Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PROTECTION
Fundamentals and Application
Presentedby:
Generator Protection
Objectives
External faults
Generator Protection
Objectives
Tripping considerations and sequential
tripping
Discussion of tactics to improve security and
dependability
Generator protection upgrade considerations
Advanced attributes for security, reliability and
maintenance use
Generator Protection
Generator Construction:
Simple Bock Diagram
Prime Mover
(Mechanical Input)
ia
ib
ic
DC Field Source
Three-Phase
Electrical
Output
Generator Protection
2
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
Reciprocating Engines
Hydroelectric
Gas Turbines (GTs, CGTs)
Steam Turbines (STs)
Applying Field
Static Exciter
Rotor Styles
Cylindrical (Round)
Generator Protection
Salient
Generator Protection
Generator Protection
10
Generator Protection
11
Generator Protection
12
Generator Protection
13
Generator Protection
Short-Circuit Current
14
Generator Protection
Effect of DC Offsets
Current
Current
Current
Three-Phase Fault
15
Generator Protection
Grounding Techniques
Why Ground?
Improved safety by allowing detection of faulted
equipment
Stop transient overvoltages
Notorious in ungrounded systems
Generator Protection
Low Impedance
Good ground source
The lower the R, the better the
ground source
The lower the R, the more
damage to the generator on
internal ground fault
Can get expensive as resistor
voltage rating goes up
Generator will be damaged on
internal ground fault
Ground fault current typically 200400 A
G
R
Grounding
Resistor
17
Generator Protection
High Impedance
GSU
Transformer
RNGR
RR
18
Generator Protection
Compensated
Creates unit connection
Most expensive
GSU
Transformer
ZNGI
ZR
Neutral
Grounding
Transformer
19
Generator Protection
87
GD
Hybrid Ground
VS
Trip
Excitation
&
Prime Mover
59
N
10
20
Generator Protection
Hybrid Ground
Converts from low-Z
to high-Z for
internal generator fault
21
Generator Protection
11
23
Generator Protection
24
12
Generator Protection
BUS
Generator Protection
26
13
Generator Protection
27
Generator Protection
28
14
Generator Protection
Unit Connected
29
Generator Protection
15
Generator Protection
On System
Phase Faults
Ground Faults
31
Generator Protection
16
32
Generator Protection
Abnormal Frequency
Abnormal Voltage
Overexcitation
Field Loss
Loss of Synchronism
Inadvertent Energizing
Breaker Failure
Loss of Prime Mover
Blown VT Fuses
Open Circuits / Conductors
33
Generator Protection
Overexcitation
Loss of Field
Loss of Field
Abnormal
Frequency
Overexcitation
Exciter
"Wild"
Power System
G
Abnormal
Frequency
Reverse Power
Inadvertent
Energizing,
Pole Flashover
Breaker Failure
Overexcitation
Loss of
Synchronism
17
34
Generator Protection
ANSI/IEEE Standards
Latest developments reflected in:
Typical Unit
Connected
Generator
(C37.102)
Unit Connected,
High Z Grounded
36
18
19
Generator Protection
59N Element
Voltage at Neutral
(60 Hz)
1.0
pu
0.5
pu
0
0%
N
50%
Fault Position
100%
T
20
40
59G-1 is blind to
the capacitive
coupling by the
GSU.
Time (cycles)
V2 < sp
V0 > sp
59G > sp
59G-1
(Short Delay)
59G > sp
59G-1
(Short Delay)
59G-2
59G-2
(Long Delay)
(Long Delay)
21
43
22
Generator Protection
59N Element
45
A fault at or near the neutral shunts the high resistance that saves
the stator from large currents with an internal ground fault
A generator operating with an undetected ground fault near the
neutral is a accident waiting to happen
We can use 3rd Harmonic or Injection Techniques for complete
(100%) coverage
46
23
CT is added at terminal
end due to surge caps
and isophase bus
Effect is 3rd harmonic
null point is shifted
toward terminal end
and not balanced
47
Generator Protection
Rotor MMF
24
48
Generator Protection
R
3I3h
49
NGT
GSU Transformer
59
G
27
TN
59
NGR
25
50
Generator Protection
3rd harmonic values tend to increase with power and VAr loading
Fault near neutral causes 3rd harmonic voltage at neutral to go to zero volts
51
52
26
Generator Protection
53
Generator Protection
27TN
3rd
27
54
Generator Protection
55
Generator Protection
56
28
Generator Protection
1.0
3rd Harmonic
Voltage profile in
winding
Vfund profile in
winding
0.5
59N pickup
27TN pickup
-10
100%
50%
59N
27TN
57
Generator Protection
59
N
85-100% Coverage
VN
59D
3V0
29
58
Generator Protection
59
Generator Protection
60
30
Generator Protection
61
Generator Protection
3rd
62
31
Coupling Filter
Voltage
Injector
20Hz
Notes:
Subharmonic injection frequency = 20 Hz
Measurements
Coupling filter tuned for subharmonic frequency
63
Measurement inputs tuned to respond to subharmonic frequency
32
65
Generator Protection
66
33
Generator Protection
G
51
N
G
1
51
N
68
34
Generator Protection
69
Generator Protection
35
Generator Protection
3Y
67
N
3Y
67
N
G
51
N
51
N
71
Generator Protection
72
36
Generator Protection
67
N
G
51
N
51
N
73
Generator Protection
90
Trip
3IO IN
180
3VO VN VX
Block Trip
270
Internal faults create angles of 3I0 or IN current flow into generator from
system that are approximately 150 degrees from 3V0
This is from reactive power being drawn in from system as well as real
power
37
74
Generator Protection
75
Generator Protection
38
Generator Protection
-3Io x I
77
77
Generator Protection
-3Io x I
78
78
39
Generator Protection
IG > setting
79
Generator Protection
40
Generator Protection
81
Generator Protection
Directional Neutral Overcurrent:
87G
Low-Z Grounded Generator
System
3Y
3Y
Ground fault in
machine is detected by
87GD & 51N
51N picks up in
unfaulted machine
87GD trips fast in
faulted machine
51N resets on
unfaulted machine
87
GD
87
GD
G
51
N
G
51
N
82
41
Generator Protection
51N
67N
87GD
100%
50%
0%
83
84
42
Brushless
Brushed
85
86
43
DC-Based 64F
87
Exciter
Breaker
Square Wave
Generator
Exciter
Signal
Measurement
& Processing
Protective
Relay
Coupling
Network
88
44
Generator Protection
VR
VOUT
Vf
PROCESSOR
Measurement Point
FIELD GROUND
DETECTION
SQUAREWAVE
GENERATOR
VOUT
M-3921
COUPLING NETWORK
37
R
R
35
SIGNAL
MEASUREMENT
CIRCUIT
Time
GEN.
ROTOR
Rf Cf
Vf
36
Machine
Frame
Ground
45
Shaft
Ground Brush
90
Generator Protection
PROTECTION
RELAY
(M-3425A)
Measurement Point
VALARM =
PROCESSOR
FIELD GROUND
DETECTION
SQUAREWAVE
GENERATOR
Time
VOUT
M-3921
COUPLING NETWORK
37
R
R
35
SIGNAL
MEASUREMENT
CIRCUIT
GEN.
ROTOR
Rf Cf
Vf
36
Shaft
Ground Brush
Machine
Frame
Ground
91
Generator Protection
92
46
Generator Protection
93
Generator Protection
Tactics:
Use variable percentage slope
Operate over wide frequency range
Uses IRMS/IFUND to adaptively desensitize element when challenged
by large DC offset and harmonics for security
DC offset can occur from black starting and close-in faults
47
94
Generator Protection
87
(0,0)
+4
(4,-4)
10
ID = I1 + I2
8
TRIP
6
4
RESTRAIN
-4
0
A
10
IR = |I1| + |I2|
95
Generator Protection
87
B
+4
10
ID = I1 + I2
(2, -2)
(1, -3)
6
TRIP
4
RESTRAIN
-4
0
A
10
IR = |I1| + |I2|
(0,0)
96
48
Generator Protection
2 pu
10
ID = I 1 + I 2
2 Node Bus
87
(0, 0)
(2, 2)
TRIP
+2
4
0
RESTRAIN
10
IR = |I1| + |I2|
A
B
97
Generator Protection
2 pu
10
ID = I1 + I2
2 Node Bus
87
TRIP
+2
(0, 0)
(2, 0.5)
6
4
RESTRAIN
B
-2
10
IR = |I1| + |I2|
A
B
98
49
Generator Protection
87 Characteristic
40%
10%
0.6A
0.3A
CTC = CT Correction Ratio = Line CTR/Neutral CTR
Used when Line and Neutral CTs have different ratios
99
Generator Protection
87 Setting
100
50
Generator Protection
101
Generator Protection
102
51
Generator Protection
10%
5%
Cylindrical
- Indirectly
10%
8%
6%
5%
103
Generator Protection
104
52
Generator Protection
Generator
Ratings
Typical
K Values
Salient Pole
Generators
40
Synchronous
Generators
30
105
Generator Protection
53
Generator Protection
107
Generator Protection
Overexcitation (24)
Measured
High Volts/Hertz ratio
Normal = 120V/60Hz = 1pu
Voltage up, and/or frequency low, make event
Issues
Overfluxing of metal causes localized heating
Heat destroys insulation
Affects generators and transformers
108
54
Generator Protection
Overexcitation (24)
Causes of V/HZ Problems
Generator voltage regulator problems
- Operating error during off-line manual regulator operation
- Control failure
- VT fuse loss in voltage regulator (AVR) sensing voltage
System problems
-
Generator Protection
Overexcitation (24)
Protects machine against excessive V/Hz (overfluxing)
Legacy Protection
Typically stair-step two definite time setpoints
Two definite time elements
- One may be used to alarm
- One may be used for high set fast trip
55
Generator Protection
Legacy Approach
Dual-Level, Definite-Time V/Hz Protection
Generator Protection
Overexcitation (24)
Modern Protection
Definite time elements
Curve modify
Alarm
Inverse curves
Select curve type for best coordination to
manufacturers recommendations
Employ settable integrating reset
Provides thermal memory for repeat events
112
56
Generator Protection
Overexcitation (24)
113
Generator Protection
Overexcitation (24)
Modern Protection
V/Hz measurement operational range: 2-80 Hz
- Necessary to avoid damage to steam turbine generators
during rotor pre-warming at startup
- Necessary to avoid damage to converter-start gas turbine
generators at startup
- In both instances, the generator frequency during startup and
shut down can be as low as 2 Hz
NOTE: An Overvoltage (59) function, designed to work properly
up to 120 Hz, is important for Hydro Generators where the
generators can experience high speed (high frequency) during
full load rejection.
Since the V/Hz during this condition is low, the 24 function will
not operate, and the 59 function will provide proper protection
from overvoltage.
57
114
Generator Protection
115
VAR
OUT
Normal
WATT
VAR
IN
Loss
of
Field
58
116
Generator Protection
Reactive Power
Into System
Rotor
Winding
Limited
MW
MVAR
Overexcited
System
+
MVAR
Stator
Winding
Limited
+ MW
Real Power
Into System
MEL
Underexcited
MW
MVAR
Reactive Power
Into Generator
SSSL
Stator End
Iron Limited
System
G
MVAR
117
Generator Protection
P-Q Plane
TRANSFORMATION FROM
MW-MVAR TO R-X PLOT
TYPICAL GENERATOR
CAPABILITY CURVE
Excitation Limiters and
Steady State Stability
R-X Plane
59
118
Loss of Field
GE and Westinghouse Methods
+X
+R
Diameter = 1.0 pu
X
Offset = d
2
Xd
2
Machine
Capability
SSSL
MEL
Diameter = Xd
X
Loss of Field
Generator Protection
120
60
Loss of Field
Impedance w/Direction Unit
Xd
2
121
Generator Protection
Xd
2
61
122
Generator Protection
123
Generator Protection
62
124
Generator Protection
125
Generator Protection
35.0
5.0
63
126
Generator Protection
Generator Protection
21: Distance
Element
With Load
Encroachment
Blinder fro Z1, Z2, Z3
128
64
Generator Protection
40.0
0.0
80.0
129
Generator Protection
21: Distance
Element
With Power Swing
Block & Load
Encroachment Blocking
for Z1 and Z2
Power Swing or
Load Encroachment
130
65
Generator Protection
60.0
0.0
80.0
40
25.0
131
Generator Protection
21 Settings
132
66
Generator Protection
Types of Instability
Generator Protection
134
67
Generator Protection
Stability
Pmax
Pe
Eg Es
X
Eg Es
X
sin g s
Es - System Voltage
Eg - Generator Voltage
s - System Voltage Phase Angle
g - Generator Voltage Phase Angle
Pe - Electrical Power
Egg
Ess
135
Generator Protection
System
Trans
R
Mho
Element
Gen
Xd
A
Element
Pickup
B
Element
Pickup
C
Blinder
Elements
136
68
Generator Protection
Graphical Method: 78
X
A
System
XS
GSU
XT
P
R
M
Swing Locus
Mho
Element
Gen
Xd
2X D + XT + XS
A
Element
Pickup
B
Element
Pickup
Blinder
Elements
137
Generator Protection
Graphical Method: 78
X
A
System
XS
Unstable
Swing
Stable Swing
GSU
XT
R
Mho
Element
Gen
Xd
2X D + XT + XS
A
Element
Pickup
B
Element
Pickup
Blinder
Elements
69
138
Generator Protection
139
Generator Protection
140
70
Generator Protection
141
Generator Protection
142
71
Generator Protection
81-U
143
Generator Protection
Frequency (Hz)
For overfrequency events, the generator prime mover power is reduced to bring
generation equal to load
For underfrequency events, load shedding is implemented to bring load equal to
generation
It is imperative that underfrequency tripping for a generator be coordinated
144
with system underfrequency load shedding
72
Generator Protection
Generator Protection
Frequency (Hz)
60
59
Restricted
58
57
Prohibited
0.001
0.01
0.10
1.0
Time (Minutes)
73
10.0
100.0
146
Generator Protection
81U Underfrequency
147
Generator Protection
Frequency (Hz)
Turbine Over/Underfrequency
74
148
Generator Protection
149
Generator Protection
150
75
Generator Protection
Anti-Motoring: 32
Used to protect generator from motoring during loss of prime
mover power
Motoring:
Wastes power from the system
May cause heating in steam turbines as ventilation is greatly reduced
Steam and dewatered hydro can motor with very little power; <=1%
rated
CGT and Recip typically use 10-25% of rated power to motor
Generators are often taken off the system by backing off the
power until importing slightly so not to trip with power export and
go into overspeed (turbine issue)
This is known as sequential tripping
151
Generator Protection
152
76
Generator Protection
Breaker head
flashovers
S1
B
Control circuit
malfunctions
Combination
of above
153
Generator Protection
Inadvertent Energizing:
Protection Response
154
77
Inadvertent Energizing
When inadvertently energized from 3-phase source, the machine acts
like an induction motor
Rotor heats rapidly (very high I2 in the rotor)
Current drawn
Strong system: 3-4x rated
Weak system: 1-2x rated
From Auxiliary System: 0.1-0.2x rated
When inadvertently energized from 1-phase source (pole flashover),
the machine does not accelerate
No rotating flux is developed
Rotor heats rapidly (very high I2 in the rotor)
Protection system must be able to detect and clear both 3-phase and 155
1-phase inadvertent energizing events
156
78
Generator Protection
Inadvertent
Energizing
Oscillograph
Inadvertent
Energizing
157
Generator Protection
Inadvertent Energizing
158
79
Generator Protection
Fault Cleared
Breaker Interrupt
Time
Backup Breaker
Interrupt Time
BFI
Time
BF
Trip
Command
62 -1 BF Timer Time
Fault Occurs
159
Generator Protection
160
80
Generator Protection
Breaker is closed by
current detection or position
OR
50
BF
OR
Protective
Elements
Breaker Failure
AND
T
0
TDOE
Breaker
Failure
Trip
1= Protection BFI
52/b
AND
50
N
1= Flashover
detected
Pole Flashover
161
Generator Protection
Phase Initiate Enable is made from software selection and enables breaker failure protection
Output Initiates (Trip Output Contacts) or External Contact Signal Initiates are used to start the breaker failure element
Neutral Initiate Enable is made from software selection and enables pole flashover protection
52b contact used to supervise the pole flashover protection
81
162
Generator Protection
Fuse Loss
Fuse loss (loss of voltage potential) can cause voltage
sensitive elements to misoperate
- 51V, 21, 78, 32, 67, 67N, 40
Typically performed using two sets of VTs and a voltage
balance relay
Some small hydro installations may only have one set of VTs
Use Symmetrical Component and 3-Phase Voltage/Current
methods to provide fuse loss detection on a single VT set
163
Generator Protection
Fuse Loss
One VT
Two VTs
164
82
Generator Protection
165
Generator Protection
Faults
Abnormal operating conditions
Scheduled
Planned shutdown
166
83
Generator Protection
Generator Tripping
F
T
G
T = Turbine Trip
F = Field Trip
G = Generator Breaker Trip
167
Generator Protection
F
T
G
G
168
84
Generator Protection
F
T
G
G
169
Generator Protection
F
T
G
170
85
Generator Protection
171
Generator
Protection
Sequential
Tripping
172
86
Generator Protection
Trip Logic
LOR
In-Zone Issues
LOR or 94
System Issues
LOR
In-Zone Issues
94
Normal Shutdown
Alarms
173
Generator Protection
Typical Protection Functions for a Large or Important Generator
174
87
Generator Protection
175
Generator Protection
Lack of expertise
To recognize problems
To engineer the work
The thought that Generators dont
fault
Operating procedures can prevent
protection issues
176
88
Generator Protection
Why Upgrade?
Existing generator protection may:
Require frequent and expensive maintenance
Cause coordination issues with plant control (excitation,
turbine control)
Trip on through-faults (external faults), stable power
swings, load encroachment and energizing
Not follow NERC PRC Standards (PRC = protection and
control)
Exhibit insensitivity to certain abnormal operating
conditions and fault types
177
Why Upgrade?
Existing generator protection may:
Not be self-diagnostic
Lack comprehensive monitoring and communications
capabilities
Not provide valuable event information that can lead to rapid
restoration
Part of NERC Report comments on the August 03 Blackout
178
89
Generator Protection
Generator Protection
New protections
Inadvertent energizing
VT fuse loss (integrated)
Special applications
Generator breaker failure
Pole flashover (prior to syncing)
180
90
Generator Protection
Summary
Generators require special protection for faults
and abnormal operations
These protections are for in-zone and out-of zone
events
Modern element design matter for security and
dependability
181
91