaw University of
Life Sciences SGGW for financing of the
author participation in this event.
59
REFERENCES
Abdelkrim, M., Bonnet, G., & De Buhan, P.
(2003). A computational procedure for
predicting the long term residual
settlement of a platform induced by
repeated traffic loading. Computers and
Geotechnics, 30(6), 463-476.
Cai, Y., Gu, C., Wang, J., Juang, C. H.,
Xu, C., & Hu, X. (2012). One-way cyclic
triaxial behavior of saturated clay:
comparison between constant and
variable confining pressure. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 139(5), 797-809.
Goldscheider M. and Gudehus G. (1976)
Einige bodenmechanische Probleme
bei Kusten- und Offshore-Bauwerken.
In Vortr age zur Baugrundtagung.
DGEG, 1976
Guo, L., Wang, J., Cai, Y., Liu, H., Gao,
Y., & Sun, H. (2013). Undrained
deformation behavior of saturated soft
clay under long-term cyclic loading. Soil
Dynamics
and
Earthquake
Engineering, 50, 28-37.
Idriss I M, Dobry R, Singh R D. (1978)
Nonlinear behavior of soft clays during
cyclic loading. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol.104,
No.GT12, pp 1427-1447. 5.
Jiang, M., & Cai, Z. (2012). Stiffness
Degradation of Soft Marine Clay under
Uniaxial Cyclic Loading. Electronic
Journal
of
Geotechnical
Engineering, 17.
Li, L. L., Dan, H. B., & Wang, L. Z. (2011).
Undrained behavior of natural marine
clay under cyclic loading. Ocean
Engineering, 38(16), 1792-1805.
Polish Committee for Standardization.
Geotechnical Investigations Soil
Classification Part 2: Classification
Rules; PNEN ISO 14688-2:2004;
Polish Committee for Standardization:
Warsaw, Poland, 2004.
Polish Committee for Standardization.
Motor roads. Earthworks. Requirements
and tests; PNEN 13242:2004; Polish
Committee
for
Standardization:
Warsaw, Poland, 1988 (In polish)
60
ABSTRACT
Existing onshore resources of raw materials are becoming more and more depleted. If the current
demands remain or increase over the coming years, alternative resource areas will become highly
interesting. Given these circumstances and the recent technological advances in the field of deepsea mining, the interest in the deep-sea is growing. Global Sea Mineral Resources NV (GSR), part
of the DEME-group, has signed a contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in 2013,
giving GSR the exclusive rights to do exploration for polymetallic nodules in a license area in the
Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ), part of the Central Pacific Ocean.
The assigned area is situated around 125W and 15N and covers over 75000 km divided over
three areas named B2, B4 and B6. Since 2014, GSR has organised and executed two
multidisciplinary research cruises in the assigned license area, mainly focussing on biological,
geological and geotechnical research.
Geotechnical characterization of deep-sea bottom sediments is crucial for the development of
new mining technology. In order to assess the workability of a tracked vehicle in a deep-sea
environment, bearing capacity calculations are needed. This assessment requires input of soil
strength parameters over several meters of depth. Such data is not publically available. As such,
GSR/DEME and DotOcean NV joined forces and started the development of a penetrometer for a
deep-sea environment, over 4000 m deep: the Deep-Sea GraviProbe.
This publication starts with an elaboration on the design process of the GraviProbe. Main
challenges for the design are related to the testing environment, such as dealing with high
pressures (over 400 bar), high accuracy measurements in soft sediments, workability and
repeatability. Testing procedures of the equipment, test results and a number of highlights of the
first deployment in the GSR license area at more than 4000 m depth, are also presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2013, the International Seabed
Authority (ISA) granted Global Sea
Mineral Resources NV (GSR) a 15 year
exclusive exploration right for a 75000 km
license area in the Clarion Clipperton
Fracture Zone (CCFZ) in the Pacific
Ocean (Figure 1). The CCFZ is a
submarine fracture zone of ca. 7000 km
long, well-known for the presence of
polymetallic nodules at its abyssal plains
at over 4000 m depth. Since the
acquisition of the exploration license, two
scientific research cruises have been
organised and executed by GSR.
in which:
- Qt = total soil resistance
- Qb = tip resistance
- Qf = friction resistance
- Ab = tip area
- Nc = bearing capacity factor
- As = shaft area
- = friction coefficient
- cu = undrained shear strength
in which:
- Epot = potential energy of the GP
- Ekin = kinetic energy of the GP
- m = buoyant mass GP
- g = gravitational acceleration
- z = penetration depth GP
- v = velocity GP
4.
TESTING CAMPAIGN
68
Figure
5:
Automatic
generation
of
acceleration, velocity and dynamic cone
resistance vs. depth at a penetration location.
5.3. Results
The first deployment of the GraviProbe
took place on 21/09/2015. Once the
GraviProbe was back on board, the
camera material was analysed and
confirmed that the GraviProbe penetrated
the sea bottom each time as planned
(Figure 8). Preliminary analysis of the data
on board also indicated consistent results,
in the expected range (Figure 9).
The GraviProbe has been deployed in
the three areas of interest. For each
deployment, the scope as defined above
was successfully achieved making use of
the operational procedure as described
above.
6. CONCLUSION
In order to determine in-situ strength
parameters of very soft soils up to 4 m
below the seabed in a challenging deepsea environment, GSR and DotOcean
71
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the
Belgische
Groepering
voor
Grondmechanica
en
Geotechniek
(BGGG), the Belgian Member Society of
the ISSMG, to select this publication as
one of the two Belgian representatives
and by doing so, giving us the opportunity
to attend the 2016 EYGEC-conference at
Sibiu, Romania.
REFERENCES
Rey,
S.
(1988)
Environnements
sdimentaires
et
proprits
gotechniques de sediments marins
profound de deux zones du Pacifique
Tropical nord-est, Doctoral Thesis,
Centre de recherches en mcanique et
hydraulique des sols et des roches,
Ecole
Nationale
Superieure
de
72
th
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Eurocode, statistical methods
may be used in determination of
characteristic values of geotechnical
parameters. Even so, in practical
geotechnical
design,
deterministic
approach is commonly used instead due
to its simplicity and traditions in design
(Lee et al. 1983, p. 58). However,
deterministic
approach
leads
to
characteristic values that are highly
subjective and thus uncertain as the
selection of cautious estimate is based on
engineering judgement (Phoon 2008, pp.
3-8). In statistical methods on the other
* presenting author
(1)
where x is the standard deviation of the
random variable x; x is the expected
value; SDx is the standard variable of the
sample and; xm is the mean of the sample.
High COV implies high uncertainty.
Inherent soil variability is represented in
Figure 1. The actual value of the soil
property (z) varies through depth, but one
can determine the trend function t(z). The
fluctuating component w(z) represents the
inherent soil variability. This spatial
variability is one of the main reasons for
the need of conservatism in the definition
of characteristic value. In the figure,
correlation length is the distance within
which points are significantly correlated
(Fenton & Griffiths 2008, p. 103, Phoon &
Kulhawy 1999).
74
2.2. Eurocode 7
The soil volume involved in the limit state
affects the definition of characteristic
value, which can be either (a) cautious
mean, which is the estimated mean value
corresponding to a 95 % confidence level
or (b) local low value, which is the
estimated 5 % fractile (EN 1997-1 2004,
Frank et al. 2004, pp. 46-49).
Thus according to definition, there is a
probability of 95 % that the (unknown)
mean value governing the occurrence of
a limit state in the ground is more
favourable than the selected mean
characteristic value. 5 % fractile on the
other hand means that there will be only 5
% probability that somewhere in the layer
considered there is an element of soil
having property values lower than the
characteristic value (Frank et al. 2004, pp.
46-49).
So when is it required to use a cautious
mean (large soil volume) and when a local
low value (small soil volume)? The
difference between these two cases is
related to correlation length : When is
small compared with the dimensions of the
soil volume, low and high local values
compensate, and cautious mean is
adopted. This phenomenon is often
referred to as averaging of weak and
strong soil layers. If, on the other hand,
is larger compared with the dimensions of
the soil volume involved, the local low
value might affect the occurrence of the
limit state instead. Thus 5 % fractile or a
value somewhere between 5 % fractile
and cautious mean must be used (Frank
et al. 2004, pp. 46-49).
Suggested values for both horizontal
and vertical correlation lengths can be
found from the literature for different soil
properties (Phoon & Kulhawy 1999).
However, it is usually much more
challenging to estimate the dimensions of
the soil volume involved in limit state.
Especially when it comes to the stability of
an embankment, one rarely knows where
the failure surface would occur. However,
if brittle failure or strain softening
behaviour can be expected, usage of the
(2)
where COVx is either the coefficient of
variation calculated for the sample or
tabulated known COV for the whole
population and; kn is a statistical
coefficient.
The value of statistical coefficient
depends on the number n of test results
(observations),
on
the
'type'
of
characteristic value (mean or fractile), the
statistical level of confidence required, and
a priori knowledge about the COV (known
or unknown) (Frank et al. 2004, p. 29).
In the case of 95 % reliable mean
value, kn is defined as:
(3)
(4)
where n is number of observations; t0.95n-1
is the value of the t factor of Students
distribution (with degree of freedom being
n 1) corresponding to a probability of 95
%. If COV is known, normal distribution
can be used and the corresponding 95 %
value is 1.645.
However, this method is valid only for
cases where the soil is relatively
homogeneous and there is no significant
trend in the soil property. In addition,
normal distribution is assumed. For some
geotechnical
parameters,
such
as
undrained shear strength, lognormal
distribution is a better fit (Lacasse &
Nadim 1996). Furthermore, lognormal
distribution is non-negative whereas
normal
distribution
can
contain
unrealistically low or even negative values.
If lognormal distribution is used, before
applying the formulae represented above,
75
(6)
where xm is the mean of the derived
values based on field or lab tests and/or
estimated mean value from comparable
experience and/or estimated mean value
from tabulated soil properties; xextr is the
extreme soil value recorded or estimated
corresponding to an expected extreme
(unfavourable) value for the hypothetical
case of large number of tests; Lv
represents the zone of ground governing
the behaviour of a geotechnical structure
at a limit state. As such, Lv is the vertical
dimension of the zone of influence. Inside
the square root 1 stands for a typical
vertical correlation length of 1 m, and as
such, the term is dimensionless (EG11
2015).
In the equation a is a factor to account
for extent and quality of field and
laboratory investigations or estimation
method, type of tests for selecting derived
values, sampling methods and level of
experience. The suggested range of a is
0.5-1.0. Smallest value of 0.5 is proposed
to be used in the case of several high
quality test values and reliable, good local
site information based on excellent
comparable experiences. Value of a =
0.75 could be used for average quality.
For example, in the calculation example of
Annex HS, a = 0.7 for field vane is
proposed. The most conservative a = 1.0
is suggested to be used when the derived
values are estimated from general
(5)
where n is the amount of test results and
others are as earlier defined.
In the equation, 1.645 is yet again the
value of normal cumulative distribution
function corresponding to a probability of
95 %.
In this method, it is assumed, that the
calculated
standard
deviation
SD
represents the distribution of the whole
population; if the standard deviation of the
population is unknown, Student tdistributions should be used instead of
normal distribution. If n = , normal and
Students distribution actually yield the
same value of 1.645. As a matter of fact,
this method produces the same result as
COVknown -method of Eurocode, if one
uses the calculated sample COV instead
of tabulated known COV.
2.4. Suggested Annex HS
TC250/SC7/EG11: Characterization is a
project, which aims to provide a user
friendly and consistent guidance on
determining characteristic values of
ground parameters, using both the
traditional
approach
and
statistics.
Proposed Annex HS represents a
simplified method which is based on
76
Mean
SD
min
max
(Mean su)
11.89
0.351
10.98
12.58
Sim. 1: Xk
(Lv = 1.0-2.5)
10.68
0.281
9.890
11.76
Sim. 2: Xk
(Lv = 1.0-10)
11.14
0.355
10.05
12.29
Sim. 3: Xk
(mean constant,
Lv = 1.0-10)
11.14
0.270
10.02
11.55
4. CONCLUSIONS
When the number of observations n is less
than 8, all the described methods should
be treated with cautiousness. Because
calculated standard deviation and COV
are
extremely
uncertain
at
n<8,
COVunknown- and RIL -method should not
be used at all in these conditions. Not only
is there a risk of underestimating the
characteristic value Xk, but also a risk of
overestimation.
Frank et al. (2004, pp. 46-47)
recommend the usage of COVknown method if a priori information is available
due to the fact that n is usually low in
geotechnical problems.
However, the
results indicate that the selected known
COV must be suitable for the studied soil
property and regional characteristics. As
such, the authors recommend further
investing in the research on COV in order
to provide reliable a priori information for
designers. Furthermore, research on soil
variability provides tools for RBD as well.
In RBD, distributions of the soil properties
81
1. IN SITU TEST.
Static load tests of the round stamp
type I area of 5000 cm2 carried out
according to the Ukrainian standards on
the central axis of the pits with a step of 10
m in the bottom surface of trenches, 24
points in two sectors to obtain the soil
deformation modulus. Calculation of soil
deformation modulus based on the results
of in situ test with load stages from 50 to
300-350 kPa.
According to in situ tests the graphs of
dependence
of
deformations
from
pressure are built S = f (p). In the graph
with help of the averaging line the values
p and S are calculated.
The ground deformation modulus E,
MPa calculated for the linear portion of the
graph by the formula: E = (1-2) * Cr * K1
* D * Ap / S. The testing scheme by the
static load on the stamp is shown on
Fgure 2.
a)
2. LABORATORY TESTS.
For the laboratory tests soil were
sampled at the points of in situ tests. The
selection and storage of soil samples for
laboratory tests conformed with Ukrainian
standards. Samples weighing up to 1.5 kg
transferred to the geotechnical laboratory.
Laboratory tests carried out in
accordance with normative requirements,
governing the procedure of laboratory
tests.
The
carried
out
classification
parameters is 6 grain-size distribution of
filled soil.
Oedometer test (determination of
oedometer
deformation
modulus)
performed on the disturbed samples with
the set (as determined in the field) density
and moisture content in the odometer
loading up to 0.4 MPa at a natural
moisture (6 determinations).
Determination
of
shear
strength
parameters (angle of internal friction and
cohesion) is also performed. The
compression and shear soils test results
are presented in Table 1. The
characteristic compression curves are
shown in Fig. 4
b)
85
LITERATURE
1. Larionov A.K., Kislova L.V. The
question
of
study
in
oedometer
compression soil test errors. Buildings
construction on the loess soils. Voronezh:
VISI. 1963.
2. Eurocode 7 EN 1997-2:2007: (E) : Geotechnical design - Part 2: Ground
investigation and testing (together with
United Kingdom National Application
Document), 1997.-196 s.
3. Foundation analysis and design /
Joseph E. Bowles. - 1996.-624 s.
Buildings on expansive soils.
4. CONCLUSIONS
1. Average values soil deformation
modulus, some of in situ tests at up EPLT =
29.5 MPa oedometer Eoed = 18.6 MPa.
2. The deformation of the soil sample is
uneven on the adjustment of the sample;
3. The crumpling of sample significantly
affects the deformation modulus value;
4. The coefficients mk correlation
established in Ukraine as an overall
average for the clay loam and sandy loam,
do not account the structural strength and
depend on the type, density and soil
conditions;
5. Crumple zone occurs also during in
situ plate test, it is commensurate with
86
th
ABSTRACT
This paper deals with geotechnical investigation works for assessment of factors which led to
occurrence of deformations of Skopje Aqueduct significant monument for Macedonian cultural
heritage.
The period of construction of the Aqueduct is still undetermined. According some data, the
monument was built in the 6th century in the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I, while
according to other data, it was built in the 15th century. It is presumed that it was still in use by the
end of the 19th century.
Based on the performed geotechnical investigations and geophysical surveys on the site,
emphasizing the deformed zone of the Aqueduct, as factors for occurrence of deformations were
noticed the relatively weak stress-strain properties of the foundation soil, the shallow foundation of
the structure, the permanently flooded site, local tectonic and the modifications in the spreading of
surface clayey layer, as possible agents for different damaging (sloping) of the Aqueduct pillars.
* presenting author
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1. The
Aqueduct
construction
generals
The Aqueduct is preserved in its entire
length which is 385,80 meters long, and it
has 54 main vaults and 42 so called
relaxing vaulted holes placed over the
pillars for reducing the structure weight.
The lower part of the Aqueduct consists of
53 square or rectangular pillars whit width
of 2,15 meters to 2,24 meters, and 2 side
ramps northern and southern, with their
foundations.
Method of building is rich and colourful,
from different kinds of stone and brick.
The pillars from the oldest construction
phase are built of river stone in
characteristic rows of brick old format and
partly stone tiles and other fragments in
lime mortar. The facades are of mixed
masonry, stone and brick in lime mortar,
with archivolts and outside arches of brick.
The Aqueduct as original civil structure,
provides the opportunity to studying the
methods and techniques of building this
type of construction and used building
materials.
Few construction phases and repairs can
be noticed on the building. Most of those
originate from the end of 19th century and
the beginning of 20th century. After the
Second World War, three vaults were
destroyed by mines in a military exercise
to demonstrate the destruction of bridge
vaults. It is presumed that these vaults
were reconstructed in 1968 yr.
Overall, the Aqueduct have a double role construction with strictly defined function
88
2.
GEOTECHNICAL
INVESTIGATIONS
In March 2014 yr. by the company "Geing
Krebs und Kiefer International" Ltd Skopje,
was performed field investigations and
laboratory testing on the location of the
Aqueduct. They are performed according
to methodology which is in accordance
with the technical norms wildly applied in
Macedonia and in foreign countries, the
Macedonian standards as well as the
instructions and recommendations from
the technical literature.
The purpose of performed investigations
and testing is determination the lithological
structure, with specifically defining the
physical - mechanical and stress - strain
properties
of
soil
materials,
for
determination the reason of occurred
deformations, as well as establishing the
appropriate activities recommended for
remediation of the object.
For more detailed presentation of the
lithological structure on the location were
applied the following investigation works:
x Engineering - geological and hydro geological site mapping;
geophysical
x Elastic
litho-physical
boundaries
between the surface clay layer and
proluvial sandy gravel material and
between the materials of proluval and
Pliocene sediments;
x The tectonic disturbing and dislocation
(faults) in geological environment of
the terrain;
Proluvium
sediments
(Q2prsk)
1-3
340-450
125-180
15-16
0.42-0.40
68-148
25-55
142-247
Proluvium
sediments
(Q2prsk)
2-5
400-550
180-250
17-18
0.38-0.37
165-315
60-115
230-405
91
Proluvium
sediments
(Q2prsk)
8-12
910-1360
400-570
19-20
0.38-0.39
855-1840
375-660
1100-2790
Pliocene sediments
(Pl)
25-60
1750-2750
650-1100
21-23
0.42-0.40
2570-7950
905-2840
5350-13250
x Cone resistance;
Zone
1
Organic materials
Clay
Sand
10
11
12
Depth [m]
Mv [kN/m ]
CPT-1
0.25-2.00
4500
CI/MI
Clay
2.00-2.50
17700
ML
CPT-2
0.25-1.75
6500
CI/MI
Clay
1.75-2.50
12000
ML
CPT-3
0.50-3.00
4300
CI/MI
Clay
3.00-3.75
12000
ML
CPT-4
0.25-3.50
3.50-4.00
2618
57750
H, CI/MI
CI/MI
4.00-8.50
16125
SFs
CPT-5
92
0.75-1.00
1.00-2.50
750
8250
H
CI/MI
Organic materials
Clay
2.50-4.00
12375
ML
4.00-4.50
37500
SFs
300
3000
52500
CI/MI
CI/MI
SFs
1750
CI/MI
Clay
1.00-2.25
39300
SFs
CPT-8
0.25-0.75
1500
CI/MI
Clay
1.75-1.50
65000
SFs
CPT-6
0.00-1.00
1.00-3.25
3.25-4.00
CPT-7
0.25-1.00
2.5. Performance
of
investigation
boreholes;
On the investigated site are performed 10
(ten) investigation boreholes, each with
10.00 meters depth. The investigation
drilling is performed with two drilling
machines (GAK 300 and GDR 150) on
previously defined locations marked from
Borehole
BH-2
BH-3
BH-4
BH-5
BH-6
BH-7
BH-8
BH-9
BH-10
Sampling
3
3
4
4
6
2
4
3
2
Nkor
Ndef
1.6001.904
30.4
29
20
20
BH-1
3.8003.900
10
30
21
64
64
BH-2
7.7008.004
1.7002.004
3.2003.330
5.2005.504
7.5007.804
2.3002.450
30.4
30.4
13
30.4
30.4
15
21
30
30
14
17
30
15
21
21
10
12
21
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
49
/
/
43
15
21
49
10
12
43
4.0004.210
21
30
21
30
30
6.2006.504
30.4
13
8.5008.804
30.4
26
18
18
1.6001.904
2.6002.770
4.8005.104
30.4
17
30.4
27
30
11
19
21
8
/
/
/
/
38
/
19
38
8
7.0007.230
23
30
21
28
28
8.0008.210
21
30
21
30
30
2.2002.504
5.0005.280
30.4
28
30
30
21
21
/
/
/
23
21
23
7.8008.104
30.4
24
17
17
1.8002.104
3.5003.804
7.2007.504
1.7002.004
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
22
24
20
30
15
17
14
21
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
15
17
14
21
BH -7
7.0007.240
24
30
21
27
27
BH -8
1.6001.880
1.5001.630
28
13
30
30
21
21
/
/
23
49
23
49
BH -9
5.6005.840
24
30
21
27
27
1.5001.804
5.0005.304
30.4
30.4
13
15
9
11
/
/
/
/
9
11
Solid
Very
compact
semisolid
solid
compact
semisolid
semisolid
compact
medium
compact
semisolid
medium
compact
solid
compact
soft
medium
compact
Medium
compact
solid
solid
medium
compact
semisolid
semisolid
semisolid
solid
medium
compact
solid
compact
medium
compact
semisolid
semisolid
BH-3
BH -4
BH -5
BH 6
BH-10
Mv
(kPa)
12500
Angle of
internal friction
Hits number
N
Compressibility
modulus
Compactness/c
onsistency
Cone
penetration
Corrected
number of hits
Depth
(cm)
Borehole
(m)
()
/
48300
43
10000
13000
37800
7500
8500
33600
/
/
40
/
/
39
24500
36
7000
16100
33
16800
30100
6500
/
38
/
23100
36
24500
36
13000
14000
/
/
15400
32
10000
11000
9500
13000
/
/
/
/
22400
35
14000
37800
/
40
22400
35
7000
8000
/
/
As
reasons
for
appearance
the
deformations of the Aqueduct are the
following:
x The local tectonic and the modification
in the clayey surface layer are the
possible reason for the variable
inclination to the west which is up to 53
cm. Thus, it should pay attention to the
modification of physical mechanical
properties of the clay during different
weather conditions and to the effects of
clay swelling;
x The
relatively
low
deformable
properties of the soil layer where is the
foundation (especially during presence
of water);
x The relatively shallow foundation of the
facility;
x Constantly flowing terrain (creation of
lakes and swamp zones)
M
[]
16.316.6
c
kPa
13.815.0
Mv
kPa
7400
M
[]
16.316.6
c
kPa
13.815.0
4.
Mv
kPa
7400
M
[]
16.316.6
c
kPa
13.815.0
CONCLUSIONS
Mv
kPa
7400
3.
th
Session 2
Researches in geotechnical engineering
98
th
ABSTRACT
Many of the installations and structures at industrial onshore plants are more sensitive than other
structures to deformations, differential settlements and rotations of the foundations. The
foundations are often supported by a compacted rock-fill. The geotechnical design must therefore
determine the displacements and rotations of the foundations on rock-fill under static and cyclic
loads (such as loads from machinery, cranes and traffic) and ensure that the displacements are
within the limits required for the plant functionality.
This paper presents a method for estimating foundation rotations and settlements due to
volumetric and shear strains in the rock-fill down to bedrock. The rock-fill strains include static
strains, accumulated cyclic strains and creep strains, developed with time. The theoretical basis of
the calculation methods are presented, together with a step-by-step procedure of the analysis. The
paper aims to focus on the practical implementation of the procedure in a real industrial project.
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE
3.
TEORETICAL BASIS
(Eq. 3)
(Eq. 2)
100
(Eq. 9)
(Eq. 10)
(Eq. 4)
(Eq. 5)
(Eq. 6)
(Eq. 7)
(Eq. 15)
The
resultant
vertical
load
and
eccentricities are used as input in SPLATE
for calculating deformations. The result
from this step is the permanent settlement
pz and rotations px and py.
(Eq. 16)
(Eq. 17)
(Eq. 8)
101
(Eq. 23)
(Eq. 18)
(Eq. 19)
(Eq. 20)
(Eq. 26)
Parameter
Explanation
Recommended
value
t0
Reference
time
to=0.004 years *
Creep
parameter
12E-06 m2/kN **
(Eq. 21)
(Eq. 22)
102
4.
EXAMPLE ANALYSIS
Load
Fz (kN)
Mx (kNm)
My (kNm)
Permanent
-4880
-6670
Cyclic
-1740
2540
2.9
Total
-6620
-4130
3.9
4.2. Calculations
The first step is to check if foundation A is
relatively stiff compared to the rock-fill, as
described in section 3.1: Kr 0.51 < Krlim =
5.51. Since Kr is less than Krlim the
foundation plate is relatively stiff, and we
can proceed using SPLATE for calculation
of deformations. Settlements and rotations
are calculated for permanent loads and
total cyclic loads (cyclic + permanent) as
described in section 3.3 and 3.4. The
accumulated
cyclic
settlement
is
calculated from the first cycle settlement
103
which
is
conservatively
calculated
assuming that the unloading is infinitely
rigid, and that the first cycle displacements
are equal to total cyclic settlements minus
permanent settlements as described in
section 3.5. Elastic deformation from
weight of the foundation is calculated and
subtracted,
since
this
settlement
contribution is assumed to be completed
before the crane rail is installed, and thus
can be adjusted for. Creep settlements
and rotations are calculated for the
permanent loads, using a creep parameter
=12E-06 m2/kN and reference time
t0=0.004 as proposed in section 3.6.
Creep settlements are calculated for a
lifetime of 50 years.
pz= 8.0
ox=1E-3
py= 4E-7
Weigth of
foundation
st= 2.7
st= 0
st = 0
Perm+cycl
totcycz=
1.1
totcycx=
6E-4
totcycy=2E-3
First cycle
cyc1= 2.9
cyc1x=
-4E-4
cyc1y=1E-6
Acc. cyclic
acc= 2.9
accx=
-4E-4
accy=1E-6
Creep
c= 19.4
cx=3E-3
cy=1E-6
CONCLUSIONS
This article has presented a method for
estimating foundation rotations and
settlements due to volumetric and shear
strains in a rock-fill down to bedrock. The
method
considers
a
realistic
representation of the rock-fill, and provides
a conservative and efficient way of
analysing a large number of foundations
without the need for using advanced, timeconsuming computer programs.
4.3. Result
Deformation results from all steps are
summarized in Table 3. As seen from the
results, foundation A can experience a
total settlement of about 2.8 cm:
tot = pz + acc + c - st = 27.6 mm
Since foundation B is assumed founded to
bedrock, the differential settlements is
equal to the total settlement for foundation
A. Thus, the differential settlements
exceed the requirements set by the
structural discipline (20 mm). As seen
from Table 3, creep settlements contribute
the most to the total deformation. The
creep calculation is however very
parameter sensitive, especially with
regards to the creep parameter . This is
due to the parameter being based on
empirical deformation data from large and
high rock-fills and even rock-fill dam
constructions. The creep settlement
calculation
is
therefore
considered
conservative.
The differential settlements can be
reduced by limiting the difference in depth
to bedrock under the two foundation
types. The foundations should be
instrumented, enabling surveillance of
deformations during operation of the plant.
This way, measures can be taken when
settlements and rotations are approaching
the specified operational limits of the
installations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their
gratefulness towards Dr. Corneliu
Athanasiu and Arne Schram Simonsen for
valuable academic support.
REFERENCES
Athanasiu, C. (2004) SPLATE user manual.
Multiconsult report no. 39109-1.
Athanasiu, C. (1994) FPLATES user
manual. Multiconsult report no. 39108-1.
Wichtmann, T., Rondn, H.A., Niemunis, A.,
Triantafyllidis, Th. & Lizcano, A.(2010)
Prediction of permanent deformations in
pavements
using
a
high-cycle
accumulation
model.
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol.136, No.5, 2010
Athanasiu, C., S. Simonsen, A., Sreide, O.K.
& Tistel, J. (2005) Elastic and Creep
Settlements of Rock-Fills. ISSMFE
Conference, Osaka, Japan, 2005.
Selvadurai, A. (1979) Elastic analysis of soilfoundation
interaction,
Elsevier,
Amsterdam
104
th
The paper presents part of the results obtained during research carried out in order to
complement the knowledge about phenomena occurring in a mix of fine grained soil and fly ash
from fluidized bed combustion. Mentioned phenomena include chemical reactions ongoing in fly
ash and modified behaviour of fine grained soil treated with fly ash. Changes in physical properties,
physical-chemical properties and mechanical behaviour are presented in this paper based on the
example of soilfly ash mix prepared with the addition of 40% of fly ash.
1. INTRODUCTION
Various areas of human activity are
accompanied by generation of wastes.
Effective wastes management helps to
reduce the scale of landfills and creates
an opportunity to reduce costs of
investments. Complete recognition of
materials properties allows for their safe
and optimal use in economy. One of the
wastes showing great potential in the
construction sector is fly ash, created as a
by-product during production of electric
energy in power plants working based on
coal combustion. Poland is one of the
countries in which fly ash is produced
annually in large quantities and is
commonly used, for example as
a component of cement or concrete, in
roads construction and geoengineering.
However, it should be highlighted that
* presenting author
0,05462
KH r
( U s 1)t
3. MATERIALS
Two types of materials were used in
experimental work presented in this paper:
Speswhite kaolin and selected FBC fly
ash.
Speswhite is a highly refined kaolin
obtained from deposits in Cornwall,
distributed by Imerys Materials. The
research based on well-known soil
allowed to reduce the scale of
(1)
where:
K dynamic viscosity of solution (mm)
Hr hydrometer effective depth (mm)
Us specific density (Mg/m3)
t time (s)
106
4. RESULTS
Samples of the mix was tested in order to
investigate the changes in the pH value
over the curing time. The results are
presented in the Figure 4. It can be
noticed, that initially highly alkaline
environment is changing. A rapid drop in
the pH value within first week of curing
time is followed by progressive but more
gentle decrease within the next days.
107
5. DISCUSSION
Presented results evidence, that addition
of fly ash into the fine grained soil,
represented by Speswhite kaolin, causes
changes in physical properties, physicalchemical properties and mechanical
behaviour. Observed effects are timedependent.
Highly alkaline environment is necessary
to provide dissolution of silica and alumina
(Keller 1964). Fly ash, used in quantity
40%, changes the pH value of pore water
from acid to highly alkaline, which is
favourable in terms of formation of
hydrates such as calcium silicate
hydrates, calcium aluminate hydrates and
ettringite. Decrease in the pH value of the
mix FA40 observed during the first week
of curing time is a result of ongoing
chemical reactions formation of hydrates
and possibly some carbonation (the
contact with atmospheric air was limited
Figure 18. Consolidation curves, log(1+e)logv plot, dashed lines indicate the projection
of the curves for greater loads
(Lopes et al. 2015)
th
ABSTRACT
Problem issues of negative friction force in barrettes and piles of a large diameter were analysed.
Tests of such piles on some construction sites in Kyiv were considered. Barrettes were tested by
Ostenbergs method and scale tests using the bored piles.
Cases of water saturation of soil bases above and below were considered. Comparative tables
were made for the negative friction forces and bearing capacity values for barrettes and piles of a
large diameter in special soil conditions were obtained.
1. RELEVANCE OF CONSTRUCTION
ON UNSTABLE SOILS IN UKRAINE
Construction in Ukraine by increasing the
load on base requires the use of pile
foundations. In such cases barrettes and
large diameter piles are used. In
complicated geological conditions (special
soils and areas of geological processes
impact manifestation) the number of such
foundations in the design of multi-storey
buildings is 80-90%.
Barrettes are kind of piles arranged in
cavities using a grapple in coherentlydispersed soils by technology "wall in
ground" [1]. Large diameter piles are piles
of different mode of arranging with a
diameter greater than 600 mm.
Design of a reliable base for the
building is a guarantee of a durable
reliable operation. Therefore, the choice of
the optimal solution of the foundation is a
* presenting author
be soil
its own
external
a water
3. DEFINITION
OF
NEGATIVE
FRICTION FORCES BY BARRETTES
TESTING
RESULTS
AND
CALCULATIONS
On the first construction site the testing
was conducted by the Osterbergs
method. Three o-cells placed at the
bottom of barrettes were used. With their
help the movement under the lower end of
the barrette and on the lateral surface was
determined.
Tables of normative documents [2]
were designed for piles at a depth of 40
m. They consider the regional peculiarities
of soil in Ukraine. Considering the general
nature of changing the characteristics of
the soil resistance R and f the author
continued these tables to a depth of 85
meters, what provides all possible variants
of piles placement by Ukrainian standards.
Thus, the bearing capacity of barrettes
with the length of 63.3 meters was
calculated.
On the second construction site the
tests were conducted on root piles with a
diameter of 620 mm. According to
calculations [2] the bearing capacity of
piles is 4500 N. On the basis of these
calculations the bearing capacity of
barrettes is determined.
Tests using the bored piles with a
diameter of 820 mm were performed on
the third construction site. According to
their results it was concluded about the
increase of deformation modulus of the
last five layers of soil by three times for
calculation of barrettes.
When determining the bearing capacity
of large diameter piles it is necessary to
use the processed test results of bored
piles and values of scale factors.
Object
name,
length l,
m,
crosssection
or
diamet
er of
the pile,
m
Bearing
capacity of
the
lower
end of
the pile
FRK, kN
1
1
2
Sky
tower
l=63.3;
231.22.8
58.62
B12.81
Bearing
capacit
y
accordi
ng to
DBN,
FGK, kN
Bearing
capacity
accor
ding
to the
test
results
Fd,
kN
4
5
6
Natural soil moisture
20.2
78.82
7
84
Parus
l=28,6;
BeaNegaring
tive
friction capaon the city on
the
lateral
surfa- lateral
ce DGK, surfakN
ce FFK,
MN
3.92
16.3
11.06
18.17
18.17
2.82.8
l=32.7
1-
2.80.8
9.92
71
13.0
19.1
19.1
24.06
37.27
37.27
The
test
resul
ts of
root
piles
Mirax
plaza,
B2, B3-
Difference,
%
12.32
0.38
14.6
34.4
32.4
32.4
4. CONCLUSIONS
According to the results of tests and
calculations of large diameter piles and
barrettes it was found that the negative
friction forces on the lateral surface are
inextricably connected with the value of
the bearing capacity and quite significantly
affect it.
When designing deep foundations it is
necessary to pay attention to construction
site soil conditions, namely the presence
of unstable layers deep in the soil and
groundwater level and adopt the
guaranteed value of bearing capacity of
piles taking into account the possibility of
manifestation of negative friction.
2.78
26.56
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses gratitude to the
management of the State Research
116
117
118
th
1. ABSTRACT
The goal of the paper is to determine the properties of the host rock and perform stability analysis
of an artificially formed underground thermal bath in Demjn, Hungary.
The host formation is rhyolite tuff which is abundant in the area. Cellars and similar underground
facilities were cut in this rock for hundreds of years. What makes this case special, is that the
rhyolite tuff is quite water sensitive and have a considerable reduction in strength in saturated
state. Furthermore, the layout of the underground openings is very complex compared to a cellar
which usually cut into this formation. The aim was to determine, if the planned support was
sufficient either in construction phase and in case of pool leaking which means reduced rock mass
strength. The physical parameters of the rhyolite tuff were determined under laboratory conditions.
The complex layout of the facility made it necessary to carry out calculations both in 2D&3D. For
modelling the underground openings finite element software products (Rocscience, Cesar) were
used. The paper shows the underground thermal bath in construction phase and the experience of
the tunnel driving also concluded since the spa is now open.
2. INTRODUCTION
In 1961 exploratory drillings for oil and gas
were conducted in the area of Demjn,
Hungary. In one particular well, hot karst
water came to the surface. It was found,
that the water has unique chemical
composition, similar to Pamukkale in
Turkey, which is a hot spring spa since the
roman times, so it was obvious how to
make use of it.
By the end of 2010 they built a spa
complex in the valley which became too
* presenting author
3. GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
The spa is located south of the Bkkmountains in its foreland, in a transition
zone between the
lowlands and
mountainous area. The oldest known
formation is Triassic limestone which is
considered to be the basement rock in the
area, with a depth of 700-800 m. This is
covered by Eocene conglomerates with a
thickness of around 100m. On top of this
Oligocene sandstone and marl was
deposited with a considerable 500-600m
thickness. The last important layer was
formed during the Miocene due to volcanic
activity in the area. Several cycles of
eruption
produced
300-400m
thick
blankets of rhyolite tuff. This appears on
the surface in a 30 km wide region. The
uppermost layers are: Pleistocene clay
which was created through the erosion of
tuff. In the valleys Pleistocene and
Holocene sediments can be found: silt,
clay sometimes coarse rock debris.
3.1. Hydrogeology
Groundwater does not affect the planned
facility since its level is several meters
below the floor level.
The water which supplies the entire spa
comes from a well located a few hundred
meters away from pools. It has a depth of
696m-s (Eocene layer) with a flow rate of
500l/min. The water is 69C. As it comes
to the surface and pressure is lost, the
dissolved mineral content is precipitated.
This can sometimes occlude the duct
pipes. Near the well mentioned in the
introduction the water is let to run down on
the hillside, this way beautiful white
formations are created.
4. GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
The aim of this part was to determine the
input parameters for further calculations
and modeling. This process was divided
into four main parts: gathering existing
literature from the vicinity of the spa, field
tests and sample collection, laboratory
tests, evaluation of the information.
4.1. Field and literature exploration
Since the construction was in progress
when these investigations were to be
carried out sample collection and field
tests were easy. Some of the tunnels were
already cut, so the blocks could be
retrieved directly from the tunnel walls and
crown. It was also easier to get an idea on
120
original state
tuff
saturated tuff
Unit weight
kN/m3
Elasticity
module
MPA
Possions
ratio
-
16
270
0.22
17
40
0.23
original
state tuff
saturated
tuff
Friction
angle deg
Cohesion
MPa
Tensile
strenght
MPa
43
0,054
0,124
37
0,034
0,028
5. STABILITY ANALYSIS
5.1. 2D analysis
For the modeling Rocsciences Phase 2
finite element method software was used.
Input parameters according to Table 1 and
2. As these are characteristic values,
during a shear strength reduction analysis
strength reduction factor 1.5 or greater
was acceptable.
During the construction phase injected
anchors were installed. By an analytic
calculation we determined that the lowest
of the possible failure modes was pull out
resistance, because of the tuffs properties.
These were also taken into account in the
calculations. In construction case analysis
there was no further support. In
4.3. Results
The rock mass is mainly homogenous the
entrance area is jointed (marked with lines
on fig 2.) due to erosion and movement
towards the valley. The homogenous part
has a water content around 17-20m/m%
with an average of 1,5MPa uniaxial
compressive strength. Compared to
literature data these values correspond to
results of rhyolite tuff in the area.
When fully saturated the rock has 2425% water content and the compressive
strength is reduced to an average of
121
6. CONCLUSION
The rock mass has a sufficient stability
during construction. In the emergency
case when the tuff gets saturated it is
imperative that a drain system is created
so if there is any leaking water it wont be
absorbed by the rock. As a preventive
action a moisture monitoring system is
also recommended.
Today the spa is fully operational
without any geotechnical or structural
problems.
Figure 3. Cross section in Phase2
REFERENCES
Kleb, B. (1977) Engineering geological
evaluation of the region of Eger
R. Ulusay, J.A. Hudson. eds. (1974-2006)
The Complete ISRM Suggested
Methods for Rock Characterization,
Testing and Monitoring
http://www.cesar-lcpc.com/
https://www.rocscience.com/
5.2. 3D analysis
For the modeling CESAR-LCPC v4.0 3D
geotechnical finite element method
software was used. The modeling with this
software was quite time consuming and
complicated, therefore only one the
construction phase was analyzed.
Figure 4. Full model in CESAR
th
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the design concept, construction and testing of a box type foundation system
composed of a 100 cm thick diaphragm wall used to support foundations of the South Approach
Viaducts; which is a part of Izmit Bay Bridge Project and located at one of the most seismically
active places in the world. However, since the project location crosses North Anatolian Fault and it
lies on the secondary fault zone, different approaches are implemented for the construction of
these diaphragm walls. This paper describes the construction methodology and application stages
of project in order to maintain continuous horizontal reinforcement; which is quite different from the
traditional methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
The application which is the subject of this
paper has been implemented within the
scope of Izmit Bay Bridge, a 3-km-long
suspension bridge that crosses Izmit Bay
in Turkey. Project site is in one of the most
seismically active places in the world.
When the bridge is completed, it will be
the fourth-longest suspension bridge in
the world by the length of its central span.
The bridge will connect the Diliskelesi
peninsula to the North with the Hersek
peninsula on the south. The proposed
project site spans the plate boundary
between the Anatolian plate on the south
and the Eurasian plate on the north and
will experience significant earthquakes on
* presenting author
South
Approach
Viaducts
3. FOUNDATION CONCEPT
The performance evaluation was focused
on the following aspects:
Foundation axial capacity
Foundation performance under static
and earthquake loads
Foundation performance against fault
rupture induced displacements
Three dimensional finite difference
analyses were conducted by Fugro using
the computer program FLAC (Itasca 2011)
to develop the axial load-deflection curve
for different foundation types and sizes.
The shallow footing dimensions in plan
view that were analyzed are 30 m x 30 m
(longitudinal x transverse), 28 m x 33 m,
26 m x 33 m, 25 x 25 m, and 20 m x 20 m.
The base of the shallow foundations is at
elevation -5.5 m.
The diaphragm wall foundation system
dimensions that were analyzed are 8 m x
21 m x 13 m (longitudinal x transverse x
depth), 8 m x 21 m x 23 m, 13 m x 21 m x
23 m, and 15 m x 27 m x 23 m. The cap
size thickness was 3 meters, with the cap
bottom at -2 m. (Table 1)
Analyses were performed to evaluate
the performance of two different
foundation types for the SAV piers, a
shallow foundation and a diaphragm wall
foundation system. Due to the severity of
the
design
ground
motions,
the
superstructure
introduces
significant
moments on the foundation
Width
(m)
Length
(m)
Depth
(m)
P01
21
22
P02
21
22
P03
21
22
P04
21
17
P05
21
17
P06
21
14
P07
21
14
P08
21
14
P09
21
10
P10
21
10
P11
21
10
4. CONSTRUCTION
The design of box-type foundation
necessitates a job specific special
diaphragm wall methodology; which
requires special tools and techniques; in
order to maintain continuous horizontal
reinforcement; which is quite different from
the traditional methods. The success of
this application in achieving and
maintaining the required design loads has
paved the way for further applications
within the region with a high seismicity.
4.1. Test Panels
By bearing on mind the fact that the
selected diaphragm wall methodology was
not only the first one to be applied in
Turkey but also the number of similar
126
6. CONCLUSIONS
In general, when designing structures in
seismically active areas, foundations of
critical structures are typically located
away from known faults. However, for long
structures such as bridges, tunnels and
pipelines, a fault maybe unavoidable, and
fault rupture risk impossible to preclude. In
the
subject
project
interpreted
geotechnical and geophysical data
collected during site investigation revealed
numerous traces of the secondary fault
zone on the entire area near the south
anchorage of the main suspension bridge
and the south approach viaduct. Therefore
foundation design for the approach
structures was optimized by performing
probabilistic fault displacement hazard
analyses in combination with advanced
numerical soil structure interaction studies.
In order to cope with the above mentioned
difficulties, a box-type diaphragm wall
system
with
continuous
horizontal
reinforcement was selected as the most
suitable system.
This
paper
describes
a
new
construction method of diaphragm wall
successfully carried out in Turkey using a
continuous
horizontal
reinforcement
according to the strict HSE and Quality
Control / Quality Assurance Programs
implemented in the Project. Significant
data related to the construction and
design of the proposed system was
documented, and the technical details of
the design approach were highlighted.
This project is an important model, which
verifies that major iconic structures can be
constructed at one of the most seismically
active places in the world.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank you KASKTA A..
for both encouraging and supporting me to
participate in this conference.
REFERENCES
Fugro (2012) Soil Structure Interaction
Evaluations for the South Approach
Structures,
Izmit
Bay,
Turkey,
prepared for Otoyol Yatrm ve letme
A..
Fugro-Sial, (2012)-a, Additional Site
Investigation
Results
for
South
Approach Viaduct
Fugro-Sial,
(2012)-b,
Performance
Evaluation of Different Pier Foundation
Types
Fugro-Sial, (2013), Report on Crosshole
Sonic Logging Nondestructive Testing
of Foundation No:09
130
th
Session 3
Underground structures
th
1. INTRODUCTION
The energy requirement is increasing
worldwide and a significant portion of it is
represented by the heating and cooling
needs of buildings. In most countries, this
is currently mainly provided by gas, oil and
coal. Among the possible alternatives,
conventional geothermal systems are
recognised as clean, renewable and local
sources. However, such systems require
an initial investment and sometimes a
large area for installation, which make
them practically ineffective from the
economical point of view. To face this
issue, the so-called energy geostructures
are rapidly spreading in Europe and
around the World [1]. They are
underground structures designed for
* presenting author
Temporaryactiveanchors,
45 inclined,totallength
25m,activelength15m,
spacing2,5m
Sewer
Energydiaphragm
wallsequipped
withpolyethylene
pipes,D=25mm,
th=2.3mm
Groundwater
flowdirection
GROUND
GROUND
ADJACENTBUILDING
93,25m
Energy
diaphragm
walls
Horizontal hydraulic
conductivity
kh [m/s]
4.15103
Vertical hydraulic
conductivity
kv [m/s]
0.21103
n []
0.25
Bulk
heat capacity
c
[MJ/m3/K]
2.55
Bulk thermal
conductivity
[W/m/K]
2.26
Longitudinal
dispersivity
L [m]
3.1
Transversal
dispersivity
T [m]
0.3
Porosity
Ground
waterflow
direction
Possible
Energyslab
DIAPHRAGM WALLS
52,0m
outlet
9,5m
Groundside Parkside
25,5m
polyethylene
pipes,
D=25mm,
th=2.3mm
35,8m
Figure 4 3D model.
10,0
5,0
15,5
5,5
A
0,8
25,0
Pipes
position
9,5
Wall
Slab
7,5
1,0
5,0
B
7.0
Groundside
10,0
polyethylene
pipes,
D=25mm,
th=2.3mm
10,0
External airtemperature
Fixed temperature14C
Referencepoints
Parkside
4. NUMERICAL MODEL
A
thermo-hydraulic
mathematical
formulation was required to simulate the
thermal exchange between the fluid
circulating through the pipes, the concrete
and the surrounding soil. To this end, the
finite element software FEFLOW was
selected. The absorber pipes installed in
the wall panels were simulated through
the 1D discrete features elements
provided in FEFLOW. The 3D model
adopted is presented in Figure 4 and
Figure 5. It reproduces the geometry of
135
Externalair
Inlet
30
Temperature,T[C]
25
20
15
10
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Time,t[day]
k [m/s]
16
10
Inlet
Water
c
[MJ/m3/K]
2.2
4.2
Thermal
conductivity
[W/m/K]
2.3
0.65
Twall=18C
Twall=Tsoil=14C
Heat
capacity
Adiabaticwall
25
Temperature,T[C]
Concrete
30
20
15
10
5. RESULTS
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Time,t[day]
100
80
Exchangedheat,Q[W/m]
60
40
Peak
Steady
State
Peak
W/m
W/m
W/m2
Steady
Steady
Peak
State
State
20
0
Winter
20
40
60
Adiabaticwall
Twall=18C
Twall=Tsoil=14C
80
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Time,t[day]
W/m
W/m2
W/m2
kW
Winter
51.0
17.2
20.4
6.9
53.8
18.1
63.0
24.0
25.2
9.6
66.4
25.3
70.4
39.5
28.1
104.1
74.2
90.4
49.4
36.2
130.1
95.3
Externalair
A(5.5mdepth)
B(13mdepth)
C(20mdepth)
activationofthe
geothermal system
Temperature,T[C]
20
15
10
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Time,t[day]
6. CONCLUSION
Equipping the diaphragm walls of the
considered underground car park as
energy walls could cover the heating need
of up to 38 apartments of 70 m2
considering
Torino
underground
conditions. It has to be noticed that this
figure
is
based
on
conservative
assumptions. The energy efficiency could
be improved by equipping also the
basement slab (Figure 1). The induced
kW
Summer
98.8
25
Steady
Steady
Steady
Peak
Peak
State
State
State
W/m
kW
Summer 123.5
30
kW
100
0
W/m2
137
Structures,. 2010;10.
[8] Soga K, Qi, H., Rui Y and Nicholson
D. Some considerations for designing
GSHP coupled geotechnical structures
based on a case study. 7th International
Congress onEnvironmental Geotechnics.
Melbourne, Australia; 2014.
[9] Brandl H. Energy foundations and
other thermo-active ground structures.
Gotechnique. 2006;56(2):81122.
[10] Bottino G and Civita M. Engineering
geological features and mapping of
subsurface in the metropolitan area of
Turin, North Italy. 5th International IAEG
Congress. Buenos Aires, Argentina;
1986. p. 174153.
[11] Barla M and Barla G. Torino subsoil
characterisation by combining site
investigations and numerical modelling.
Geomechanics
and
Tunnelling.
2012;5:21431.
[12] Barla G, Barla M, Bonini M,
Debernardi D, Perino A, Antolini F and
M. G. 3D thermo-hydro modeling and
real-time
monitoring
for
a
geothermalsystem in Torino, Italy. Proc
of the XVI ECSMGE Geotechnical
Engineeringfor
Infrastructure
and
Development. Edinburgh; 2015. p. 2481
6.
[13] Krten S. Use of geothermal energy
with
thermo-active
seal
panels.
Geotechnical
Engineering:
New
Horizons. 2011;
[14] Zhang G, Xia C, Sun M, Zou Y and
Xiao S. A new model and analytical
solution for the heat conduction of tunnel
lining ground heat exchangers. Cold
Regions Science and Technology.
Elsevier B.V.; 2013;88:5966.
[15] Nicholson D, Chen Q, de Silva M,
Winter A and Winterling R. The design of
thermal tunnel energy segments for
Crossrail, UK. Proceedings of the
Institution
of
Civil
Engineers
Engineering
Sustainability.
2014;167(ES3):11834.
[16] Corrado V, Ballarini I and Corgnati SP.
National scientific report on the TABULA
activities in Italy. 2012.
th
ABSTRACT
The Hardening Soil Model introduced in the early 2000s has been widespread in the geotechnical
engineering practices as well as in several finite element packages. It is now currently used to
design all types of geotechnical structures. We put forward some useful points of vigilance for the
geotechnical engineers in the use of this model for studying urban tunnels.
1. INTRODUCTION
The constitutive model adopted for the soil
in numerical simulations aiming at
predicting deformations under service
conditions has a strong influence on the
results.
Taking
into
account
the
constructive methods and the geology, the
settlement induced by shallow tunnelling is
highly dependent on the constitutive
model. From linear elastic constitutive
models to more complicated ones,
numerous
formulations
have
been
proposed in the last fifty years.
Nevertheless, it is generally admitted that
numerical model tends to predict too wide
settlement troughs (ITA, 2007) and
therefore
to
minimize
differential
settlements on building.
This paper
presents a critical discussion on the
constitutive model most commonly used
by geotechnical engineers to design
* presenting author
2. 2D
MODELLING
OF
TUNNELS WITH THE HSM
URBAN
tunnelling
modelling.
In
particular
(PLAXIS 2D,
2015)
highlights
the
complementarities between mechanisms
which allows to treat a wide domain of soil
(graves, sands, silts and overconsolidated
clays) as a lot of geotechnical cases
(foundations, excavations, tunnels, dams
or embankments).
Regarding the tunnelling modelling and
the settlement prediction, a lot of case
studies in the literature are based on this
model ((Janin et al., 2015) or (Mller and
Vermeer,
2008)
for
example).
Furthermore, this model is used by French
design firms to design urban tunnels.
The HSM is an isotropic elastoplastic
constitutive model with a double
hardening. It constitutes a synthesis of
several models developed in the second
half of the twentieth century such as
(Duncan and Chang, 1970) or the CamClay (Potts and Zdrazkovic, 2001).
Hereafter is the list of the main
mechanism as described in (Plaxis, 2015):
- Plastic straining due to primary
compression
(compression
hardening)
- Plastic straining due to primary
deviatoric
loading
(shear
hardening) and hyperbolic stressstrain relationship
- Elastic unloading/reloading
- Failure according to the MohrCoulomb failure criterion
- Dependency of the stiffness with
the stress following a power law
It considers three elastic stiffness
parameters:
the
unloading/reloading
stiffness Eurref, the secant stiffness in
standard drained triaxial test E50ref, the
tangent stiffness for primary oedometer
loading Eoedref. The other parameters are
the failure ratio Rf, Poissons ratio for
unloading/reloading Qur, a reference value
for stresses pref, the power for stress-level
dependency m and the three parameters
of Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion: the
cohesion c, the angle of internal friction M,
the angle of dilatancy \.
K0
(-)
c
(kPa)
(deg)
(deg)
Eurref
(MPa)
10
25
100
Rf
(-)
ur
(-)
m
(-)
pref
(kPa)
0,9
0.2
100
0,7
ref
E50 =Eoed
(MPa)
ref
33
K0
(-)
c
(kPa)
0,7
10
\
(deg) (deg) (MPa)
25
100
(-)
0.2
Deviatoric stress q
400
MCfailureline
350
300
K0 NC
250
200
K0
150
100
50
0
0
0
(a)
10
5
100
200
15
300
25
20
400
500
Deviatoric stress q
400
350
300
250
Compression
hardening
Shear
Hardening
200
150
100
50
Elastic behaviour
(b)
100
200
300
400
O (%)
10
20
30
Smax (mm)
3.2
7.2
13.0 21.6
40
500
O (%)
Smax (mm)
60
65
35.6
62.8
89.0
141
0.63
0.60
0.56
(a)
White:
Light gray:
Gray:
Dark gray:
Black:
Elastic behavior
Compression hardening
Shear hardening
Comp. + shear hardening
Failure
3.
(b)
DISCUSSION
q
( p ' ) (1)
M
In the case discussed here, plastic
straining starts from the first step of
relaxation. The settlements calculated with
the HSM are more than twice larger than
those calculated with the elastic perfectly
plastic model (Table 4). The settlement
trough is also wider with the HSM. Indeed,
strains are higher where the mechanism is
activated, on the sidewall. Near the crown
and the invert, the soil has an elastic
behavior,
associated
with
the
unloading/reloading stiffness which is
three times higher than the tangent
stiffness at the early stage of the plastic
regime.
The model permits to consider a
previous overburden pressure. With a very
small overburden pressure of 50 kPa,
deformations are divided by two, very
close to those obtained in linear elasticity
(Table 4).
Deformations at this step are small
compared to next steps and final ones.
The effect of volumetric hardening is no
more visible when the stress relaxation
increases and the shear hardening
becomes more significant.
p eq
(c)
(d)
142
Smax
(mm)
3.2
0.70
Linear elasticity
1.5
0.625
HSM + overburden
pressure of 50 kPa
1.5
0.625
1
dH
q
Et 1
Ei ( 1)
(6)
qa
dq
The initial tangent stiffness is equal to
25 MPa, four times lower than the elastic
unloading/reloading
stiffness,
and
decreases with the increase of deviatoric
stress until 5 MPa when q is equal to 80 %
of qf. In soils where the initial pressure at
rest is low, the initial deviatoric stress high,
a great care has to be managed when
defining parameter E50. It is not equal to
the tangent stiffness and the tangent
stiffness will be also very different from the
unloading/reloading stiffness.
It is remarkable that this formulation
involves significant variations of stiffness
in the soil but with little consequences on
the width of the settlement trough, even if
it modifies significantly the maximum
settlement.
Ei Et
300
q (kPa)
qf
400
200
(5)
q*
qi
100
HSM
Eur
Hyperbola
0
0
143
H 1 (%) 6
MC
LE + MC
HSM
1 -3 (kPa)
300
35
50
65
40
60 20
200
100
20
K0
0
0
100
200
300
400
(1 +3 )/2 (kPa)
500
MC
LE + MC
E ur
HSM
1 -3 (kPa)
300
200
65
40
100
100
K0
0
200
300
400
(1 +3 )/2 (kPa)
c. cos M V 3 sin M
(7)
20
ref
ur
500
144
4. CONCLUSIONS
The formulation of Hardening Soil Model
has several consequences for the study of
settlements induced by urban tunnelling.
The compression hardening is activated
as soon as relaxation forces are applied
even if the solicitation is mainly shear. The
shear hardening conducts to a tangent
modulus much lower than the input
parameters E50 and Eur and to highly nonlinear displacements regarding the stress
relaxation factor. With this constitutive
model, the failure according to MohrCoulomb criterion is also delayed. The
formulation of the dependency of stiffness
with stress with a power law has a
complex influence which is difficult to
anticipate on stiffness. The HSsmall does
not improve significantly the shape of the
settlement trough and it seems difficult to
define the additional parameters.
It could be interesting to propose a
constitutive model which avoids having too
much
interdependence
between
mechanisms. The more relevant aspects
of HSM could be used for the study of
urban tunnelling: decrease in stiffness with
increase in shear stress, taking into
account unloading/reloading stiffness and
the dependency of stiffness on confining
level.
145
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Emmanuel Bourgeois from
IFSTTAR and Adrien SAITTA from EGIS
for their support and advices. Thanks to
the members of the NEWTUN project
funded
by
the
Fond
Unique
Interministriel.
REFERENCES
Benz, T.(2007) Small-strain stiffness of
soils its numerical consequences, Phd
Thesis, Universitt Stuttgart.
Duncan J. M., Chang C. Y. (1970).
Nonlinear analysis of stress and strain
in soil Journal of the Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Division, vol. 96, n5,
1629-1653.
ITA, (2007) Settlements induced by
tunneling in Soft Ground. Tunnelling
and Underground Space Technology,
vol. 22, 119-149.
Janin J., Dias D., Emeriault F., Kastner R.,
Le Bissonnais H., Guilloux A. (2015).
Numerical
back-analysis
of
the
southern Toulon tunnel measurements :
A comparison of 3D and 2D
approaches. Engineering Geology,
vol. 195, 42-52.
Hejazi, Y., Dias, D., Kastner, R. (2008)
Impact of constitutive models on the
numerical analysis of underground
constructions. Acta Geotechnica, vol.3,
251-258.
Mller S.C., Vermeer P.A. (2008). On
numerical
simulation
of
tunnel
installation
Tunnelling
and
Underground
Space
Technology,
vol.23, 461-475.
OReilly M.P., New B.M. (1982).
Settlements above tunnels in the
United Kingdom their magnitude and
Prediction. Tunnelling, vol. 82, 173181.
PLAXIS 2D (2015). Material Models
Manual.
Potts D. M., Zdravkovic L. (2001) Finite
element analysis in geotechnical
engineering : application. Thomas
Telford, London.
Schanz T., Vermeer P.A., Bonnier, B.G.
(1999) The hardening soil model:
146
th
ABSTRACT
Energy sheet pile walls offer the possibility to exploit thermal energy stored in the ground and
especially in open waters. In an ongoing research project the potential of energy sheet pile walls is
investigated. As a first step numerical simulations have been performed to analyse the impact of a
water flow on the heat extraction rate. In this context the groundwater flow was identified as one of
the most important influence parameters together with the thermal conductivity of the structure.
Furthermore, a large scale laboratory test station has been planned with the technical monitoring to
enable the measurement of heat extraction rates of energy sheet pile walls for various boundary
conditions, which is also presented in this paper. Another objective of the tests is to establish
additional influencing parameters and to serve as a basis to develop a numerical design tool.
Keywords: geothermal, energy sheet pile wall, heat extraction laboratory test
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to the thermal properties and the
prevailing temperature regime, open
waters have a large renewable energy
potential. In contrast to the ground the
energy potential of open waters still
remains almost unexploited. Energy sheet
pile walls produced by the company SPS
Energy GmbH offer the opportunity for the
future exploitation of energy stored in
open waters. Within the scope of an
ongoing research project, characteristic
values for the heat extraction rate of
energy sheet pile walls will be determined.
Furthermore, a suitable numerical tool for
the dimensioning of energy sheet pile
walls will be developed based on the
results of large scale laboratory tests.
* presenting author
v = 0 - 1,0 m/d
convection &
conduction
(groundwater, soil)
v = 0 - 1,0 m/d
convection &
conduction (open
water)
inflow
convection &
conduction
(groundwater, soil)
return flow
convection &
conduction
(groundwater, soil)
v = 0 - 1,0 m/d
thermal
conductivity
2.3 W/(mK)
concrete
thermal
wall
conductivity
pipes
of 0.4 W/(mK)
thermal
conductivity
52 W/(mK)
thermal
conductivity of
pipes
52 W/(mK)
thermal
conductivity
2.5 W/(mK)
thermal
capacity
2.7 MJ/(mK)
steel
wall
sand
(10 C)
thermal
conductivity
1,9
water
(10 C) thermal
capacity
1,8
1,7
Pi / P0 [-]
1,6
0.582 W/(mK)
4.2 MJ/(mK)
1,5
1,4
1,3
1,2
1,1
1
0
0,25
0,5
0,75
groundwater flow velocity vf [m/d]
1,9
1,8
1,7
Pi / P0 [-]
1,6
1,5
1,4
1,3
1,2
1,1
1
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
groundwater vf / open water vw flow velocity [m/d]
steel wall vf,l = vf,r (sand/sand)
steel wall vf,l = vf,w (sand/water)
Tsoil
water
container
1550
Qsoil
50
groundwater
cycle
sand
energy sheet
pile wall
circular
sealing
3200
4.1. General
To determine the efficiency of energy
sheet pile walls and to identify important
influencing parameters on the heat
extraction rate, laboratory test will be
carried out in an ongoing research project.
To simulate a realistic application, an
existing large scale test station is rebuilt
and adapted to the requirements for heat
extraction tests with energy sheet pile
walls.
1550
curcular
isolation
steel
frame
water
Qwater
open water
cycle
50
150
Twater
2800
50
50
[mm]
150
3200
cooler
temperature sensor
pump
Tout Tin
Tout Tin
Tout Tin
Qpipe
Qpipe
Qpipe
Tout
Qpipe
2500
steel grid
with fleece
water
container
circular
sealing
curcular
isolation
steel
frame
50
4.3. Geometry
The test station is installed in a 2.5 m
deep waterproof and circular isolated
basin with a base area of 3.2 m x 3.2 m. A
scheme of the complete test station and
the installed measuring equipment is
shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6. The
energy sheet pile wall consists of four cap
profiles of type HP 140S, which are
installed in the middle of the test station.
Each of the profiles is equipped with ushaped steel heat extraction pipes in the
50
150
cooler
2800
pump
temperature sensor
150
flow meter
shut-off valve
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Clauser, C. (Ed.) (2003) Numerical
simulation of reactive flow in hot
aquifers
using
SHEMAT
and
processing SHEMAT, Springer.
DIN EN 60751:2009-05. (2009) Industrial
platinum resistance thermometers and
platinum temperature sensors.
Koppmann, D., Krten, S., Mottaghy, D.
Ziegler, M. (2014) Auslegung und
Berechnung
von
Thermo-aktiven
Bauteilen bei einer vorhandenen
Grundwasserstrmung,
BBR
Jahresmagazin, 12-2014, p. 64-69.
Krten, S. (2014) Zur thermischen
Nutzung des Untergrunds mit flchigen
thermo-aktiven Bauteilen, Dissertation,
Faculty of Civil Engineering, RWTH
Aachen University.
Puttke, B. (2013) Costal Waters as
profitable Renewable Energy Source,
Coastal & Marine, Vol. 22(1), p. 16.
Rath, V., Wolf, A., Bcker, M. (2006) Joint
three-dimensional inversion of coupled
groundwater flow and heat transfer
based on automatic differntiation:
sensitvity calcuclation, verification and
synthetic
examples,
Geophyscial
Journal International 167(1), p. 453466.
th
1. INTRODUCTION
Deep braced excavation or deep sheeted
trenching is a construction technique to
build deep reinforced concrete walls in
dry, soft soil conditions. These are
manually
created
by
specialized
personnel, using a shovel, bucket and
pulley system. This process is slow and
workers are exposed to significant safety
risks.
Its field of application is mainly situated
on construction sites where there is little
clear working height and space available,
like tunnels or basements. Thus where
other competing techniques as slurry
walls, soilmix or secant piling are not
applicable.
* presenting author
3. WALLSLOTROBOT CONCEPT
3.1. Idea
During the construction of the
Schuman-Josaphat rail tunnel over
10,000m of deep braced excavations
were performed. The execution of these
excavations was determinative for the total
project duration because of the slow rate
of progress and shortage in specialized
personnel.
Because these excavations were
highly repetitive, the idea arose to
mechanize this technique. This would not
only be beneficial for the project duration
and cost but also a higher overall safety
and better ergonomic working conditions
for the workers would be achieved.
x
x
x
3.3. Conception
The
general
conception
was
developed during 2011-2013 according to
the design goals described in 3.2.
The result is a method, illustrated by
Figure 4 , in which the trench is formed by
pressing precast concrete sheeting
elements downwards while loosening the
soil at the base by means of a soil cutter.
The removal of loosened soil from the
trench is done by a grab.
155
Test setup
To demonstrate the Wallslotrobot
method it was essential to create a
realistic setting. In this case four aligned
concrete pipes, with an internal diameter
of 2.5m and a total length of 11.5m, were
anchored at ground level on a bed of
stabilized sand. Four anchors were
installed on either side of the pipe at an
angle of 17 away from the longitudinal
symmetry plane in order to minimise soil
disturbance prior to excavation. A sideand cross view of the test setup is given
by Figure 6 and Figure 7 respectively.
Testsite geology
As Brussels is the primary market for
this new technique it was chosen to obtain
a test location with a similar geology as for
the Schuman-Josaphat project. Thus a
silty and clayey Quaternary top layer with
underneath
sandy
Tertiary
layers
commonly classified as Brusseliaan. It
typically contains sandstone concretions
and possible decalcified zones.
The testing station of the Belgium
Building research Institute at Limelette is
an ideal location with a comparable
geology. Clayey tertiary layers down to 8m
below ground level with underneath the
sandy Brusseliaan. A CPT diagram and
soil classification is given by Figure 5.
Figure 5: Soil classification and CPT (C3BBRI) at the test location for slot 1
Figure 7: Cross section of the test setup
Ground Cutter
The ground cutter is designed to
minimize frontal resistance and loosen the
soil to facilitate vertical removal. In the first
stage the soil needs to be transported
from below the cutting drums to above
them. This is achieved by the combination
of the rotation of the cutting drums and the
presence of soil scrapers as displayed on
Figure 9. In addition the cutter needs to be
capable to cut through local sandstone
concretions (UCS <50MPa).
Press unit
The press unit can translate in the
longitudinal axis of the pipe on the rails.
When positioned on a desired location the
press is fixed and aligned in the pipe by a
rail locking system. Four hydraulic
cylinders are installed in order to press the
concrete sheeting elements downwards.
The reaction forces are transferred to the
pipe roof via the reaction frame.
The presence of underground
cavities due to decalcification for example
has been taken into account in the design.
To anticipate on this loss of frontal
resistance,
possibly
resulting
in
uncontrolled descent, the ground cutter,
the sheeting elements and the press are
continuously interconnected mechanically.
This link is broken only during the
placement of a new sheeting element,
therefore a static retention system is
installed to temporarily hold the concrete
shaft and the cutter.
x
x
158
Destructive testing
The sheeting element is designed for
a uniform lateral pressure of 300kPa.
However, the hypothesis of uniformity will
in practice only occur for very soft soils
(e.g. peat) and hydrostatic pressures.
Instead a favorable 3D soil arching
mechanism will emerge horizontally
between the struts, the size of the arching
effect is dependent on the soil properties,
depth, strut center distance and the
deformation of the sheeting (Piaskowski &
Kowalewski, 1965).
To assess the influence of the
arching effect, the sheeting elements were
subjected to real scale destructive testing
in the Magnel laboratory for concrete
research. Two test setups were built, one
to simulate uniform loading where the
element is placed on a mortar bed and
subjected to five equal line loads (Figure
12a). For the other setup the element was
placed on a 0.90m sand bed where it is
pushed against the bed by introducing
forces via the struts (Figure 12b).
Geometrical design
In Figure 11 the prototype sheeting
element is presented. The length and
width of the elements are based on the
current practice. The height was chosen in
function of the available working height
and was set to 0.75m for this project.
Steering performance
Due to the high effectivity of the
ground cutter, there was too little frontal
resistance to induce a steering motion by
adjusting the cutting drum speeds. Most of
the time the frontal resistance was even
negative, indicating that the ground cutter
hung on the shaft. The verticality of the
trenches is given by Graph 1.
Graph 1: Verticality of trenches T1, T2 & T3
General performance
The technical feasibility has been
successfully demonstrated. Production
rate was doubled for each trench, starting
from 20 days for T1 down to 5 days for T3.
The design goal of quintupling the
excavation time is certainly feasible.
5. PHASE 2: COMMERCIALIZATION
6. CONCLUSION
5.1. Goal
Future Foundations, a joint venture
between Denys and the Participation
Company Flanders (PMV) has been set
up to commercialize Wallslotrobot. This
phase consists of a three year action plan
for increasing the technology readiness
level (TRL) from 6 to 9 (Figure 17) to
finally bring Wallslotrobot on the market.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge
the technical support of his colleagues at
Denys, with in particular A. Janssens and
K. Van Royen for their significant
contributions and dedication.
The support and advice of the
technical bureau of construction (Seco),
Durabuild materials (Ghent University) and
the Belgian building research institute
(BBRI) is greatly appreciated.
The author gratefully acknowledges
the creativity, expertise and advice of the
originators of the Wallslotrobot concept J.
Van Wassenhove and P. Afschrift.
The Wallslotrobot feasibility project
was financially supported by the Belgian
agency for innovation by science and
technology (IWT).
8. REFERENCES
Terzaghi, K. & Peck, R.B. (1967) Soil
Mechanics in Engineering Practice,
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
Piaskowski, A. & Kowalewski, Z. (1965)
Application
of
Thixotropic
Clay
Suspensions for Stability of Vertical
Sides of Deep Trenches without
Strutting. Proc. of 6th ISSMFE, Vol.II,
pp. 526-529, Montreal.
th
FREELO is the first entertainment resort in Romania and eastern Europe that will host an
aerodynamic wind tunnel, comprised of a 17m high superstructure and an underground structure,
laid at a depth of -19.50m below natural ground level. In order to ensure a proper retaining system
for the excavation, several aspects had to be regarded and studied from the process of concept
design to monitoring works and data interpretation.
The paper presents the case history of an unique deep excavation retaining system, a dual cell
shaft comprised of two circular diaphragm walls disposed around the future structure. Special
technological aspects that generate geotechnical risk and issues from correlating structural and
geotechnical engineering will also be treated.
1. INTRODUCTION
FREELO is an ambitious and innovative
concept of entertainment developed in
Bucharest, Romania, with a flagship
attraction comprised of an indoor
aerodynamic wind tunnel. The equipment
which are part of the tunnels ensemble
will be incorporated in the interior of an
underground concrete structure laid at
approximately 19.50m below natural
ground level. The necessity of such depth
imposes the need for an excavation
retaining system, adapted to the structural
particularities and to the geotechnical
conditions of the site.
The specific structural configuration is
conditioned by the size of the equipment
* presenting author
3. CONCEPT
DESIGN
CIRCULAR SHAFT
NGL
THE
19.50m
2. GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
The geotechnical report available for the
site indicates an uniform alternation of soil
layers, as following:
0.00m ... -2.95m fillings, silty sand;
-2.95m ... -13.00m sand and gravel;
-13.00m ... -14.00m clayey silt;
-14.00m ... -16.00m sand and gravel;
-16.00 m ... -25.00 m stiff silty clay;
-24.00 m... -31.00 m sandy silt.
The hydrogeology of the site is
characterized by on-site dewatering works
and pumping tests. Based on the available
information, two groundwater levels have
been identified, the first one having its
piezometric level at approximately -4.00m
below ground level. The inferior water
level, captive in the sandy silt situated
below 24.00m depth, is under pressure
and raises to -6.00m, which is translated
in 19m of water pressure. The cover of the
second aquifer, the stiff silty clay, is a soil
layer with low permeability which isolates
communication between the two water
tables.
OF
PERIMETRAL
WALL
CONTOUR
D-WALL CONTOUR
164
165
4. STUDY
OF
THE
ADOPTED
SOLUTION
Investigating the adopted solution is
based on numerical modelling using finite
element method through dedicated
166
I1
I2
I4
I3
Instrumentedmetallicstruts
13.00m
16.50m
6. CONCLUSIONS
The FREELO project is unique in the
context
of
Romanian
geotechnical
engineering due to the limitations and
constraints encountered during the
projects evolution.
Approaching a particular and atypical
project with rigorous study and by
consulting technical literature and other
specialists from the Soletanche Bachy
Group represented key components of the
design. However, a systematic approach
and a correlation with all entities involved
in the design and execution process
results in an important impact on the
developments success.
Monitoring and geotechnical investigations
represent important aspects of the project,
and back-analysis data obtained during
the projects execution represent valuable
resources for future similar developments,
applications for circular shafts being
various.
The investors of FREELO sustain
innovative development and delivering a
successful iconic project ensures the
context for further valuable and ambitious
perspectives for Romanian geotechnical
engineering.
REFERENCES
Jaeyeon Cho, Hyunsung Lim, Sangseom
Jeong, Kyoungyul Kim, Analysis of
lateral earth pressure on a vertical
circular shaft by considering the 3D
arching
effect,
Tunnelling
and
Underground Space Technology 48
(2015) 1119.
Nadine Miller, Risk Analysis for a
Proposed Underground Library at MIT Diaphragm Wall, Shaft and Tunnel
System (B.A.Sc. Geological and
Mineral
Engineering
Thesis),
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Toronto,
2001.
Tan Rwe Yun, Numerical study of a large
diameter shaft in old alluvium (Master
Of Engineering Department Of Civil
Engineering
Thesis),
National
University Of Singapore, 2004.
Artemis Ioanni Theophilou, Structural
design of an underground cylindrical
shell, (Master of Engineering in Civil
and
Environmental
Engineering
Thesis), Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 2001.
Hsiung, B.C.B., Tsai, Y.Y., Tsai, C.C.,
Analysis and Construction of Cross
Passage of Delhi Metro, Indian
Geotechnical Conference 2010,
GEOtrendz, December 1618, 2010,
IGS Mumbai Chapter & IIT Bombay.
170
th
ABSTRACT
The Asian Transition Box (ATB) is part of the Eurasia Tunnel Project and was constructed in 2013.
It is 168m in length, up to 40m deep and was the launch pit for the tunnel boring machine. The
design of the excavation support system posed some significant challenges and it proved
necessary to redesign the system once excavation had begun following unexpected ground
movements and the trigger of amber alert levels. The redefined parameters were an extension to
the traditional guidance for the locally well-known Trakya Formation and required new descriptions
and parameters to those that are usually used. The new approach required robust justification to
allow variation from conventional practice. This paper gives an overview of the Eurasia Tunnel
Project, with a detailed focus on the ATB construction and the redesign work undertaken.
2. DESIGN ELEMENTS
The main elements for the 14.6km route
are shown in Figure 2. The approximate
lengths of the alignment components are
as follows:
x 5.4km European approach roads
x 3.8km Asian approach roads
x 3.4km TBM tunnel
x 1.0km NATM tunnel
x 1.0km cut and cover tunnel
The maximum depth of the TBM tunnel is
106.4m below the Bosphorus surface
water level, meaning that the TBM will be
4. GROUND INVESTIGATION
Three
main
phases
of
ground
investigation were completed for the
project, between 2010 and 2012.
A total of 12 boreholes were installed
for the ATB, with an average depth of
36m. The majority of rock core was logged
as sandstone, with thick zones of
mudstone and thin zones of fault breccia,
as well as diabase (dolerite) intrusions (a
subvolcanic mafic rock).
Rock mass classification highlighted
that the rock was poor quality, but this was
not fully reflected in the derived
geotechnical parameters. There were
numerous iterations of the geotechnical
parameter table put forward for design; a
clear indication that it was challenging to
confidently assign parameters to the
materials.
The final version showed the rock
divided into four zones; fair, poor, very
poor and extremely poor, with effective
friction angle (I) ranging between 20o and
35o and the effective cohesion (c) ranging
between 60kPa and 160kPa.
5. ATB DESIGN
The ATB is 168m in length and up to 40m
deep. Various options were considered for
the support of excavation design, although
all centred on the use of piled walls with
prestressed ground anchor tiebacks,
which was considered to be the preferred
construction method of local contractors.
173
6. EXCAVATION
Excavation began in April 2013. Examples
of the ground conditions revealed during
excavation are shown Figures 6 and 7. As
indicated in Figure 7, the material at some
locations was extremely weak and clayey
and coud be excavated by hand. It was
clear that in these instances, the material
did not accord with the geotechnical
design parameters. Also, groundwater
was a problem and was observed flowing
from the excavation walls and collecting in
the base of the excavation.
7. REDESIGN (PARAMETERS)
The redesign considered the live
monitoring data in parallel with revisiting
the original geotechnical parameter
174
8. REDESIGN (ANALYSIS)
9. COMPLETION
10. CONCLUSIONS
Ground conditions encountered during
construction can often differ to those
anticipated from ground investigations or
existing knowledge. The experiences of
the ATB illustrate the real consequences
of this problem.
A far greater importance must be
placed on comprehensive GI and
175
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Author would like to thank the
following people for their invaluable
assistance: Adrian Dolecki and Mark
Glendinning from Parsons Brinckerhoff
Cardiff, Tolga Toan and Ray Castelli
from Parsons Brinckerhoff New York, and
Anl Kurban from IGT Muhendislik.
REFERENCES
Clough, G. W. and ORourke, T. D. (1990).
Construction induced movements of
insitu walls. ASCE Special Publication
25.
Keskin, H. B. (2008). Analysis of the
performance of retaining systems in
deep excavations in greywackes. PhD
Thesis, Boazii University.
Effective
implementation
and
management
of
the
observational
approach, along with proactive use of
monitoring data to reappraise ground
conditions and allow dynamic redesign,
was key to the success of the project.
176
th
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
CONCEPT OF BACK-ANALYSIS
178
Soilmodel
LayerName
Toplevel
mRel
Bottomlevel mRel
model
type
unsat
kN/m3
sat
kN/m3
einit
E50
MN/m2
Eoed
MN/m2
Eur
MN/m2
m
UR
T1
HS
HS
HS
T2
HS
HS
Hssmall
Cl
13,05
50
HS
HS/HSsmall
HS/HSsmall
Drained
Drained
UndraindedB
19
20
0,8
20,5
21
0,45
20,5
21
0,55
5
5
15
0,6
75
75
300
0,5
25
25
125
1
0,2
6
26
0
0,2
1
38
8
0,2
577
0,56
0,38
10
1,27
G0
kN/m2
kN/m2
MN/m2
55
10
48
140
5
140
312
200
300
o,7
0,00025
0,0003
0,001
Rinter
OCR
POP
kN/m2
0,667
OK
1
0
0,667
OK
1
0
0,667
OK
2,5
0
su,REF
su,INC
K0,x
pREF
tensilestrength
T1T2T3
saGr
6,6
13,05
kN/m2
kN/m2
kN/m2/
m
T3
Hssmall
Hssmall
Hssmall
siSa
0
6,6
3.
RESULTS
analysed.
Beside
the
control
of
movements, the internal forces arise in the
wall are a crucial question for
practitioners. Present chapter gives a
short comparison of these calculated by
the different methods.
Bending moments and shear forces
calculated by GEO5, PLAXIS 2D and
PLAXIS 3D models for soil model T2 at
stage when excavation is finished are
shown in Figure 17 and 18 respectively.
These figures show only F2 type wall
models results of 3D calculation for better
visibility. Analysing the graph of the
bending moments, it can be diagnosed
that the 2D models by GEO5 and PLAXIS
with T1 soil model are fitted to each other
very well.
CLAYMODEL
K0 Drained/Undrained
3DPLXT2F2
1,27
Undrained
3DPLXT2F2MOD1 1,27
Drained
3DPLXT2F2MOD2 1,00
Drained
3DPLXT2F2MOD3 1,00
Undrained
Figure 15. 3D PLAXIS models with different
clay models
horizontal
Figure 23
moments
axis are
4.
CONCLUSIONS
th
Session 4
Retaining structures
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
_______________________________________________________________________
ZUBLIN ROMANIA SRL
Sediu social: Strada Calea 13 Septembrie nr. 90, Sector 5, Bucuresti, cod 050726
Punct de lucru: Strada Domnita Ruxandra nr.12, Sector 2, Bucuresti, cod 020562
Tel: +40-21-212-08-89; +40-21-212-08-91; +40-37-275-30-03;
Fax: +40-21-212-57-47
www.zublin.ro Email: office@zublin.ro
Figure2.Anchorswithstaggeredanchoragelength
The anchor was 22.5 to 26 meters length, the bulb length of 8-10m and angles between 10o and 17o with a
lock-off load by 1000kN.
The anchors were performed in sand, clay and sometimes performed in sand with underwater pressure.
During the testing phase, according to the designer requirements, we tension the anchor with a coefficient of
1.5 the working tension about 1500kN- which is rather impressive if we look at the anchor's body.
Steps for the execution of the temporary strand anchors (see the Figure 3.):
1. Drilling of the borehole and filling with grout
2. Installing the anchors into the borehole
3. Primary injection with grout
4. Secondary injection with grout after 24 hours
5. Stressing the anchorages up to 1.25 their working tension and blockage at 0.8 as the designer
demanded
6. The total number of executed anchorages was 155
`
Figure 4. Effort distribution
Disadvantages of the strand anchors:
For the anchors with staggered bond length the disadvantage is stressing procedure witch is more complicated
as the different free length has to be compensated to achieve equal loads in different strands. (see Figure no. 5 Tension
Elongation)
th
Zblin A/S
ABSTRACT
Zblin A/S is a part of the MetNord JV who design and construct the Metro Cityringen Branch off
to Nordhavnen. The project consists of the Nordhavn Station, a Cut and Cover tunnel, a ramp
which takes the trains up to ground level and a bored tunnel from Nordhavn Station to
stersgade, where it is connected to the Cityringen Metro. Zblin A/S has been responsible for
the design of the temporary structures which is mainly carried out as multiple supported secant pile
walls, supported by pre-stressed ground anchors.
The first design was carried out by modelling the secant pile walls with SPOOKS which uses the
theory of J. Brinch Hansen, commonly used in Denmark, for the ultimate limit state and the finite
element program Plaxis for the serviceability limit state. Due to the limitation of Brinch Hansens
theory and discussions about stress-strain compatibility, the Employer doubted that the
deformations necessary for activate active and passive earth pressure were sufficient in the
ultimate limit state. Therefore the final design ended up being a combination of SPOOKS for the
ultimate limit state and a PLAXIS model for ultimate limit state to verify the results of SPOOKS and
a serviceability limit state calculation also with PLAXIS.
This paper tries to investigate the influence by introducing PLAXIS into an ULS calculation by
making different variations of inputs that changes the stiffness of the system and thereby
influences the stress-strain compatibility. The results will be compared with the results found with
Brinch Hansen theory and discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
As a part of the Metro Cityringen in
Copenhagen the Joint Venture (MetNord
JV) consisting of Zblin and Hochtief are
building the first part of the branch off to
Nordhavnen,
consisting
of
an
underground Station, a Cut & Cover
tunnel and a Ramp going up to the
surface level and ending as an elevated
track, see Figure 2.
* presenting author
Figure 1.Location of the new underground Nordhavn Station, Cut & Cover tunnel and Ramp
192
3.
SOIL AND
CONDITION
GROUND
WATER
Soil
layer
/m
kN/m
kN/m
MN/m
0.3
Eoed
2
Fill
17/19
30
Clay till
22/22
34
20
Dist.
Limestone
22/22
45
50
750
0.250.30
22/22
45
100
900
0.250.30
Limestone
12+1500x
1)
red
0.3
1)
4. SPOOKS CALCULATION
For the investigations in this paper a
SPOOKS calculation of a cross section at
the station is included. The section has
two anchor levels and an excavation
depth of 17.5 m. Figure 4 shows the
results at the final excavation stage giving
the bending moment, anchor force and
necessary toe level.
x
x
Over-consolidation ratio
Type of soil model Mohr Coulomb
or Hardening Soil?
x Pre-stressing level for the anchors
A sensitivity study of the different
parameters have been carried out with
focus on anchor load and bending
moment. The different investigation is
done on the same model and with the
same reference result to compare with.
The results of the SPOOKS calculation
from section 4 are included in the
comparison. Eroare! Fr surs de
referin. shows the PLAXIS model used
in the investigation. The pre-stressed
ground anchors are modelled as node-tonode tension elements for the free length
and the bond length is modelled as
geogrid element. The upper anchor layer
is installed with an inclination of 30 and
lower anchor layer with 40. The secant
pile wall is modelled with plate element
with elastic properties. The characteristic
surface load is 20 kPa.
After each main excavation steps an ULS
step is calculated. This is done with a PhiC reduction with a target value of 1.32 and
an increased load to the design load of 30
kPa, which correspond to the partial safety
factor for the effective soil parameters. A
Mohr-Coulomb material model with
drained parameters is used for all soil
layers. The influence on the deformations
will not be considered in this paper.
Bending
moment
[kNm/m]
1287
Upper
load
anchor [kN/m]
196
Lower
load
anchor [kN/m]
868
Toe level
[m]
-18.95
5. PARAMETER STUDY
When introducing PLAXIS into an ULS
calculation, it gives many options and
different inputs that can be adjusted. For
the secant piles at MetNord a number of
inputs will have an influence on results.
That is:
x Stiffness of the wall cracked or
uncracked concrete properties?
x Stiffness of the soil layer in this
case the clay till
x Interface reduction factor, Rinter.
194
197
HS
Erefur
Eref50
Erefoed
[kPa]
[kPa]
[kPa]
[-]
106E3
35E3
35E3
0.8
Bending
moment
- M-
Bending
moment
- M+
Anchor Anchor
forceforce A1
A2
[kNm/m]
[kNm/m] [kN/m]
[kN/m]
MC
-1314
1531
194
768
HS
-1343
1565
212
769
198
Combination
[]
c [kPa]
30
10
30
20
34
20
34
30
6. INFLUENCE
OF
STRENGTH
PARAMETERS
To show that the strength parameters
have a bigger influence on the bending
moment and anchor forces than most of
the stiffness inputs investigated in the
previous section, 4 calculations with
different strength parameters is carried
out. The 4 combinations are shown in
7. CONCLUSIONS
From the four different analyses it can be
concluded that the stiffness dependent
parameters do not influences the section
forces and anchor forces, when the soil
199
th
ABSTRACT
In Finland retaining walls are designed by using design approach 2 according to SFS-EN 1997.
National choices for load combinations and for partial factors have been made based on limited
number of comparison calculations. Recently, few flaws have been detected in current design. In
this paper, improvements for retaining wall design in Finland are proposed. Performance of the
current design approach and EN1997-1 design approaches were tested with three calculation
examples, by variating soil strength and loads. DA1 gave the most constant design with its two
combinations. Partial factors should be applied to loads and soil strength parameters, depending
on design situation. Finnish DA2 gave the poorest results. As a result, author suggests that
minimum change would be to use DA2 with recommended values and with one load combination
(6.10). Better choice would be to use modified DA1, where the partial factors for permanent and
variable loads are equal.
1. INTRODUCTION
The work toward next generation of
eurocodes is going on, and thus all
eurocodes are under a critical review. This
also includes EN1997-1 for geotechnical
design, which gives the design instructions
for i.e. shallow foundation design,
retaining wall design, slope design and
pile design. Moreover, every country can
determine their own National Annex,
where they choose for example which
design
approach
to
use
(three
possibilities) in design and what the values
for different partial factors are. This has
been led to big variations in the design
procedures and design results between
* presenting author
6.10a:
1.35KFIGk,sup+0.9Gk,inf
6.10b:
1.15KFIGk,sup+0.9Gk,inf+1.5KFIQk,1+1.5K
FI 0,iQk,i
KFI- factor takes into account the reliability
class (consequence class) of the design.
202
3. OBSERVED
CURRENT
FINLAND
PROBLEMS IN THE
DESIGN APPROACH IN
4. UNCERTAINTY OF LOADS
In the eurocode the applied load factors
for geotechnical design comes from
structural design. One should then keep in
mind, that the uncertainties involved might
be quite different in geotechnical
engineering. In the retaining wall design
the permanent load is formed by the earth
pressure.
The uncertainty of earth
pressure consists at least uncertainties in
strength parameters, earth pressure
theory and calculation model. Most of the
calculation processes are nonlinear
functions (like Jaky, Mohr-Coulomb),
where a little deviation in the starting
values can lead to big deviation in the
results. Obviously, a load factor of 1.15
(Finnish NA) can be kept rather insufficient
for retaining wall design. Moreover, the
use of small partial factor for permanent
loads leads to small overall safety factor,
because its importance to total factor of
safety is high.
It can also be discussed if it is justified
to require a higher load factor for a
Case 2
The second calculation example is an
anchored sheet pile wall in soft clay (figure
3). The excavation is 10 meters deep,
reaching the rock surface. The sheet pile
wall is supported by three rows of prestressed rock anchors placed at 1, 3.5 and
7 meters below ground level. Installation
angle of the anchors is 45 degrees. The
toe of the wall is anchored to rock with
rock bolts in the excavation phase. For
final condition a concrete beam is made at
the toe of the wall.
5. CALCULATION EXAMPLES
5.1. Basis of the study
A detailed study has been performed to
study the different design approaches in
retaining wall design (Knuuti 2015, Knuuti
and Lnsivaara 2015). Three different
calculation examples were created in
order to compare how different DAs can
match up with the assumed variations in
ground properties and variable actions.
Case 1
The first calculation example is an
embedded sheet pile wall retaining a 4 m
deep excavation in sand (figure 2). The
characteristic unit weight of the sand is
k=18kN/m3, friction angle k=40 and
effective cohesion ck=0 kPa. The wall is
supported by a single row of struts
installed at one meter below ground level.
A variable imposed surcharge of 10kPa
acts at the top of the wall. Groundwater
level is assumed to be deep.
Case 3
The third calculation example is a twostorey underground car park where the
sheet pile wall forms a permanent wall
structure (figure 4). The wall is supported
by three reinforced concrete slabs at
levels 3.8, 0.7 and -2m. Soil consists of
two meters of fill followed by 20 meter
thick, stiff clay layer. Depth dependent
characteristic undrained shear strength of
the clay is suk=35+1.2kPa/m and unit
weight k=15 kN/m3. A variable imposed
surcharge of 20kPa acts at the head of the
wall. Groundwater level is at ground level
on the retained side and maintained at
formation level on the restraining side. The
excavation is made using top-down
method with step wise exaction for
temporary support of the wall.
6. CONCLUSION
Based on presented design cases the
design approach 1, with its two
combinations, seems to produce the most
consistent design. In the design case 2,
where the soil strength was low, it is
recommended to put the partial safety
factors to loads rather than soil strength.
In design cases 1 and 3, the situation was
opposite. This has been illustrated in
figures 5 and 6.
REFERENCES
Bond, A. (2013). Simplifying Eurocode 7s
design approaches. Task for Evolution
Group 8 Harmonization at the SC7
meeting in Madrid in April 2013
CEN. 2002. EN 1990: Eurocode - Basis of
structural design. Comit Europen de
Normalisation
CEN. 2004. EN 1997-1: Geotechnical
design Part 1: General rules. Comit
Europen de Normalisation
DS/EN 1997-1 DK NA:2013 Nationalt
anneks til Eurocode 7: Geoteknik- Del
1:Generelle regler
SFS-EN 1990: Eurocode Basis of
structural design. Finnish National
Annex
SFS-EN 1997-1: Geotechnical design
Part 1: General rules. Finnish National
Annex
Knuuti, M. (2015). Retaining wall design
according to EN 1997 uncertainties in
design and application of safety,
Master of Science Thesis, Tampere
University of Technology, Tampere,
2015.
Knuuti, M. and Lnsivaara, T. (2015).
Varmuuden
kohdentamisesta
tukiseinien
mitoituksessa.
Liikenneviraston
tutkimuksia
ja
selvityksi, Finnish Transport Agency,
2015.
Lnsivaara, T. and Poutanen, T. (2013).
Safety concepts for slope stability.
Tampere University of Technology.
Phoon, K.-K. and Kulhawy, F.H and
Grigoriu, M.D. (1995). Reliability-based
design of
foundations
for
transmission lines structures. Electric
Power Research Insti tute, Palo Alto,
Report TR-105000.
Vianova. 2011. Novapoint GeoCalc
Supported Excavation Theory. Versio
2.2., 25.3.2011. Vianova Systems
Finland Oy
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
At minimum, Finland should start to use
design approach 2 with recommended
values and with only one load
combination, 6.10 (G=1.35; Q=1.5). The
other possibility would be to use modified
design approach DA1, where permanent
and transient loads are treated equally in
combination 1(same partial factor for both)
and in combination 2, the safety is applied
only to soil strength parameters. This
option would need more investigations.
Also DA2 would most likely benefit from
equal partial factors for permanent and
variable loads.
207
208
th
ABSTRACT
The presented research topic explores the probabilistic assessment of a retaining wall, dealing with
reliability-based analysis of soil-structure interaction using the Finite Element Method (FEM). This
is not only important in the context of an assessment, but also to gain insight and develop the
instruments that allow engineers to use reliability/probabilistic approaches for decision making. The
developments that link FEM and probabilistic methods started a few years ago, and this solution
seems ideal to quantify the hidden conservatism in the usually carried out semi-probabilistic
assessments, since (usually) the employed safety factors are derived from simple models and
limited probabilistic calculations together with several conservative assumptions. The main goals of
this paper are to present the potential of a reliability-based analysis, and guide the reader through
all the implementation, coupling of the FEM model and the reliability analysis, for a retaining wall
example.
1. INTRODUCTION
The assessment of an existing structure is
a common concept for engineers. In the
particular case of the Netherlands, flood
defense structures are periodically tested
against legal safety standards. These
standards are in terms of maximum
allowable probabilities of flooding, and as
a result, a set of instruments for assessing
the safety of flood defenses were, and still
are, being developed within the project
Legal safety assessment 2017 (Dutch
acronym WBI 2017). The WBI 2017 will
include probabilistic and semi-probabilistic
assessment procedures for the different
types of flood defenses, such as dikes,
dunes and hydraulic structures.
* presenting author
2. UNCERTAINTY
AND
RELIABILITY
BACKGROUND
Most of the times, designs are based on a
semi-probabilistic approach, using safety
factors for load (S) and resistance (R)
parameters. Latest developments and the
possibility
to
perform
numerous
computations, allow reliability based
designs or assessments introducing
uncertainties from all the involved
parameters. It is, therefore, possible to
determine the probability of failure (or the
reliability) of the system, which will lead
towards a more "rational" design, without
the need of safety factors, which
sometimes are not specified on design
codes. In order to obtain a reliability
assessment/design we set up the
performance function(s), define the
random variables and the target reliability.
RS
pf1 pf 2
P > Z1 0@ P > Z 2 0@
(1)
(2)
ET
P > Z 0@ pfT
) 1 pfT
(3)
3. THE COUPLING
3.1. FEM software
The
conventional
method
for
a
geotechnical stability analysis in a soil
body is represented by the Limit
Equilibrium methods (LEM) although FEM
is increasingly used by researchers. The
latter had been proved quite realistic for
the progressive behaviour (i.e. stressstrain
development
in
different
construction phases) of a soil system
under the effect of stress redistribution in
comparison with LEM (Johansson &
Sandeman, 2014). Moreover, FEM
seemed to perform also better for the
simulation of retaining walls in comparison
with the classical methods (Blum, Engel,
Krey etc.) (Gonzlez et al., 2013).
Therefore, in this research, the FEM
simulation is carried out with the
commercial software Plaxis 2D 2015.
RA method
Random variables
Correlation matrix
Limit state function (LSF)
Reliability module
interface
(4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)
Z sheet pile
min Z anchor
Z
soil
(4)
Where:
5. LESSONS
4.4
4.2
3.8
3.6
AND
0.5
LEARNED
CONCLUSIONS
Reliabilityindex
-1.5
[reliability results]
3.4
3.2
3
216
th
Keywords: dry dock, sheet piles, deep excavation, PLAXIS, flood defence
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PROJECT LOCATION
* presenting author
office
PrimaryFloodDefence
Figure 1. Project location with the dry dock marked in green, surrounding structures in yellow
and the primary flood defence in red Bing Maps (2016).
Friction, fs [MPa]
predrilled
Soil Type
Sand, with some rubble /
man-made soil
-1.6 to -2.0 m
-4.8 to -6.8 m
-7.2 to -10.3 m
Sand, dense
-36.5 to -40.7 m
Clay, silty
(overconsolidated)
-38.3 to -42.9 m
Sand, dense
-45 m
218
Table 2. Effective strength parameters for the predesign of the dry dock, based on DKM4
Top of layer
in m depth*
0
Soil Type
Sand, with
manmade
traces
of
rumble/
Junsat / Jsat
in kN/m3
(phi)
in deg.[]
c
in kPa
18 / 20
32,5
-4.6
18 / 20
32,5
-8.1
Clay, sandy
18 / 18
22,5
-8.6
18 / 20
32,5
-9.6
Peat
12 / 12
15,0
2,5
-11.4
Clay, silty
17 / 17
17,5
-12.7
Sand, dense
18 / 20
32,5
Junsat / Jsat are the dry and wet unit wheight of the soil.
(phi) is the internal friction angle of the soil.
c is the effective cohesion, i.e. shear strength, of the soil.
*surface level equals NAP +4.0 m.
219
Foundation of superstructure
3. CHALLANGES
AND
OPPERTUNITIES
One of the important geotechnical
challenges is the asymmetrical loading
condition of the dry dock. In Figure 1 it can
been seen that the dock replaces an
existing quay wall. Figure 3 and Figure 4
show the cross section of the dock. The
different load conditions by the soil and
water are clearly shown.
To limit deformations it is preferable to
apply anchors. The anchors transfer
tension loads into the deep sand layer.
However, only the retaining walls at the
landside can be supplied with anchors. At
the riverside anchors are not possible. The
only lateral support in the final situation of
the retaining wall at the riverside is
through the docks floor at 10 m depth.
Besides the asymmetrical loading
conditions other high loads act on the
structure as well. These high loads are
caused by the inclined anchors, the gantry
crane and alternating wind loads acting on
the superstructure. These loads are
transferred to the retaining walls and to
foundation elements at short distance from
the retaining walls. The loads cause a
complex load distribution in the structure.
Another challenge is the interaction with
the primary flood defence. In 2000 the
dike was reinforced by a cofferdam of
sheet piles. The cofferdam consists of two
rows of AZ26 sheet piles. At the outer
dike, i.e. south side, the sheet piles reach
down to NAP -13,0 m. At the inner dike
section the sheet piles reach to NAP
-15,0 m.
Due to the hinterland which is an urban
area, the safety of this dike must always
be guaranteed. In addition large lateral
loads on the retaining walls are caused by
the dike. Furthermore, in the design a
future dike reinforcement has to be
included without additional measures for
4. DESIGN
This section discusses not all design
aspects, but highlights the most interesting
topics. Besides
these
topics the
foundation, consisting of compression and
tension piles, is calculated using the
Eurocode 7, the sheet piles are designed
according the Dutch design guideline for
sheet piles (CUR166) and the hydrologic
study is performed using the software
package Watex.
4.1. Retaining Walls
To simulate the interaction due to the
asymmetrical excavation an interaction
calculation was performed. This study is
performed using the software package
D-Sheetpiling of Deltares, which is based
on a spring model to simulate the soil
behaviour. In a later stage the calculations
are
verified
using
FEM-software
PLAXIS 2D.
221
Iterative Procedure
The sheet pile walls on the landside and
riverside have been modelled in a
separate model. On the landside anchors
are applied. The supports, i.e. dock floor
and struts if applicable, will transfer the
loads from the riverside to the landside.
To investigate the interaction between
both walls in the cross section the
following iterative procedure is used:
1. Both side walls are analysed without
interaction,
using
the
same
constructive phasing. Supports are
modelled with springs.
2. The loads in the supports on the
riverside are derived and applied on
the landside in the corresponding
phase. This is the first iteration step.
3. From
this
calculation
the
deformation at the level of the
support is derived at the landside.
On the riverside the supports
stiffness is reduced to meet the
deformation of the support on the
landside.
4. The model on the riverside is
calculated with the less stiff support.
From this new calculation the forces
in the support are derived and again
applied on the landside. This is the
second iteration step.
5. If the difference between the
deformations is sufficiently small the
iteration is stopped. Otherwise the
steps from no. 3. to no. 5. are
repeated until the displacements
meet the criteria.
In this case the displacements on the
riverside should be within 5% of the
previous iteration. This exercise is
performed in the serviceability limit state
(SLS) as displacements are considered.
Figure 5 shows the final model with the
spring supports and corresponding loads.
222
FEM
FEM
Spring.
Mmax;riverside
in kNm/m1
478
474
0.99
umax;riverside
in mm
29
17
0.60
Mmax;landside
in kNm/m1
503
287
0.57
umax;landside
in mm
77
57
0.74
4.2. Dike
The use of a free sheet pile wall is not
feasible at the landside or next to the dike.
Using anchoring the deformations, sheet
pile length and size, and thereby the
hindrance due to installation effects, are
reduced by a considerable amount.
As anchoring system a grout anchor
was chosen. This type of anchor can be
installed with non to low relaxation of the
subsoil. Using a specific casing the
grouted anchor body can be installed with
a high overpressure, to avoid leakage
through the dike along the anchor rod.
Properly installed anchors may improve
the stability and reduces the risk of a
leakage. To generate enough tensile
strength the anchoring body is located
approx. 9 m in the Pleistocene sand layer
(15 m below surface level, i.e. NAP
-40 m).
224
th
AGL Consulting, Suite 2, The Avenue, Beacon Court, Sandyford, Dublin 18, IRELAND
ABSTRACT
The thermal treatment plant for municipal waste in Ringsend is expected to be operational by late
2017. This paper discusses the design of a temporary cofferdam to facilitate construction of the
pump station structure for the plant and the construction of the permanent sheet-pile walls for the
cooling water intake channel, both located within Dublin Port. The cofferdam has been designed as
a fully-interlocked sealed cofferdam partially in open water with the sheet-piles penetrating into
Dublin Port Clay so that the excavation/construction works can be carried out in the dry. Two levels
of temporary internal propping frames have been used to construct the 12m deep cofferdam; the
lower propping arrangement is the biggest ever used by Groundforce in Ireland. The construction
stages have been modelled using the PLAXIS 2D finite element program accounting for soilstructure interaction and out-of-balance forces across the cofferdam and intake channel.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Dublin Waste to Energy Project is a
Public Private Partnership between Dublin
City Council and Covanta, one of the
world's largest owners/operators of
infrastructure for the conversion of waste
to energy (WtE). The thermal treatment
plant for municipal waste in Poolbeg,
Ringsend is expected to be operational by
late 2017 and will generate energy from
up to 600,000 tonnes of waste per year
(http://dublinwastetoenergy.ie/).
In this paper, the design of two sheetpile retaining structures are discussed,
namely a temporary cofferdam to facilitate
construction of the pump station structure
for the plant, and the permanent sheet-pile
* presenting author
2. DESIGN APPROACH
Design has been carried out in
accordance with IS EN 1997-1:2005
(referred to as EC7 hereafter) and the
accompanying Irish National Annex. An
ultimate limit state analysis using Design
Approach 1 of EC7 has been adopted.
This requires two combinations of partial
factors to be considered, namely DA1.C1,
which considers the effect of load
uncertainties,
and
DA1.C2,
which
considers
the
uncertainty
in
the
geotechnical parameters. The single
source principle has been used.
Design has been carried out using the
finite element computer program PLAXIS
2D 2012 (Brinkgreve et al., 2012) and
checked (for simple conditions only) using
the limit equilibrium program Geocentrix
REWARD 2.7 (Bond & Spencer, 2013).
The REWARD output is not presented in
this paper. Allowance has been made for
a temporary overdig of 0.5m for the
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) during
construction for both the cofferdam and
the intake channel. Phi-c reduction
analyses have also been carried out to
Site Location
Existing
western
sheet-pile
wall
Existing
eastern
sheet-pile
wall
Depth to
top of stratum
(mbgl)
Depth to
bottom of
stratum
(mbgl)
Elevation at
top of
stratum
(mOD)
Elevation at
bottom of
stratum
(mOD)
Layer
Thickness
(m)
Made Ground
0.0
4.5
4.0
-0.5
4.5
4.5
7.0
-0.5
-3.0
2.5
7.0
7.9
-3.0
-3.9
0.9
7.9
21.0
-3.9
-17.0
13.1
Port Clay
21.0
35.0
-17.0
-31.0
14.0
Glacial Gravels
35.0
39.0
-31.0
-35.0
4.0
Limestone
39.0
-35.0
Youngs
Modulus,
E' / Eu
(MPa)
At-Rest
Coefficient
of Lateral
Earth
Pressure,
K0
Peak
Friction
Angle,
I'p ( )
Effective
Cohesion /
Undrained
Shear
Strength,
c' / cu
(kPa)
Made
Ground
40 / -
1-sinI'p
34
1/-
21
0.2 / -
Upper
Sands &
Gravels
15 / -
1-sinI'p
32
1/-
21
0.2 / -
Soft Clay
& Silt
7.5 / 9
1-sinI'p
30
1 / 30
18
0.2 / 0.495
Lower
Sands &
Gravels
50 / -
1-sinI'p
37
1/-
22
0.2 / -
Port Clay
35 / 45
0.6
32
1 / 100
20.5
0.2 / 0.495
Glacial
Gravels
100 / -
1.0
38
1/-
22
0.2 / -
Limestone
2000 / -
1.0
50
250 / -
25
0.2 / -
Bulk Unit
Weight,
Poissons
ratio,
Q'/ Qu
J
(kN/m3)
Figure 4. Pump Station Cofferdam (a) Aerial Photograph (BAM Civil) (b) Groundforce Props
Prop @ +2mOD
Prop @ -3mOD
Berm
HAT @ +2.0mOD
-19.0mOD
Internal Wall
External Wall
Max. = 1437.0kNm/m
Max. = 243.9mm
Figure 7. Gravel drain to east, south, and
north walls of cofferdam
5. FE ANALYSES RESULTS
230
Figure 12. Ground movements behind the inner (west) wall 1m below ground level (a) horizontal
(b) vertical
231
6. COMPARISON OF FE ANALYSES
7. COOLING
CHANNEL
WATER
INTAKE
232
Prop @ +2.85mOD
HAT @ +2.0mOD
Anchor @ +2.5mOD
-10.8mOD (including 0.5m overdig)
-19.0mOD
Internal Wall
External Wall
Figure 14. Cooling Water Intake Channel: Excavation to -10.8mOD (including 0.5m overdig)
8. COOLING
WATER
CHANNEL ANALYSES
INTAKE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank BAM Civil
and Covanta for permission to use the
data presented in the paper. The author is
also very grateful to Dr. David Gill of AGL
Consulting for his valuable input.
REFERENCES
Arcelor Mittal (2008) Arcelor Mittal Piling
Handbook, 8th Edition.
Bond, A. & Spencer, I. (2013) Geocentrix
REWARD 2.7, Geocentrix Ltd., UK.
Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Engin, E. & Swolfs,
W.M. (2012) PLAXIS 2D 2012, PLAXIS
B.V., The Netherlands.
BS8081:1999 (Code of practice for ground
anchorages).
http://dublinwastetoenergy.ie/ Accessed:
29/12/2015.
IS EN1537:2013 (Execution of special
geotechnical works. Ground anchors).
IS EN 1993-5:2007 (Eurocode 3: Design
of Steel Structures - Part 5: Piling).
IS
EN:1997-1:2005
(Eurocode
7:
Geotechnical Design - Part 1: General
Rules).
Sainflou, M. (1928) "Essai sur les Digues
Maritimes Verticales. Annales des
Ponts et Chaussees", Vol. 98, as
described in Recommendations of the
Committee for Waterfront Structures
Harbours and Waterways, EAU 2004.
Sexton, B.G., Gill, D.R. & O'Donnell, C.J.
(2016) "Sheet-pile corrosion rates
within an existing outfall channel in
Dublin
Port",
Civil
Engineering
Research in Ireland 2016 (CERI2016),
National University of Ireland, Galway,
29-30 August 2016, In Press.
9. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the design of a temporary
cofferdam and permanent anchored
sheet-pile wall for the cooling water intake
channel for the Ringsend thermal
treatment plant are discussed. The
designs necessitated FE analyses as the
soil structure interactions and the
differential ground and groundwater levels
between the quay and the existing
channel leads to out-of-balance forces
across the cofferdam and intake channel.
Measurements of horizontal wall
deflection for the outer (east) wall of the
234
th
Session 5
Numerical/physical modelling
236
th
The flow of granular material through an orifice has been a subject of numerous studies for
decades due to its importance for proper industrial silo design. The most widely accepted law that
predicts the flow rate of grains trough an orifice was proposed by Beverloo et al. (1961).
The velocity field within the silo during discharge cannot be reliably predicted yet, and the
mechanisms controlling discharge from silos remain unclear. In this work an investigation into
gravity discharge from silos in increased gravity conditions is presented. Increased gravity
conditions were modelled in the geotechnical centrifuge, where the gravity was increased up to the
factor of 15. Materials differing in particle sizes were tested using two different silo model
geometries. The results were then compared to Beverloo equation for a slit orifice of a quasi-twodimensional silo, as well as with the equation presented by Rose and Tanaka (1956) regarding
influence of hopper angle on the flow rate.
It was shown that the mass flow rate as well as the local velocity of discharging is proportional
to the square root of gravity and that the time required for a silo model to discharge cohesionless
material scales with gravity. Analysis of the time required to discharge a silo leads to the
observation of a scaling law for silo centrifuge models.
1. INTRODUCTION
Silos are thin-walled structures used for
storing granular materials of various kinds,
and are as such subject to many different
and erratic loading conditions which can
lead to damage or even failure of the
entire structure. At the beginning of the
19th century, the grains stored in wooden
forerunners of silos were considered to
behave like liquids, and the only
* presenting author
3. EUROCODE
With the development of silo design, a
need for regulation became apparent. The
first structural standards were not
produced until the 20th century, and only
in the second half the first silo design
standards were introduced based on
Janssens, Reimbert brothers, Jenikes
and other models. Current standards used
in silo design proposed by the European
Union are:
x EN 1991-4 (2006), Action on
structure - Silos and tanks
CUb g (D0 kd ) 2
4. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Experiments described in this work took
place in the beam centrifuge at the IGT,
University of Natural Recourses and
t2
t1
N
240
241
W v vA
A1
v1
v2
A2 , v
g1
g2
CUb g (b kd )(D0
3
kd ) 2
2gh
N
F(D, Md )
for D 90 Md
F 1,0
for D t 90 Md
The correlation can be incorporated into
the Beverloo correlation in following form:
WBeverloo F(D, Md )
her
the
REFERENCES
Barbir, O., timac, B., Influence of gravity
on granular flow in silo centrifuge
models in comparison with Beverloo
equation, Institute of Geotechnics,
University of Natural Resources and
Life Sciences, Vienna
Beverloo, W.A., Leniger, H.A. and Velde,
J. (1961), The flow of granular solids
through
an
orifice,
Chemical
engineering science, vol.15 (3-4),
September 1961, 260-269
Brown, R.L., Richards, J.C. (1970),
Principles of powder mechanics,
Pergamon, Oxford
Carson, J.W., Jenkyn, R.T. (1993), Load
development
and
structural
considerations in silo design, Available
from: http://www.jenike.com, [Accessed
on June 20, 2013]
Choi, J., Kudrolli, A., and Bazant, M. Z.
(2005), Velocity profile of granular
flows inside silos and hoppers,
Physics-Condensed Matter, 17-24
Grostck, M. and Schwedes, J. (2005),
Application of model tests on cohesive
bulk solids using silo centrifuge
technique, Powder technology, 157(1
3), September 2005, 149-155
Janssen, H.A. (1895), Versuche ber
Getreidedruck in Silozellen, Z. Ver. Dt.
Ing., 39, August 1895, 1045-1049
Jenike, A. W., and Johanson, J. R. (1968),
"Bin Loads," Journal of the Structural
Division, Proceedings of the ASCE, 94,
1011
Mathews, J., (2013) Investigation of
granular flow using silo centrifuge
models, Institute of Geotechnics,
University of Natural Resources and
Life Sciences, Vienna
Rose, H. F., Tanaka, T. (1956), The
Engineer, London, page 208
Zhong, Z., Ooi, J. Y., and Rotter, J. M.
(2001), The sensitivity of silo flow and
wall stresses to filling method,
Engineering structures, 23(7), 756-767.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Silo discharge rate is shown to be
proportional to the square root of the
gravity. Strong correlation with Beverloo
equation can be seen in the test results
regarding flow rate of different materials
with variation in particle sizes through the
orifice, even in higher gravity levels of up
to 15g. The results are quantified using
two independent instrumentation types
and therefore confirm that the equation
still gives good results when gravity is
changed. Deviations between results are
most likely present due to the
simplifications
made
by
Beverloo
regarding particle shape and size, and the
homogeneity of the material.
Disagreements between the physical
model results and results gained through
Rose and Tanaka equation can be
attributed to the fact that the value of Md
must be predicted experimentally since
there is no reliable method of its
determination. This is certainly an issue
that requires more work, and can be
considered a challenge for further
investigation and discussion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors of the paper would like to
express their gratitude to their supervisor
during the writing of their thesis, Professor
Wei Wu.
The presenting author would like to
thank her current supervisor, Professor
246
th
The paper presents the basic principles of the application of two optic fibre methods for
deformation measurement in geotechnics - Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis (BOTDA) and
Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBG).
It briefly describes the possible and tested utilization of these methods (concerning both
laboratory testing and on site applications) and in more details it deals with several issues and
problems concerning specific adjustments of sensors, data interpretation and evaluation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Geotechnical monitoring in the soil /
rock massive should give reliable
information of deformation development
as a product of long-term natural
processes and human construction
activities.
High
accuracy,
detailed
distribution of at least deformation within
the area of interest and long-term stability
of measurement and warning system are
often required. Fibre optics can be good
alternative to electric sensors using cheap
telecommunication cables for connection
in several kilometres distances to the
analyzer to cover large areas. The
functioning of optical fibres depends on
basic principles of optics and the
interaction of light with matter.
* presenting author
Independent
measurements
of
deformation were provided in two different
ways in order to have comparative /
control information about deformation to
the fibre optic method. The first
comparative method was utilization of high
resolution potentiometric displacement
transducers in connection to data-logger
and the other was measurement by sliding
micrometer (Solexperts AG, Switzerland),
which is commonly used for geotechnical
monitoring
(measurement
of
axial
deformations in instrumented borehole).
249
This
arrangement
provides
the
measurement of the relative axial
deformation only and indicates the
location of the slip surface in the borehole
with
the
development
of
slope
movements. One fibre is fixed at 1.0m
distances to ensure sensitivity of
instrumentation and the second fibre
attached at 3.0m distances provides
longer instrumentation lifetime in case of
large displacements. The second way of
optical fibres fixing is in the slope
direction, so that deflection curve of the
casing can be calculated together with
values of horizontal and vertical
deformations. Both arrangements are
described in more detail for example in
(Zlesk, J. et al. 2013).
This
instrumentation
emphasized
detailed resolution of the location of shear
deformation; therefore the distance
between FBG strain sensors has been
designed as 1.0m. The strain resolution in
this case can be up to 1m/m.
4. CONCLUSIONS
BOTDA analyzer is able to recognize
locations of active strain development on
the sensing cable without any prior
estimation. The sensing cable is very
sensitive to break on larger cracks or
fissured zones and in specific cases it
needs arrangements (in order to spread
deformation to longer base). BOTDA
sensing cables are extremely sensitive
during instrumentation in boreholes,
therefore some centralizers or spacers
shall be used to keep optic cables in
reasonable clearance to borehole casings
and the injection grouting should be
provided in two stages by injection tubes
with sleeves (cuffs) minimizing uplift
impact.
The issue concerning strain increases
in the vicinity of attachment points was
partly solved by careful cable coverage by
thick plastic tape before fixing of clamps
using
controlled
torque
moment.
Nevertheless, this solution is functional,
but it is not perfect this issue needs to
be analyzed in more detail. The
unexpected increase of measured strain
during borehole measurements showed in
several cases a relationship with the nonGaussian
distribution
of
Brillouin
scattering. This issue may be caused by
some defects in the sensing cable / fibre,
but it is necessary to provide further
research into the problem. It is also
necessary to provide more deep analysis
of the comparison of BOTDA and control
measurements
together
with
the
development and laboratory testing of a
new attachment system. Once well
deployed, fibre optic sensing can offer
long-term stable service more safe than
contact electro-mechanical monitoring.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The paper is based on results and
experiences gathered in the frame of two
completed
projects
TA01011650
Research
and
development
of
applications of dielectric strain sensors in
geotechnics and FR-TI3/609 Research
and development of detection and
monitoring of critical areas of geotechnical
constructions mainly in underground
structures, mining industry and other
engineering constructions financed by the
Technology Agency and by the Ministry of
Trade and Industry of the Czech Republic.
The paper was created with the support of
the
internal
grant
of
CTU
SGS16/050/OHK1/1T/11 Optimization of
geotechnical monitoring and calculation of
ensuring the stability of foundation pit.
I would like to acknowledge all the
members of research teams of both
projects, particularly Ing. Jan Zlesk,
CSc., who is also my supervisor. I would
also like to thank MSc. Lucrezia Digiorgio,
who performed a traineeship at CTU in
Prague and was very supportive during
laboratory testing.
255
REFERENCES
pov, K. (2012) Fibre Optic Monitoring
of Slope Stability, Master thesis, tutor
Zlesk, J., CTU in Prague, Faculty of
Civil Engineering, Department of
Geotechnics.
pov K., Zlesk J. & Zlesk M.
(2014) Comparison of results of two
methods of fiber optics deformation
monitoring in geotechnics, 14th
International Multidisciplinary Scientific
GeoConference SGEM 2014, p. 179
186, Albena, Bulgaria. ISBN 978-6197105-08-7. ISSN 1314-2704.
pov, K. (2016) Fibre optic sensing in
geotechnics analysis and evaluation
of measured data, Proceedings of
Juniorstav 2016, Brno, Czech Republic.
ISBN 978-80-214-5311-1.
Klar A., Goldfeld Y. & Charas Z. (2010)
Measures for identifying cracks within
reinforced concrete beams using
BOTDR. SPIE - smart structures/NDE,
San Diego, paper no. 7647-90.
Sugimoto H. Landslide Monitoring by
Optical Fiber Sensor, Public Works
Research
Institute,
Erosion
and
Sediment Control Research Group,
Ibaraki, Japan.
Vopika, M. (2012) Use of fiber optic
sensors for deformation monitoring in
geotechnics, Master thesis, tutor
Zlesk J., CTU in Prague, Faculty of
Civil Engineering, Department of
Geotechnics.
Zlesk, J., Pospil, J., pov, K.,
Koska, B., Jon, J., Zlesk, M.,
Demuth, J. (2013) Landslide Mapping
and Monitoring Concept, 2nd Joint
International
Symposium
on
Deformation
Monitoring
(JISDM),
Nottingham, United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland.
Zlesk, J., pov, K. & Zlesk M.
(2014) Concept of fiber optics
geotechnical deformation monitoring
and in-situ deployment in open cast
mine,
14th
International
Multidisciplinary
Scientific
GeoConference SGEM 2014, p. 171
256
th
1. INTRODUCTION
Analytical and numerical models of
complex geotechnical processes have
been developed at the soil mechanics
division of Technische Universitaet Berlin
for several decades. Recent work aims to
design
advanced
instruments
for
numerical modelling. They are meant to
predict displacement and maximum
bearing capacity in situations where
subsoil experiences cyclic loading as well
as large inelastic deformations. This
happens in offshore-areas and earthquake
* presenting author
2. CONSTITUTIVE
MODELS
FOR
SANDY SOILS
Constitutive models for cyclically loaded
non-cohesive soils have been subject of
myriads of scientific treatises. These days
it seems that the most promising models
either are of the bounding surface
plasticity type or descend from the
Karlsruhe school of hypoplasticity.
Hypoplastic models, as was first
outlined in (Kolymbas, 1977), consist of a
single tensorial equation. Its shape has
been derived deductively on the basis of
general axioms of material theory.
Gathering from (Nbel & Cudmani, 2000;
Tsegaye et al., 2000; von Wolffersdorff &
Schwab, 2009), the hypoplastic model of
(von Wolffersdorff, 1996) in conjunction
with the intergranular strain extension of
(Niemunis & Herle, 1997) can be used
successfully for problems with cyclic
loading. However, there is room for further
improvements.
Currently,
volumetric
strains and excess pore pressure
associated with shearing through dilatancy
are not predicted satisfactorily. This is an
important issue since dilatancy is the
3. CRITICAL
STATE
MODEL
'2
Co
ne
p'
Ca
Bounding Surfaces
Loading Surfaces
FOR
'1
'3
SANDS
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
Laboratory test
CSSA-Model
Effective vertical stress 'v in kN/m Effective vertical stress 'v in kN/m
Figure 2 Stress path of cyclic simple shear test on Berlin Sand ( ID0
259
65 % )
6m
15 m
y
25 m am
D
20 m
y
Bod
(Sa
nd)
12 m
Clay-core
Berm
(dens
e San
d)
Sand (dense)
ux(t)
100 m
Figure 3: Finite
Model of the reservoir dam
60 m
200Element
m
260
100 m
3,4 m
2,8 m
1,5 m
1,1 m
6,3 m
|u|=0
|u|=0
Stress in kN m-2
10
15
20
Time in s
25
30
10
15
20
Time in s
25
30
Figure 4: Evolution of mean effective stress and excess pore pressure during the earthquake
two sections.
4. INCORPORATION
OF
FINITE
DEFORMATION THEORY
As explained in the first section, an
elaborate constitutive model is needed
which is compatible with the finite
deformation theory. The CSSA-Model
however, in accordance with the general
practice in traditional soil mechanics, has
been formulated within the geometrically
linearized infinitesimal theory. Therefore,
the model equations have to be
reformulated in order to be theoretically
compatible with MMALE & Co.
There is another important reason to do
so. During calibration of the CSSA-model,
triaxial compression tests featuring axial
strains of 20 % and more have to be backanalyzed in order to determine critical
state parameters. The assumption of
infinitesimal deformation induces a
de dp
' c e ( , e ) : d e ,
(V ') ij
part
the
the
is
the
( c e ) ijkl d kle .
p'n : r
K p1
2
D1I
n
27
p '
2
D2 I
m
K p2
27
262
5. MODELLING
OF
M g (T ) U 2 p
K p2 hcG(e, p ')h4 c
R U 2 p
CYCLIC
COMPRESSION
This section concerns an open question
regarding the modelling of cyclic stresspaths with the CSSA-Modell. As has been
demonstrated in section 3, the model
leads to excellent simulation results so
long as cyclic shearing is concerned only.
However, there is room for improvement
with respect to the computation of plastic
strains induced by cyclic changes of mean
effective stress at constant stress ratio,
e.g. cyclic compression.
The present situation is depicted in
Figure 6. It shows the stress - void ratio
path of a cyclic oedometer test and its
back-calculation with the CSSA-Model. In
the laboratory test, repeated un- and
reloading induces only little compaction
compared to the state after first loading.
Opposed to this, the model predicts
undiminished densification even after 20
cycles.
The reason for this obviously unrealistic
behaviour of the model can be found in
the cap-mechanism. It does not account
for the influence of cyclic loading history
and current material state on the
computed stiffness properly.
To iron out this issue, the hardening
modulus Kp2 of the cap (which was
Laboratory test
CSSA-Model
Void ratio e
0.62
0.61
0.60
0.59
Figure 6: Cyclic oedometer test on Toyoura sand; test results due to (Bauer, 1992)
263
6. CONCLUSIONS
The paper highlighted that elaborate
constitutive models for sand are needed to
solve contemporary boundary value
problems which feature cyclic loading and
large soil deformations.
After selecting the bounding surface
model of Li (2002) as one of the most
comprehensive approaches and outlining
strategies for its further development, the
following conclusions can be drawn.
Complex elastoplastic models like the
CSSA-Model can be extended into the
finite deformation theory without having to
re-compile
the
underlying
model
mechanisms.
Nevertheless,
some
consequences regarding the practical
application of the extended model have to
be considered.
In elastoplasticity, material behavior in
compression is accounted for by cap-like
surfaces in stress space. They work quite
th
ABSTRACT
Rectangular shallow foundations, termed mudmats, are commonly used in the offshore oil and gas
industry to support pipeline end terminations and pipeline end manifolds. Here, they are subjected
to large horizontal forces that also give rise to overturning and torsional moments. This paper
focuses on analysing the capacity of a rigid rectangular mudmat resting on the surface of
undrained clay, when realistic three dimensional loading combinations are applied. A semianalytical limit analysis method is derived, with more complex loading arrangements analysed
using finite element limit analysis. With this technique it is possible to obtain lower and upper
bounds on the exact load factor, and automative adaptive remeshing is used to reduce the bound
gap over successive iterations of the solution. Adaptive mesh refinement helps visualisation of the
failure mechanism and relationships between loading combinations and failure mechanisms are
discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
A typical subsea arrangement of risers
and flowlines for the offshore oil and gas
industry can be seen in Figure 1. Shallow
foundations, termed mudmats, are used to
support subsea infrastructure such as pipe
line end terminations and pipe line end
manifolds. These connect pipelines
through jumpers, which can be situated at
a height above the mudmat, and are often
not aligned along the plan view axes. The
jumper experiences horizontal expansion
and contraction forces from the pipeline,
which can induce biaxial bending, torsion
and combined horizontal loads on the
mudmat (depending on the jumper
arrangement). Failure of mudmats can be
* presenting author
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. Footing loading arrangement: (a) feasible eccentricity due to non-concentric plan view
loading; (b) horizontal loading applied at a height above the footing
3. RESULTS
3.1. Horizontal and torsional loading
A surface footing subject to combined
horizontal and torsional loading was
analysed using a semi-analytical method
based on the LB and UB plasticity
theorems, and using FELA. LB values for
Fx, Fy and Mz were found by numerically
integrating the shear stress components Wx
and Wy that would be induced by footing
rotation about a prescribed point (x0,y0),
as shown in Figure 5(a):
(4)
(5)
with r calculated as shown in Figure 5.
The 3D failure surface obtained by solving
these equations numerically for a range of
rotation centres is shown in Figure 6(a). It
should be noted that the failure surface is
symmetrical about the xy, yz, and xz
planes. The LB equations produced
results which matched exactly with the UB
equations, indicating an exact theoretical
solution. The circular failure surface when
Mz = 0 highlights that the capacity of the
footing in this case is always equal to the
interface shear capacity, irrespective of
the relative magnitudes of Fx and Fy.
(1)
(2)
(3)
where Wx = su cosD, Wy = su sinD, with cosD
and sinD calculated as shown in Figure 5.
It is acknowledged that this lower bound
270
Infeasible torsion
0.6
Feasible torsion
0.4
1
0.8
0.2
Fy/BLsu
M z/B 2 Lsu
Semi-analytical solution
FELA solution
Infeasible torsion
0
0
0.2
0.4
Fx/BLsu 0.6
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fy/BLsu
0.2
0.4 0.6
Fx/BLsu
0.8
(b)
(a)
Figure 6. Combined horizontal and torsional loading failure surface showing feasible torsion limits
(Fx > 0, Fy > 0, Mz > 0)(a) 3D failure surface from semi-analytical solution; (b) 2D contour plot
comparing semi-analytical solution with FELA solution
4. CONCLUSIONS
This study has focused on likely loading
scenarios for offshore mudmats used to
support pipeline end terminations and
manifolds. Rigorous 3D bearing capacity
e/B = 0
h/B = 2
Fx/BLsu = 0.44
Infeasible torsion
1.2
Fx/BLsu
1
0.8
h/B = 1
0.6
(a)
0.4
h/B = 2
0.2
0
0.2
1.2
0.6
e/B
(a)
0.8
1.2
1
Fy/BLsu
0.4
e/B = 0
h/B = 2
Fy/BLsu = 0.95
=0
0.8
h/B = 2
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
= 90
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
e/B
(b)
0.8
(b)
1.2
e/B = 0
h/B = 2
FT /BLsu = 0.48
1.2
h/B = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5
F /BLsu
1
0.8
h/B = 1
0.6
0.4
h/B = 2
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
= tan-1(B/L)
0.6
e/B
(c)
0.8
1.2
(c)
e/B = 0
h/B = 0
e/B = 0.5
h/B = 0
e/B = 1.118
h/B = 0
FT/BLsu = 1.00
FT/BLsu = 0.70
FT/BLsu = 0.43
(a)
(b)
(c)
e/B = 0
h/B = 2
e/B = 0.5
h/B = 2
e/B = 1.118
h/B = 2
FT/BLsu = 0.48
FT/BLsu = 0.47
FT/BLsu = 0.41
(d)
(e)
(f)
cohesive-frictional
materials
using
second-order cone programming, Int.
J. Num. Meth. Eng. 66(4): 604-634.
Makrodimopoulos, A. & Martin, C.M.
(2007) Upper bound limit analysis
using simplex strain elements and
second-order cone programming, Int.
J. Num. Anal. Meth. Geomech. 31(6):
835-865.
Martin, C.M., Dunne, H.P., Wallerand, R.
& Brown, N. (2015) Three-dimensional
limit analysis of rectangular mudmat
foundations, Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. On
Frontiers in Offshore Geotech., Oslo:
789-794.
Martin, C.M. & White, D.J. (2012) Limit
analysis of the undrained bearing
capacity
of
offshore
pipelines,
Gotechnique. 62(9): 847-863.2.
Martin, C.M. (2011) The use of adaptive
finite element limit analysis to reveal
slipline fields, Gotechnique Letters 1:
23-29.
McDonald, S., Malachowski, J. & Wang,
Q. (2014) Analysis of subsea
structures subject to significant torsion,
Proc. 33rd Int. Conf. on Ocean,
Offshore and Arctic Eng. San Francisco, 1-10.
MOSEK ApS. (2014) The MOSEK C
Optomizer API manual, Version 7.1.
Online at www.mosek.com.
Nouri, H., Biscontin, G. & Aubeny, C.P.
(2014) Undrained Sliding Resistance
of Shallow Foundations Subject to
Torsion, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
140(8).
Si H. (2013) TetGen Users manual,
Version 1.5. Online at www.tetgen.org.
Ukritchon, B., Whittle, A. J. & Sloan, S. W.
(1998) Undrained limit analysis for
combined loading of strip footings on
clay, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
124(3): 265-276.
Yun, G.J., Maconochie, A., Oliphant J., &
Bransby,
F.
(2009).
Undrained
Capacity of Surface Footings Subjected
to Combined V-H-T Loading, Proc.
19th Int. Offshore and Polar Eng. Conf.,
Osaka, 9-14.
ABSTRACT
After the commissioning of an Offshore Wind Farm, proper maintenance of the wind turbine
generators (WTG) takes a main role to ensure the energy supply during their life span. For doing
this work, jack-up vessels are required, just applied for the installation of WTGs and their
foundations. Thus, if the soil conditions are critical, multiple problems could be encountered during
the jack-up vessel installation and operation next to the WTG foundation. For a jack-up vessel
performing maintenance work near a WTG with gravity base foundation, critical soil / seabed
conditions are interpreted with regard to vessel installation. The multi-beam / bathymetry survey
indicated that one of the legs was placed on a slope that could compromise the vessel structure
stability. Conventional and finite element (FE) analyses are performed for analysing the risks
associated with the leg penetrations and stability during the jack-up vessel installation. A backanalysis of the measured penetrations is commented and implemented. Useful conclusions and
recommendations for practitioners and engineers working with similar projects are drawn.
1. INTRODUCTION
Geotechnical engineering assessments
are carried out for the offshore wind
industry, not only during the development
of an Offshore Wind Farm (OWF)
assessing the type of foundations of the
Wind Turbines Generators (WTG), but
also
during
the
installation
and
maintenance of the WTGs themselves.
The jack-up vessels are entitled to
assembly the necessary pieces of the
WTGs. In this process, they need to be
* presenting author
2. PROJECT DETAILS
2.1. Scope of work
It was requested to provision with
consulting services to ensure a safe
installation of the vessel during the
expected operation. The scope of work
was:
x Geotechnical interpretation of the
available soil data
x Correlation of geotechnical and
geophysical data if available
x Assessment of suitability of the
vessel for doing the installation,
reporting possible risks for punchthrough, rapid penetration or leg
extraction, including leg penetration
analysis
x Comment on other possible risks
(e.g. seabed features or leg sliding)
2.2. Location
The OWF is located offshore Denmark
within a shallow area with water depths
ranged from (2-6) m. A close monitoring of
water depths, made with a recent
topographic
map
of
the
seabed
(bathymetry), was the first requirement for
doing the expected maintenance work.
According to a received bathymetry, made
prior to the assessment, the water depth
within 100 m from the WTG varies from
(3.5 - 5.8) m DVR90.
In order to perform the maintenance and
reparation works, the vessel needed to be
close enough to the WTG, so that the
crane could safely operate under the
requirements defined in (Guidelines for
marine lifting & lowering operations
0027/ND). During the assignment, multiple
276
3. GEOTECHNICAL DATA
3.1. Geotechnical Investigations
The geotechnical investigations and
laboratory
testing
used
for
this
assessment were made by Geo in
different phases during 1997-2000. The
purpose of these investigations was
foundation design of the OWF. These
investigations were carried out with Geos
combined Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
and Vibrocore sampling (VC) seabed rig.
3 CPT/VCs were performed for each WTG
location, which would be used in this
assignment.
Furthermore,
laboratory
testing was made by Geo mainly to
confirm the strength of the chalk, common
in this site, by means of triaxial tests.
Depth
of
Layer
[m]
J'
[kN/m3]
CLAY,
very soft
to very
stiff
0.0
1.7
7.5
10-90 / 20-180
CLAY,
very stiff
to hard
1.7
2.2
9.5
150 / 300
CLAY,
soft to
very stiff
2.2
4.0/5.0
8.0
35-100/70-200
CHALK
4.0/5.0
10
12.0
39 / 44
Soil
Layer
M
L/U
Bound
[q]
cu
L / U Bound
2
[kN/m ]
Q/A=0.5BNsdibg+qNqsqdqiqbqgq+cNc
scdcicbcgc
(1)
278
5. FOUNDATION STABILITY
5.1. The Stability and seabed instability
problems
The stability of a jack-up unit installing
WTG is one of the requirements for getting
a certificate of approval from a Marine
Warranty Surveyor (MWS). During long
operations, it is needed to establish the
survival airgap range and whether there
are any limiting factors for a vessel
restricting the time that can be spent on
location. Vertical-Horizontal (V-H) capacity
envelopes are
required
in
these
assessments. A bespoke communication
between structural and geotechnical
engineers is important when issuing Site
Specific Assessments (SSA), where the
considered problems are not only for
installation but also for operation. The
problems of stability during operation are
further described in code of practices as
ISO, SNAME or (Guidelines for site
specific
assessments
of
jack-ups
0009/ND).
Seabed instability can result in slope
failures caused by multiple mechanisms.
Cyclic mobility or liquefaction starts when
progressive pore pressure is build up
caused by cyclic stresses within the soils,
as described in SNAME. During the
installation process, seabed instability
might cause risk of sliding, and is precisely
that fact studied in this paper.
5.2. Case
After a review of several positions, a final
vessel location was chosen, which would
be more adequate for the arrangement of
the cranes entitled to move the
components. However, for the chosen
vessel position, the bathymetry indicated
that the Starboard (SB) Leg should be
jacking on a slope. The fact of having SB
leg on top of a soft soil that might already
fail due to seabed mobility was a concern
and it was decided that a further study
should be performed.
For having a clear idea of the inclination of
the slope and the total dimensions of the
5.3. Computational
Finite
Element
Method (FEM)
The FEM have been used in geotechnical
engineering for a large range of problems,
both onshore and offshore. The large
range of available FE software packages
could confuse the user on its decision of
which fits better the purpose. The increase
in the efficiency of the hardware used for
FE, has also augment the popularity of
advance programs with a higher
computational cost such as twodimensional (2D) and three-dimensional
(3D) Large Deformation FE (LDFE). For
certain geotechnical processes which
involve large displacements, new recent
developments anticipate the combination
of FE with other methods such as the
Material Point Method (MPM) (Brinkgreve
et al, 2015)
The use of FE together with conventional
calculations gives a more accurate
solution that is specially needed in critical
7. CONCLUSIONS
After several attempts, a final vessel
position was chosen, close enough to the
WTG in order to make possible the
maintenance work and taking into account
the seabed conditions (slope) at the
surrounding of WTG gravity foundation.
The current assessment covers many
geotechnical engineering
challenges,
starting with the: interpretation of the soil
data and correlation of in situ and
laboratory test; leg penetration analysis for
a generalized interpreted soil profile
(representing the soil conditions at all four
legs); FE calculations of the stability of SB
Leg located near the sloping seabed at
the vicinity of a gravity base foundation.
The vessel was installed without risk,
taking into consideration the suggested
conclusions such as monitoring of the
RPD during penetration into the top clay
layer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge
the assistance of Kenneth Andersson,
from Svensk Sjentreprenad (SSE) AB
during the scope of this project and for
providing the
feedback from the
installation. The participation of the
presenting author in this conference is
supported by the Danish Geotechnical
Society (DGF) and Geo.
REFERENCES
Bowles, J. E. (2001). Foundation Analysis
and Design, 5th edition.
Brinkgreve et al. (2015). Beyond the Finite
Element Method in Geotechnical
Analysis.
Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design Part
1; General Rules. EN 1997-1 2004.
(n.d.).
Guidelines for site specific assessments of
jack-ups 0009/ND.
284
th
1. INTRODUCTION
The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) is one
of the most widely used in situ methods to
characterize soil properties. The test
method
consists
of
pushing
an
instrumented cone into the ground at a
controlled rate. During the penetration,
measurements of the tip resistance and
the friction at the sleeve are recorded. In
addition, the pore water pressure may be
measured at different locations.
Based on these measurements,
constitutive soil parameters may be
estimated with correlations. A large
number of interpretation approaches have
been obtained using a multitude of
techniques, ranging from bearing capacity
analogies to large deformation finite
* presenting author
2. NUMERICAL MODEL
This section outlines the numerical
procedures used in this work. First the
Particle Finite Element method (PFEM) is
briefly reviewed; then, the balance
equations are highlighted. Finally, the
constitutive equations are described.
2.1. Particle Finite Element method
In the PFEM the continuum is modelled
using an Updated Lagrangian formulation;
that is, a Lagrangian description of the
motion is used and all variables and their
derivatives are referred to the deformed
configuration. The nodes discretizing the
analysis domain are treated as material
particles whose motion is tracked during
the transient solution; the interaction of
these particles is computed using the finite
element method and the particles serves
as nodes of the FE mesh. Another
particularity of PFEM is that only low order
elements are used linear triangles in 2D.
Periodically, the FE mesh is retriangulated in order to alleviate problems
that arise when the mesh becomes highly
distorted.
In
addition,
h-adaptive
techniques are employed to obtain a
better discretization in areas of the domain
with large plastic deformations.
A typical solution algorithm involves the
following steps (Oate et al, 2004):
a. Discretize the domain with a Finite
Element mesh. Define the shape
and movement of the rigid
structure.
b. Identify the external boundaries.
Search the nodes that are in
contact with the rigid structure.
c. Compute some time-steps of the
coupled hydro-mechanical problem.
d. Construct a new mesh. This step
may include a re-triangulation of the
domain, introduce new particles in
an adaptive fashion and interpolate
286
where
is the
pressure,
is
the
where
is the normal effective stress
acting at the interface, is the interface
tangential stress,
and is the
interface friction angle.
3. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
In this section, first a benchmark example
the oedometer test- is presented to
assess the implementation; then, the
constitutive model is exemplified with a
constant volume shear test. Finally, a
parametric analysis of the CPT is
presented.
3.1. Oedometer test
The first example corresponds to an
oedometer test in a weightless soil. For
the sake of simplicity, in this example the
soil is assumed to obey a linear
hyperelastic behaviour.
Small strains analytical solutions states
that the key constitutive parameter that
controls the pore pressure dissipation is
289
Figure 4: Cone penetration test. Water pressure (kPa) profiles at the final penetration
depth for different permeabilities: K = 10-7 m/s (left), K = 510-7 m/s (center), K =
3.310-6 m/s (right) for smooth interface.
0.1
(kPa)
70
23.5
(kPa)
57.5
400
(kPa)
10
(kPa)
(kPa)
28.9
80
Figure 6: Cone penetration test. Smooth are depicted with continuous lines whereas
rough (14) are shown with discontinuous lines.
Figure 5: CPT. Net cone resistance (qn), water pressure at the three measurement
positions and friction sleeve resistance in terms of the penetration depth. Smooth
cases (continuous lines) and rough cases (discontinuous lines).
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this work, a numerical framework for the
analysis of saturated porous media
undergoing large deformations has been
presented. By means of the analysis of the
oedometer test is has been shown that the
obtained results are accurate; indeed,
using a large deformation theory may
reflect results that are artificially excluded
by the linear theory.
Preliminary results of a parametric
analysis of the Cone Penetration Test in a
Modified Cam Clay soil have been
reported. The effect of the interface friction
angle and the permeability of the soil on
the measured reactions has been
assessed.
The developed numerical scheme
appears to be a promising tool for the
simulation of penetration problems in
geotechnics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank his thesis
supervisors, Prof Antonio Gens, Dr
Marcos Arroyo and Dr Josep Maria
Carbonell, for their guidance during this
work.
The financial support of the Sociedad
Espaola de Mecnica de Suelos to cover
the expenses of the trip is acknowledged.
The support of the Ministry of Education
of Spain through research grant BIA201127217 is gratefully appreciated.
REFERENCES
Borja, R.I. & Alarcn, E (1995) A
mathematical framework for finite
strains elastoplastic consolidation. Part
I, Comput. Methods in App. Mech. and
Eng., 122(1-2):145-171.
Houlsby, G.T. (1985) The use of variable
shear modulus in elasto-plastic models
292
th
1. INTRODUCTION
Jack-up rigs are the most common type of
mobile platforms. They operate at shallow
and up to moderate depths (167 meters
(World Fleet of Jack-Up Drilling Rigs,
2012)). The spudcan may be penetrated
up to tens of meters into the seabed if the
soil is soft. The installation is performed by
applying vertical load from the jack-rig and
water ballast in the hull.
Jack-up rigs have movable legs, which
may be jacked down into the seabed to
give stabilization under operation, hence
the name jack-up. The legs often stand on
spudcan foundations, which are steel
* presenting author
characterization and expected loadresponse curve. A typical hazard is punchthrough during the installation. It is
characterized by a peak resistance during
the installation, followed by a fast
reduction in spudcan resistance. This
might lead to a rapid penetration because
the installation is load-controlled. This
problem is typical for sites where a stiff
soil layer is overlying a soft clay layer.
Punch-trough of a jack-up leg will cause
the platform to tilt which consequently will
give rise to large bending moments. The
bending moment may lead to failure in the
jack-up legs and connection between the
legs and rig. This can endanger personnel
and result in huge economic loss.
The main aim of this master thesis is to
use the CEL method in Abaqus/Explicit to
analyze some published examples of
spudcan-penetration. Special focus will be
to consider the effect of large strain in
clay, e.g. gradual reduction of the
undrained shear strength with increasing
strain.
2. THEORY
All of the finite element calculations will be
executed in Abaqus/Explicit.
2.1. Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian
Lagrangian elements have material fixed
to the nodes. As a result, the elements will
deform as the material deforms. This may
lead to numerical problems in large
deformation problems. Heavily distorted
elements will not work well, and problems
like mesh locking, and numerical instability
can follow.
In eulerian element formulation, the nodes
are fixed in space (coordinate system),
while the material is free to move (flow)
through the mesh (Abaqus 6.12 Analysis
Users
Manual).
The
mesh
will
consequently not deform as the material
deforms.
Figure
2-1
shows
the
deformation of a lagrangian mesh over the
deformation of a eulerian mesh. This is
particularly useful when dealing with large
deformation,
where
the
lagrangian
elements would get heavily distorted and
encounter numerical problems.
P is the force per unit length acting on the
cylinder,
is the undrained shear
strength, d is the diameter of the cylinder,
and
is the bar factor. The bar factor is
dependent on the roughness of the
cylinder. The theoretical value is
approximately 12 for rough contact, and 9
for smooth contact (Randolph, M.F. &
Houlsby, G.T., 1984) (Stewart, D.P. &
Randolph, M.F., 1994). This factor is
theoretical, and is based on a plastic
solution with a soil model which is elasticperfectly plastic. Effects like strain-rate
dependency,
strain-softening
and
anisotropy are not included. Strain-rate
dependency and strain-softening is shown
to have a significant effect on the bar
factor (Liyanapathirana, 2008), while the
bar factor is relatively insensitive to
anisotropy (Randolph, M.F. & Andersen,
K.H., 2006).
3. RESULTS
3.1. T-bar test
First a mesh convergence test was
performed in order to study the effect of
the element size for soil-flow around the Tbar. The speed of the T-bar was not
studied in these analyses, and it is not the
same for all the models. It might, however,
have been more efficient to study the
speed of the T-bar in advance in order to
know which speed to use to avoid
oscillations in the result.
295
297
298
therefore used
calculations.
for
the
rest
of
the
The results are plotted in Figure 3-11. All
the calculations are pretty similar to the
lower bound solution. It is suspected that
this is due to that the shear bands are
established at relative shallow penetration
depth. The strain-softening behavior has
less effect when the shear bands are
established. This is due to the fact that the
strains in the shear bands are much
greater than the absolute plastic strain for
which the soil is softened (). The models
with =10% and =20% showed a spike in
the resistance for shallow penetration
depth (
), but follow close to
the lower limit for the rest of the
penetration. The spike in resistance may
be because the shear bands have yet to
be established for the shallow penetration.
The depth of initiated backflow is similar
for all the models, except for the upper
bound solution. The depth is between
D/B=1.1 and D/B=1.21 for the softened
soil and lower bound solution, while it is
between D/B=1.37 and D/B=1.47 for the
upper bound solution. The depth of
initiated backflow is a bit inaccurately
determined because the output frames of
the deformation are a bit too scarce.
Strain-softening may increase the punchthrough danger. Indication of this can be
observed for the calculation with =20%,
the punch-through danger is greater than
for the lower bound solution. Strainsoftening is therefore an important
parameter in the material model. However,
these calculations are hard to interpret
because of the dependency of the
element size regarding the shear band
thickness. It would be interesting to know
how large (absolute plastic strain for the
softened condition) is needed to increase
the punch-through potential drastically. It
seems to be between 10-20% for this
analysis, but it is not possible to conclude
this, as a different mesh would probably
give a different result. But Tjahyonos
result showed a similar result, and it was
concluded that < 5% could be calculated
using the lower bound solution (no strain-
4. CONCLUSIONS
The CEL method in Abaqus/Explicit has
proven to be suitable for spudcan
penetration problems. The penetration
speed affected mainly how much
oscillation that occurs in the results. The
oscillation may be filtered out as the
resistance oscillated around a mean
value. The computational cost for these
types of problems are large, and it is
therefore of interest to find the highest
penetration rate for which oscillations may
be filtered out. However, there were some
difficulties regarding the effects from the
element size, especially when trying to
include strain-softening behavior. It is
important to address this problem, as nonconservative results might be obtained.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Hans Petter
Jostad for guidance trouhout the master
thesis. I would also like to thank Dr. Khoa
Huyan for learning me how to model
spudcan penetration using the CEL
method in Abaqus/Explicit.
REFERENCES
Abaqus 6.12 Analysis Users Manual.
(n.d.). Eulerian Analysis, Chapter 14.1.
Abaqus/CAE User's Manual. (n.d.). The
volume fraction tool, Chapter 28.5.
Hossain, M.S. & Randolph, M.F. (2009).
New
mechanism-based
design
approach for spudcan foundations on
stiff-over-soft clay. Offshore Technology
Conference. Houston.
Liyanapathirana, D. M. (2008). Numerical
simulation of T-bar penetration in soft
clay. GeoCongress.
Martin, C.M. and Randolph, M.F. (2001).
Application of the lower and upper
bound theorems of plasticity to collapse
of circular foundations. Proc. 10th Int.
Conf. of IACMAG, Vol 2., pp. 14171428. Tucson.
300
th
Session 6
Slope stability and landslides
302
th
ABSTRACT
On the RAILWAY ZAGREB-RIJEKA, instability (landslide) has been noticed from km 571+270 to
571+700 (line is in the cut), but since 1958 mentioned part of railway was never fully repaired. For
improvement was chosen 140 m long bored pile retaining wall, 10 m deep, with horizontally dug
drains. Plaxis 2D and GeoStudio-Slope/W software were used for simulation of the current
situation and for designing stabilization elements. The solution is implemented and there are
several measurements of pile retaining wall displacements that will be presented.
Piles has diameter of 88 cm on the axial spacing of 140 cm. Piles were performed by drilling
using casing. The length of the piles are 6 m and 10 m. Carrying beam of pile retaining wall has
cross section B x H = 100 x 60 cm. Dug drains are carried out with concrete drainage pipes I 20
cm and set at the appropriate depth in the trenches. In total, 10 drains were performed, with length
of 12 m dug maximum 3 m from ground surface, and are connected in the existing concrete
channels along the railway line.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Zagreb-Rijeka railway, Moravice Skrad section (built 140 years ago) at the
Lokvice location passes through cut up to
15 m high, approximately from km
571+270 to km 571+700 of railway line.
According to the existing documents, the
stability of the cut and the slopes above
were considered in 1958. The first solution
was a concrete trench and stone facing.
Over time, cracking and deformation of the
concrete trench and stone facing were
noticed. Also, on the slope below the right
side of the cut, was still active an old
landslide that was at the creeping stage.
Landslide constantly causes lifting of the
* presenting author
2. PREVIOUS STUDIES
3. GEOTECHNICAL
SOIL
CHARACTERISTICS
To determine the geotechnical soil
characteristics, all previously performed
geotechnical investigation were analysed.
304
4. DESCRIPTION OF LANDSLIDE
With detailed engineering and geological
terrain mapping, all visible damage to
stone facing is registered along the tracks
as well as reinforced concrete channel in
the slope bottom. The basic contour of the
sliding body in the left and right sides and
the top is assumed, and nowhere is clearly
visible due to a small displacement in the
bottom (a maximum of about 1 m
displacement of reinforced concrete
channel in the bottom of the slope).
According to the established lithological
sequence and geological characteristics, it
is logical that the lower contour of the
possible formation of sliding surface is
placed on the bottom of the clay layer. The
impact
of
groundwater
can
be
approximated with line of groundwater
level at 1 m from the ground surface.
5. LANDSLIDE
6. GEOTECHNICAL CALCULATIONS
STABILIZATION
METHOD
Implementation of pile retaining wall and
dug drains is planned in the instable slope
of the railway line from km 517+498,914 to
km 517+637,673 section; length of the
section is 139 m. The pile retaining wall is
planned to be built over the stone facing
on the right side of the cut. Dug drains are
planning to be built on both sides of the
cut. The total length of all drains is 120 m.
Pile wall is retaining structure which takes
lateral loads and permanently prevents
excessive horizontal displacements or the
possible instability of the existing slope.
305
1.264
1.800
530
520
510
500
1.600
540
1.400
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
70,00
550,00
1.000
530
530,00
520
520,00
510
510,00
500,00
500
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
80
80,00
7. CONSTRUCTION
OF
PILE
RETAINING WALL
Reconstruction was made during 2014
and 2015.
Figure 11. Photo of performed pile retaining
wall
8. DISPLACEMENT MONITORING
Because of the possible landslide activity,
the project planned the monitoring
program development for retaining
structure. The purpose of monitoring is to
confirm design assumptions and the
possibility of right time intervention in case
of larger displacement than anticipated.
Observation
included
horizontal
displacement monitoring of pile retaining
wall, using the built-in inclinometer tube.
Inclinometer tube is built into the pile. The
measurement shows a peak horizontal
displacement of pile for about 2 mm in the
period since the end of reconstruction to
today.
9. CONCLUSIONS
The slope stability problem of Lokvice cut
appears since 1958. Over time were given
temporary solutions which proved to be
more expensive solution then solving the
problem in the end. By analysing previous
studies and situation on the site, it was
decided to propose a permanent solution.
For permanent solution was chosen a pile
retaining wall, resulted in minimal
measured
displacement
that
approximately coincides with the design
solution. The design approach was based
on calculation software: GeoSudioSlope/W (slope global stability) and
PLAXIS 2D (stress and strain analysis).
First, existing situation on the site
(instability) was modelled. Slope/W and
Plaxis 2D software showed the same
results regarding the global stability
(Global Safety Factor 1,0). Further,
modelling in Slope/W and PLAXIS 2D
defined were pile retaining wall elements
and further monitoring program. According
to all above, it is concluded that it is very
important to bring the right decision about
how to mitigate the landslide, since in this
case the previous simple solutions have
proved insufficient to prevent further
displacement development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to colleagues in
geotechnical design department of
Institute IGH for the assistance and
gathering of data from older projects.
REFERENCES
Mihalinec, Z. (1992) Conceptual design of
remediation
and
geotechnical
investigation report, Landslide Lokvice
km 571+5/7, Zagreb, Croatia.
308
th
ABSTRACT
This paper treats very popular and complex engineering field related to the definition of
geotechnical conditions for urbanization purposes. Main goal is to present an approach for
preparation of thematic geotechnical maps, which should serve as basis for planining activities. In
order to prepare such maps, apropriate zoning methodology is proposed, where, the terrain
suitability for urbanization depends on following basic factors: engineering-geological properties of
the present materials, slope angle, groundwater level, seismicity and excavation conditions.
According to the proposed methodology, ratings are assigned to the selected factors, depending
on their importance for successful urbanization. Based on the assigned ratings, rating map for
each factor is prepared, and then the final map is created, representing the sum of influences of
each analyzed factor on the urbanization suitability. On all prepared maps, four terrain categories
according the suitability for construction - urbanization, are separated. The zonation methodology
is practically applied for the territory of City of Skopje. All mentioned maps are prepared with
contemporary GIS tools.
1.
INTRODUCTION
In order to prevent and avoid these socioeconomic losses, worldwide practice and
trend is the preparation of appropiriate
thematic maps that serve as basis for
urbanization purposes.
The preparation of these maps is
according appropriate methodologies,
based on detailed analysis of available
literature, specific principles for site
zoning, and right selection of various
qualitative and quantitative parameters.
Terrain zoning on these maps is
presented, from which urbanization
suitability categories can be recognized.
The use of such maps before the start of
the processes of planing and construction,
helps engineers to avoid terrains with
natural unfavorable geological geotechnical conditions, leading to more efficient
construction and safer structures.
Methodology
for
preparation
of
geotechnical maps as bases for
urbanization purposes is presented in this
paper, applied for the territory of Skopje,
the capital city of R. Macedonia. The maps
are prepared with GIS technology, more
exactly using the software ArcGIS. In the
present state of art, using GIS is the most
2.
310
3.
METHODOLOGY
FOR
URBANIZATION SUITABILITY ZONING
The process of defining a methodology for
urbanization suitability zoning requires an
understanding of all factors affecting the
urbanization of a given area. The first step
is selection of factors. Then, for each
factor a rating system is being defined, so
that each factor has several classes. The
analyzed factors are related to the corresponding ratings using polynomial interpolation method. The main idea in
devoloping this method is to find a way to
establish analythical correlations between
any value of factor and its rating.
3.1. Selection
of
factors
the
urbanization suitability
Urbanization suitability of a given area
may depend on many factors, related to
the
morphological,
geological,
hydrogeological
and
geotechnical
properties of the terrain. Here as most
important ones are considered: the
Lithological type (LT), Slope Angle (SA),
Ground Water Level (GWL), Seismic
Intensity (SI) and Excavation Conditions
(EC).
For each of these factors, a maximal
rating has been assigned, depending on
their influence on urbanization suitability
(Table 1). In the proposed methodology
for zonation, all of the factors have same
value for the maximal rating, i.e. the
author considers that all factors included
are equally important when determining
the urbanization suitability of the terrain.
Maximal rating
LT
SA
GWL
SI
EC
Total (TUSR)
10
Rating
15
< 1 and 5 10
0.3
10 20
> 20
Rating
> 12
5 12
0.5
1.5 5
1.5
< 1.5
Slope angle ()
Seismic intensity ()
Rating
<5
0.3
56
0.9
78
1.4
>9
311
ERMR
(excavation method)
Rating
4 25
(easy excavator digging)
0.3
26 40
(hard excavator digging)
0.8
41 60
(ripping)
1.4
61 100
(blasting)
Rating
0.4
Figure 2. Correlation between ratings for Slope Angle, Ground Water Level, Seismic Intensity and
Excavation Conditions with factor values using polynomial interpolation
313
USR
03
Favourable terrain
35
57
Unfavourable terrain
7 10
4.
Table 8. Statistic data from the thematic maps for each factor
Suitability categories in percent per each factor in the analysed area (%)
Factor
Total
(%)
Optimally
favourable terrain
Favourable
terrain
Conditionally
favourable terrain
Unfavourable
terrain
LT
11.66
17.66
45.27
25.42
100
SA
24.36
56.27
11.79
7.58
100
GWL
35.10
56.43
8.47
0.00
100
SI
0.00
0.00
4.31
55.69
100
EC
57.24
31.55
7.55
3.66
100
Percent (%)
10.24
Favourable terrain
86.34
3.39
Unfavourable terrain
0.03
Total:
100
5.
CONCLUSIONS
Morphological,
geological
and
geotechnical factors throughout an arearegion proposed for new development of
further urbanization of existing cities have
great impact on the civil engineering. It is
important to understand their nature in all
phases, starting from the design,
construction, and exploitation of the
structures.
Furthermore,
their
unfavourable combination can make some
terrains very susceptible to some type of
315
REFERENCES
Devi, S., S., & Stalin, V., K. (2011),
Development of soil suitability map for
geotechnical applications using GIS
approach, Proceedings of Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Paper No.
M-253.
Djuric, U., et all. (2013), Land-use
suitability analysis of Belgrade city
suburbs using machine learning
algorithm, GIS Ostrava.
Dragicevic, et al. (2011) Natural Hazard
Assessment for Land-use Planning in
Serbia, Int. J. Environ. Res., 5(2): 371380.
Effat, A., H. & Hegazy, N., M. (2013) A
Multidisciplinary Approach to Mapping
Potential Urban Development Zones in
Sinai Peninsula, Egypt Using Remote
Sensing and GIS, Journal of
Geographic Information System, 567583.
Jovanovski, M. (2012) Engineering
geology Faculty of Civil Engineering in
Skopje.
Malczewski, J. (2004) GIS-based landuse suitability analysis: a critical
overview, Progress in Planning 62, 365.
MapQuest
maps
available
from:
http://www.mapquest.com/ [Access on
14.04.2016]
McGill, T., J. (1964) Growing importance
of urban geology, Geological survey
circular 487, Washington.
Meisina,
C.,
(2006)
Engineering
geological mapping for urban areas of
the Oltrepo Pavese plain (Northern
Italy), IAEG2006 No. 188.
Peshevski,
I.
(2015)
Landslide
susceptibility modeling using GIS
technology, PhD thesis, Faculty of Civil
Engineering in Skopje.
Tudes. S. Correlation Between Geology,
Earthquake and Urban Planning,
University
of
Gazi,
Faculty
of
Architecture, Department of Urban and
Regional Planning, Maltepe, Ankara,
Turkey.
316
th
ABSTRACT
The contributing factors and mechanisms involved in landslides can be addressed from different
perspectives, which include real cases, testing scale models and numerical modelling. The work
presented in this paper focuses on the last two mentioned ways. Instabilities observed in scaled
slopes will be described and analysed. Tests were performed in a transparent tank in which
boundary conditions in terms of stresses, displacements, water flow and pore water pressure were
controlled. The landslide motion was recorded with a digital camera and the images were
processed using the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique. The experiments performed,
supplemented by laboratory tests which characterize the soil behaviour, are analysed to evaluate
the landslide failure development and the post-failure behaviour.
The small-scaled experiments are modelled using the material Point Method (MPM). This
numerical technique combines a discreet system of material points, representing the moving
continuum and a fixed computational mesh. Because of this duality, the method is able to simulate
automatically large displacements without mesh tangling and, therefore, it is especially useful for
landslide modelling.
The aim of this work is to advance in the knowledge of the behaviour of landslides and their
interactions with protecting structures. Combining the analysis of experimental scale models and
the numerical modelling is the chosen way to understand the relevant mechanisms and controlling
factors.
In this paper, the tank and its features to control boundary conditions are described. An experiment
in which the instability of a dry sandy landslide is induced is later presented and simulated by using
MPM. Numerical and experimental results, derived from PIV, are compared with the aim of
validating the numerical technique.
1. INTRODUCTION
This work focuses on the study of
landslides from the initiation of the motion
to the post-failure behaviour. It involves
large displacement in saturated and
unsaturated soils. Two complementary
lines of research are followed: reduced
* presenting author
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Scaled experiments
The small-scaled models are performed in
a tank specially designed to reproduce
different kinds of slope failures and
boundary
conditions
including
displacement constraints, water flow, pore
water pressures and relative humidity in
the case of unsaturated soil states
The tank is made of transparent
methacrylate and glass. Its dimensions
are: 1000mm long, 200mm width and
412mm height. These dimensions allow
reproducing scaled landslides in an
essentially 2D plane strain configuration
(Figure 1).
Water can be injected from the bottom and
the lateral part of the tank. In addition,
rainfall can be simulated from the upper
part.
Figure 2.
Ideal example of a codification
in patterns in the PIV technique. Left:
digital picture; center: simplificated
gray scaled picture; right: binary code.
319
The
momentum
balance
equation
Figure 3.
Squeme of the computational
sequence in MPM. Material points
(brown), grid nodes (red).
is
are
(1.4)
is updated.
(2.1)
320
3. RESULTS
The comparison between the experimental
and numerical results is a direct way to
evaluate the performance of the numerical
model. It is also an interesting way to get
more information about the evolution of
some parameters which are difficult to
measure
experimentally.
Landslide
failures have been induced and analysed
using PIV and then modelled by MPM.
Consider a first case (A). Failure of 60
sand slope was induced by removing the
guillotine. The slope dimensions are
250mm height, 200mm width and 330mm
long.
The granular soil is a calcic-silicic dune
sand from Castelldefels beach. The
properties of the material and the slope
are summarised in the Table 1.
Nodal velocities
are calculated
with the velocity of the material points and
the nodal mass (mp):
(2.2)
Table 1.
Sand proprieties
Sand density
1540 kg/m
Grain density
2665 kg/m
Porosity
0.42
Friction angle
Dilatancy angle
30o
8o
Poisson coefficient
0.3
Skeleton elastic
modulus
Cohesion
30 MPa
0
321
Figure 4.
Velocity maps derived from the
digital imaging of the failure induced in
a 60 sand slope using a PIV
technique. The color indicates the
magnitude of the displacement velocity
vector of each point.
323
4. CONCLUSIONS
The comparison between the experimental
and the numerical results confirms that the
Material Point Method is a powerful
numerical tool to analyse the behaviour of
landslides.
The combination of the PIV analysis of
experimental results and the MPM
numerical simulation was found to be a
useful procedure to test the numerical
method
and
to
suggest
further
developments of the code.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis is being possible due the a FI
grant from the Agency for Management of
University and Research Grants (AGAUR)
of Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalan
government). The guidance received from
the Thesis supervisors, Dr. N. Pinyol and
Prof. E. Alonso is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Adrian, R. J. (1991). Particle-imaging
techniques for experimental fluid
mechanics. Annual review of fluid
mechanics, 23(1), 261-304.
Baba, H. O., & Peth, S. (2012). Large
scale soil box test to investigate soil
deformation and creep movement on
slopes by Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV). Soil and Tillage Research, 125,
38-43.
Chen, S., Chen, L., Zhou, M., & Huang, J.
(2013,
December).
Experimental
Investigation on Factors Influencing
Stable Slope Angle of Granular
Accumulation. In Applied Mechanics
and Materials (Vol. 438, pp. 12381243).
Fern, J., Soga, K., & Robert, D. (2015,
January). Shear strength and dilatancy
of partially saturated sand in direct
shear tests. In TC105 ISSMGE
International
Symposium
on
Geomechanics from Micro to Macro, IS324
th
ABSTRACT
For providing stability of embankment formed for the purpose of obtaining geometry planned for
the E-75 Highway, reinforced concrete retaining wall with counterforts with total height of
H=13.20m has been designed. For the sections in side cut, slope stability analysis has been made
and appropriate measures are designed.
The static analysis of the retaining structure is made in the software GEO 5 module Cantilever
Wall, for calculation of the strengths of the active earth pressure and the external loads (vehicle
and seismic load), maximal edge stresses, safety factors against sliding and overturning and in
software Radimpex Tower 6.0 for dimensioning of the reinforced concrete cross sections, as well
as control of the cracks at the structure elements, deflection and settlement on the structure.
Slope stability analysis has been made using the software Roscience Slide according to
Spencers Method. For achieving the necessary safety factors with and without seismic impact,
decreasing of slope inclination is made and geocomposite for erosion control have been designed.
As finial result of the dimensioned reinforced concrete retaining wall with counterforts and slope
stability, technical drawings are made and next phase is construction of planned embankment and
side cut implementing the designed measures for providing stability.
Keywords: retaining wall, GEO 5 - module Cantilever Wall, Radimpex Tower 6.0,
slope stability, Roscience Slide
1. INTRODUCTION
On the new design Highway E-75 for a
part of the subsection Cariina Dolina tunnel Manajle embankment formed of
reinforced soil and slope with high
inclination grade are designed. The main
problem has appeared after the start of
the terrain construction work and
examination of the prevalent material
parameters. The terrain investigation and
testing has shown the need of designing a
new technical solution. Namely, the
* presenting author
PPRDR
1:1
.5
1:
12.0
12.0
al/PC
Dq
N - embankment
PPRDR - sandy-silty debris
PC - sandy gravel
D q - rock (dacite)
PPRDR
N
al/PC
Dq
Figure no.1.
Characteristic engineering-geological profiles
in side cut and embankment
J>kN/m3@
M>@
c [kPa]
Embankment
(N)
20.00
32.0
0.0
Sandy silty
debris (PPRDR)
20.00
30.0
5.0
Sandy gravel
(P)
21.00
35.0
0.0
Compact dacite
(q)
26.00
45.0
750.0
Material
Figure no.2. Layout on the retaining wall and the stabilized slope parts
Figure no.3. Front view on the retaining wall and the stabilized slope parts
328
stem
counterfort
Apot
Adim
[cm2]
[cm ]
b. zone
t. zone
b. zone
48.81
14.89
4.17
t. zone
31.07
76.78
(hidden pillar)
25/10
16/10
12/15
16/20
+
25/20
1625
3. CONCLUSIONS
For achieving optimal retaining wall with
such height (13.20m), the positioning and
thickness on the counterforts is very
important in order to obtain minimal
dimensions on constructive elements and
330
th
1. INTRODUCTION
Along the east Adriatic coast the
occurrence of soft rock is associated with
sedimentary deposits known as flysch. It
represents a complex geological and
sedimentary
environment
made
of
different lithological components, whereas
only few, depending on their mineral
composition, are extremely susceptible to
weathering and erosion (Mievi &
Vlastelica, 2014). Precisely, the diversity
of components in the flysch rock mass
emphasises the issue of differential
weathering and small to medium scale
rock falls on cuts in this strata (Figure 1).
The paper focuses on the existent cuts
made in the wider area of the town Split.
The exogenous processes that take place
(weathering, surface layer erosion,
localised slides, rock falls, etc.) have
causal effect on the security, maintenance
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Terrestrial Laser Scanning
Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) is a term
for surveying by which it is possible to
obtain large quantity of data (coordinates
of points), unlike any other conventional
surveying methods (i.e. total stations). In
addition to the term TLS, the term
frequently used is LiDAR (Light Detection
and Ranging), which is usually associated
with obtaining data from the air (eg. using
an aircraft as a platform) or the definition
of the technology itself.
With TLS a large amount of processed
data is obtained, which is called cloud of
points (Kordi, 2014). When checkpoints
are referenced in the known coordinate
system, then the whole cloud of points can
be oriented in the same system. The
332
y t
h ctg
t 0
(3)
y t
convex boundary
of intact rock
mass
h ctg
h ctg n R y,s
h ctg R
y,s
y ult
t 0
if 0 t t1
if t1 t y ult h ctg R y,s
if t t t ult
y ult h ctg R y,s
(4)
Initial cut
Geometry at
time step t
kz
m z
k l m ln
(1)
k a ac b c ;
where:
m h/c ;
l b h a ac b ; a ctg ; b ctg ; h height of the cut, D- talus angle and E angle of the initial slope cut. The
parameter c is a constant needed for
exact derivation:
rock volume
1 c
talus volume
(2)
333
8-12
5
3
7
47
Due: 13-14
Figure 4. The position of the pilot locations (cuts) on the geological map of the city of Split
Table 1. Basic information about the pilot locations
Pilot location
Cut
orientation
Dz/Ez
Orientation
of bedding
planes
Dmp/Emp
njan 1
255q/79q
180q/58q-74q
2
3
4
njan 2
Trstenik 1
Duilovo 1
270q/73q
161q/90q
190q/55-60q
170q/80q
170q/90q
5q/25q
7.7
(5.6-9.8)
5.0
4.0
25.0
Gripe 1
95q/74-80q
180q/85q
5.5
03.2014. 09.2014.
Katelet 1
165q/68q
30q/45q
16.0
03.2014. 09.2014.
Katelet 2
142q/79q
30q/45q
8
9
10
11
12
13
10. kolovoz 1
10. kolovoz 2
10. kolovoz 3
10. kolovoz 4
10. kolovoz 5
Due 1
30q/40q
25q/30q
10q/40q
25q/40q
30q/35q
140q/60q
14
Due 2
130q/72q
230q/65q
285q/77q
210q/78q
210q/78q
190q/69q
90q270q/
45q-65q
140q/60q
334
Height
H (m)
6.3
(3.5-7.5)
12.0
7.5
7.0
13.0
22.5
4.0
Up to
100.0
Monitoring period
(mm.yyyy. mm.yyyy.)
03.2012. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
03.2012. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
03.2014. 09.2014.
04.2012. 09.2013.
04.2012. 09.2014.
4. RESULTS
2m
Accumulation
Detachment
Figure 5. Comparison of point clouds at the pilot site "njan 1" for selected epochs of
measurement (a - d) with the reference surface S0
335
2m
Detachment
Figure 6. Comparison of point clouds for the middle part of the cut at the pilot site "njan 1" for
selected epochs of measurement (a - d) with the reference surface S0
Annual
erosion
Ry (cm/yr)
1.9 2.6
4.2
09.2013. 03.2014.
03.-09.2014.
2.3
03.-09.2013.
Erosion
(cm)
09.2012. 03.2013.
Time period
03.-09.2012.
Table 2. Average erosion in a typical crosssection at the pilot site "njan 1"
2.4
5.0
2.8
5.5*
z (m)
7
6
5
Fisher-Lehmann
Fisher-Lehmann
Translatirani
Translated FisherLehmann
Fisher-Lehmann
3
7.3.2012.
10.3.2014.
Poetni
1
y (m)
0
-2
-1
Detachment
Accumulation (displacement)
Accumulation
Detachment
Figure 10. Comparison of point clouds at the pilot site "Trstenik 1" for selected epochs of
measurement.
338
Table 3. Summary of the most important results of observations by TLS on selected pilot locations
Pilot location
Height
H (m)
Angle of
the free
face
Talus angle
Average erosion
njan 1
7,7
(5,6-9,8)
81q
37q
5,0 cm/year
njan 2
5,0
73q
37q
2,6 / 6 months
Trstenik 1
4,0
90q
37q
Not applicable
Duilovo 1
25,0
55q-70q
20 cm/2,5 years
Gripe 1
5,5
74q
36q
Katelet 1
16,0
68q
37q
Katelet 2
6,3
(3,5-7,5)
77q
35q
N/A
10. kolovoz 1
12,0
72q
38q
10. kolovoz 2
7,5
65q
36q
10
10. kolovoz 3
7,0
77q
36q
11
10. kolovoz 4
13,0
78q
38q
12
10. kolovoz 5
22,5
78q
38q
13
Due 1
4,0
65q
35q
N/A
14
Due 2
do 100,0
2-5cm/10 months
Remark:
5. CONCLUSIONS
Except for the results of direct geometrical
comparisons, this paper proposes a
modified setup of long term monitoring for
this type of rock mass. After the first scan
is georeferenced, by using software with
ICP algorithm and detecting fixed objects
on or near the slope, it is possible to use
only the TLS for all other data acquisitions
on the monitored cut.
The most prominent results are
recorded through slope angles of the cut
339
REFERENCES
Abellan, A., Vilaplana, J. M., Calvet, J.,
Garcia-Selles, D., Asensio, E. (2011)
Rockfall monitoring by Terrestrial
Laser Scanning case study of the
basaltic rock face at Castellfollit de la
Roca (Catalonia, Spain). Nat. Hazards
Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 829841.
Fisher, O. (1866) On the disintegration of
a chalk cliff, Geo-logical Magazine, 3,
354356.
Hutchinson, J.N. (1998). A small-scale
field check on the FisherLehmann and
BakkerLe Heux cliff degradation
models. Earth Surface Processes and
Landforms 23, 913926.
Kordi, B. (2014) Development of 3D TLS
method for determining and analysing
of landslide surface movements,
Zagreb: University of Zagreb, Faculty of
Geodesy. PhD thesis.
Lehmann, O. (1933) Morphologische
Theorie
der
Verwitterung
von
Steinschlagwnden.
Zurich:
Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschende
Gesellschaft, 78, 83126.
Lim, M., Rosser, N. J., Allison, R. J.,
Petley, D. N. (2009). Erosional
processes in the hard rock coastal cliffs
at
Staithes,
North
Yorkshire.
Geomorphology, 114(12), 1221.
Mievi, P. & Vlastelica, G. (2012) Timedependant stability of slopes excavated
in marl. Graevinar 64, 6; 451-461
Mievi, P., Vlastelica, G. (2014) Impact
of weathering on slope stability in soft
rock mass, Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering, Volume
6, Issue 3, Pages 240250.
Petrie, G., Toth, C.K. (2008) Introduction
to laser ranging, profiling and scanning
Topographic Laser Ranging and
Scanning: Principles and Processing.
Eds.: Shan, J., Toth, C.K., CRC Press /
Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 128.
Vlastelica, G. (2015): The Influence of
Weathering on Durability of Cuts in Soft
Rock Mass. Split: University of Split,
Faculty
of
Civil
Engineering,
Architecture and Geodesy. PhD thesis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The presented results derive from the
Japanese-Croatian
bilateral
research
project: Risk Identification and Land-Use
Planning for Disaster Mitigation of
Landslides, sponsored by Japan Science
and Technology Agency - JST, Japan
International Co-operation Agency - JICA
and Ministry of Science, Education and
Sport of Republic of Croatia.
Special thanks to my mentor prof.
Predrag Mievi for support and advices
at all stages of research and to prof.
Hiroshi Fukuoka from Niigata University,
Research Institute for Natural Hazards
and Disaster Recovery.
340
th
Belarusian national technical university, Minsk Belarus, Member of the Board Belorussian
Geotechnical Society
ABSTRACT
The Republic of Belarus construction industry is faced daily with the need to solve geotechnical
problems such as great loads on the base foundation, the cramped conditions construction,
buildings and structures reconstruction in the conditions of modern development, technical and
technological progress. It is clear that the material structural characteristics are determined in
advance, ensured their strength and reliability during the erection process, building, expluatation.
However, this can't be applied to base foundation soils, which are "dynamic" system, and physical,
mechanical and deformational characteristics change in the process of the sediments formation,
the construction and buildings and structures operations.
The existing buildings and structures ground physical, mechanical and deformation
characteristics are affected by the environment cyclical changes (winter, summer), anthropogenic
factors (vibration, dynamics, the overhead structures loading methods, topography and landscape
changes and so on). These influences often degrade the ground characteristics, reduce the
grounds and structures reliability reduce. In the article the Belarusian geological and engineering
conditions, the zonation are presented, information about the deposits and landforms formation is
also given.
This article describes the facilities of the new building, reconstruction, carried out in different
geological conditions and in the city building constrained conditions. The significant Belarusion
construction projects, information about geotechnical solutions adopted for their construction is
also provided.
2. DIFFICULT
CONDITIONS
EXAMPLES
GEOLOGICAL
CONSTRUCTION
343
3. FOUNDATION
RECONSTRUCTION
EXAMPLES
State archive reconstruction is the
symbolic object, where soil bases
strengthening by the grout injection
became the important and only possible
method of the strengthening. This building
dates from the mid-second half of XVII
century. The building was made of brick,
with longitudinal outer and inner bearing
walls and pillars. The thickness of the
masonry exterior walls exceeds 1.05 m, a
internal bearing walls brick, with the
thickness of 250, 380 and 510 mm.
The
foundations
reconstruction
technology violation was the urgent
execution reinforce works reason: under
the foundation base soil watering, the soil
excavation under the foundation base.
These facts cause to critical fallout of
foundations, cracks in the brick arches,
opening width up to 85mm (figure 9)
4. CRAMPED
CONDITIONS
CONSTRUCTION EXAMPLES
The object "XVIIXVIII architecture
monument century Reconstruction (Snct.
Cyril and Methodius center, Minsk) is the
example of a device deep pits in cramped
conditions with application of anchors for
fastening the retaining walls.
The anchors usage was the necessity
to perform excavation for the construction
of a new building in the cramped
conditions of the old buildings of the
historic spots of Minsk (figure 11).
5. TRANSPORT
FLYOVER
CROSSING
Minsk is growing city, so a great
number of new and reconstructed roads,
bridges are constructed and built.
The flyover crossing at the intersection
of Independence Avenue with the
Filimonov str. construction is the example
of such kind of transport building. The
345
6. CONCLUSIONS
Thus this paper reviews the current
situation
of
the
Belarusian
geotechniks,examples of new construction
and renovation allow the reader to review
the status of geotechnical engineering in
our country.
346
th
Session 7
Soil dynamics
www.KellerGeotehnica.ro
th
ABSTRACT
Thermally enhanced recovery processes involving continuous steam injection entail relatively
complicated changes in pore fluid, pore pressure, stress and temperature in the rock reservoir.
Time-lapse (or 4D) seismic surveys are currently developed to delineate the steam-affected areas,
but the data interpretation is often a highly difficult exercise.
Numerical simulations were carried out on a case study so as to provide an estimation of the
evolution of pressure, temperature, pore fluid saturation, stress and strain in any zone located
around the injector and producer wells. These outputs then were used as inputs for the velocity
assessment in the oil sand rock reservoir through the Ciz and Shapiro (2007)s approach.
Results are helpful for a better understanding and interpretation of 4D seismic data. The
significant changes of the wave velocities with the steam arrival can be used as an indicator for the
monitoring of steam chamber growth around the wells, which is crucial for optimization of reservoir
development.
1. INTRODUCTION
Huge quantities of heavy oils (heavy oil,
extra heavy oil and bitumen) are mainly
trapped in unconsolidated sand and
sandstone reservoirs in Western Canada
and Eastern Venezuela basins. In
thermally enhanced recovery processes
like cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) or
steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD),
the injection of steam in oil sand deposits
produces
changes
in
temperature,
pressures, stress and pore fluid content.
These changes obviously affect the elastic
* presenting author
2. EVOLUTION
OF
PRESSURE,
TEMPERATURE AND PORE FLUID
SATURATION DURING SAGD
The coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical
modelling of SAGD (Lerat et al., 2010;
Zandi, 2011) showed how the different
fields (stress, pressure, temperature and
steam) develop with respect to time. The
simulation is based on an iterative
coupling between a reservoir simulator
(PumaFlowTM) and a geomechanical
simulator (ABAQUSTM) in order to take
into account the geomechanical effects on
the porous volume and the permeability
changes of the reservoir.
A 20 meters thick (in the Z vertical
direction) reservoir at a depth of 250
meters is modelled. The domain
considered for the reservoir simulator is
rectangular with a width of 147 meters (in
the X direction) and a length of 500
meters along the Y-axis of the well pair.
350
permeability and
corrected
300
simulations.
porous volume
times
during
are
the
b) Pressure field
c) Temperature field
Figure 1. Reservoir simulator spatial discretization (a) and pressure (b) and temperature (c) fields
at the end of simulation (1500 days) in reservoir
is
K dr1
( K dr1 K s1 ) 2
I ( K f 1 K s1 ) ( K dr1 K s1 )
1
Gsat
Gdr1
(Gdr1 Gs1 ) 2
I (G f 1 Gs1 ) (Gdr1 Gs1 )
4. APPLICATION
FOR
TIME-LAPSE
MONITORING
The probable evolution of P- and S-wave
velocities in an oil sand reservoir at
seismic frequency bandwidth (cf. 100 Hz)
at grid cell B is illustrated in Figure 2 with
respect to the arrival of the different fronts
associated to steam injection. The seismic
velocities were calculated by Ciz and
Shapiro approach by using pore pressure,
temperature and fluid saturation changes
deduced from SAGD coupled thermohydro-mechanical modelling.
352
5. CONCLUSIONS
A
coupled
thermo-hydro-mechanical
modelling of SAGD showed how the
different
fronts
(dilation,
pressure,
temperature and steam) develop and
propagate with respect to time. The
invasion
of
these
fronts
impact
consequently 4D seismic monitoring
because of the changes in seismic
attributes (velocities, attenuations, etc.).
Ciz and Shapiro approach showed a
good promise in assessing the physic
properties of rock saturated with heavy oil.
This approach has been employed to
estimate the evolution of the P and Swave velocities in the reservoir at seismic
frequency during a SAGD process.
Prior to the arrival of the steam,
temperature appears to be the dominant
factor affecting the wave velocity
response. The sudden appearance or
disappearance of gas is probably the
strongest factor in producing the velocity
changes. Future work would need to
confirm these findings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work has been supervised by J.F.
Nauroy (IFPEN), P. Delage (ENPC), and
M. Mainguy (TOTAL).
The author would like also to thank P.
Rasolofosaon, N Guy and G. Renard
(IFPEN) for useful recommendations and
helpful comments. This work is part of the
first authors PhD thesis funding by
IFPEN.
REFERENCES
Batzle M.L, Hofmann R. and Han D.H.
(2006) Heavy oils-seismic properties,
The Leading Edge 25, 750756.
Biot M.A. (1941) General theory of threedimensional consolidation, J. Applied
Phys. 12, 155-164.
353
th
The two key parameters used in computers software specific for the seismic ground response
analysis are: the shear modulus and damping ratio. The paper presents the results obtained using
as equipment a fixed-free resonant column, adapted to perform both conventional resonant column
tests (RCT) and cyclic torsional shear tests (TST). The samples were carried out by sampling silty
clay soil retrieved from a site of Iasi city, Romania.
The first part of the paper describes the tested material and the second part deals with the
dynamic testing and discussions of the results. The soil sample was subjected to an isotropic and
undrained consolidation at a strain range between 0.0003 % and 0.1 %.
The results have been graphically expressed, mainly the maximum and normalized shear
moduli and damping ratios versus cyclic shear strain amplitudes. A comparison of the normalized
shear modulus and damping ratio curves computed from an empirical model with those obtained in
laboratory tests it is also presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
The South-Eastern areas of Europe are
known as having the highest seismic
activity. One of them includes Romanian
country, where the majority of the
earthquakes occurred had the epicentre in
Vrancea region. The seismic activity of
this source is characterized as subcrustal
with a hypocentre between 70 and 170 km
and it is situated at the curvature of the
Carpathian Mountains. That is why it is
very important for Romanian territory to
* presenting author
2. TESTED MATERIAL
The tested material is a clayey sandy silt
found on alluvial complex of Bahlui River,
which crosses the city over a length of 14
km. The site from where the clay was
retrieved is located near the center of the
city, at 350 m distance from the riverbed.
The undisturbed specimens were
sampled from a depth of 8.0 m. In Table 1
the average physical properties of the
tested soil are presented. The material
has a clay fraction of 25% and a low
plasticity
PI=16.77%,
according
to
Casagrande classification.
Table 1. Physical characteristics of tested
material
S
w0
[g/cm3] [%]
2.65
wL
[%]
e
[-]
SR
[-]
PI
[%]
3. LABORATORY
TESTING
APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES
Stage
0
(kPa)
TS
RC
(%)
(%)
f
(Hz)
102
0.0003
-0.003
0.0004
-0.004
10-65
II
100
0.0003
-0.005
0.0004
-0.07
10-65
III
200
0.0002
-0.002
0.0004
-0.07
10-65
IV
300
0.0003
-0.004
0.0003
-0.1
10-65
358
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the present paper the static
characteristics by performing TST and
dynamic characteristics by performing
RCT for a clayey sandy silt have been
analyzed. The influence of the isotropic
confining stress and dependency on the
shear strain has been analyzed on the
shear modulus, damping ratio and
normalized shear modulus. It was
remarked a good agreement between the
data obtained on both RCT and TST at
small strain level, which means that the
testing condition do not affect the
measured dynamic parameters. It was
noticed that the shear modulus is
influenced by the confining stress, but less
influence on damping ratio was observed,
as well as on the normalize shear
modulus.
An empirical prediction of the G/G0 by
using the Ishibashi and Zhang (1993) and
Darandeli (2001) models was also
performed and compared with the
measured values from RCTS tests. The
following comparison led to these
conclusions:
x the two prediction models do not
completely agree with each other;
x a good agreement between the
measured values and the values
given by the empirical model
proposed by Darandeli (2001) has
been noticed.
Therefore, a close attention should be
given in determining the soil dynamic
parameters, because it represents a key
tool in ground response analysis. More
accuracy is needed in their determination
providing to obtain a site response
analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank to Luigi
Callisto, associate professor at the
University of Rome La Sapienza for the
help, guidance and advices given during
research activity and to Irina Lungu,
professor at Gheorghe Asachi Technical
th
ABSTRACT
The fundamental frequency of the soil and the shear wave velocity soil profile until bedrock are key
parameters for an appropriate seismic site response estimation. Both can be identified in an easy
and cost-effective way by using surface seismic methods, such as the HVSR technique, the
MASW method and the microtremor Rayleigh wave curve inversion. The possibility to identify the
shear wave velocity soil profile until a considerable depth without the implementation of large
receiver spreads is now possible through the combination of the latter two techniques (joint
inversion of Rayleigh wave dispersion and ellipticity curves). In this study, we test the accuracy and
capabilities of the latter methodology for the identification of the shear wave velocity soil profile of a
site whose soil structure is known. The reliability of the results obtained through the HVSR method,
for the estimation of the fundamental frequency of the soil, is also analysed.
Keywords: shear wave velocity profile, joint inversion, MASW method, Rayleigh
wave ellipticity
1. INTRODUCTION
The current EC8 soil classification
scheme has shown to be inadequate for
the estimation of the seismic response of
certain sites, such as thick soil deposits
(for instance: Park & Hashash, 2004). This
classification system, considers the
average shear-wave velocity soil profile
down to 30m depth (Vs,30) as a proxy of
seismic amplification. As a consequence,
the method is limited to superficial effects
and does not take into account the real
impedance contrast between soil and
bedrock, characteristic that highly affects
* presenting author
Figure 1. Location map of the study area (left) and spatial distribution of the microtremor
measurements, location of the boreholes and a schematic representation of active MASW
acquisition lines (right).
363
Figure 2 - Soil profiles estimated from 3D geological model (Lopes, 2005) for all measurement
points and SPT results obtained at the boreholes that are close to the measurement points.
3. METHODOLOGY
The fundamental frequency of the soil
deposit, at each measurement point, was
estimated by applying the HVSR method
to each three-component signal. The
Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratios were
computed using the software GEOPSY
(http://www.geopsy.org). The average
spectral ratios and respective standard
deviation were determined based on the
most stationary time windows, tapered
with a 5% cosine function. The length and
number of time windows used for the
determination of the H/V spectral ratios
was defined to be high enough to
adequately capture the frequencies of
interest and ensure a considerable
number of significant cycles, respectively.
The presented HVSR curves were
smoothed using the Konno & Ohmachi
algorithm (Konno & Ohmachi, 1998) with
smoothing constant of 40 and a 5% cosine
taper. Finally, the reliability of the results
was evaluated according to the criteria
presented
in
SESAME
guidelines
(SESAME, 2004). According to this
document, the evaluation of the reliability
of the estimated fundamental frequency
should be made in terms of stability and
clarity or resolution of the peak.
Rayleigh wave ellipticity curves were
computed
for
all
seismic
noise
measurements using the RayDec method.
Each seismic signal was splitted into 7 or
8 time windows with 5 min length (total
length of the recorded signals varies from
35 to 40 min). The method was applied to
each time window and the average
ellipticity curve was computed as the
geometric mean of all ellipticity curves
associated to each part of the signal. The
computation of the referred curves has
365
FC02
FC03
FC04
FC05
fpeak
HVSR
=4.200.48Hz
Figure 3 - Mean Rayleigh wave ellipticity and standard deviation (continuous red line and dashed
red lines, respectively), average Microtremor HVSR curve and standard deviation (continuous
black line and dashed black lines, respectively).
Figure 4 Local 01: Results obtained through the inversion of Rayleigh wave dispersion
SWM-FC1 (minimum misfit: 0.0119, maximum misfit presented 1.5min misfit).
Figure 5 Local 01: Results obtained for the inversion of Rayleigh wave ellipticity FC-04 and
dispersion curve SWM-FC1 (min misfit: 0.1082) until misfit 1.5times.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the fundamental
frequency of the soil deposit and shear
wave velocity soil profile was determined
by the microtremor HVSR method and
through the joint inversion of Rayleigh
wave dispersion and ellipticity curves,
respectively.
Since the site geology favours the
energy dominance of higher modes, the
modal delineation of active data required
significant attention. A sensibility analysis
was made in order to identify the
segments of the ellipticity and dispersion
curves (fundamental and higher modes),
the appropriate initial model and the
368
Conference
on
Earthquake
Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand.
Nakamura Y (2008). On the H/V spectrum.
14th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Beijing, China.
Nakamura Y (2010). Comment on
Microtremor Measurements in the Nile
Delta Basin, Egypt: Response of the
Topmost Sedimentary Layer by E. A.
Fergany and S. Bonnefoy-Claudet.
Seismol. Res. Lett. Vol. 81, pp. 241
243.
Park CB, Miller RD, Ryden N, Xia J &
Ivanov J (2005). Combined Use of
Active and Passive Surface Waves. J.
Environ. Eng. Geophys. Vol. 10, pp.
323334.
Park CB, Miller RD & Xia J (1999).
Multichannel analysis of surface waves.
Geophysics. Vol. 64, pp. 800808.
Park D & Hashash YMA (2004).
Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis
with nonlinear site effects in the
Mississippi embayment. 13th World
Conference
on
Earthquake
Engineering. Vancouver, Canada.
Pitilakis K (2004). Site effects. Recent
advances in earthquake geotechnical
engineering and microzonation, Ansal A
(ed), Kluwer, Dordrecht. pp 139197.
Pitilakis K, Riga E & Anastasiadis A
(2013). New code site classification,
amplification factors and normalized
response spectra based on a worldwide
ground-motion database. Bull. Earthq.
Eng. Vol. 11, pp. 925966.
SESAME Team (2004). Guidelines for the
implementation of the H/V spectral ratio
technique on ambient vibrations Measurements,
processing
and
interpretation. SESAME Eur. Res. Proj.
WP12 Deliverable D23.12.
Tuan TT (2009). The ellipticity (H/V-ratio)
of Rayleigh surface waves. PhD Thesis.
Friedrich-Schiller-Universitt Jena. pp.
119.
Wathelet M (2008). An improved
neighborhood algorithm: Parameter
conditions and dynamic scaling.
Geophys. Res. Lett. Vol. 35, L09301.
European
strong-motion
sites.
Geophys. J. Int. Vol. 192, pp. 207229.
Humire F, Sez E & Leyton F (2014).
Combining active and passive multichannel analysis of surface waves to
improve reliability of VS30 estimation
using standard equipment. Bull Earthq.
Eng.
Konno K & Ohmachi T (1998). GroundMotion Characteristics Estimated from
Spectral Ratio between Horizontal and
Vertical Components of Microtremor.
Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. Vol. 88, pp.
228241.
Lachet C & Bard P-Y (1994). Numerical
Possibilities
and
Theoretical
Investigations on the Possibilities and
Limitations of Nakamuras Technique.
J. Phys. Earth. Vol. 42, pp. 377 397.
Lombardo G, Coco G, Corrao M, Imposa
S, Azzara R, Cara F & Rovelli A (2001).
Results of microtremor measurements
in the urban area of Catania, Italy.
Bolletino di Geofis. Teor. ed Appl. Vol.
42, pp. 317334.
Lopes I, Santos JA & Almeida IM De
(2008). The surface wave method:
acquisition, processing and inversion.
Revista Geotecnia. Revista LusoBrasileira Geotecnia. Vol. 112, pp 79
109 (in Portuguese).
Lopes
IF
(2005).
Small
Strain
Characterization of Soils. Application of
the Surface Wave Method. PhD Thesis,
Universidade de Lisboa, pp. 369 (in
Portuguese).
Miller RD, Xia J, Park CB & Ivanov JM
(1999). Multichannel analysis of surface
waves to map bedrock. Leading Edge.
Vol. 18, pp. 13921396.
Nakamura Y (1989). A Method for
Dynamic Characteristics Estimation of
Subsurface Using Microtremor on the
Ground Surface. Q. Rep. Railw. Tech.
Res. Institute, Tokyo. Vol: 30, pp. 25
33.
Nakamura Y (2000). Clear identification of
fundamental idea of Nakamuras
technique
and
its
applications.
Proceedings of the 12th World
370
th
In earthquake engineering it is well known that different types of soil, especially sand, have the
tendency to liquefy due to dynamic loading. In this research, the dynamic loads are caused by
construction methods like jet grouting, vibro compaction or vibro replacement and vibrated sheet
pile walls and the soil types investigated are postglacial lacustrine fine-grained deposits, in general
silt with different amounts of clay and/or fine sand. The most common liquefaction criteria the
Chinese criteria, Wang et al. (1979) does not fit for this type of soil. It shows in some cases
similar liquefying or softening behaviour. Results using the liquefaction susceptibility criteria,
Boulanger and Idriss (2006), are presented in this paper. Furthermore a case study to determine
dynamic loads like acceleration and changes of pore water pressure during jet grouting is
presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bringing
dynamic
loads
due
to
construction
methods
like
vibro
replacement, vibrated sheet pile walls or
jet grouting into saturated soft to very soft
fine grained soils often result in settlement
effects without additional loads. In this
paper the influence of dynamic loads - in
particular jet grouting - on postglacial
lacustrine
fine-grained
deposits
is
discussed. Jet grouting is a ground
modification system whereby the soil gets
eroded by a high speed water and/or a
cement slurry jet (depending on whether
single, double or triple tube jet grouting
takes place). The range of pressure
* presenting author
10
10
3. DETERMINING
ACCELERATION
AND
PORE
WATER
PRESSURE
DURING JET GROUTING
To determine the acceleration and the
change in pore water pressure during jet
grouting, two tests were conducted. The
first test was performed in a 2.70 x 2.70 m
chamber in the laboratory concurrently to
a different research project dealing with jet
grouting. The second series was a field
test in St. Kanzian/Carinthia.
3.1. Measurement instrumentation
The measurement of the vibration was
performed by two 3D 2g acceleration
sensors (ACS) for high frequencies of up
372
KPSU-2
PSU-4a
KPSU-4
KPSU-5
Sand
2.45 m
PWS
ACS
ACS
PWS
Cross section
Test chamber
4. RESULTS
4.1. Comparison
of
liquefaction
susceptibility criteria
The results of the laboratory tests
compared against the Chinese criteria
chart show that only a few soils are
susceptible to liquefaction. The range of
the liquid limits values is between 26 %
and 43.5 %. In detail, several samples
from the two locations (Schttdorf and St.
0.75 m
2.70 m
0.50 m
2.70 m
Not susceptible
Susceptible to
liquefaction
Clay-like behaviour
Zone B
Zone A
Transition zone
Sand-like behaviour
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Keller
Grundbau GmbH, in particular Dr.
Clemens Kummerer for the support and
the given opportunity to perform these
measurements.
REFERENCES
Boulanger, R.W. & Idriss, I.M. (2006)
Liquefaction susceptibility criteria for
Silts
and
Clays,
Journal
of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 1413 1426
Seed, R.B., Cetin, K.O. et al. (2003)
Recent Advances in Soil Liquefaction
Engineering: A Unified and Consistent
Framework, Earthquake engineering
research centre, Berkeley, USA
Robertson, P.K., Fear, C.E. (1995)
Liquefaction of sands and its
evaluation, Proceedings of the 1st
International
Conference
on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering,
Tokyo, Japan
Wang, W.S. (1979) Some Findings in Soil
Liquefaction. Water Conservancy and
Hydroelectric
Power,
Scientific
Research Institute, Beijing, China
Wong, L.W., Ju, D.H., Wu, P.J. (1997)
Control of ground movements caused
by jet grouting, Proceedings of
International Conference on Ground
Improvement Techniques, 649 -656,
Macau, China
5. CONCLUSION
All of the soils tested here have shown
their potential to liquefy or undergo cyclic
softening. Due to the lamination of these
soils, it is also possible that only certain
layers liquefy or particles rearrange. The
input of vibrations and/or excess pore
water pressure during jet grouting is not
significant, as is shown in the presented
results. In some cases, it was still enough
to induce settlements not only in an area
next to the jet grouting column, but also up
to more than 10 meters away. The trigger
for these settlements still has to be
identified, especially when high clay
contents (up to 30 %) contradict the
theses of liquefaction. It also has to be
considered
that
the
mineralogical
composition may have a major influence
on the soil behaviour.
376
ABSTRACT
In order to prevent soil liquefaction there are various ground improvement measures such as the
soil cementation, soil compaction or the use of drainage. Although stone columns were frequently
used for the prevention of soil liquefaction in the last few years, there is not much research that
explains how it works. Both numerical calculations with conventional constitutive models and small
scale laboratory experiments cannot represent the improving mechanisms. The interaction
between the soil and the columns and between the pore water and the soil skeleton under seismic
effects makes the understanding of this method difficult. In this work, the application of stone
columns as a prevention to soil liquefaction is numerically investigated with a hypoplastic
constitutive model. The focus of the study is on the influence of stiffness and permeability of the
columns. Furthermore, the effects of columns group was studied. Finally, it was proved that the
columns installation should be considered in the initial state of the numerical model.
1. INTRODUCTION
Earthquakes cause enormous economic
and humanitarian damage, especially if
the earthquake cause soil liquefaction.
Soil liquefaction is the loss of soil stiffness
and shear resistance due to the build-up
of pore water pressure and the decrease
of effective stress. This loss of soil
stiffness and strength appears as ground
failures in the form of sand boils,
differential settlements, flow slides, lateral
spreading, and loss of bearing capacity
beneath buildings [Adalier et al. 2004]. In
order to prevent soil liquefaction there are
various ground improvement measures
such as the soil cementation, soil
* presenting author
2. NUMERICAL MODEL
The finite element program TOCHNOG
PROFESSIONAL [Roddeman 2013] was
applied for the numerical simulation (2D
model). The plane strain mesh was
generated with constant strain triangular
elements using the software GiD [GiD
2013]. The boundary conditions were
defined so that an unrealistic wave
reflection was prevented at the model
boundaries. The left edge was connected
to the right edge in order to obtain the
same velocity at the same height of the
vertical boundaries. The bottom boundary
was fixed in the vertical direction, while no
kinematic constraints were prescribed at
the top boundary.
The ground model consists of a loosely
deposited sand layer with two soil
improvement columns at the lateral edges.
The model size is 10 * 10 m and the water
table is 0.5 m below the ground surface
(Figure 1). In the initial state, geostatic
stresses were prescribed and activated
with start of the calculation. In addition, a
constant initial void ratio was considered
for the stone columns regardless of the
depth. After that, an idealized seismic load
was applied as a sinusoidal horizontal
velocity at the bottom of the model. The
velocity signal has a frequency of 2 Hz
and an amplitude up to 0.1 m/s. The
acceleration generated by the velocity
signal can be determined by differentiating
the velocity time history. For example the
differentiation of the velocity history with
an amplitude 0.1 m/s and a frequency of 2
Hz yields an acceleration with an
amplitude of approximately 1.25 m/s2 and
an unchanged frequency.
The numerical calculations have been
conducted using the hypoplastic model
from [Von Wolffersdorff 1996], linked with
the
intergranular
strain
approach
according to [Niemunis and Herle, 1997].
The hypoplastic parameters of Leighton
Buzzard
sand
have
been
used,
determined from cyclic and dynamic
378
c
hs0
[] [MPa]
n0
33
100
ed0
ec0
ei0
mR
mT
6. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper the build-up of excess pore
water pressures due to seismic events in a
liquefiable soil was investigated using
numerical simulations by means of a
hypoplastic constitutive model with
intergranular strains. The liquefaction
hazard increases with an increased
magnitude of the seismic loading. The risk
of liquefaction can be reduced using a soil
improvement by stone columns. The
columns act against the liquefaction by
both their high stiffness as well as their
high
permeability.
The
numerical
calculations with advanced constitutive
models can be used successfully to
investigate the effects of stone columns.
However, the installation of the columns
should be considered in the generation of
the initial state of the model in order to get
realistic stress distribution.
REFERENCES
Adalier, K. & Elgamal, A (2004) Mitigation
of liquefaction and associated ground
deformations by stone columns,
Engineering Geology 72, 275 291.
GiD. (2013): Pre and post processing
system for Numerical Simulations,
International Center For Numerical
Methods In Engineering (CIMNE).
http://www.gidhome.com/
Hleibieh, J., Wegener, D. & Herle, Ivo.
(2014) Numerical simulation of RRTT
with a hypoplastic model, Acta
Geotechnica Vol. 9, Issue 4, pp 631640.
Madhav M. & R., Murali A. (2008)
Liquefaction
Mitigation
of
Sand
Deposits by Granular Piles- an
Overview, Proceedings of the 2nd
382
th
Geo, Copenhagen,DENMARK
ABSTRACT
One of the most important dynamic soil parameters is the shear wave velocity (Vs), used mostly for
calculating the shear modulus (G), based on a simple elastic relationship with the mass density.
The methods to derive the shear wave velocity include direct measurement by use of in-situ
geophysical tests (seismic CPT, PS Logging, etc.), laboratory tests, or by using empirical and sitespecific correlations from cone penetration tests (CPT). For the detailed design of an Offshore
Wind Farm (OWF), a site investigation has been conducted using static and seismic CPT, the later
for the measurement of the shear wave velocity. In addition, PS logging (down-the-hole acoustic
probe) and several laboratory bender element (BE) tests have been carried out, enabling an
evaluation and application of the site-specific CPT-Vs correlation. The application of the in-situ
methods will be discussed with regards to the limitations, and important recommendations will be
given to overcome the challenges during offshore soil investigation.
Keywords: seismic CPT, shear modulus (G), shear wave velocity (Vs)
1. INTRODUCTION
Estimation of the shear wave velocity (Vs)
through different measurements or
correlations, is an important component of
various site response analyses and soilstructure interaction. The compression
wave velocity (Vp) and Vs, have been used
to describe the elasticity of the soils, to
predict the soil dynamic response, due to
earthquake or other vibrations. The
importance in the accuracy of estimating
the Vs, is related directly with the
equations from elasticity theory, applied
for calculating the shear modulus (Gmax),
* presenting author
2. SITE
DATA
(IN-SITU
AND
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS)
2.1. In-Situ Data
As part of an offshore site investigation
campaign, different in-situ and laboratory
tests have been carried out. For the
considered location, down-the-hole CPTs
(DTH-CPTs), seismic CPTs and several
laboratory
tests
(classification
and
advanced) have been performed.
The chosen CPT (CPT-1) and the
available soil density measurements are
shown in Figure 1.
3. DETERMINATION
STRAIN SHEAR
USING VS
OF
SMALL
MODULUS (GMAX)
385
(1)
where soil density is the total unit
weight of soil divided by gravity (9.81
m/sec2). Gmax has units of force per length
squared andcan also be measured in the
laboratory by using resonant column or
bender element tests.
4. MEASUREMENT OF VS
Vscould be measured by using different insitu geophysical methods as well as by
laboratory tests. The in-situ methods are
divided
into
invasive
and
noninvasive.(Wair, et al., 2012). Invasive
methods require drilling on the ground and
include different downhole and cross-hole
logging, suspension logging, etc. A very
rapid and cost effective invasive method is
the seismic CPT (SCPT). Non-invasive
methods do not require drilling or
penetration into the ground. These
methods
include
different
seismic
refraction and spectral analysis of surface
waves (SASW).
Same as for the other types of
geotechnical laboratory tests, also for the
measurement of the Vs, high quality
undisturbed samples are required. This
quality of the testing is very often not
possible to be achieved, especially for
sandy soils.
In this paper, only the measurement of
the Vs by use of SCPT is discussed. The
interpretation and analysis of the datais
basedon an offshore SCPT measurement.
In addition, some results of other invasive
methods such as PS suspension log
probe and bender element test have been
used.
4.5. PS Logging
The PS logger is a high energy, low
frequency acoustic probe, designed to
measure compression and shear wave
velocities in fluid filled boreholes. PS
logging have been carried out at the
investigated borehole at depths starting
from 14 m below seabed. For this study,
only the measurement of PS logging from
14 to 15 m will be considered.
4.6. Vs measurements
The results of Vs measurements from
SCPT, BE and PS logging, together with
the corresponding depths are given in
Table 1.
Table 1 Vs measurements
Method
SCPT
Method
BE
Method
PS
D
[m]
Vs
[m/s]
D
[m]
Vs
[m/s]
D
[m]
Vs
[m/s]
2.0
173
3.0
173
5.4
321
5.5
293
6.4
321
7.0
294
8.0
294
8.5
306
9.0
296
10.0
313
10.5
333
14.0
284
15.0
285
5. REVIEW OF VS CORRELATIONS
WITH CPT
5.1. General
Several authors and researchers have
studied and published relationships
between CPT and Vs. The correlations
have been developed based on different
Vs measurements and considering other
6. INTERPRETATION
OF
THE
RESULTS
The considered correlations have been
applied to the available CPT data in order
to estimate the Vs. The calculated Vs for
each correlation was compared to the
measured Vs values, determined from the
SCPT, BE and PS logging. A general
overview, showing the comparison
between the measured and the correlated
Vs, is given inFigure 8.
(3)
The correlationwas derived from a
database that included sands, silts, clays,
as well as mixed soil types.
5.4. (Andrus, et al., 2007)
(Andrus, et al., 2007) proposed a
correlation applicable to all soils and
based on a dataset of 229 CPTs and Vs
measurements. The dataset included 72
data soils of Holocene geologic age, 113
data of Pleistocene and 44 data of Tertiary
age. The majority of the Vs measurements
were performed using the SCPT.
For the regression analysis, (Andrus, et
al., 2007) has taken into account several
previous publications and only the ones
with lower standard deviation of the
residuals have been used. Based on
thecombined Holocene and Pleistocene
dataset, the best-fit regression equation
for predicting Vs in m/s is given from
Equation (4).
(4)
Characterization
and
Engineering
Properties
of
Natural
Soils
II.
Singapore.
Mayne, P. (2007). Cone penetration
testing
state-of-practice.
NCHRP
Project 20-05.
Nguyen, H., Meidani, M., DeGroot, D.,
Lunne, T., & Vanneste, m. (2015).
Measurement and interpretation of
downhole seismic probe data for
estimating shear wave velocity in deepwater environments. Frontiers in
Offshore Geotechnics III (ISFOG 2015).
Oslo: Taylor & Francis Group.
Robertson, P. (2009). Interpretation of
cone penetration tests - a unified
approach.
Canadian
Geotechnical
Journal, 46(11), 1337-1355.
Robertson, P. (2010). Soil Behaviour type
from the CPT: an update. 2nd
International Symposium on Cone
Penetration Testing, Vol.2, pp. 575-583.
Huntington Beach, CA.
Robertson, P., & Cabal, K. (2015). Guide
to Cone Penetration Testing for
Geotechnical Engineering, Prepared for
Gregg Drilling & Testing Inc. (6th
Edition ed.).
SPAS 2009 v.2.0 - GeoLogismiki. (2009).
SPAS 2009 User's Software Manual.
(Version 2.0). (GeoLogismiki, Ed.)
Greece.
Wair, B., DeJong, J., & Shantz, T. (2012).
Guidelines for Estimation of Shear
Wave Velocity Profiles. University of
California, California Department of
Transportation, Pacific Earthquake
Engineering Research Center.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Important aspects in measuring the Vs
from the SCPT tests, processing of the
data and discussing the application of
existing site specific Vs-CPT correlations,
are given in this paper.
A particular care must be given to the
SCPT measurements during the offshore
site investigation. The frequency of the
seismic hammer is an important
parameter that helps to filter out the
dominant noise frequencies.
An engineering judgement is needed
before the application of the available CPT
Vscorrelations. The Vs is also very much
dependent on the deposits age of the soils
and the developed correlations in general
have been derived for soil data of a
specific soil deposits age, such as
Holocene or Pleistocene. For this reason,
the ageing scale factors must be applied
to the corresponding soil.
Measurement of the Vs by using SCPT
or other geophysical testing, including BE
tests in the laboratory, provides low strain
in-situ compression and shear wave
velocity measurements. The shear
modulus (G) is highly dependent upon the
strain level, and the determination of the
dynamic soil stiffness properties, needs a
very careful consideration of the
associated level of strains.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Albanian
Geotechnical Society for choosing this
paper and Geo for sponsoring the
participation in the conference.
REFERENCES
Andrus, R., Mohanan, N., Piratheepan, P.,
Ellis, B., & Holzer, T. (2007). Predicting
shear-wave
velocity
from
cone
penetration resistance. Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering.
Thessaloniki, Greece.
Mayne, P. (2006). In situ test calibrations
for evaluating soil parameters. Proc.,
392
th
The installation of passive structural systems to protect existing buildings from seismic risk is very
common, yet it could be expensive and not always feasible in the case of valuable buildings. They
may affect the integrity of structures of artistic or historical relevance in a way that cannot be
accepted in the light of the most recent rules of conservation and retrofitting. As an alternative,
ground improvement techniques can be used to modify ground properties, in order to mitigate the
intensity of shaking at ground level. This paper focuses on the case of a V-shaped barrier that may
be formed by assembling inclined and partially overlapped columns of artificially softened soil to
isolate a mass in the ground. The model was calibrated using the results of centrifuge testing on a
reduced scale model. The response of a SDOF founded within the isolated ground mass is then
studied via FE analyses and the results are commented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Technological interventions into the
ground to mitigate the effects of vibrations
have been employed in the past, mostly
with reference to the effects of anthropic
actions (e.g. surface vibrations induced by
vehicles and rail-bound traffic). To this
aim, completely different solutions have
been studied, all with the aim to modify the
impedance ratio , defined as the
dimensionless ratio between the dynamic
impedance of the natural and of the
treated soil (D=s/g). Lombardi (2014)
have shown that in order to have an
effective modification of shear waves
* presenting author
Symbol
Value
Unit
ref
G0
202000
kN/m2
0.7
0.0002
0.25
ref
E50
30000
kN/m2
Eoedref
30000
kN/m2
Eurref
90000
kN/m2
pref
100
kN/m2
m
0.55
c
0
kN/m2
42
16
nc
K0
0.4
The soft barrier was modelled as an
elastic-perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb
material.
Its
shear
strength
was
determined through shear tests (Flora et
al., 2015) while the elastic shear wave
velocity was obtained by means of airhammer pulse tests during the centrifuge
flight. The adopted values of parameters
are summarized in Table 2.
G0
3
(kg/m ) (kN/m2)
1020
109
(-)
()
Vs
(m/s)
0.4
12
394
24m (80g)
300 mm
L1
L2
M1
A1
A13
A2
A7
A8
150 mm
A3
A9
45
22.8m (80g)
12m (80g)
A14
285 mm
M3
A4
A10
A5
A11
A6
A12
AH
A15
500 mm
40m (80g)
A : Piezoelectric Accelerometers
M: Microelectromechanical System Accelerometer
L: Linear Variable Differential Transformer
AH: Air Hammer Piezoelectric Accelerometer
395
ESD
ID
146
Name
Predominant Significant
Arias
Predominant
PGA
Duration
frequency
Intensity
2
period (s)
(m/s )
(s)
(Hz)
(m/s)
Date
3.17
0.2
5.0
38.5
175
Lazio Abruzzo
07/05/1984
1.23
1.30
0.4
2.5
12
1635x
South Iceland
17/06/2000
1.53
0.87
0.24
4.2
4.5
1635y
South Iceland
17/06/2000
1.29
0.73
0.16
6.3
5.8
1885
Kalamata
13/10/1997
1.15
1.93
0.3
3.3
17.7
2142x
South Iceland
(aftershock)
21/06/2000
1.13
1.23
0.3
3.3
5.3
Japan
1997
1.67
0.89
0.3
3.3
4.2
Kobe
17/01/1995
3.02
1.35
0.08
12.5
15
Japanese SZO002
Network
database EW 83
1 4 2 E G
2S U 2 S LIM S H IM
0.25
Fourier Amplitude
fIM
1.35
(1)
where E and G are the Youngs and the
shear modulus of the soft soil isolating the
mass and U is the isolated soil density.
The frequency evalueted for the model
reported in Figure 1 was equal to 1.4 Hz. It
was calculated according Eq. (1), where
the mechanical parameter of the soft
barrier (E, G) and its density, U, can be
obtained from Table 2, HIM=12 m, LIM=24
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
Frequency (Hz)
2.00
2.50
10
4. RESULTS
amax_SDOF_IM/amax_SDOF
amax_SDOF (g)
10
11
fSDOF
(a)
amax_SDOF_IM (g)
10
1
0
10
fSDOF/fIM
11
2g
IA
0.1
0.01
0.10
0.01
1.00
1
0.1
10.00
Average
a(t ) 2 dt
(m / s )
(2)
fSDOF
(b)
Figure 4 Maximum acceleration of a SDOF
founded within the isolated mass (a) and the
same SDOF founded on the untreated ground
(b).
100
IASDOF_IM/IASDOF
Average
10
1
0
0.1
0.01
fSDOF /fIM
5. CONCLUSIONS
Reducing
seismic
demand
can
conveniently protect structures with high
natural frequency, namely squat buildings.
Soft barriers that isolate a mass of ground
well beneath the foundation level can be
created to this aim by modifying the soil
properties using the same techniques
usually adopted for ground improvement.
Consequently, seismic site amplification
can be locally modified. The isolated mass
of ground tends to shift the amplification of
the input motion at the base of the
structure towards its own frequency, thus
reducing the seismic demand on those
structures
having
larger
natural
frequencies. As a consequence, it can be
concluded that the unusual idea of
inserting a soft barrier within the soil mass,
far from the building, is potentially an
innovative and alternative means to
protect existing buildings from seismic
excitations.
Hence,
whatever
the
frequency content of the seismic event, a
structure founded within the isolated mass
will be efficiently protected if its
fundamental frequency (or frequencies, in
the case of a multiple degree of freedom
system) is (are) far enough from the
fundamental frequency of the isolated
mass of ground. . From a design point of
view, this means that the geometry of the
isolated soil mass, as well as the
properties of the soft grout to be adopted,
must be carefully chosen to maximize this
difference.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research activity was carried out at
the University of Napoli Federico II as part
of the national research project PON_03
METRICS and the regional research and
innovation project TICISI. The financial
support of the consortium Stress s.c.a r.l.
is kindly acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Benz T. 2007. Small Strain Stiffness of
Soil and its Numerical Consequences.
Ph.d. thesis, Universitat Stuttgart
398
th
Session 8
Geosynthetics
www.HUESKER.com
th
ABSTRACT
Geosynthetic Clay Liners are widely used to isolate waste disposal facilities. However, long
exposure to electrolyte solutions combined with temperature changes may impair their
performance as barrier liners. Wet and dry cycles lead to desiccation and cracking of the bentonite.
This study investigates the influence of wet and dry cycles with seawater on swelling ability, crack
formation and permeability of a polymer modified clay, HYPER clay, and untreated bentonite.
Untreated bentonite, bentonite treated with 2% and 8% polymer were evaluated through swelling
tests, CT scanning and hydraulic conductivity tests.
HYPER clay 8% presented the best performance. It swelled the most and its thickness was
considerably larger compared to untreated clay. CT analysis demonstrated the smaller volume of
cracks of HYPER clays compared to untreated bentonite. In addition, the hydraulic conductivity of
untreated bentonite increased within three cycles with seawater, while HYPER clay preserved low
permeability.
1. INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are
bentonite-based liners that are gaining
acceptance as hydraulic barriers in
containment and sealing applications
(Petrov & Rowe, 1997). One important
field of application is landfill capping
systems. The aim of clay liners is to limit
the infiltration of moisture, due to rainfall or
water migration, through the barrier into
the waste and to limit the release of
leachate and gasses from the waste.
GCLs are factory-manufactured clay liners
containing a thin uniform layer of sodium
or calcium bentonite sandwiched between
* presenting author
two
geotextiles
or
glued
to
a
geomembrane.
The major significant component of the
bentonite
in
GCLs
is
sodium
montmorillonite. Sodium cations are able
to bond with water molecules, increasing
the interlayer space and forming tortuous
flow
paths.
However,
valence,
concentration and dielectric constant of
the hydrating solution influence the
expansion of the diffuse double layer
(DDL) of negatively charged clays
(McBride, 1994). Accordingly, hydraulic
conductivity and swelling of bentonite are
related to the thickness of the DDL. A
decrease of the thickness leads to an
2. MATERIALS
Sodium bentonite (NaB) was used in this
study and treated according to the HYPER
clay procedure. Various physical and
chemical properties of the bentonite are
listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Material characterization
Property
NaB
2.66
660.55
48.92
611.62
73
91
4
2
3. METHODS
3.1. One-dimensional swell tests
One-dimensional
swell
tests
were
performed according to the procedure
used by De Camillis et al. (2016). Samples
of dry bentonite of untreated clay, HYPER
clay 2% and HYPER clay 8% were poured
in 70 mm diameter cells with initial
porosity of 0.718 and 7.5 kg/m2 dry mass.
A sitting pressure of 1 kPa was used and
the vertical swells were continuously
recorded during hydration. The samples
were subjected to six wet and dry cycles.
Deionized water was the hydrating
solution during the first cycle and seawater
in the consecutive cycles. The specimens
were allowed to swell for about 400 hours
(16 days). After wetting, the samples were
oven dried at 40C until constant weight or
the water content was between 10%-15%.
3.2. CT scanning
CT scanning is a non-destructive three
dimensional (3D) imaging and analysis
technique (Cnudde h Boone, 2013). With
this method, the samples are fully
reconstructed in 3D, based on a set of two
dimensional
(2D)
projections
or
radiographs. CT scans are carried out on
the HECTOR system (High Energy CT
scanner, Optimized for Research), at the
Centre for X-ray Tomography at Ghent
University (UGCT), Belgium (Masschaele
et al., 2013). Samples are placed on a
rotating stage between the X-ray source
and detector. After acquisition of the
radiographs, the 2D projections are
reconstructed into a stack of 2D slices
through the object, building up the 3D
image. The reconstruction step, as well as
the subsequent image analysis on the
images, are carried out using the in-house
developed
software
tools
Octopus
Reconstruction
(Inside
Matters,
Vlassenbroeck et al., 2007) and Octopus
Analysis, formerly Morpho+ (Brabant et
al., 2011), respectively. With VG Studio
MAX, a software tool of Volume
Graphics, the analysed data could then be
visualized in 3D.
In this research, CT scans were
performed on untreated sodium bentonite,
Deionized
water
Seawater
EC (mS/cm)
Salinity (-)
pH
Na+ (mg/L)
K+ (mg/L)
Mg2+ (mg/L)
Ca2+ (mg/L)
Cl- (mg/L)
SO42- (mg/L)
HCO3- (mg/L)
CO32- (mg/L)
NO32- (mg/L)
0.002
0.0
7.57
-
44.8
28.6
7.42
11517.9
469.2
1281
478.5
19897
2352
183.1
18.0
43.4
403
4. RESULTS
4.1. One-dimensional swell tests
The first set of analysis investigated the
impact of wet and dry cycles on swelling
ability and self-healing capacity on
untreated sodium bentonite, HYPER clay
2% and 8% through free one-dimensional
swell tests in oedometer cells. Figure 1
outlines the swell related to the temporal
behaviour of the tested samples.
404
4.2. CT scanning
In order to quantitatively compare the
amount of cracks and check for selfhealing capacity of NaB, HYPER clay 2%
and HYPER clay 8%, CT scanning were
performed in cooperation with Van
Stappen J. and Cnudde V. at
PProGress/UGCT - Department of
Geology SHE, Faculty of Sciences,
Ghent University.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The potential influence of wet and dry
cycles in combination with cation
exchange was investigated by means of
swell test, CT scanning and hydraulic
conductivity tests. Samples of untreated
sodium bentonite were compared to
samples of HYPER clay 2% and 8%. The
performance
of
these
bentonites
subjected to wet and dry cycles in contact
with seawater was studied. Seawater is a
highly concentrated electrolyte solution
and
represents
an
aggressive
environment in the field.
The swelling ability increased with
increasing polymer dosage in deionized
water. Untreated sodium bentonite has
swollen the least and its swelling ability
was strongly affected from the consecutive
wet and dry cycles. CT analysis of
untreated bentonite, HYPER clays 2% and
8% have shown the effect of the polymers
on the healing capacity. HYPER clays
presented lower amount of cracks both on
dry and wet conditions and better healing
capacity upon rewetting.
th
ABSTRACT
Earth structures are commonly designed using numerical calculation programs. This kind of
modeling relies on predefined mathematical equations and boundary conditions for approximating
deformations, strains and interactions. In most cases, numerical modeling is sufficient for drawing
long-term conclusions on earth structure behavior, but there are special situations which require
physical modeling in order to verify the results of virtual modeling. For example, a cavern forming
in a road embankment requires a physical model, because simulating the arch effect in the earth
structure represents an important challenge for most of the finite element based calculation
programs. The comparison between the scale model settlements and the deformations from the
modeling program can show how suited the applied mathematical model is, and if the results are
close, then the numerical calculation is reliable in displaying the behavior of the granular structure,
which is impossible to measure on the scale model.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cavern forming in road embankments
is relatively common, due to a multitude of
favorable factors, like hydrological factors
leading to formation of sinkholes, or
different construction activities, such as
pipeline leaking, or poor compaction of the
base layer which causes differentiated
settlements. The following pictures were
taken on the DJ108A road located in Slaj
county, Romania. Figure 1.a. shows a
* presenting author
Load
stage
2. SCALE MODELING
Trying to replicate the presented case,
our study consisted of building two
structures at natural scale (1:1) in the
laboratory using a box, according to the
detail given in Figure 2. The road bed was
made of 40 cm thick cohesive earth/clay
where a void was created. Over the earth,
a layer of 40 cm crushed stone was laid
and compacted. For the second model, we
had the same structure, only that, between
the two material layers, a layer of biaxial
Pressure
Equivalent
transmitted
pressure in
Equivalent
to the
toneconcentrated
surface of
force/square
force
the testing
meter
plate
[kPa]
[kN]
[tf]/m2
[tf]
50
3.55
5.100
0.362
100
7.10
10.200
0.724
150
10.65
15.300
1.086
200
14.20
20.400
1.448
250
17.76
25.500
1.811
300
21.31
30.600
2.173
350
24.86
35.700
2.535
400
28.41
40.800
2.897
450
31.96
45.900
3.259
500
35.51
51.000
3.621
550
39.06
56.100
3.983
600
42.61
61.200
4.345
650
46.16
66.300
4.707
700
49.71
71.400
5.069
750
53.27
76.500
5.432
>
3. VIRTUAL MODELING
A suited method for creating a virtual
model for the present experiment must
allow interaction between the earth layers
and reinforcement material. Finite element
modeling determines the stress domain
corresponding to the applied load stage,
and geometry of the given structure. Using
a predefined failure criterion, the software
indicates if flowing occurs in any given
point of the model. Also it can model
failure through conditions dependent or
independent of hydrostatic pressure
(inside the soil pores), which is an
important aspect, considering the fact that
Iteration
value F
Iteration
force value
[kN]
0.1
0.6
0.02
0.2
1.2
23
0.049
0.3
1.8
57
0.126
0.4
2.4
103
0.271
0.5
139
0.485
0.6
3.6
217
0.85
0.7
4.2
371
1.636
0.8
4.8
500
3.1
413
Iteration
value F
Iteration
force
value
[kN]
Number
of
iterations
performed
Settlement
value
[cm]
0.1
0.7
0.02
0.2
1.4
0.045
0.3
2.1
39
0.09
0.4
2.8
73
0.221
0.5
3.5
93
0.397
0.6
4.2
153
0.689
0.7
4.9
239
1.299
0.8
5.6
367
2.562
0.9
6.3
500
5.17
4. COMPARRISON
BETWEEN THE
RESULTS OBTAINED BY SCALE
MODELING AND VIRTUAL MODELING
5. CONCLUSIONS
The resulting 1% difference between
surface settlements in numerical and
physical modeling, in the case of the
reinforced structure proves that virtual
modeling by the finite element method can
get very close to the behavior of a 1:1
scale model. The 50 kPa difference
between failure values, obtained in both
cases, is due to the constant particle
rearrangement in the soil structure, which
results in additional bearing capacity. This
aspect is impossible to take in
consideration in the numerical modeling,
as the finite element method only allows
deformation of the subdivisions, and does
not permit rotations or translations of the
divided parts.
Other noteworthy conclusions of the study
are:
x if the failure criterion is chosen
respecting the initial condition and
type of material used, the behavior
of the numerical model comes very
close to the behavior of the scale
model;
x the unreinforced scale model fails
suddenly, while reinforced models
fail slowly making them less
hazardous for traffic;
x biaxial geogrid increases the
bearing capacity by 22% as against
the results obtained on the
unreinforced structure;
x while the surface settlement
coincides with the gap deformation
in the case of the unreinforced
model,
using
geosynthetic
reinforcement leads to a smaller
deformation of the void, due to the
arrangement of the earth particles
from the superior layer;
x in the FEM model, stress
distribution inside the structure is
influenced by the presence of the
reinforcement, as the values
obtained on the elements adjacent
to the void are considerably lower;
polypropylene
rectangular
mesh
geogrids,
14th
International
Multidisciplinary
Scientific
Geoconference
SGEM2014,
Conference Proceedings Volume II
(Eds: STEF92 Technology Ltd.), 11
17, Albena, Bulgaria
Nagy A., Ursu I., Moldovan D. (2016)
sszehasonlt
tanulmny
egy
hromszg
rcsos
geoszintetikus
anyagokkal megerstett tszakasz
vals
s
virtulis
modellezse
kapcsn, Proceedings of the XXI-th
International Conference of Young
Engineers (Eds: Erdlyi Mzeum
Egyeslet, F&F International Kft. Kiad
s Nyomda), 289 293, Cluj-Napoca,
Romania.
STAS 2914/4-89 Road and railway works.
Determination of linear deformation
modulus.
Tensar UK Catalogue, www.tensar.co.uk
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by IRIDEX
Group Plastic, VIAROM CONSTRUCT
and Geostru Romania, who provided raw
material for the laboratory models, and
software license for the numerical
calculation. We are also thankful to our
colleagues Vasile Frca and Cosmin
Chiorean who provided expertise that
greatly assisted the research.
REFERENCES
Agaiby S., Jones J. F. P. (1996) Design
of reinforced fill systems to support
footings overlying cavities, Geotextiles
and Geomembranes 14, 57-72.
Asakereh A., Ghazavin M., Tafreshi S.N.
Moghaddas (2013) Cyclic response of
footing on geogrid-reinforced sand with
void, Soils and Foundations 53(3),
363374.
Brianon L., Villard P. (2008) Design of
geosynthetic-reinforced
platforms
spanning
localized
sinkholes,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes 26,
416428.
Chiorean C. (2009) Calculul neliniar al
structurilor vol. 1, U.T. Press, ClujNapoca.
Chiorean C. (2010) Geostru software,
GFAS Finite Element Systems for
Geotechnical applications, Theoretical
and
User
Manual
2010,
www.geostru.com
Gzdaru A., Manea S., Fedorov V., Batali,
L. (1999) Geosinteticele n construcii,
Ed. Academiei Romne, Bucureti.
Giroud J.P., Bonaparte R., Beech J.F.,
Gross B.A. (1990), Design of soil layergeosynthetic systems overlying voids,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes 9, 11
50.
Koerner, R. M. (2005) Designing with
geosynthetics. Fifth Edition. Upper
Saddle River, N.J. 07458.
Moldovan D., Nagy A., Farcas V.,
Muntean L., Co, R. (2014) A
comparative study of the failure mode
of conventional road structures and of
road
structures
reinforced
with
416
th
Dokuz Eyll University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of
Civil Engineering, TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In this study, the effect of prehydration on the hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners
(GCLs) was evaluated using landfill leachates as the permeants (LL-A and LL-B). For this purpose,
two local GCLs (GCL-1 and GCL-2) were conducted to hydraulic conductivity tests using flexiblewall permeameters. The influence of prehydration conditions on the hydraulic conductivity was
assessed by considering two situations of GCLs: (i) non-prehydrated and (ii) prehydratedprepermeated. The hydraulic conductivities of GCL-1 and GCL-2 with deionised water (DIW) were
1.210-9 cm/s and 1.410-9 cm/s, respectively. Up to four orders of magnitude higher hydraulic
conductivities were obtained with respect to DIW when the GCLs were permeated directly with
landfill leachates (represents the non-prehydrated conditions). However, when the GCLs were
prehydrated and prepermeated with DIW, the final hydraulic conductivities of GCL-1 and GCL-2 to
LL-1 were 6.810-10 cm/s and 3.310-10 cm/s; whereas to LL-2 were 1.510-9 cm/s and 1.710-10
cm/s, respectively.
1. INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) have
been used as hydraulic barriers in waste
containment facilities. Due to their low
thickness, easy handling and installation,
low hydraulic conductivity to water
(<2.010-9
cm/s)
and
self-healing
properties, GCLs became an alternative
material when compared to compacted
clay liners.
GCLs are consisted of thin bentonite
layer between a woven and non-woven
* presenting author
LL-B
Na+ (mg/L)
1011
2903
K+ (mg/L)
892
1135
Mg2+ (mg/L)
92
265
Ca2+ (mg/L)
82
101
pH
8.0
7.6
EC (mS/cm)
13.3
20.8
2.2. Methods
The hydraulic conductivity tests were
performed with flexible wall permeameters
in accordance with the ASTM D 6766-12.
The falling head constant tail water
method was employed. During the tests,
the average effective stress was 90 kPa
and the hydraulic gradient was around
200. The flow was from top to bottom and
the outflow was open to the atmosphere.
No
backpressure
was
applied.
Hydraulic conductivity tests were
performed for both GCLs in nonprehydrated
and
prehydratedprepermeated conditions. GCLs in the
non-prehydrated condition were directly
exposed to landfill leachates whereas
GCLs in the case of prehydrated
conditions were soaked in (or hydrated
with) DIW for 48 hours before the
permeation. At the end of the hydration,
outflow valve was opened and GCLs were
permeated with DIW until at least 1 pore
10
HC
Q /Q
out
Valves closed
in
3.0
-5
10
2.0
Restart the test
in
-6
10
1.0
-7
10
(a)
0.0
35
-8
10
10
15
20
25
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
30
4.0
-3
HC
Q /Q
GCL-2
-4
10
out
in
3.0
-5
2.0
-6
in
10
1.0
-7
10
-8
10 0
out
10
Q /Q
10
GCL-1
out
4.0
-3
10
Q /Q
(b)
8
12
16
20
24
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
28
0.0
32
-5
10
out
in
3.0
-6
10
2.0
-7
out
10
out
10
4.0
HC
Q /Q
GCL-1
Q /Q
-4
10
1.0
-8
10
(a)
-9
6
8 10 12 14 16
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
0.0
20
18
-2
4.0
HC
Q /Q
GCL-2
-3
10
out
in
3.0
2.0
-5
in
10
1.0
-6
10
(b)
-7
10
out
10
Q /Q
-4
4
6
8
10 12 14
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
16
0.0
18
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
-8
10
-9
4.0
GCL-1
HC
Q /Q
out
3.0
in
DI
LL-A
2.0
in
1.0
-10
10
(a)
0.0
20
-11
10
6
8 10 12 14 16
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
18
HC
Q /Q
GCL-2
out
4.0
in
-9
10
DI
3.0
2.0
LL-A
-10
in
10
out
-8
10
Q /Q
-3
out
10
Q /Q
10
1.0
(b)
-11
10
2
3
4
5
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
0.0
6
-9
in
10
10
-10
10
-11
(a)
GCL-2
10
-10
10
-11
0.0
12
4
6
8
10
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
DI
HC
Q /Q
Flush
LL-B
out
4.0
in
Flush
Flush
3.0
2.0
1.0
(b)
2
3
4
5
6
7
Pore Volume of Flow (PVF)
10
-6
10
-7
10
-8
10
-9
10
GCL-1
GCL-2
GCL-1
GCL-2
1.0
-9
10
inn
10
-8
out
-8
2.0
-7
10
Prehydrated
LL-B
-6
10
Q /Q
10
3.0
DI
-5
10
-5
Non-prehydrated
-10
out
-7
10
10
GCL-1
Q /Q
10
-4
4.0
-3
10
DI
-4
10
0.0
9
4. CONCLUSIONS
The findings of this study are summarized
below:
x The prehydration condition has a deep
impact on the GCL hydraulic conductivity.
Up to 4 orders of magnitude greater
hydraulic conductivies were obtained for
non-prehydrated GCLs when compared to
421
th
There exist numerous methods for the design of geotextile encased columns and for the prediction
of settlements of improved soil. Numerical ones may be more accurate, but at the same time far
less convenient for use. Thus, a derivation of an analytical method, which would be in good
agreement with the numerical solution, would be more appropriate. In this paper the analytical
method for calculating settlement reduction and stresses in soil and column for one soft soil layer
proposed by Pulko et al. (2011) was modified to calculate settlements of multiple soft soil layers
and respective stresses in soil and column. The method is based on the unit cell assumption and
considers column as an elasto-plastic material, while soil and geotextile are treated as elastic
materials. Documented case studies from literature were investigated and used for the validation of
the analytical method. Measured settlements for each case were compared to settlements
calculated using the analytical method. The method verification presented in the paper is helpful in
predicting the right values for the critical design parameters that are difficult to measure in situ or in
the laboratory.
1.
INTRODUCTION
geotextile
encased
stone
columns
(GECs). The method is derived from the
analytical method proposed by Pulko et al.
in 2011, which was in its final form
developed for a single layer of improved
soil. A detailed description of the proposed
methods principal together with the most
important equations is presented.
Next,
the
paper
focuses
on
documented
case
history
projects
presented by Alexiew & Raithel (2015).
Four projects are described and soil and
column parameters, which were included
2.
ANALYTICAL
METHOD
FOR
CALCULATING SETTLEMENTS OF
GROUND WITH GEC
2.1. General description
The analytical method for calculating
settlements of multilayered ground
improved by GEC is based on a
commonly known Unit cell concept
(Figure 1) introduced by Priebe (1976).
Soil is considered as an elastic material
and column as an elasto-plastic material
(Balaam and Booker, 1985). The method
assumes drained condition, since the
columns assure rather quick consolidation
of the surrounding soil.
K pc
1 sin Mc
1 sin Mc
V zc ,ini V zce
V rc ,ini V rce
(1)
Table 1: Basic equations for calculating stresses and strains (Pulko et al., 2011)
V zc
V rc
V zs
V rs
Hz
elastic response
elasto-plastic response
Oc 2Gc 2Oc F e
O 2 O G F H z
c c
c
D K pc 2k0 K\ C2 T
^q A `
C5 2k0 K\ C2 T
^ `
FAr
Os 2Gs 2Os (1 A )
r
Gs
2 Ar F
Os
Os Gs
(1 Ar )
Ar
He
z
1 D C1 K\ 2 Eoed C3 T
^q A `
C5 DC2 K\ 2 Dk0 Eoed Tk0
^ `
q A 2 D Eoed C2 T
qA
Oc 2Gc Ar Os 2Gs 1 Ar 2 Ar Oc Os F
Hr
F H ze
FR
J H re
C5 Eoed
q A DK\ k0 Eoed
C5 Eoed
J H rp
Oc Os 1 Ar
2 Ar Os Gs Oc Gc Oc Gc Gs 1 Ar 2Gs Os T
J
Eoed rc
Ec
2 K\ K pc 2Xc 1 K pc K\
C2
1 2Xs Ar
1 Ar 1 Xs
C5
Eoed 1 Ar C3 T D 1 Ar C1 K\ 2 Ar K pc K\ C2 T 2k0
C1
2k0 Ar
1 Ar
C3
C2 k0C1
1 G q A G q A
qe q p
qA
uz
3.
(4)
(5)
0
e
e
V rc ,ini K pc V rc K pc V zc V zc ,ini
Ve K V pK Ve V p
rc
pc
rc pc
zc
zc
When G
when
0 for
(6)
V zce V zc ,ini
d K pc and else
V rce V rc ,ini
V zce V zc ,ini
! K pc .
V rce V rc ,ini
Hi
1 G H ie qA GH ip qA
(9)
(3)
H dz
(8)
426
Depth
[m]
s
[kN/m3]
Eoed,ref
[kPa]
pref
[kPa]
c
[kN/m2]
s
[]
m
[-]
[-]
7.5
2000
100
20
0.4
Depth [m]
d [m]
c [kN/m3]
[-]
Ar [%]
Jd / Jk [kN/m]
7.5
0.8
0.3
15
2100/3500
Table 5: Settlements of treated ground [cm] at Bastions West calculated with the proposed
analytical method
c [] \ Ec [MPa]
32.5
10
12
15
20
31 (29)
30 (27)
29 (26)
28 (25)
27 (23)
35
30 (28)
28 (26)
27 (25)
26 (23)
25 (21)
40
28 (27)
26 (24)
24 (22)
23 (21)
21 (19)
427
s
[]
30
m
[-]
0.5
[-]
0.4
Clay, silty
Depth
[m]
2.75
Silt, clayey
1.25
6.5
1100
100
2.5
30
0.4
Clay, silty
1.00
700
100
30
0.4
Clay, silty
0.85
1200
100
1.75
30
0.9
0.4
Clay, silty
1.65
800
100
1.75
30
0.4
Soil layer
Depth [m]
d [m]
c [kN/m3]
[-]
Ar [%]
Jd / Jk [kN/m]
7.5
0.8
0.3
15
2100/3500
428
Table 8: Settlements of treated ground [cm] at Bothnia line calculated with the proposed analytical
method
c [] \ Ec [MPa]
10
15
20
25
30
35
62
54
50
47
45
40
57
48
43
40
38
45
56
44
38
35
32
s [kN/m3]
4
Eoed,s [kPa]
450
Clay
1.3
600
Peat
2.8
550
Clay
1.8
600
Soil layer
Sludge
[-]
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
Depth [m]
d [m]
c [kN/m3]
[-]
Ar [%]
J [kN/m]
0.8
10
0.3
15
2800
429
Table 11: Settlements [cm] of treated ground at Hamburg Airbus site calculated with the proposed
analytical method
c [] \ Ec [MPa]
10
12
14
35
128
113
104
97
92
40
120
103
92
85
79
45
120
99
85
77
71
Eoed,s [kPa]
500
[-]
Peat
Depth [m]
5
Gyttja
23
750
0.3
Soil layer
0.3
Depth [m]
d [m]
c [kN/m3]
[-]
Ar [%]
Jd / Jk [kN/m]
28
0.8
10
0.3
15
2100/3500
Table 14: Settlements of treated ground [cm] at Jordanovo site calculated with the proposed
analytical method
c [] \ Ec [MPa]
35
10
15
20
25
30
172 (164)
151 (143)
140 (131)
134 (124)
129 (119)
40
151 (146)
128 (122)
116 (109)
108 (100)
102 (95)
45
141 (139)
112 (108)
98 (93)
89 (84)
8 (77)
4.
CONCLUSIONS
NOTATION
The following symbols are used in this
paper:
Subscripts / superscripts
c, s column, soil
r, z
radial, vertical coordinate
e, p elastic, plastic
ini
initial value
Symbols
Ar
replacement ratio
c
cohesion
C1, C2, C3, C5
material/geometrical
constants
D
material constant
Eoed eodometer modulus of soil
E
elastic modulus of soil / column
F
material/geometrical constant
FR
encasement hoop force
G
shear modulus of soil / column
J
geosynthetic encasement stiffness
k0
coefficient of earth pressure at rest
Kini
initial lateral pressure coefficient
after columns installation
Kpc
passive earth pressure coefficient
431
K\
http://www.fitfuerinnovation.de/?page_id=
531 (photo downloaded: 20. 1. 2016).
Huesker
(2013)
Geotextile-Encased
Columns, Earthworks and foundation
embankments: Design and construction
of
geotextile
encased
columns
supporting
geogrid
reinforced
landscape embankment at Bastions
Vijfwal Houten in The Netherlands,
http://www.huesker.com/uploads/tx_itm
download/JR-Earthworks-andFoundations-Embankments-GeotextileEncased-Columns-Ringtrac-HoutenNL_01.pdf (downloaded: 19. 2. 2016).
Mitchell, J. K. (1993) Fundamentals of
Soil Behavior, Second Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 437 p.
Pulko, B., Majes, B., Logar, J. (2011)
Geosynthetic-encased stone columns:
Analytical
calculation
model,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, vol.
29, no. 1, pp. 29-39.
Priebe, H.J. (1976) Evaluation of the
settlement reduction of a foundation
improved
by
Vibro-replacement,
Bautechnik 2, pp. 160-162.
Raithel M., Kuester V., Lindmark A. (2004)
Geotextile-Encased Columns - a
foundation system for earth structures,
illustrated by a dyke project for a works
extension
in
Hamburg,
Nordic
Geotechnical Meeting NGM 2004,
Ystadt,
Sweden,
http://www.kupgeotechnik.de/files/2004_raithel_ystad.
pdf (downloaded: 15. 1. 2016).
Rowe, P.W. (1962) The Stress-Dilatancy
Relation for Static Equilibrium of an
Assembly of Particles in Contact,
Proc., Royal Soc., pp 500-527.
Sexton B., McCabe B.A., Castro J. (2013)
Appraising stone column settlement
prediction methods using finite element
analyses, Acta Geotechnica, vol. 9, pp.
9931011.
dilation constant
T
dimensionless
encasement
stiffness
qA
applied load
uz
total settlement of improved ground
proportion of the plastic load
G
unit weight
J
O
H
V
V
X
Lames parameter
strain
stress
stress increment
Poissons ratio
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am very grateful to my mentor Dr.
Botjan Pulko for all his assistance and
invaluable guidance during my research.
I would also like to thank two University
colleagues, iga ebenik and Dr. Matej
Maek for their help while writing this
paper.
REFERENCES
Alexiew D., Raithel M. (2015) GeotextileEncased Columns: Case Studies over
Twenty Years. Ground improvement
case histories: Embankments with
special reference to consolidation and
other
physical
methods
(Eds:
Indraratna, B., Chu, J., Rujikiatkamjorn,
C.), Elsevier, pp. 451-478.
Balaam, N.P., Booker, J.R. (1985) Effects
of stone columns yield on settlement of
rigid foundations in stabilized clay,
International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics
vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 331-351.
Barksdale, R.D., Bachus, R.C. (1983)
Design and construction of stone
columns, Report FHWA/RD-83/026,
National
Information
Service,
Springfield, Virginia.
Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Swolfs, W.M., Engin,
E. (2011) PLAXIS 2D 2010 Material
Models Manual, PLAXIS B.V.
Fit Fr Innovation:
432
th
Author index
BARBIR Olja
237
361
BISCAN Marko
303
GRG Pter
119
21
GOUVEIA Ftima
361
341
HAVINGA Michael
371
99
HLEIBIEH Jamal
377
POV Kristna
247
IGNATOV Sergey
341
CAROW Christian
257
JAKIMOVSKI Bojan
BOFFA Giacomo
BOIKO Igor
BRANDT Madeleine
CHARLET Francois
87
61
KELLEZI Lindita
DAM Asbjrn M.
191
KNAPIK Karolina
105
DE CAMILLIS Michela
401
KNUUTI Mika
201
DEMRKIRAN Havva
417
KOPPMANN David
147
DI DONNA Alice
133
KORETA Olsi
383
LAKOEVI Katerina
325
DIMITRIEVSKI Teodor
87
275, 383
DIZDAR Goran
303
LIETAERT Bert
61
DOAN Hong
349
LFMAN Monica
73
DOMINIJANNI Andrea
DUNNE Helen P.
FRANK Roger
21
LOPES Isabel
267
MANASSERO Mario
361
21
MATHEWS John
237
355
MIESHKOVA Iryna
113
GILLERON Nicolas
139
409
MOLINA Carlos
275
MONFORTE Llus
285
GUCHOWSKI Andrzej
GKALP Alp
53
123
433
MONSEREZ Sahin
153
NAGY Andor-Csongor
409
NAPPA Valeria
393
NEDELKOVSKA Natasha
309
OLINIC Ernest
37
417
PARERA Ferran
317
POKLONSKYI Sergii
83
PULKO Botjan
423
RADU Cristian
163
RIPPI Katerina
209
ROSE Alexis
171
RUMENOVSKI Borche
87
SCHADEE Leon
217
SEXTON Brian G.
225
SIRK Katarina
423
STAELENS Peter
STOJANOVSKI Mario
STRMME Terje
61
325
99
SZEPESHZI Attila
177
TASEVSKA Katerina
87
TEIXEIRA Ana
209
VINCZE dm
119
VLASTELICA Goran
331
WORREN Aleksander
293
YILDIZ Nejla
123
434
ISBN 978-973-100-421-1