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Research article
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 25 July 2016
Received in revised form
9 November 2016
Accepted 13 November 2016
The construction of permeable pavement (PP) in sidewalks of urban areas is an alternative low impact
development (LID) to control stormwater runoff volume and consequently decrease the discharge of
pollutants in receiving water bodies. In this paper, some laboratory experiments were performed to
evaluate the efciency of a PP subjected to sediment loadings during its life span. Simple inltration
models were validated by the laboratory experiments to evaluate the trend and extend of PP inltration
capacity throughout the life of the pavement operation. In addition, performances of the PP in removing
3 from the
total suspended solids (TSS) and selective nutrient pollutants such as NO
3 ; NH4 and PO4
surface runoff have been investigated. Experimental data showed that the PP was completely clogged
after seven hydrological years. The model revealed that the ratio of horizontal to vertical hydraulic
conductivity is 3.5 for this PP. Moreover, it was found that 20% reduction in hydraulic conductivity
occurred after three hydrological years. The PP showed 100%, 23% and 59% efciencies in sediment
was
12%
and we suspect the increase in efuent N NO
the removal efciency of N NO
3
3 is due
to the nitrication process in subsurface layers. This study demonstrated that when PPs are annually
cleaned, it is expected that PPs can function hydraulically and be able to remove particulate pollutants
during their life span by a proper maintenance.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Permeable pavement
Urban runoff
Clogging
Sediments removal
Nutrient removal
1. Introduction
Urban development increases impermeable surfaces such as
pavements and buildings that diminish water inltration to the
ground and increase runoff volume (Finkenbine et al., 2000; Nie
et al., 2011). This runoff that was induced by impermeable surfaces, washes out pollutants from urban areas and carries them to
waterbodies (Davis et al., 2001). Urban runoff has been known as a
primary pollutant source. About 46% of surface water pollution is
attributed to urban runoff (Chai et al., 2012; USEPA, 1996). Therefore, controlling urban runoff quantity and quality seems vital to
properly maintain watercourses. Among several practices developed to obviate the abovementioned issues, the PP is known as a
LID that can mitigate rst ush impacts and decrease volume of
runoff as well as treatment costs (Sansalone and Teng, 2005;
Andersen et al., 1999).
Several researches have investigated inltration rates of PPs in
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: meisamkamali_63@yahoo.com (M. Kamali), delkash@udel.
edu (M. Delkash), tajrishy@sharif.edu (M. Tajrishy).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.11.027
0301-4797/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
sidewalks using double ring inltrometer tests (e.g. Qin et al., 2013;
Valinski and Chandler, 2015); however as far as authors' knowledge
permits, literature lacks studies that cover the hydraulic performances of a sidewalk PP under clogging. Therefore, the authors
present the literature that has studied the clogging process of PPs
with the most similarity to our experimental setup. Several investigations have been performed to evaluate the performance of
PPs for water quality and some representative example studies are
examined here. For instance, TSS contain attached heavy metals,
which remarkably prevent aquacultural growth (Brown et al.,
2009). PPs have revealed acceptable performances for TSS
removal from runoff. Morquecho et al. (2005) showed that a PP can
reduce TSS, turbidity and total phosphorus more than 50%. TotaMaharaj and Scholz (2010) reported that TSS, N NH4 and
44
such as TSS, PO3
4 ; NH4 and NO3 removal were also investigated.
2. Methodology
2.1. Experimental setup
Fig. 1 displays the schematic diagram of the experimental setup
used to evaluate the performance of our PP under different laboratory conditions. Several important features of the experimental
setup are described below.
2.1.1. PP module
The schematic diagram of a PP module is depicted in Fig. 1a. The
experimental area of this PP was about 2 m2 (2 m by 1 m) and
pavement was constructed at 2% slope. The experimental PP
module comprised of three different layers: (1) top layer includes
concrete blocks with 4 cm height and 0.5 cm gaps between the two
adjacent blocks; the gaps were lled with granular gravel size
ranging from 2.36 mm to 4.75 mm, (2) middle layer that consists of
5 cm granular lter, which is comprised of granular gravel in the
range of 2.36e4.75 mm, and (3) the bottom subbase pebble gravel
layer with 12 cm height and granular particle size between 4.75 and
20 mm. In addition, a geotextile fabric was installed in the bottom
of the granular lter (second layer) and subbase layer (third layer).
The top geotextile layers were installed to prevent downward ow
of particles into the subbase layer. The bottom geotextile layer was
added to prevent particle upow movements from subbase soil into
the subbase layer.
Using the rainfall records from the nearest weather station in
Tehran (Mehrabad weather station, about 2.5 km far from the
studied streets) as well as design method suggested by the Iowa
stormwater management manual for pavement systems (Iowa
Stormwater Management, 2009), we estimated the depth of
reservoir layer to be about 25 cm. According to this manual, curve
number, ratio of impermeable pavement to permeable pavement,
void ratio of aggregate base, and design rainfall event were
assigned 98, 3, 0.4, and 30 mm, respectively. However, due to
limitations in the PP modular dimension and weight, the depth of
12 cm was considered. The 13 cm reduction in depth was mostly
associated with the subbase layer that might be more signicant for
PP design with higher trafc speeds as well as load applications and
will be insignicant for clogging investigations in sidewalks. For
example, it has been documented that pavement failure due to
clogging is mostly associated with particles trapped in surface or
upper subsurface of PP pavements (Teng and Sansalone, 2004;
Kayhanian et al., 2012a; Coleri et al., 2013), which is usually independent of bottom layer depths. Therefore, the proposed depth in
our experimental setup is justied in accordance with the study
objectives.
2.1.2. Rainfall and sediment simulator setup
A schematic diagram of the rainfall and sediment loading
simulator is shown in Fig. 1b. Different setups were examined to
nd the highest uniformity in the rainfall applied to the PP. In order
to achieve the highest uniformity, the number of nozzles and their
heights with respect to the surface of the PP were changed. The best
experimental setup, whose uniformity was high, had a 2 m height
from the PP surface and 3 nozzles in one row. With some limitations in our experimental set up, we calibrated the intensity of the
rainfall simulator and found to be 36 mm/h, which is fairly close to
the average rainfall intensity in Tehran (Tehran's mean annual
rainfall 240 mm with majority of rainfall events last about 6 h and
therefore the average hourly rainfall intensity is equal to 40 [240/
6] mm/hr). In order to meet the annual rainfall, the system worked
for 6.67 h (240/36) in each hydrological year. The rainfall simulator was operated with clean tap water and applied on top of the
PP and let the water ow downward through different pavement
layers.
In addition to applying clean rainfall from top, an articial surface runoff was also introduced to the PP from one side (see Fig. 1b).
This type of PP is planned to be implemented in pedestrians of
Tehran. It will convert impermeable surfaces, which have three
times greater surface area than permeable surfaces, to permeable
pavements. Thus the owrate of runoff was three times larger than
rainfall intensity to be consistent with real conditions. This applied
runoff containing sediments in some of the experiments allowed us
45
Joints
Permeable block paved layer
40 mm
50 mm
Geotextile
120 mm
(a)
Rainfall simulator
Artificial runoff
Rainfall tank
Permeable pavement
Bypass
600 cm
320cm
400 cm
600 cm
First
segment
Second
segment
Third
segment
Fourth
segment
Tap water
Tap water
F
F
(b)
Fig. 1. (a) PP module with specied layers, and (b) schematic diagram of experimental setup.
Kh
*qij
Kv
(1)
(2)
dij
where Iij inltration rate (m/s) at time (i) into segment (j), dij1
46
Fig. 2. Scheme of PP module with variables used to develop a model to formulate runoff transport in the PP (Note: P simulated rainfall precipitation, Rj runoff rate over jth
segment, Ij inltration rate into the jth segment, dj horizontal drainage rate into jth segment, qj efuent discharge rate from jth segment).
horizontal water drainage (m/s) at time (i) from segment (j-1) into
segment (j), qij water exiting discharge (m/s) from segment (j) at
time (i).
Porous media inltration is dependent of hydraulic conductivity
at a certain soil saturation Kq and a hydraulic head gradient DLH
as expressed by (eq. (3)):
I Kq
DH
(3)
where L is the total height of a porous media (m), DH is the difference of total head between up and downstream of uid into the
porous media (m). Total head in the porous media is made of matric
potential (h) and elevation height (z): (Hh z).
To study the PP responses to urban runoff and to evaluate the
clogging trends, a modeling approach was used to estimate hydraulic conductivity. In this paper, it was assumed that PP rapidly
meets the saturated condition. Main reason for this assumption was
that the major portion of total depth (21 cm) of the PP was dominated with granular and pebble gravels, so matric potential is
neglected for these large particles Dh < Dz. Hence, it is expected that the hydraulic conductivity immediately reaches its
saturated values Kq zKsat . In addition, it was assumed that
ponding height Hponding on the PP is much smaller than the PP
column (L) z Hponding L; Hponding L. Thus, the inltration
rate (I) value was estimated by the saturated hydraulic conductivity
Ksat that is shown in (eq. (4)).
I Kq
DH
L
Kq
Dh z
L
z Ksat
Hponding
L
L
z Ksat
L
(4)
Iij
Ksat
Rij P
(5)
where Iij is the inltration rate (m/s) at time i and segment j, Rij
runoff overowing on the PP (m/s) and P the precipitation applied
on the PP (m/s).
the total void volume in each segment wherein water can occupy. It
is worthy to note that all the calculations were done in unit of area.
Sij Iij dij1 dij qij Iij dij1
VACij Sij *Dt
Kh
Kv
1 qij
(6)
(7)
During this experiment, 62 mm/h uniform and steady precipitation was applied to the PP. This applied precipitation is about 70%
times greater than the rst experiment to study the PP capacity and
overow. As compared with the rst experiment, the runoff rate
applied to the rst segment during this experiment was three times
greater than precipitation (3*62192 mm/h). In addition, the
application of source water (precipitation and runoff) on the PP
lasted one hour and then the PP was left to drain the applied runoff
and precipitation.
2.3.2. Experimental set 2: performance evaluation of PP for clogging
under sediment loading
The aim of the second experimental set was to get the age of the
PP before having any overow bypass. Inltration of runoff that
contains sediments leads to PP clogging. This clogging depends on
PP hydraulic conductivity, sediment and runoff loadings.
An articial runoff was prepared by addition of dry sediments
collected from the streets to the tap water in a mixing tank depicted
in Fig. 1b. This mixing tank was used to keep the TSS concentration
constant during the experiments. Based on a study carried out by
Kamali et al. (2012), the median concentration of TSS was about
400 mg/L in urban runoff of Tehran during nine eld measurements
from different surfaces including urban stream, rusted iron roof,
galvanized iron roofs, asphalt street and storm channels. Therefore,
runoff with average TSS concentration of 400 mg/L was exposed to
the PP. The runoff was transported to the surface of the PP by a
pump. A oat ball used to x the water elevation in tank. During
6.67 h, steady-state precipitation rate of 36 mm/h and runoff
108 mm/h were applied to the PP during each hydrological year.
Generally, there was a day gap between each hydrological simulation to make the needed TSS for the next hydrological year.
Dry sediments were swept up from the edges of streets with
low, medium and high trafc volumes. Average of annual daily
trafc of these streets is about 1200. After sampling, they were
carried to the laboratory to be washed and granulated, respectively,
and nally were dried in an oven. The sieving results of these
sediments revealed that sediment sizes in streets with medium and
low trafc volumes are somehow similar. One representative
example of a sample sediment size distribution is displayed in
Fig. S1 (supplementary document). As shown, about 50% of sediment size was smaller than 150 mm. For this reason and the fact that
particle less than 150 mm is more responsible for clogging in PPs
(Coleri et al., 2013), these particle size ranges were used during our
experiments.
2.3.3. Experiment set 3: performance evaluation of PP for pollutants
removal
This part of the experiment aims to determine pollution removal
efciencies of the PP and detect inuences of drainage path length
in nutrient removal efciencies. Four different water quality parameters were taken into account to assess PP performances
including: TSS, PO3
4 , NH4 and NO3 . The pollutants were selected
because an elevated concentration of these constituents were
measured in storm drain channels; especially when mixed with
wastewater streams (Kamali et al., 2012). Discharge of storm drains
containing these pollutants into surface water bodies causes
47
PO3
4 , N NH4 and N NO3 concentrations in the tank were about
720, 3, 3.5 and 2.2 mg/L. For a better control of inuent and efuent
rates and path of pollutants, the direct rainfall is removed from the
setup. It should be noted that the PP surface had been fully cleaned
before this stage was begun. Pollutants had a higher inuent concentration at the beginning of this experiment to consider the rst
ush phenomena. To achieve this goal, tap water was added to the
tank as the polluted water was conveyed to the PP. This substitution
makes the pollutants diluted and keeps the water at a constant
owrate (108 mm/h). Runoff ew for 240 min and the measurements went on 30 min after the runoff stoppage. Seven samples
were harvested from inuent runoff and efuent discharge of each
segment. A spectrophotometer device was utilized to measure the
concentrations of the pollutants. The concentration differences
between inuent and efuent from the segments indicated the role
of PP in the nutrients removal efciency.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Performance results based on hydraulic behavior
The results of this experiments are categorized into two
different parts: (1) nding the ratio of hydraulic conductivities and
(2) validating the model by predicting the runoff overow under
more intense rainfall and runoff rates. This validated model is used
to better understand the governing mechanisms and evaluate the
long-term hydraulic performance of the pavement structure.
3.1.1. Ratio of hydraulic conductivities
The results of exiting discharge for four different segments
during the experiment set 1 are tabulated in Table S1 (supplementary document). As shown, higher drainages occurred in the
farther segments to the inuent and the rst segment underwent
the least water drainage, which can be explained by slope of the
experimental setup (2%) that enforces the water to move downstream. This observation is consistent with literature (e.g. Castro
et al., 2007). Castro et al. (2007) investigated the role of PP's
slope on the water discharge and found that the slope affects the
drainage path. They reported that although over 70% of total water
was drained from the rst half of the PP under zero slope condition,
the water drainage path shifted to the middle and end of the PP
when the slope gently increased to 2%.
The water inuent into the PP in 180 min was 898.2 lit and the
amount of efuent was 821 lit. Afterward, 7.15 lit water exited from
the PP in 24 h. Totally, 8% difference was found between water fed
into the PP and the outlet volume. This difference between the
volumes of water in the inuent and efuent has a descending
trend. We associated this observation with 1) grain afnity in
adsorbing water, 2) errors in measurements, 3) incomplete inltration of the rainfall into the PP (e.g. forming ponds on the PP), and
4) water retention in the PP due to the slope, which brings about
incomplete discharge.
Insignicant storage in all the segments was assumed during
this experiment, so water would only be discharged out or drained
to the adjacent segment in KKhv ratio over vertical discharge. A
global KKhv value was searched for the PP, which means that this
ratio was considered to be for the whole of the PP during the
experimental steps. The least square error between the observed
discharge qi and predicted values was used to get the most
48
representative value
Kh
Kv
. The representative ratio for
Kh
Kv
ob-
tained was 3.5, which is reasonable for a porous media with large
void ratio, less matric suction, and lower horizontal water
movement.
inuent.
Predicted discharges (qij for each segment at different times are
plotted vs. observed discharges in Fig. 3. Predicted water discharge
from each segment was compared to the measured value to assess
the accuracy of KKhv . The results unveil an acceptable prediction of
this ratio for the studied PP. Total measured and predicted overow
are 7.7*105 and 3.6*105m/s, respectively. It can be seen that they
are in order of magnitude; however, this difference might be
associated with the quasi-steady state assumption, complicated
behaviors of water during recession and averaging long intervals of
measurements.
Fig. 3. Predicted and observed discharge for each segment at each measurement time.
segment 1
segment 2
segment 3
segment 4
49
runoff
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
4
Hydrological year
Fig. 4. Comparison between the percent output water volume water efuent percentage from the drainages and weir in seven hydrological periods during the experiments with
clean runoff.
Forth
FourthSimulation
SimulationPeriod
Period
Sixth Simulation Period
160
140
120
100
80
60
First segment
40
Second segment
Fourth segment
Third segment
20
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
in Fig. 5. As seen, there is a noticeable clogging in the PP in a distance about 80 cm from the zone where runoff was applied during
the fourth and fth hydrological years. However, the observations
are different in last two hydrological years. During these years, a
sharp drop occurred in the third segment. The clogging in these two
years occurred in a distance about 130 cm from the beginning of the
PP, which is located in the third segment. It can be seen that the
drop was shifted from the second to the third segment during the
last three years. According to Fig. 5, water discharge from the rst
and second segments decreased from 22% to 10.5%, and from the
third, fourth segments and weir increased from 78% to 89.5%.
Pezzaniti et al. (2009) reported that these changes are associated
with 1) accumulations of ne sediments on the geotextile layers,
and 2) coarse sediments on PP surface that bring about an increase
in drainage passage from the fourth to the seventh year.
Eqn. (3) was taken into account as the governing equation to
obtain the temporal and spatial clogging trends. Although the
maximum inltration rate of the PP might not be affected by particles trapped in the initial years (because of higher hydraulic
conductivity compared to the runoff and precipitation rates),
inltration rate should be decreased as sediments are introduced to
the PP. A cake was formed on top of the pavement as the
50
51
3.5
influent concentration
Concentration (mg/L)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
Time (min)
180
210
240
270
Fig. 6. Performance of PP in Orthophosphate removal. Time in X-axis begins as the water discharge was seen in each segment.
4.5
influent concentration
concentration (mg/l)
1.5
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
Time (min)
180
210
240
270
Fig. 7. Performance of PP in ammonia removal.[Note: Time in X-axis begins as the water discharge was seen in each segment].
52
3
influent concentration
Concentration (mg/l)
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
Time (min)
180
210
240
270
4. Conclusions
This study investigated the performance of a PP under sediment
loadings during its life span. Main purpose of this study was to
evaluate the temporal and spatial clogging trends of this PP and
nd the vulnerability of the PP to sediment loadings during rainfalls. Afterward, simple inltration models were validated by the
laboratory experiments to evaluate the trend and extend of the PP
inltration capacity throughout the life of the operation. At the end,
performances of the PP in removing TSS and selective nutrient
3
pollutants such as NO
3 ; NH4 and PO4 from the surface runoff were
investigated. The conclusions drawn from this study are:
The
Kh
Kv
smaller than the KKhv ratio for normal soils. This low value for KKhv ratio
for the PP system was related to low matric suction that mostly due
53