Boilers Of Thermal Power

Plants
Debanjan Basak
CESC Ltd

Points of Discussion
Thermodynamic Cycles
Discussion on Sub and Supercritical
Boilers
Performance Indicators and Benchmarks
of a Power Station
Constructional and design features of
Boilers
Boiler Auxiliaries
Losses and performance optimisation

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
Therefore, the total energy of the universe
is a constant.
Energy can, however, be converted from
one form to another or transferred from a
system to the surroundings or vice versa.

Spontaneous Processes
Spontaneous processes
are those that can
proceed without any
outside intervention.
The gas in vessel B will
spontaneously effuse into
vessel A, but once the
gas is in both vessels, it
will not spontaneously

Spontaneous Processes
Processes that are
spontaneous in one
direction are
nonspontaneous in
the reverse direction.

Spontaneous Processes
Processes that are spontaneous at one
temperature may be nonspontaneous at other
temperatures.
Above 0C it is spontaneous for ice to melt.
Below 0C the reverse process is spontaneous.

Reversible Processes
In a reversible process
the system changes in
such a way that the
system and
surroundings can be
put back in their original
states by exactly
reversing the process.
Changes are
infinitesimally small in
a reversible process.

Irreversible Processes

Irreversible processes cannot be undone by

exactly reversing the change to the system.
All Spontaneous processes are irreversible.
All Real processes are irreversible.

Entropy
Entropy (S) is a term coined by Rudolph
Clausius in the 19th century.
Clausius was convinced of the significance
of the ratio of heat delivered and the
temperature at which it is delivered,
q
T

Entropy is used to define the unavailable

energy in a system.
Entropy defines the relative ability of one
system to act on an other. As things move
toward a lower energy level, where one is
less able to act upon the surroundings, the
entropy is said to increase.
For the universe as a whole the entropy is
increasing!
Entropy is not conserved like energy!

Entropy
Entropy can be thought of as a measure of
the randomness of a system.
It is related to the various modes of motion
in molecules.

Entropy
Like total energy, E, and enthalpy, H,
entropy is a state function.
Therefore,
S = Sfinal Sinitial

Second Law of
Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics:
The entropy of the universe does not
change for reversible processes and
increases for spontaneous processes.
Reversible (ideal):
Irreversible (real, spontaneous):

Entropy on the Molecular Scale

Ludwig Boltzmann described the concept of
entropy on the molecular level.
Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the molecules in a sample.

Entropy on the Molecular Scale

Molecules exhibit several types of motion:
Translational: Movement of the entire molecule from
one place to another.
Vibrational: Periodic motion of atoms within a molecule.
Rotational: Rotation of the molecule on about an axis or
rotation about bonds.

Entropy on the Molecular Scale

Boltzmann envisioned the motions of a sample of
molecules at a particular instant in time.
This would be akin to taking a snapshot of all the
molecules.

He referred to this sampling as a microstate of the

thermodynamic system.

Entropy on the Molecular Scale

Each thermodynamic state has a specific number of
microstates, W, associated with it.
Entropy is
S = k lnW
where k is the Boltzmann constant, 1.38 1023 J/K.

Entropy on the Molecular Scale

The number of microstates and,
therefore, the entropy tends to increase
with increases in
Temperature.
Volume (gases).
The number of independently moving
molecules.

Entropy and Physical States

Entropy increases with
the freedom of motion
of molecules.
Therefore,
S(g) > S(l) > S(s)

Solutions
Dissolution of a solid:
Ions have more entropy
(more states)
But,
Some water molecules
have less entropy
(they are grouped
around ions).
Usually, there is an overall increase in S.
(The exception is very highly charged ions that
make a lot of water molecules align around them.)

Entropy Changes
In general, entropy
increases when
Gases are formed from
liquids and solids.
Liquids or solutions are
formed from solids.
The number of gas
molecules increases.
The number of moles
increases.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

The entropy of a pure crystalline
substance at absolute zero is 0.

Standard Entropies
Larger and more complex molecules have
greater entropies.

A phase change is isothermal

(no change in T).
For water:

Hfusion = 6 kJ/mol
Hvap = 41 kJ/mol

Entropysystem

Link S and H: Phase changes

If we do this reversibly: Ssurr = Ssys

Change in entropy Change in entropy Change in entropy

>0
=0
<0
irreversible
reversible
impossible
process
process
process

When a liquid evaporates its go

through a process where
the liquid heats up to the evaporation
temperature
the liquid evaporate at the vaporation
temperature by changing state
from fluid to gas
the vapor heats above the vaporation
temperature - superheating

The heat transferred to a substance

when temperature changes is often
referred to as sensible heat.

The heat required for changing state as

evaporation is referred to as latent heat
of evaporation.

Enthalpy of a system is defined as the mass of the system - m multiplied by the specific enthalpy - h - of the system and can
be expressed as:
H = m h (1)
where
H = enthalpy (kJ)
m = mass (kg)
h = specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy is a property of the fluid and can be expressed
as:
h=u+pv
(2)
where
u = internal energy (kJ/kg)
p = absolute pressure (N/m2)
v = specific volume (m3/kg)

Dryness Fraction of Saturated Steam (x or q)

It is a measure of quality of wet steam.
It is the ratio of the mass of dry steam (mg) to the mass of total wet
steam (mg+mf), where mf is the mass of water vapor.
X=
mg
mg + mf
Quality of Steam
It is the representation of dryness fraction in
percentage: Quality of Steam = x X 100

Steam Quality
Steam should be available at the point of
use:
In the correct quantity
At the correct temperature and pressure
Free from air and incondensable gases
Clean
Dry

Advantages of Superheated Steam

At a given pressure, its capacity to do the work will be comparatively

higher.

It improves the thermal efficiency of boilers and prime movers

It is economical and prevents condensation in case of Steam turbines

Disadvantages of Superheated Steam

Rise in Superheated temperature poses problems in lubrication

Initial cost is more and depreciation is higher

Carnot Cycle
Most efficient cycle
operating between
two heat sources
Practically impossible
Difficulty in ending the
condensation process
High energy
consumption for
pumping /
compression

Rankine Cycle
Practical Carnot cycle
with much less
efficiency
Pump power is much
less compared to
turbine output (within
1%)
Efficiency limited for
lower steam inlet
temperature

Understanding Basic Cycle

Rankine Cycle
Process 1-2: Pump Work
Process 2-3: Sensible
and latent heat addition in
the boiler at constant
pressure
Process 3-4: Expansion
in steam turbine
Process 4-1:
condensation of the
steam in condenser

Rankine cycle with Reheat

Average temp of heat
addition increases
with higher pressure
Restricted for
metallurgical limits
Reheating the
expanded steam to
improve efficiency
Exit Dryness Fraction
improved

Rankine cycle with Reheat and

Regeneration
Most commonly used
in power plant
Bled steam is utilised
to exchange heat
before being cooled
at the condenser

Steam Condition Vs Design efficiency

Steam Pr (Bar) Steam Temp
(0C)

41.4
89.1
103.4
103.4
162
158.6
158.6
241.3
158.6

462
510
566
538
566
566
566
593
566

Reheat Steam
Temp (0C)

538
538
566
566
566
566

Design
Efficiency (%)

27.5
30.5
33.7
35.7
37.3
37.7
38.4
39.0
39.25

Size of set
(MW)

30
60
100
120
200
275
550
375
500

Heat Rate Improvement

Parameters at Turbine Inlet
(bar/oC / oC)

% Improvement In Station
Heat Rate

170 / 538 / 538

Base

170 / 538 / 565

0.5%

170 / 565 / 565

1.3%

246 / 538 / 538

1.6%

246 / 538 / 565

2.1%

246 / 565 / 565

3.0%

246 / 565 / 598

3.6%

306 / 598 / 598

5.0%

Steam cycle theory and constraints

Higher the size of plant, lower is the capital cost
per MW and higher is the plant efficiency
The terminal steam condition tend to increase
with the size of plant
Limitation in metallurgy is the constraints for
higher terminal condition and hence efficiency

Sample Calculation
of
Cycle efficiencies
under different condition
A cycle operating between
100 bar and 30 mbar

Heat addition-Sensible Heat

The sensible heat is mostly
added in the feed water
heaters and the economisers
The cycle operates between
100 bar (310.9610C saturation
temp) and 30 mbar(24.10C
saturation temp)
Sensible heat at A =101 KJ/Kg
Sensible heat at B =1408
KJ/Kg
Sensible heat added = 1307
KJ/Kg

Variation of sensible heat with Pressure

Absolute
pressure
(bar)

Saturation Sensible
Temperature
Heat
( kj / kg )
(C )

50

263.9

1154.5

100

311.0

1408.0

150

342.1

1611.0

200

365.7

1826.5

221.2

374.15

2107.4

Heat addition - Latent Heat

The latent heat is mostly added
in the water wall tubes of the
boiler
Latent heat diminishes with
pressure and is zero at critical
pressure
The latent heat is added from B
to C at constant temp
Entropy at C is 5.6198 kj/KgK
Entropy at B is 3.3605 kj/KgK
Latent heat added = 1319.7
KJ/Kg

Variation of Latent heat with Pressure

Absolute
pressure
(bar)

Saturation
Temperatur
e
(C )

Latent
Heat
( kj / kg )

50

263.9

1639.7

100

311.0

1319.7

150

342.1

1004.0

200

365.7

591.9

221.2

374.15

Heat addition - Super heat

The Super heat is mostly
added in the superheater
tubes of the boiler arising
out from the drum
The Super heat is added
from C to D at constant
pressure
The amount of superheat
can be found by deducting
the total heat of Point C
from total heat of point D

Variation of Superheat with Pressure

Absolute pressure
(bar)

Superheat required
( kj / kg )

50

800.9

100

821.5

150

885.4

200

1033.2

Thermal Efficiency of Cycle

Useful Heat
Thermal Efficiency =
Total Heat

Useful Heat

Useful heat : Total Heat Rejected Heat

Effect of Back Pressure

Improvement of back pressure induces
certain losses too:

Increase in the CW pumping power

Higher Leaving loss
Reduced condensate temperature
Increased wetness of the steam

Back pressure correction curve

Optimum Back
pressure

Heat
cons

Back Pressure in mb

Causes for departure of back pressure

CW inlet temperature different from design
Balance between increase T/A output to extra pumping power required

CW quantity flowing through the condenser is incorrect

Low across temperature requires closing of the valves otherwise will result
in under cooling of condensate. Flow to be optimised to get desired across

Fouled tube plate

If the CW across rise is independent of increase of flow then it is assumed
that the tube plates are fouled with debris

Dirty tubes
Condenser back pressure is independent of increase of flow

Air ingress into the system under vacuum

Increase of TTD. More air ejection improves the vacuum.
Helium leak testing may be employed

Calculation of Ideal Efficiency

Basic Rankine Cycle between 100bar and 30 mbar

Total Heat supplied: 2626.7.3 kj/Kg

Total Heat rejected, [T X (S2-S1))]: 1917.2 kj/Kg
Useful heat : Total Heat Rejected heat
Thermal Efficiency = 27.01 %

The Highest possible efficiency for a basic

Rankine cycle with steam at 100 bar (abs) and dry
saturated condition and back pressure at 30mbar
is 27.01 %

Ideal Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle with superheat
Total Heat supplied: 3438.3 kj/Kg
Total Heat rejected, [T X (S2-S1))]:
1917.2 kj/Kg
Useful heat : Total Heat
Rejected heat
Thermal Efficiency = 44.23 %
The Efficiency of basic Rankine
cycle can be improved with
superheat
The scope however is limited due
to materials to withstand high
temperature

Ideal Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle with Reheat
The same 100 bar cycle with
reheat
At pressure 20 bar after
expansion in the turbine, the
steam is heated in the boiler to
566 0C
The steam expands to the
condenser pressure in IP/LP
turbine
The efficiency of this cycle is
46.09%

Ideal Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle with Reheat and regeneration
Sensible heat addition from
M to B
Latent heat and superheat
addition as before
Total heat supplied 2453.5
Kj/Kg
Heat rejected = 1192.2
Kj/Kg
Thermal Efficiency =
51.4%

Changes in cycle efficiency

The ideal efficiency of the cycle changes with
superheating, reheating and feed heating as under
Basic efficiency: 27.01 %
With Superheat: 44.23%
With Reheat: 46.09%
With reheat and feed heating 51.4%
A combination of reheating and feed heating will give
higher ideal cycle efficiency
In practice, due to losses in turbine and other parts the
actual efficiency is much less than the ideal cycle
efficiency stated above

In the figure the dark green area is the area decreased and light green area is the
area increased when the boiler pressure of the Rankine cycle is increased. Area
increased in the cycle is clearly more than the area decreased in the previous cycle
so Rankine efficiency is increased. But this leads to decrease of quality of steam
that comes out of turbine. This quality should not be less than 85%, which limits to
maximum pressure of the power plant.

Increasing the maximum operating temperature can also increase

efficiency, as this takes steam to the superheated region, which
increases the area and also enhances the quality of steam exiting the
turbine.

The maximum temperature is limited by the metallurgical

quality of the pipes of boiler.

Advantages of Reheat Cycle

Increases the dryness fraction of steam
Reduces fuel consumption by 4 to 5%
Reduces steam flow with corresponding reductions
in boiler, turbine and feed heating equipments
capacity.
Reduces pumping power
Reduction in exhaust blade erosion of turbine
Reduction in steam volume and heat to the
condenser is reduced by 7 to 8%.
Condenser size and cooling water flow also
reduced
Size of the LP turbine blades is reduced because
sp. Steam volume is reduced by 8%

Disadvantages of Reheat Cycle

Cost increases for additional pipes and
reheaters
Greater floor space required for longer
turbine
Complex operation and control increases
At light loads, steam passing through the
last blade rows are highly superheated if
same reheat is maintained

Boiler: Definition as per IBR

Boiler means any closed vessel
exceeding 22.75 litres (five gallons)
in capacity which is used expressly
for generating steam under pressure
and includes any mounting or other
fitting attached to such vessel, which
is wholly or partly under pressure
when steam is shut off:

Classification of PF Boilers
Ultra-SuperCritical

Super-Critical

Based on Operating
Pressure

Sub-Critical

Sub-Critical: < Critical Pr.

221.2 Bar
THERMAL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT

Super critical: > Critical

5660C/5660C
6000C/6000C

Pr. 221.2 Bar

Ultra-super critical >

Pr > 300 Bar
and Temp > 1100 0 F or 593 0C

Efficiency Increase
%

1.0
0.8

5660C/5930C

1.0

5660C/5660C

0.8

5380C/5660C

0.8

5380C/5380C

1.8
Base
169

246

310

STEAM PRESSURE (kg/cm2)

Super critical and ultra supercritical conditions

Critical Conditions

Ultra super critical conditions

Temperature -374.150C

Temperature above 5930C

Pressure-225.56kg/cm2

Pressure above 306kg/cm2

Improvement of thermal efficiency

Increasing the steam temperature ( increases 0.31%
every 100C of increase of main steam temperature &
0.24% every 100C of increase of reheat steam
temperature )
Increasing in the steam pressure ( increases 0.1%
increase with increase of 10 bar pressure)

Classification of PF Boilers
Based on Types of Circulation
Natural Circulation Boiler
Assisted circulation Boiler
Once through Boiler

Circulation in Boiler

Natural Circulation
The water flows from the drum vide down comer pipes
and returns through riser tubes after being heated in the
furnace
The static head difference generated due to density
difference of the steam and water mixture in the riser
tubes and water in the down comer is the driving force
for the circulation. This is called Thermo-Siphon
The steam and water mixture is separated in the boiler
drum
As the pressure rises, the difference between the
densities tend to decrease and Natural circulation head
cannot overcome the frictional resistance
Higher the heat input, higher should be the flow rate
through the tubes to avoid overheating

Circulation Quantity VS Steam Produced

End Point
The circulation increases
with increase in Heat input

Total
Circulation
Quantity

Steam Produced

Losses due to friction from

high specific volume is
higher than the pressure
differential

Circulation Ratio
Circulation ratio is the weight of water fed to the
steam generating circuits to the steam actually
generated
Kg. of water
Circulation ratio =
Kg. of Steam

Circulation ratio depends upon operating

pressure, available circulation head and flow
resistance
For sub critical boilers, circulation ratio varies
from 10-30

Relationship
of density of
water-steam
with
operating
pressure

Assisted Circulation
As the pressure goes high, the density
difference between the steam and water
decreases and therefore, additional assistance
of pumps are needed to establish circulation
The pumps are located at the bottom of the
down comers
The tube dimensions for assisted circulation
boilers are less and have orifices to establish
uniform temperature distribution
They are restricted below critical pressure to
near about 190 bar

Forced circulation (Once through)

No drum to separate change of state
Once through boiler can operate at any
pressure below or above critical pressure
Flow in once through boiler is proportional
to the load and hence a minimum flow of
25-30 % is needed always by recirculation
pumps or by dumping
Spirally wound tube to average the heat
input per tube

Once Through Boilers

Classification of PF Boilers
Based on Types of firing
Wall fired: Front / Opposed
Corner fired: Tangential
Down-shot fired : Single / Double

Wall Firing (TGS Boiler)

The stability is imposed by a combination of
secondary of air swirl and a flow reversal in the
primary air by an impeller
The refractory quarl though acts as a radiant
heat source but its major role is aerodynamic
flow stabiliser
80 % combustion air through secondary air and
20 % through primary air
Modern design incorporate axial swirl which
consumes less fan power, intimate mixing and
better control

Down shot Firing (BBGS Boiler)

Adopted for burning of low volatile coal < 16
% (Anthracite)
Long particle residence time for complete
combustion
The coal is fed downwards from the arch
along with about 30-40 % combustion air
The secondary air and tertiary air is
distributed to form the flame characteristics
and shape

Tangential Firing (SGS / BBGS#3 Boiler)

A turbulent zone is created in the center of the
furnace by the turbulent flames fired from the
corners towards the imaginary circle to which the
flame path is tangent
Simple in construction and can burn a wide variety
of coal
The mixing of coal and air is obtained by the
admission of coal and air in alternate layers
There can be provisions for tilting of the burners for
super heater temperature control (not in SGS, available in
BBGS #3)

Our Boilers
Titagarh Generating Station

Southern Generating Station

BBGS Generating Station

Designed for Coal with

Calorific Value 4500
Ash + Moisture 35.5%
Volatile Matter 25%
Fixed Carbon 39.5%

Designed for Coal with

Calorific Value 3800
Ash + Moisture 44%
Volatile Matter 17%
Fixed Carbon 39%

Designed for Coal with

Calorific Value 3850
Ash + Moisture 50%
Volatile Matter 15%
Fixed Carbon 32%

Front wall firing

Corner firing

Down shot firing

Boiler
Heat Transfer Zones

Heat Transfer Zones

The Furnace: High temperature gases of
combustion is used for heating water and steam
with low to medium superheat

The Convection Zone: Medium temperature

gases is used to heat steam with medium to high
superheat

Heat Recovery zone: Comparatively cool gases

exchange heat to feed water to saturation temperature or
with low superheat

Boiler Furnace

Boiler
Showing
Heat
transfer
areas

Types of Boiling
Sub-cooled water heating: Initial stage of heating, Water in contact with the
tube evaporates-bulk fluid is below the saturation temp

Sub-cooled Nucleate Boiling: Formation and collapsing of bubbles due to

transfer of latent heat

Nucleate boiling: Bulk of the liquid reaches to saturation temperature, bubbles

will not collapse, fluid flow along with the bubbles. Sub critical boiler operates in
this stage (Water velocity 1.5-3 mps)

DNB (Departure from Nucleate boiling): Even higher heat flux will result in
collapsing of bubble to form a layer of superheated steam on the tube face.
Breakdown of mode of heat transfer-leads to burn out of the tube to
overheating.

Film Boiling: Complete film of steam is formed at the solid liquid interface,
results in reduction in heat transfer, High velocities of steam is required

Types of Boiling
Critical Heat Flux or
DNB

A-B: Water Heating

B-S: Sub cooled Nucleate Boiling

S-C: Nucleate Boiling

C

Log Heat
Flux

C-D: Onset of Film Boiling

E

Log (Tsurface Tbulk)

D-E: Unstable Film Boiling

E-F: Stable Film Boiling

Furnace- Duty
Furnace to have suitable surface area to
reduce the temperature of the furnace gas
to a level acceptable to super heater
requirements
Adequate water circulation in the furnace
tubes to prevent overheating
To avoid flame impingement in the
opposite wall tubes

Furnace- Duty
Width sufficient to accommodate all
burners at an acceptable pitching
Overall dimension to ensure optimum
absorption and total combustion
To reduce the furnace temperature below
ash softening temp to avoid slagging

Coal Vs Oil Fired Furnace

Average oil droplet burnout time is half to
that of coal
Coal particle require higher residence time
higher flow path
Sticky ash hinders wall tube heat
absorption hence higher surface area

Furnace- Performance & Control

Operation procedures
Firing Pattern
Soot blowing
Excess air
Other methods
Gas recirculation (GR) as in BBGS
Tilting burners for Corner fired boiler

Furnace Construction
Basically two types
Tangent wall tube: Tubes are arranged tangentially and the
skin casing is used to seal. The skin casing is supported from main
stays

Advantage:
Easy maintenance
Older design

Membrane wall tube: Tubes joined with fins to form a fully

welded structure, the membrane wall

Advantage:
Minimum ingress of tramp air
The outer casing requires only heat shielding

Super heater
and Re heater

Super heaters and Re heaters

Convective:

The heat transfer is through convection and Heat absorption rate increases
with the boiler output

Radiant:

Radiant super heaters receives heat through radiation only

With increase load in the boiler, the heat absorption in the furnace surfaces
is increased at a lesser rate hence, the radiant superheat decrease with
load

Combination

Fairly flat superheat curve with wide range of load

Type of material, tube diameter, positioning in the furnace, gas temperature
zone, superheating surface etc. are important factors for designing a super
heater

STEAM TEMPERATURE, SCALE ARBITRARY

20

40

60

80

100

STEAM OUTPUT PERCENTAGE

A SUBSTANTIALLY UNIFORM FINALSTEAM TEMPERATURE OVER A RANGE OF OUTPUT CAN BE ATTAINED BY A SERIES
OF ARRANGEMENT OF RADIANT AND CONVECTION SUPERHEATER COMPONENT

STEAM TO IP TURBINE

PRIMARY
REHEATER

PIMARY
SUPERHEATER
VERTICAL

VERTICAL

FINAL
REHEATER

STEAM TO HP TURBINE

FINAL
SUPER
HEATER

PLATEN
SUPERHEAER

COMBUSTION
GASES

STEAM
FROM
HP
TURBINE

PRIMARY
REHEATER

PRIMARY
SUPERHEATER

STEAM
FROM DRUM

COAL
FURNACE

TO DRUM
REHEATER
ECONOMISER

SUPERHEATER
ECONOMISER

TO DRUM
AIR
FEED WATER

FEED WATER

AIR HEATER

GAS TO STACK

BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING BOILER

ELEMENTS AND FLOWPATHS

BULK GAS
TEMPERATUE

GAS
FILM

OXIDE

FOULING

STEAM
WATER
FILM

TUBE
WALL

COMPOSITE TEMPERATURE DROP FROM GAS TO STEAM / WATER

THROUGH A BOILER TUBE WALL

1025*C

GAS
1025*C

GAS

930*C

930*C
568*C
STEAM

COUNTER FLOW

Tin=447.4*c

492*C
492*C

568*C
STEAM

PARALLEL FLOW

Tin=442.0*c

SUPER HEATER GAS AND STEAM TEMPERATURE

General
Arrangement of
a 210 MW
radiant Re-heat
boiler

Typical section
of a Double
Down shot,
250 MW Boiler
at BBGS,
CESC

Super heater temperature is affected by

Load
Excess Air
Feed Water temperature
Heating surface cleanliness
Burner operation
Burner tilt
Coal burnt

Super heater temperature control

Direct Attemperation / De super heaters

Excess Air
Furnace division
Gas recirculation
Adjustment of burner tilt
Type pf burners

Boiler Drum

Steam Separation and purity

Boiler operating below critical pressure need
drum to separate saturated steam from a
mixture of steam-water discharged by the boiler
tubes
Drum also serves as vessel for chemical
treatment of water and storage of water
The drum sizing is done primarily to house the
separation equipment and should accommodate
the changes in water level with variation of load

SILICA CONTENT OF BOILER WATER

SILICA CONTENT OF STEAM

RATIO=
DISTRIBUTION

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0

1000

2000

3000

STEAM DRUM PRESSURE IN , psi

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SILICA DISTRIBUTION RATIO

4000

Performance Indicators and

Benchmarking

Benchmarking-Objectives
Benchmarking is
a continuous formal process of measuring,
understanding, and adapting
more effective practices from best-in-class
organizations that lead to superior
performance.
Benchmarking is essential to
provide the best service to our customers.

Benchmarking-Benefits

Improve our performance and organization

Learn about industry leaders and competitors
Determine what world-class performance is
Accelerate and manage change
Achieve breakthrough results
Improve customer satisfaction
Become the best in the business

Steps of benchmarking
What to benchmark
With whom to benchmark
Identification of potential improvement areas
based on benchmarking.
Adoption of best practices for improvement
Monitor effectiveness of new practice
Modify practice as per requirement
Standardise practice

Key Benefits from Benchmarking at

CESC Ltd
Reduction in Annual overhaul time
High pressure jet cleaning of boiler tubes
Operating at zero pressure differential of
feed control station
Ammonia dosing system at ESP
Boiler Insulation survey
Destaging of Condensate Extraction Pump
Installation of SS-304 chutes at CHP

Key Performance Indicators

Cost of Generation
Plant Load Factor (PLF)
Plant Availability Factor (PAF)
Loss In Production
Heat Rate
Specific Coal Consumption
Specific Oil Consumption
Auxiliary Power Consumption
Environmental Emissions
No of Accidents
Implementation of Quality and SHE systems

Key Monitoring

PF Sample analysis
PA and PF flow distribution
Performance of Boiler feed pumps
Performance of Fans
Insulation survey of boiler casings
Thermographic assessment of valves
Reject analysis from pulverisers
Helium leak test of condensers
Energy consumption of major axillaries
Physical inspection of fly ash
Measurement of boiler and air heater efficiency
Measurement of turbine efficiency
Fuel sampling and analysis from coal feeders

Introduction to Supercritical
Technology
What is Supercritical Pressure ?
Critical point in water vapour cycle is a
thermodynamic state where there is no clear
distinction between liquid and gaseous state
of water.
Water reaches to this state at a critical
pressure above 22.1 MPa and 374 oC.

114

What is Supercritical Pressure ?

Critical point in water vapour cycle is a
thermodynamic state where there is no
clear distinction between liquid and
gaseous state of water.

Water reaches to this state at a

critical pressure above 22.1 MPa and
374 oC.

Rankine Cycle Subcritical Unit

1 - 2 > CEP work
2 - 3 > LP Heating
3 - 4 > BFP work
4 - 5 > HP Heating
5 6 > Eco, WW
6 7 > Superheating
7 8 > HPT Work
8 9 > Reheating
9 10 > IPT Work
1011 > LPT Work
11 1 > Condensing

Rankine Cycle Supercritical Unit

1 - 2 > CEP work

2 2s > Regeneration
2s - 3 > Boiler Superheating
3 4 > HPT expansion
4 5 > Reheating
5 6 > IPT & LPT Expansion
6 1 > Condenser Heat rejection

VARIATION OF LATENT HEAT

WITH PRESSURE
Absolute
Pressure
(Bar)

Saturation
Temperature
(oC)

Latent
Heat
(K J/Kg.)

50
150
200
221

264
342
366
374

1640
1004
592
0

Departure from Nucleate Boiling

Nucleate boiling is a type of boiling that takes place when the surface temp is hotter
than the saturated fluid temp by a certain amount but where heat flux is below the
critical heat flux. Nucleate boiling occurs when the surface temperature is higher than
the saturation temperature by between 40C to 300C.

WATER
DENSITY

STEAM

175 224
PRESSURE(ksc)

No Religious Attitude

Supercritical Boiler Water Wall

Rifle Tube And Smooth Tube

Natural Circulation Vs. Once

Through System

5710C To HP
Turbine

To IP
Turbine 5690C

Mixer Header
4230C

4620C

5340C
5260C

Separator

FRH

4730C

FSH
Platen
Heater
From CRH Line
3240C

From FRS Line

NRV

3260C

2830C

2800C

Boiler
Recirculation Pump

LTRH

LTSH
4430C

Economizer
Phase 1

Bottom Ring
Header

Economizer
Phase 2

Feed water control

In Drum type Boiler Feed water flow
control by Three element controller
1.Drum level
2.Ms flow
3.Feed water flow.

Drum less Boiler Feed water control by

1.Load demand
2.Water/Fuel ratio(7:1)
3.OHD(Over heat degree)

Difference of
Subcritical(500MW) and
Supercritical(660MW)

COMPARISION OF SUPER CRITICAL & SUB CRITICAL

DESCRIPTION

SUPERCRITICAL
(660MW)

SUB-CRITICAL
(500MW)

Circulation Ratio

Feed Water Flow Control

-Water to Fuel Ratio

(7:1)
-OHDR(22-35 OC)
-Load Demand

Latent Heat Addition

Nil

Heat addition more

Sp. Enthalpy

Low

More

Sp. Coal consumption

Low

High

Air flow, Dry flu gas loss

Low

High

Once-thru=1
Assisted Circulation=3-4
Natural circulation= 7-8
Three Element Control
-Feed Water Flow
-MS Flow
-Drum Level

Continue..
DESCRIPTION SUPERCRITICA SUB-CRITICAL
L
(500MW)
(660MW)
Coal & Ash handling

Low

High

Pollution

Low

High

Aux. Power
Consumption

Low

More

Overall Efficiency

High
(40-42%)

Low
(36-37%)

Total heating surface

area Reqd

Low
(84439m2)

High
(71582m2)

Tube diameter

Low

High

Continue..
DESCRIPTION

Material / Infrastructure
(Tonnage)
Start up Time

SUPERCRITIC
AL
(660MW)
Low
7502 MT
Less

SUBCRITICAL
(500MW)
High
9200 MT
More

Blow down loss

Nil

More

Water Consumption

Less

More

Advanced Supercritical Tube Materials

(300 bar/6000c/6200c)

129

Material Comparison
Description

660 MW

500 MW

Structural Steel

Alloy Steel

Carbon Steel

Water wall

T22

Carbon Steel

SH Coil
RH Coil

T23, T91
T91,Super
304 H

T11, T22
T22,
T91,T11

LTSH

T12

T11

Economizer

SA106--C
SA106

Carbon Steel

Welding Joints (Pressure Parts)

42,000 Nos

24,000 Nos

Advantages of SC Technology
I ) Higher cycle efficiency means
Primarily
less fuel consumption
less per MW infrastructure investments
less emission
less auxiliary power consumption
less water consumption
II ) Operational flexibility
Better temp. control and load change flexibility
Shorter start-up time
More suitable for widely variable pressure operation
131

ECONOMY
Higher Efficiency (%)
Less fuel input.
Low capacity fuel handling system.
Low capacity ash handling system.
Less Emissions.

Approximate improvement in Cycle
Efficiency
Pressure increase : 0.005 % per bar
Temp increase
: 0.011 % per deg K
132

Challenges of supercritical technology

Water chemistry is more stringent in super critical once
through boiler.
Metallurgical Challenges
More complex in erection due to spiral water wall.
More feed pump power is required due to more friction
losses in spiral water wall.
Maintenance of tube leakage is difficult due to complex
design of water wall.
Ash sticking tendency is more in spiral water wall in
comparison of vertical wall.

Combustion
Basics

Combustion Basics

Fuel
Combustion Stoichiometry
Air/Fuel Ratio
Equivalence Ratio
Air Pollutants from Combustion

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135

Fuel
 Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas
Refinery gas

 Liquid Fuels

Kerosene
Gasoline, diesel
Alcohol (Ethanol)
Oil

 Solid Fuels
Coal (Anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, lignite)
Wood

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Combustion Stoichiometry
 Combustion in Oxygen

C n H m + O2 CO2 + H 2O

m
m

Cn H m + n + O2 nCO2 + H 2O
4
2

CH 4 + 2O2 CO 2 + 2 H 2O
C6 H 6 + 7.5O2 6CO2 + 3H 2O

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Combustion Stoichiometry
 Combustion in Air (O2 = 21%, N2 = 79%)

C n H m + (O2 + 3.78 N 2 ) CO2 + H 2O + N 2

m
m
m

Cn H m + n + (O2 + 3.78N 2 ) nCO2 + H 2O + 3.78 n + N 2

4
2
4

CH 4 + 2(O2 + 3.78 N 2 ) CO2 + 2 H 2O + 7.56 N 2

C6 H 6 + 7.5(O2 + 3.78 N 2 ) 6CO2 + 3H 2O + 28.35N 2
1. What if the fuel contains O, S, Cl or other elements?
2 Is it better to use O2 or air?

Air-Fuel Ratio
 Air-Fuel (AF) ratio
AF = m Air / m Fuel
Where:

m air = mass of air in the feed mixture

m fuel = mass of fuel in the feed mixture

Fuel-Air ratio: FA = m Fuel /m Air = 1/AF

 Air-Fuel molal ratio

AFmole = nAir / nFuel
Where:

nair = moles of air in the feed mixture

nfuel = moles of fuel in the feed mixture

What is the Air-Fuel ratio for stoichiometric combustion of

methane and benzene, respectively?
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139

Air-Fuel Ratio
 Rich mixture
- more fuel than necessary
(AF) mixture < (AF)stoich
 Lean mixture
- more air than necessary
(AF) mixture > (AF)stoich

Most combustion systems operate under lean conditions.

Why is this advantageous?

Equivalence Ratio
Equivalence ratio: shows the deviation of an actual
mixture from stoichiometric conditions.

( FA) actual ( AF ) stoich

=
=
( FA) stoich ( AF ) actual
The combustion of methane has an equivalence ratio =0.8
in a certain condition. What is the percent of excess air (EA)
used in the combustion?
How does temperature change as increases?

Formation of NOx and CO in Combustion

 Thermal NOx
- Oxidation of atmospheric N2 at high temperatures

N 2 + O2 2 NO
NO + 12 O2 NO2
- Formation of thermal NOx is favorable at higher temperature
 Fuel NOx
- Oxidation of nitrogen compounds contained in the fuel
 Formation of CO
- Incomplete Combustion
- Dissociation of CO2 at high temperature

CO2 CO + 12 O2

Air Pollutants from Combustion

Source: Seinfeld, J. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution.

How do you explain the trends of the exhaust HCs, CO,

and NOx as a function of air-fuel ratio?
How do you minimize NOx and CO emission?

Facilitators of Combustion
Time
Temperature
Turbulence

Improper Combustion
Excess Combustion

Incomplete Combustion

Explosion
Tube burn out
Refractory damages
Fall in thermal efficiency
Generation of pollutants
Slagging

Waste of fuel
Fall in steam parameters
Fall in thermal efficiency
Generation of pollutants
High FGET
Explosion

Main types of combustion

Flame combustion
Cyclone Combustion
Fluidised Bed combustion

Flame Combustion
Burning of pulverized coal or coal dust in a
suspended state inside the furnace.
Fine particles of coal are easily moved by the
flow of air and combustion products through the
section of the furnace
Combustion takes place in a short time of the
presence of particles in the furnace ( 1 to 2 secs)

Cyclone combustion
Fuel particles go through intensive
turbulent motion
The coal particles burn off more quickly
Permits the combustion of coarse coal
dust and even crushed coal
Develops a higher temperature with the
result that slag are removed in the molten
state.(slagging-type furnace)

Fluidized Bed Combustion

(FBC)
Solid fuel ground to particle size of 16mm is
placed on a grate.
It is blown from beneath with an airflow at such
speed that the fuel particles are lifted above the
grate
The speed of the gas-air flow within the bed is
higher than above it
The finer and partially burnt particles rise to the
upper portion of the bed where the flow velocity
decreases and are burnt completely.

Boiler Auxillaries

Fans
Blowers
Feed Pumps & Circulation Pumps
Airheaters
Dampers and gates
Soot Blowers