Objectives:

To bring together information from rural communities, indigenous peoples and research workers
on how they use agrobiodiversity to cope with climate change.
To help preserve our nonrenewable resources by using renewable energies

Introduction to Ecology
1

The meaning of the word ecology was given by German Biologist Hackle in 1869. The
word ecology is derived from Greek words Oikos meaning house, habitat or place of living
and Logos meaning to study. Ecology is defined as the study of interrelationship of different
organisms with each other and with their environment. It is concerned with the general principles
that apply to both animals and plants.
Environment made up of all the living and nonliving things that surround an organism.
But environment is totally different with habitat. Many species can survive in more than one
environment. But each species has its home or habitat. There are basic requirements for
organisms to survive including foods, water and shelter. But going differ for an organisms to
survive they need other organisms for them to supply their needs. There are different ecological
relationships around our environment to continue living our planet. These relationships are the
following:

Competition a contest or rivalry between two or more organisms, animals,

individuals, economic groups or social groups, etc., for territory, a niche,
for resources, goods, for mates, for prestige, recognition, for awards, for group or
social status, or for leadership and profit.
Predator Prey predators are a biotic limiting factor. They control population size
by feeding on prey. There is a delicate balance that needs to be maintained.
Symbiosis is a close and often long-term interaction between two different
biological species.
Parasitism is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species, where one
species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host.
Commensalism is a class of relationships between two organisms where one
organism benefits from the other without affecting it.
Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in
which each individual benefits from the activity of the other.

Classification of ecology is based on different aspects such as, based on study area where
studies the numerical value of different species like the population or an individual. Another is
based on environment or habitat which studies about the place where a species lives in. And
lastly based on advancement in the field of ecology where experts studies how to improve our
environment.
The water from various moist surface evaporates and falls again on the earth in the form
of rains and snow and passes through living organisms and ultimately returns to the ocean or
water bodies. This cycle is called as hydrological cycle.
Ecological Pyramids is the Graphic representation of trophic structure & functioning of
ecosystem starting with producers at the base & successive trophic levels forming the apex.

Pyramid of Numbers is a graphical representation of the numbers of individuals in each

population in a food chain. A pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how the population of
a certain species affects another.
Pyramid of Energy is a graphical model of energy flow in a community. The different levels
represent different groups of organisms that might compose a food chain. From the bottom-up,
they are as follows:

Producers bring energy from nonliving sources into the community

Primary consumers eat the producers, which makes them herbivores in most
communities

Secondary consumers eat the primary consumers, which makes them carnivores

Tertiary consumers eat the secondary consumers

Pyramid of Biomass illustrates the amount of biomass in each trophic level. Biomass weight
is determined after dehydration. It shows the amount of matter lost between trophic levels and
measured in Kg, grams or pounds.
Trophic Structure shows that all organisms in an ecosystem can be placed in trophic levels
depending on what energy source they rely upon and how they provide energy for other
organisms in the food web. With the exception of life near hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean,
life is always dependent directly or indirectly on the energy from the sun. In every ecosystem,
there is an organism at the lowest level that converts energy from the sun into useable energy for
other organisms.
Food Chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an ecosystem) to
obtain nutrition. Every organism needs to obtain energy in order to live. For example, plants get
energy from the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other animals.
Food Web depicts feeding connections (what-eats-what) in an ecological community and
hence is also referred to as a consumer-resource system. The food web is a simplified illustration
of the various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange.
Various food chains are often interlinked at different tropic levels to form a complex interaction
between different species from the point of view of food. Food Web provides more than one
alternatives of food to most of the organisms in an ecosystem and thus increases their chances of
survival.
The term Ecosystem was first proposed by A.G. Tansley in 1935. he defined it as the system
resulting from the interaction of all the living and non-living factors of the Environment. An
ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and

chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are different types of
ecosystem which includes the following:
1

Natural Ecosystems- These operate under natural conditions without any major
interference by man.
a

Terrestrial Ecosystem : Forest, grassland, desert, etc.

Aquatic Ecosystem :
i Fresh water : Lotic (running water like spring, stream, or rivers) or Lentic
(standing water as lake, pond, pools, etc.)
ii Marine water : Such as deep bodies as ocean or shallow ones as Sea or an
estuary.

Artificial (Man Engineered) Ecosystems - These are maintained artificially by man where
by addition of energy and planned manipulation, natural balance is disturbed regularly
e.g., crop land ecosystem.

There are also components that build up ecosystems in our planet. First of this component is
the abiotic that consists of Non-living chemical & physical components such as water, air,
nutrients in the soil or water & Solar Energy. Abiotic factors can act as LIMITING FACTORS
that keep a population at a certain level. Abiotic components are mainly two types: the climatic
factors which include rain, temperature, wind and etc. while the other is edaphic factors which
includes soil, topography and minerals.
Second is the biotic factors, these are living things, such as plants and animals, that affect or
influence their ecosystems and the lives of other living things in the environment. The biotic
factors in an organism's environment include both the prey that the organism consumes and the
predators that consume the organism.

The Major Biological Components of Ecosystem:

Producers (Autotrophs)(self-feeders)- Make their own food from compounds that are
obtained from their environment.
Consumers (Heterotrophs) (other feeders)
Get their energy and nutrients by feeding on other organisms or their remains.
o Primary consumers - Are those that eat producers (plants) as a source of food.
They are also known as herbivores.
o Secondary consumers or carnivores - Eat other animals.

o Tertiary Consumers - Large Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers.

o Quaternary Consumers - Largest Carnivores that feed on tertiary consumers.
They are not eaten by any animals.
o Omnivores - Have mixed diet that include both plants and animals.
Decomposer - Mostly certain types of bacteria and fungi are specialized consumers
that recycle organic matter in ecosystems. They do this by breaking down
(biodegrading) dead organic material to get nutrients and releasing the resulting
simpler inorganic compounds into the soil and water, where they can be taken up as
nutrients by producers.
After discussing about the components of ecosystems next is the types of ecosystems.
First type is the forest ecosystem which have have a predominance of trees that are interspersed
with large number of species of herbs, shrubs, climbers, lichens algae & a variety of wild animals
& birds.
Desert ecosystem found where there is very little rainfall. They occur in regions where
evaporation exceeds precipitation.
Grass land ecosystem is an ecological unit that has physical factors like water, soil and
air, which help to establish that animals live there. The plants, animals, microbes along with the
water, soil and air they live in help to create the ecosystem.
Estuaries is a semi closed coastal body of water that has free connection with sea. It is an
area in which fresh water from a river mixes with salt water from the ocean; a transition area
from the land to the ocean.
Aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that
are dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. It is divided
into two types namely: the freshwater which organisms lives in a small bodies of water such as
river, pond, lake and etc. the other type is the salt water or the marine ecosystem, where
organisms lives in big bodies of water which contains a amount of salt like sea and oceans.

The Importance of Ecological Studies as a Basis for Land-use Planning

TANLEY A. CAIN, Ph.D. (Chicago)
Charles Lathrop Pack Professor of Conservation in the University of Michigan; Assistant
Secretary for Fish, Wildlife and Parks, United States Department of the Interior, Interior
Building, Washington, D.C. 20240, U.S.A.
However valuable and indispensable the results of the specialized sciences, it is
maintained that they must be unified by ecology--the science of interrelations--if natural
5

resources are to be wisely managed and an environment of quality maintained or restored.

Furthermore, the problems of resource use are not amenable to solution by the natural sciences
alone, for each has economic, political, and other social parameters. pleasure. The knowledge
that permits sound management of natural resources stems from all of the natural sciences -from botany and zoology, with their many sub-divisions such as physiology, nutrition, genetics,
and pathology; from chemistry and physics, especially as they bridge the life sciences through
biochemistry and biophysics; from geology, soils, climatology, and meteorology, as related to
living natural resources. I believe that we have long had an imbalance in our scientific effort.
Biology has made its advances, of course; these are well known in biochemistry, biophysics, and
genetics, and through their pay-off in medicine and health. But it is the 'hard sciences' in support
of physical technology that have done more to change the modern world and its industrial
processes. Our concentrated attention to physical technology, with its quick and profitable payoffs, has workedup to a point. But we are now appreciating that our relative neglect of systems in
nature, especially the vastly more complicated systems of biology and culture, has given us the
urgent critical problems of our time. It is not reasonable to criticize past actions on a basis of
present knowledge, although we may have ample cause to regret them because it is so costly to
correct our mistakes. Today it is unreasonable not to manage our land resources so as to avoid
destructive soil erosion, our water resources so as to curb destructive flooding, our forests and
grasslands so as to maintain their natural productivity, and our fish and wildlife so that they will
continue to supply us and give us * Based originally on the Author's testimony before the
Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and
Astronautics of the House of Representatives of the United States of America, 12 July, 1967, and
on his remarks at the I.U.C.N. etc. Conferencia Latinoamericana sobre Conservacion de
Recursos Naturales Renovable, 27 March-2 April, 1968, at San Carlos de Bariloche, Rio Negro,
Argentina. ECOLOGY THE SYNTHESIS Indispensable as they are, these separate scientific
disciplines cannot yield an ultimate understanding of nature because they are essentially
analytical and too compartmentalized. They must be made to work together. They must be
interrelated as their objects of study are in nature. What is being appreciated gradually is that
ecology is the science which is capable of such synthesis, because its attention is not directed at
things, processes, and conditions as though they existed in isolation but rather at the
interrelations among them. I am convinced that ecology--or perhaps better, the ecological way of
6

looking at nature -- is beginning to provide the means of synthesizing the sciences and of finding
out how nature really works. We are beginning to appreciate that the atmosphere functions as a
system, and that the hydrosphere, the soil, and biological communities, do so also. But these are
really no more than sub-systems, complex as they are, and they interact to produce ecosystems
which may be defined as organized plant-animal communities together with their inseparable
physical environments. While 1 am convinced that ecology is the science that can weld together
the other natural sciences in the use of natural resources, it seems equally clear that biological
ecology alone cannot provide the basis for land-use planning. Planning is done by people. This
means that sociology, cultural anthropology, economics, political science, and law, must also
make 33 Biological Conservation--Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd., England--Printed in Great
Britain 34 their technical contributions to land-use planning. Because the emphasis is still on
interrelations, some of us would broaden ecology to include these inputs that enhance the
understanding of human ecosystems. MANKIND'S COSTLY MISTAKES History is full of
costly mistakes and some fiascos that would not have occurred had there been adequate
ecological information or even a feeling for ecological relationships in nature. Here are a few
examples that are well known: (1) Around the turn of the century in the United States, after we
had cut over most areas of Eastern and Great Lakes timber and inroads were being made in the
Gulf States and the West, there was a surge of reforestation programmes for fear that we would
run out of timber. Many of these plantations were complete failures because of the use of illadapted species or strains from climates quite different from those in the areas of the new
plantings. Even as we developed more sense about this, it took a few more decades to realize that
most conifers grow better with intermingled plantings of broadleaf species, because of the effect
of the latter in ,maintaining mineral balance and structure in the soil. (2) In the early post-war
years, Great Britain undertook an extensive groundnut (peanut) programme in East Africa and
lost some millions of pounds because the interrelations of savanna vegetation, savanna climate,
and savanna soils, were not understood. The planners, with a proper feeling for the nutritional
need for more oil and protein among native peoples, had ground prepared, peanuts planted --and
hearts broken when the dry-season soils became like concrete. (3) Again in the early post-war
years, UNESCO started a Hylean Amazonian programme that was to develop a new breadbasket
for the world's hungry people. There were international political troubles, but a central cause of
failure was an inadequate understanding of tropical rain-forest ecology, including lateritic soils.
7

Something similar happened to Ford's rubber plantations and other efforts at monoculture in an
area of the world's most complex natural vegetation. (4) Much of the devastation and
deterioration of soils in East Africa is due to dependence on cattle. Dr Fraser Darling and others
have pointed out that more useful animal flesh suitable for human consumption is laid down on
the several species of native ungulates than on domestic cattle, and this is done Biological
Conservation without loss of range productivity. Something similar can be done about much of
our treatment of the arid and semi-arid Western United States, where overgrazing by cattle and
sheep has seriously depleted range productivity. We, too, have participated, and even continue to
participate, in what has been called the Saharaization of the land. (5) A pesticide programme in
Nova Scotia was embarked upon to control Spruce Budworm. The Budworm was inadequately
controlled, other insects developed damaging populations, valuable insecteating birds were
killed, and Salmon almost disappeared from the streams. (6) In Pakistan, in the U.S. Southwest,
and in many other arid and semi-arid places, faulty irrigation practices have ruined the soil for
crop production by accumulation of salts at the surface and by the development of shallow
hardpans. (7) In parts of southern Florida the combination of over-drainage and over-draft of
aquifers for irrigated agriculture has destroyed the productivity of the soil, in some cases in only
a few years' time. As I have said, it is not entirely fair to judge the acts of history in the light of
subsequent knowledge, but it is fair to say that the checks and balances of nature never seem to
have caused enough concern. The attractions of immediate profit, and the stultifying influence of
traditional practices, cause many persons to think only about immediate conditions, forgetting or
ignoring possible longer-term consequences of their actions. DEVASTATING UNFORESEEN
CONSEQUENCES We are still pursuing too many essentially singlepurpose programmes, and
so running the risk of failure- not necessarily failure to accomplish the narrow objective, but
failure to anticipate the consequences of our actions. These consequences, which are often
unexplored side-effects, are ignored until they bear down upon us with intolerable changes in the
environment. In some cases the cost of these changes may far exceed the direct benefits of a
project. The following examples will suffice to illustrate these points: (a) Most of our pollution
problems of air, water, and soil, have arisen because we have come only late to consider the
effects of emitted gases, solid wastes, and organic trash, on the environment on which our very
lives depend. Clever engineering went into everything but exhaust trash of internal combustion
Cain: The Importance of Ecological Studies as a Basis for Land-use Planning engines. Clever
8

engineering goes into paper-making and the manufacture of thousands of industrial products-and the poisonous effluents pour into streams, lakes, and seas. Only now, after decades of
unconcern, are we mounting an intensive programme to handle human wastes by means other
than pollution dilution. We are just now beginning to be given cost-estimates for the correction
of our oversights, and the tag is in the thousands of millions of dollars in the United States alone.
In these terribly important matters, environmental science is still in its infancy. (b) We have spent
millions of dollars on research and control of Lamprey in the Great Lakes, and are now spending
more millions to re-establish Lake Trout and Whitefish and control Alewife. The Lamprey and
Alewife came into the Great Lakes from the sea, using canals which were constructed with no
thought of their biological consequences. (c) Today we are financing a Commission that is
studying a sea-level canal to be built somewhere in Panama or northern South America. There
are two aspects of thinking about this, at least up to now, that suggest an almost complete
ecological ignorance. One is the biological consequences of joining the Caribbean Sea and the
Pacific Ocean that have been separated for some 25 million years. The other is the possible, I
would say probable, consequences of excavating the canal by nuclear explosions- consequences
on Man and Nature. Any problem of radioactive isotopes is by no means a local one. Such
materials pass along the food-chains. Atlantic Tuna have recently been found to cross from one
side of the Atlantic to the other. Some migratory birds move between the area and the Arctic.
Crustacea accumulate these substances, as they do pesticides, and pass them along the
foodchains. (d) High dams have been built without consideration of the warming of downstream
waters and its effect on valuable fish resources, and sometimes without provision for passage of
anadromous species. (e) As more and more nuclear power-plants are being constructed we are
only belatedly, even in these times of scientific sophistication, beginning to design them for
avoidance of heat pollution. (f) The physical destruction of estuaries bydredging, excavating, and
filling, has been continuing with little thought for the ecology of these complicated natural areas
and their value for commercial and sport fisheries, wildlife, natural beauty, and recreation. (g)
We are now well embarked upon a programme of research and pilot experimentation with
weather modification. It is an attractive and challenging idea, 35 and one that promises to
provide supplementary water in places where it is needed. But up to now there has been no
significant attention paid to consequences of weather modification if it should become
operationally successful. It is my guess that the necessary studies on the biological, economic,
9

and legal consequences of weather modification would be as expensive as the research to

accomplish it, which now is running at the rate of about five million dollars a year in the United
States alone. Moreover, monitoring the modification could be a continuing cost as great as that of
seeding the clouds. If precipitation were to be augmented by 10 per cent, or perhaps by 15-20 per
cent, ecological systems could be shifted hundreds of miles under certain circumstances, and the
economy of entire regions could be disoriented. SOME SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS The
record is not all bad. Ecological knowledge has been put to work in many cases with great
success, and the pay-off has been important. Better fundamental knowledge of biological
systems to serve as the basis on which applied findings may be derived should constitute a
valuable return from the substantial investment in the current International Biological
Programme. Some instances are, or should be: Knowledge of freshwater systems is being put to
work in fish-pond developments, for instance, in the Middle West and South of the United States,
which produce as much as a ton offish per acre annually. And in rice-growing areas fish are
raised with paddy (rice), or with rotated soybeans and paddy. Aquaculture is being extended to
salt and brackish waters in the cultivation and farming of oysters and shrimp. (3) Reservoirs and
lakes are being stocked with carefully selected organisms to fill out a productive food-chain. (4)
Forest and range units are becoming more productive of a wide variety of goods and services,
because their management is firmly based on knowledge of plant and animal ecology. (5)
Systematic, long-term research into the central Pacific Ocean as a complete environmental
system has led to the discovery of such things as the equatorial undercurrent, factors explaining
distribution and abundance of Tuna, and prediction of Skipjack catch on the basis of seasonal
warming and location of water masses. The programme of our United States Soil 36
Conservation Service, designed in the 1930s to help correct the mistakes of our past soil and
water mismanagement, has matured into a land capability system that helps allocate each acre to
its highest sustainable use; this might be emulated in other countries to their great advantage (7)
Comparative agrobiology and agroclimatology are guiding land use developments around the
world, or at least have the capacity to do so. Identification and study of planktonic eggs and
larvae in the California ocean-current system have led to discovery and developement of Pacific
Hake resources to support an expanding fishing enterprise off the State of Washington (9) Many
massive health programmes are founded on detailed ecological knowledge of vector roles and
their niches in the biological-environmental systems of nature. Disease problems in every part of
10

the world, from rain forest to desert to tundra and high mountains, have caused medical
researchers to look closely at the natural and agricultural communities in which people live. THE
WORLD'S FUNDAMENTAL DILEMMA In conclusion I wish to recognize a fundamental
dilemma that faces people in many parts of the world Some have called it 'land hunger', because
there seems not to be enough arable land on which food and other products can be produced for
hungry and ever-morenumerous millions of people. Others feel that limited natural resources are
not generally the basic problem Instead, they say, the problem is our failure to organize matters
politically and economically--to put to work the science and technology that already exist--so
that productivity of living resources can be enhanced, and mineral and other resources can be
made usable, without needless destruction of other values. When human needs are so great, how
can the planner say to the small farmer who has no other land for his family's subsistence, 'Don't
grow corn on that hillside, the slope is so great.' The dilemma, as Malthus said long ago, is that it
is easier for human population to double and double again in a few brief decades than it is for
production increases to keep pace. For nearly a century and a half it seemed that Malthus' thesis
was incorrect, because technology in some few parts of the world was producing an abundance
that mankind had never before known. But today in many parts of the world what we now call
the 'population explosion' is causing hundreds of millions of people to suffer the consequences of
the Malthusian dilemma. Biological Conservation Ecological land-use planning will help to
solve the dilemma, but that alone is inadequate. The human ecosystem is not only the web of
interrelations between Man and natural resources; it is the much more complex web of
interactions that include all of the societal factors which affect what we do and how we do it. The
Japanese Crested Ibis or Toki Although this handsome species, Nipponia nippon, was formerly
plentiful throughout Japan, the numbers became so reduced that in 1934 the Government
designated it a 'National Natural Monument' and the forests in the vicinity of its breeding area
were strictly protected- until they were destroyed during and after World War II. With this
destruction the numbers of Nipponia nippon further diminished until a special protective measure
was proclaimed in 1960, when there were five birds on Sado Island and probably a similar
number on Noto Peninsula. Since then the former population has doubled but the latter has
become reduced to a single individual, so that the over-all situation has scarcely improved So
much for the eastern part of the range of the Toki; the status of the species on the mainland of
Korea and China is less clear, though it apparently still exists there in the wild state. The
11

accompanying drawing has been generously contributed by our Consulting Editor Peter Scott
The Japanese National Section of the International Council for Bird Preservation hopes to
increase the numbers of Nipponia nippon through (1) providing a feeding-basin in the marshy
land, close to the forests, where the adult birds usually feed each day; (2) rearing plentiful
Loaches, a favourite food of this Ibis, completely free from pesticides, so that the birds would be
provided with innocuous food even in the snow-bound winter season; (3) providing a wirenetting fence around the feeding-basin to keep out possible predators such as Badgers and
Japanese Mink; and (4) building a flying-cage in part of the feeding-basin in the hope of
propagating more Ibises. It is also hoped to build a house for the caretaker of the reserved area
and to purchase surrounding forest lands (Main source X Bulletin of LC.B.P., 1967)
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
All matter cycles...it is neither created nor destroyed.
As the Earth is essentially a closed system with respect to matter, we can say that all matter on
Earth cycles.
Biogeochemical cycles: the movement (or cycling) of matter through a system
In general... we can subdivide the Earth system into: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and
biosphere. By matter we mean: elements (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen) or molecules (water)
so the movement of matter (for example carbon) between these parts of the system is, practically
speaking, a biogeochemical cycle
The Cycling Elements:
macronutrients : required in relatively large amounts
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur
other macronutrients: potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium
micronutrients : required in very small amounts, (but still necessary)
boron (green plants), copper (some enzymes), and molybdenum (nitrogen-fixing bacteria)
In Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of substances is a
pathway by which a chemical substance moves through both the biotic (biosphere) and abiotic
(lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) components of Earth. A cycle is a series of change
which comes back to the starting point and which can be repeated. Water, for example, is always
recycled through the water cycle, as shown in the diagram. The water undergoes evaporation,
12

condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth. Elements, chemical compounds, and other
forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere to
another through biogeochemical cycles.
The term "biogeochemical" tell us that biological, geological and chemical factors are all
involved. The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, and water etc. through the biological and physical world are known as biogeochemical
cycles. In effect, the element is recycled, although in some cycles there may be places (called
reservoirs) where the element is accumulated or held for a long period of time (such as an ocean
or lake for water).
It is the complete path a chemical takes through the four major components or reservoirs of
Earths systems

Carbon Cycle
Carbon Dioxide - 0.03% - Plants use it to make oxygen. Acts as a blanket and prevents the
escape of heat into outer space. Scientists are afraid that the buring of fossil fuels such as coal
and oil are adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
The carbon cycle is one of the major biogeochemical cycles describing the flow of essential
elements from the environment to living organisms and back to the environment again. This
process is required for the building of all organic compounds and involves the participation of
many of the earth's key forces. The carbon cycle has affected the earth throughout its history; it
has contributed to major climatic changes, and it has helped facilitate the evolution of life.
The carbon cycle is one of the earth's fastest recycling processes--each atom of carbon has been
recycled numerous times. For this reason, the carbon cycle has no specific beginning or ending
point on the diagram. The carbon cycle passes through three main stages: reservoirs,
assimilation, and release.
Much of the earth's carbon is contained in the atmosphere which serves as a reservoir, and that
is where we will begin our explanation. Atmospheric carbon consists mostly of carbon dioxide
13

and has two major sinks: terrestrial ecosystems and marine ecosystems, both of which deal with
photosynthesis as a part of assimilation and respiration as a part of release.

Terrestrial ecosystems draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it in
photosynthesis. The equation, C02 + H20 + light => C6H12O6 + O2 + energy, shows how
carbon dioxide is broken down and used to produce glucose for the plants and oxygen as
a byproduct. All plants act as a sink for carbon dioxide because it is a necessary gas for
photosynthesis. Of the terrestrial ecosystems, forests have the highest rates of
productivity, thus utilizing carbon at a higher rate compared to oceans.

Marine ecosystems are separated into two areas: coastal ecosystems and the open ocean.
Coastal ecosystems include estuaries, wetlands, and continental shelves. Open oceans are
considered all areas beyond the shelves. Both have the capacity to store significant
amounts of carbon in sediments and also are able to sequester carbon in photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis through phytoplankton, seaweeds, and other marine algae. Most storage
of carbon is in marine sediments and rocks, although some carbon is used by marine life
in the formation of calcium carbonate.

Another carbon sink is the weathering of mountains and other rock formations formed by plate
tectonics, mainly silicate weathering. Carbon dioxide is consumed
from silicate weathering as seen in this equation:

CaSiO3 + 2CO2 + 2H2O => CaCO3 + SiO2 +

CO2 + 2H2O

Here one mol of CO2 is sequestered for each mol of Ca from the silicate dissolution. The
equation begins with two mols of CO2, then the calcium silicate is broken up and calcium
carbonate is formed. This uses up one mol of carbon dioxide leaving only one mol at the
end of the reaction. For more information on this process, see the next page.

A major source of atmospheric CO2 is degassing from volcanic activity which acts as a release
of carbon dioxide. Conversely, the process of subduction of crust provides a sink for CO2 . The

14

effects of the formation of volcanoes and the subduction of continental crust is also discussed on
the next page.
Another important source of carbon in the atmosphere is in the decomposition of organic
material. Carbon dioxide is captured by plants throughout their lives and heterotrophic
organisms in turn obtain a part of this carbon. The element is transferred from organism to
organism when plants are eaten by herbivores which are in turn eaten by carnivores along the
food chain. All these organisms go through respiration, excrete organic waste, and eventually die
and decompose which releases carbon into the soil either as carbonates or fossil fuels. The
carbon dioxide drawn into marine ecosystems is eventually released through oceanic respiration.
Through time and pressure, the organic material buried in soil and sediments may eventually
become fossil fuels such as coal and oil, which then become additional sources of carbon. When
these are burned, they emit tremendous amounts of carbon back into the atmosphere. The
burning of fossil fuels, however, is occurring at much higher rates than is their production.
Thus the atmospheric carbon that is sequestered through weathering and the terrestrial and
marine ecosystem sinks is eventually recycled through the processes of decomposition,
respiration, and tectonic forces, releasing them once more into the atmosphere.
The carbon cycle also has major effects on global climate:

The burning of fossil fuels at the presently alarming rate increases global warming. This
is due to the increasing amount of greenhouse gases, specifically CO2, which capture heat
easily thus increasing global temperature. Although alarming now, this had a positive
effect in periods such as those between the Permian and Triassic where there was heavy
glaciation periods followed by a large release of carbon. This will be discussed on the
next page.

At present, there is a fear of the greenhouse effect increasing global warming to an almost
dangerous high. The excess carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels is responsible
for the gradual yet constant rise in temperature over the past few decades. Certain wave
lengths coming from the sun, mainly infrared radiation, are trapped by greenhouse gases

15

and kept in the earth's atmosphere. These gases block the re-radiation of infrared waves
back out into space, causing the global temperature to increase.
Diffusion refers to the process by which molecules intermingle as a result of their kinetic energy
of random motion. Consider two containers of gas A and B separated by a partition. The
molecules of both gases are in constant motion and make numerous collisions with the partition.
If the partition is removed as in the lower illustration, the gases will mix because of the random
velocities of their molecules. In time a uniform mixture of A and B molecules will be produced
in the container
There are two main carbon sinks (essentially, things that absorb more carbon than they release)
in the world, one of them is water and the other is the forests. Trees in forests convert CO2 into
breathable oxygen (through photosynthesis), which is a little bit concerning when one considers
the epic deforestation that is taking place on a global scale. More specifically, in the Amazon rain
forest, which is known as the Lungs of the Earth. Ultimately, this deforestation has lead to an
increase in global CO2 levels.
Fortunately, to balance this out, CO2 is dissolved into the oceans (though it is interesting to note
that about 93% of the world CO2 is actually contained within the oceans.) Now, this isnt such a
bad thing (all the carbon being absorbed by the ocean) as there are a lot of sea animals that
actually use carbon dioxide, oxygen, and calcium to create shells and corals (by forming calcium
carbonate), so in that sense, it is actually an essential part of the oceans ecosystem. However,
before we jump the gun and start mass pumping CO2 into the oceans, there are some side effects
that are a bit problematicotherwise, wed already be doing it on a mass scale.
As weve mentioned, calcium carbonate is one of the ways that CO2 is taken out of the ocean,
and that is because it becomes a part of shells, corals and other marine life. When any of these
die, they end up on the ocean floor. So over millions and millions of years, the dead marine life
moves with the tectonic plates. Under heat and pressure, this calcium carbonate ends up
becoming rocks (such as limestone), so we end up with a lot of CO2 eventually ending up in
stone. So to sum: CO2 ends up in the oceans (which is already where most of it is contained),
some gets formed into shells and corals which end up as stone or fuel (organic matter over
16

millions of years), and by using this organic matter were pumping it back into the atmosphere.
As such, it seems quite reasonable that we should just be able to pump it back into the oceans to
help keep this cycle continuing for millions of years more. However, weve found that an
increase in CO2 levels in the ocean increases the pH levels. For anyone that has ever had a
tropical fish in a tank, they well understand how important it is to keep the correct pH levels.
Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen - 21% - Used by all living things. Essential for respiration. It is necessary for
combustion or burning.
Oxygen, like carbon and hydrogen, is a basic element of life. In addition, in the form of O3,
ozone, it provides protection of life by filtering out the sun's UV rays as they enter the
stratosphere. In addition to constituting about 20% of the atmosphere, oxygen is ubiquitous. It
also occurs in combination as oxides in the Earth's crust and mantle, and as water in the oceans.
Oxygen is vital to us in many ways (beside the most obvious--for breathing). Water can dissolve
oxygen and it is this dissolved oxygen that supports aquatic life. Oxygen is also needed for the
decomposition of organic waste. Wastes from living organisms are "biodegradable" because there
are aerobic bacteria that convert organic waste materials into stable inorganic materials. If
enough oxygen is not available for these bacteria, for example, because of enormous quantities
of wastes in a body of water, they die and anaerobic bacteria that do not need oxygen take over.
These bacteria change waste material into H2S and other poisonous and foul-smelling substances.
For this reason, the content of biodegradable substances in waste waters is expressed by a special
index called "biological oxygen demand" (BOD), representing the amount of oxygen needed by
aerobic bacteria to decompose the waste.
Weathering causes the disintegration of rock near the surface of the earth. Plant and animal life,
atmosphere and water are the major causes of weathering. Weathering breaks down and loosens
the surface minerals of rock so they can be transported away by agents of erosion such as water,
wind and ice.
Water Cycle
17

One part of the water cycle that is obviously essential to all life on Earth is the freshwater
existing on the land surface. Just ask your neighbor, a tomato plant, a trout, or that pesky
mosquito. Surface water includes the streams (of all sizes, from large rivers to small creeks),
ponds, lakes, reservoirs and canals (man-made lakes and streams), and freshwater wetlands. The
definition of freshwater is water containing less than 1,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved
solids, most often salt.
As a part of the water cycle, Earth's surface-water bodies are generally thought of as renewable
resources, although they are very dependent on other parts of the water cycle. The amount of
water in rivers and lakes is always changing due to inflows and outflows. Inflows to these water
bodies will be from precipitation, overland runoff, groundwater seepage, and tributary inflows.
Outflows from lakes and rivers include evaporation, movement of water into groundwater, and
withdrawals by people. Humans get into the act also, as people make great use of surface water
for their needs.
So, the amount and location of surface water changes over time and space, whether naturally or
with human help. Certainly during the last ice age when glaciers and snowpacks covered much
more land surface than today, life on Earth had to adapt to different hydrologic conditions than
those which took place both before and after. And the layout of the landscape certainly was
different before and after the last ice age, which influenced the topographical layout of many
surface-water bodies today. Glaciers are what made the Great Lakes not only "great, " but also
such a huge storehouse of freshwater.
Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores
on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere.
Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. Transpiration also includes a
process called guttation, which is the loss of water in liquid form from the uninjured leaf or stem
of the plant, principally through water stomata.
Studies have revealed that about 10 percent of the moisture found in the atmosphere is released
by plants through transpiration.

18

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle of oxygen within its three main reservoirs: the
atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the biosphere (the global sum of all
ecosystems), and the Earth's crust. Failures in the oxygen cycle within the hydrosphere (the
combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of planet Earth) can result in the
development of hypoxic zones. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis,
which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life on earth
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen - 78% of the atmosphere- Dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the earth's
surface. Living things need it to make proteins. Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.
The Nitrogen Cycle is nature's way of supplying the needed nitrogen for living things.
Nitrogen (N) is an essential component of DNA, RNA, and proteins, the building blocks of life.
All organisms require nitrogen to live and grow. Although the majority of the air we breathe is
N2, most of the nitrogen in the atmosphere is unavailable for use by organisms. This is because
the strong triple bond between the N atoms in N2 molecules makes it relatively inert, or
unreactive, whereas organisms need reactive nitrogen to be able to incorporate it into cells. In
order for plants and animals to be able to use nitrogen, N2 gas must first be converted to more a
chemically available form such as ammonium (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), or organic nitrogen (e.g.,
urea, which has the formula (NH2)2CO). The inert nature of N2 means that biologically available
nitrogen is often in short supply in natural ecosystems, limiting plant growth.
Nitrogen is an incredibly versatile element, existing in both inorganic and organic forms as well
as many different oxidation states. The movement of nitrogen between the atmosphere,
biosphere, and geosphere in different forms is called the nitrogen cycle (Figure 1), one of the
major biogeochemical cycles. Similar to the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle consists of various
reservoirs of nitrogen and processes by which those reservoirs exchange nitrogen
Five main processes cycle nitrogen through the biosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere: nitrogen
fixation, nitrogen uptake through organismal growth, nitrogen mineralization through decay,
nitrification, and denitrification. Microorganisms, particularly bacteria, play major roles in all of
the principal nitrogen transformations. Because these processes are microbially mediated, or
19

controlled by microorganisms, these nitrogen transformations tend to occur faster than geological
processes like plate motion, a very slow, purely physical process that is a part of the carbon
cycle. Instead, rates are affected by environmental factors that influence microbial activity, such
as temperature, moisture, and resource availability.
Fixation- Nitrogen fixation is the process wherein N2 is converted to ammonium, or NH4+. This
is the only way that organisms can attain nitrogen directly from the atmosphere; the few that
can do this are called nitrogen-fixing organisms. Certain bacteria, including those among the
genus Rhizobium, are able to fix nitrogen (or convert it to ammonium) through metabolic
processes, analogous to the way mammals convert oxygen to CO2 when they breathe. Nitrogenfixing bacteria often form symbiotic relationships with host plants. This symbiosis is wellknown to occur in the legume family of plants (e.g., beans, peas, and clover). In this relationship,
nitrogen-fixing bacteria inhabit legume root nodules (Figure 2) and receive carbohydrates and a
favorable environment from their host plant in exchange for some of the nitrogen they fix.
There are also nitrogen-fixing bacteria that exist without plant hosts, known as free-living
nitrogen fixers. In aquatic environments, blue-green algae (really a bacteria called
cyanobacteria) are an important free-living nitrogen fixer.
In addition to nitrogen-fixing bacteria, high-energy natural events such as lightning, forest fires,
and even hot lava flows can cause the fixation of smaller, but significant, amounts of nitrogen.
The high energy of these natural phenomena can break the triple bonds of N2 molecules, thereby
making individual N atoms available for chemical transformation.
Uptake-

NH4+ Organic N

The ammonium (NH4+) produced by nitrogen-fixing bacteria is usually quickly taken up by a

host plant, the bacteria itself, or another soil organism and incorporated into proteins and other
organic nitrogen compounds, like DNA. When organisms nearer the top of the food chain (like
us!) eat, we are taking up nitrogen that has been fixed initially by nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Mineralization-

Organic N NH4+

After nitrogen is incorporated into organic matter, it is often converted back into inorganic
nitrogen by a process called nitrogen mineralization, otherwise known as decay. When
organisms die, decomposers (such as bacteria and fungi) consume the organic matter and lead to
20

the process of decomposition. During this process, a significant amount of the nitrogen contained
within the dead organism is converted to ammonium. Once in the form of ammonium, nitrogen
is available for use by plants or for further transformation into nitrate (NO3-) through the process
called nitrification.
Nitrification

NH4+ NO3-

Some of the ammonium produced by decomposition is converted to nitrate (NO3-) via a process
called nitrification. The bacteria that carry out this reaction gain energy from it. Nitrification
requires the presence of oxygen, so nitrification can happen only in oxygen-rich environments
like circulating or flowing waters and the surface layers of soils and sediments. The process of
nitrification has some important consequences. Ammonium ions (NH4+) are positively charged
and therefore stick (are sorbed) to negatively charged clay particles and soil organic matter. The
positive charge prevents ammonium nitrogen from being washed out of the soil (or leached) by
rainfall. In contrast, the negatively charged nitrate ion is not held by soil particles and so can be
washed out of the soil, leading to decreased soil fertility and nitrate enrichment of downstream
surface and groundwater.
Denitrification NO3- N2+ N2O
Through denitrification, oxidized forms of nitrogen such as nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) are
converted to dinitrogen (N2) and, to a lesser extent, nitrous oxide gas (NO2). Denitrification is an
anaerobic process that is carried out by denitrifying bacteria, which convert nitrate to dinitrogen
in the following sequence:
NO3- NO2- NO N2O N2.
Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are gases that have environmental impacts. Nitric oxide (NO)
contributes to smog, and nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important greenhouse gas, thereby
contributing to global climate change.
Once converted to dinitrogen, nitrogen is unlikely to be reconverted to a biologically available
form because it is a gas and is rapidly lost to the atmosphere. Denitrification is the only nitrogen
transformation that removes nitrogen from ecosystems (essentially irreversibly), and it roughly
balances the amount of nitrogen fixed by the nitrogen fixers described above.
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Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. Amino acids and proteins are
the building blocks of life.
When proteins are digested or broken down, amino acids are left. The human body uses amino
acids to make proteins to help the body:

Break down food

Grow

Repair body tissue

Perform many other body functions

Amino acids can also be used as a source of energy by the body.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the heritable material found in all cells. DNA provides the
instructions to build, maintain, and regulate cells and organisms and is passed on when cells
divide and when organisms reproduce. In this unit, the molecular structure of DNA and its
packaging within cells will be examined.
The sugar found in DNA is a variant of the five-carbon sugar called ribose.
Adenosine triphosphate, (ATP), energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living things.
ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to
fuel other cellular processes.
ATP is able to power cellular processes by transferring a phosphate group to another molecule (a
process called phosphorylation). This transfer is carried out by special enzymes that couple the
release of energy from ATP to cellular activities that require energy.
In general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps:
1

22

Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-)

Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)

Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues)

Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3)

Denitrification(NO3- to N2).

Nitrification
Nitrification is a two-step process in which NH3/ NH4+ is converted to NO3-. First, the soil
bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert NH3 to NO2-, and then another soil bacterium,
Nitrobacter, oxidizes NO2- to NO3-. These bacteria gain energy through these conversions, both
of which require oxygen to occur.
Assimilation
Assimilation is the process by which plants and animals incorporate the NO3- and ammonia
formed through nitrogen fixation and nitrification. Plants take up these forms of nitrogen through
their roots, and incorporate them into plant proteins and nucleic acids. Animals are then able to
utilize nitrogen from the plant tissues.
Ammmonification
Assimilation produces large quantities of organic nitrogen, including proteins, amino acids, and
nucleic acids. Ammonification is the conversion of organic nitrogen into ammonia. The ammonia
produced by this process is excreted into the environment and is then available for either
nitrification or assimilation.
Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of NO3- to gaseous N2 by anaerobic bacteria. This process only
occurs where there is little to no oxygen, such as deep in the soil near the water table. Hence,
areas such as wetlands provide a valuable place for reducing excess nitrogen levels via
denitrification processes.
Phosphorus Cycle

23

The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus
through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles,
the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because
phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of
temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs in only
specialized, local conditions.
On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to plants over
thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of P in soils reduces
plant growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass.
Soil microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical cycle.
Locally, transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major long-term
transfers in the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic time.
Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of P minerals, and use
of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as effluent
Phosphorus is also significant in the storage and distribution of energy throughout the plant.
Chlorophyll, the
compound that makes plant leaves green and is central in photosynthesis, also contains the
element magnesium.
The fluids inside the plant's cells also contain other dissolved minerals which provide the proper
environment for
the many chemical reactions that occur in the fluid. Among these minerals are compounds of
potassium and
calcium.

Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur is mainly found on Earth as sulfates in rocks or as free sulfur. The largest deposits of
sulfur in the United States are in Louisiana and Texas. Sulfur also occurs in combination with

24

several metals such as lead and mercury, as PbS and HgS. Sulfur appears as the yellow aspects of
soil in many regions.
Sulfur was mined early in the form of the yellow element and used for gunpowder and fireworks.
While bacteria digest plant matter, they emit H2S, hydrogen sulfide, a gas that has the "rotten
egg" smell characteristic of swamps and sewage. Sulfur is an essential element of biological
molecules in small quantities.
Sulfur and its compounds are important elements of industrial processes. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is
a bleaching agent and is used to bleach wood pulp for paper and fiber for various textiles such as
wool, silk, or linen. SO2 is a colorless gas that creates a choking sensation when breathed. It kills
molds and bacteria. It is also used to preserve dry fruits, like apples, apricots, and figs, and to
clean out vats used for preparing fermented foods such as cheese and wine.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a very widely used chemical. Over 30 million tonnes of sulfuric acid are
produced every year in the U.S. alone. The acid has a very strong affinity for water. It absorbs
water and is used in various industrial processes as a dehydrating agent. The acid in the
automobile battery is H2SO4. It is used for "pickling" steel, that is, to remove the oxide coating
from the steel surface before it is coated with tin or electroplated with zinc.
Sulfur is also a biologically important atom. Although only small amounts of sulfur are necessary
for biological systems, disulfide bridges form a critical function in giving biological important
molecules specific shapes and properties.
Sulfur is released into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels --especially high sulfur
coal--and is a primary constituent of acid rain. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is the primary constituent of
acid rain in about all regions other than California. Sulfur dioxide and carbonyl sulfide (COS)
occur in small quantities in the atmosphere; but due to its high reactivity, sulfur is quickly
deposited as compound (sulfates) on land and other surfaces.

Climate Change and Greenhouse Gas Effects

25

Global warming is already having significant and costly effects on our communities, our health,
and our climate. Unless we take immediate action to reduce global warming emissions, these
impacts will continue to intensify, grow ever more costly and damaging, and increasingly affect
the entire planet including you, your community, and your family. Average global sea level
has increased eight inches since 1880, but is rising much faster on the U.S. East Coast and Gulf
of Mexico. Global warming is now accelerating the rate of sea level rise, increasing flooding
risks to low-lying communities and high-risk coastal properties whose development has
been encouraged by today's flood insurance system. Wildfires are increasing and wildfire season
is getting longer in the Western U.S. as temperatures rise. Higher spring and summer
temperatures and earlier spring snow-melt result in forests that are hotter and drier for longer
periods of time, priming conditions for wildfires to ignite and spread.
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, which makes the Earth warmer. People are adding
several types of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, and each gas's effect on climate change
depends on three main factors:
How much?

How long?

How powerful?

26

People produce larger amounts of some greenhouse gases than others. Carbon dioxide is the
greenhouse gas you hear people talk about the most. That's because we produce more carbon
dioxide than any other greenhouse gas, and it's responsible for most of the warming.
Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas emitted by humans, but several other gases
contribute to climate change, too. Learn more about the major greenhouse gases by selecting
pieces of the pie chart below.

Water Vapor: It's a Gas!

Water can take the form of an invisible gas called water vapor. Water vapor is naturally present in
the atmosphere and has a strong effect on weather and climate.
As the planet gets warmer, more water evaporates from the Earth's surface and becomes vapor in
the atmosphere. Water vapor is a greenhouse gas, so more water vapor in the atmosphere leads to
even more warming. This is an example of a positive feedback loop, which happens when
warming causes changes that lead to even more warming.

The size of each piece of the pie represents the amount of warming that each gas is
currently causing in the atmosphere as a result of emissions from people's
activities. Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fifth Assessment
Report (2014).
.
Greenhouse gases come from all sorts of everyday activities, such as using electricity, heating
our homes, and driving around town. The graph to the right shows which activities produce the
most greenhouse gases in the United States.
These greenhouse gases don't just stay in one place after they're added to the atmosphere. As air
moves around the world, greenhouse gases become globally mixed, which means the
concentration of a greenhouse gas like carbon dioxide is roughly the same no matter where you
measure it. Even though some countries produce more greenhouse gases than others, emissions
from every country contribute to the problem. That's one reason why climate change requires
27

global action. The graph below shows how the world's total greenhouse gas emissions are
continuing to increase every year.
While other planets in Earth's solar system are either scorching hot or bitterly cold, Earth's
surface has relatively mild, stable temperatures. Earth enjoys these temperatures because of its
atmosphere, which is the thin layer of gases that cloak and protect the planet.
However, 97 percent of climate scientists agree that humans have changed Earth's atmosphere in
dramatic ways over the past two centuries, resulting in global warming. To understand global
warming, it's first necessary to become familiar with the greenhouse effect, though.
Energy in, energy out
There's a delicate balancing act occurring every day all across the Earth, involving the radiation
the planet receives from space and the radiation that's reflected back out to space.

Greenhouse gases and global warming

"Gas molecules that absorb thermal infrared radiation, and are in significant enough quantity, can
force the climate system. These type of gas molecules are called greenhouse gases," Michael
Daley, an associate professor of Environmental Science at Lasell College told Live Science.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases act like a blanket, absorbing IR radiation and
preventing it from escaping into outer space. The net effect is the gradual heating of Earth's
atmosphere and surface, a process known as global warming.
These greenhouse gases include water vapor, CO2, methane, nitrous oxide (N2O) and other gases,
according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Since the dawn of the Industrial
Revolution in the early 1800s, the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gasoline have greatly
increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, especially CO2, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). "Deforestation is the second largest
anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere ranging between 6 percent and 17
percent," said Daley.
Atmospheric CO2 levels have increased by more than 40 percent since the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution, from about 280 parts per million (ppm) in the 1800s to 400 ppm today.
The last time Earth's atmospheric levels of CO2 reached 400 ppm was during the Pliocene Epoch,

28

between 5 million and 3 million years ago, according to the University of California, San Diego's
Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
The greenhouse effect, combined with increasing levels of greenhouse gases and the resulting
global warming, is expected to have profound implications, according to the near-universal
consensus of scientists.
If global warming continues unchecked, it will cause significant climate change, a rise in sea
levels, increasing ocean acidification, extreme weather events and other severe natural and
societal impacts, according to NASA, the EPA and other scientific and governmental bodies.

Can the greenhouse effect be reversed?

Many scientists agree that the damage to the Earth's atmosphere and climate is past the point of
no return or that the damage is near the point of no return. "I agree that we have passed the point
of avoiding climate change," Josef Werne, an associate professor at the department of geology &
planetary science at the University of Pittsburgh told Live Science. In Werne's opinion, there are
three options from this point forward:
1
2
3

Do nothing and live with the consequences.

Adapt to the changing climate (which includes things like rising sea level and related
flooding).
Mitigate the impact of climate change by aggressively enacting policies that actually
reduce the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Keith Peterman, a professor of chemistry at York College of Pennsylvania, and Gregory Foy, an
associate professor of chemistry at York College of Pennsylvania believes that the damage isn't
to that point yet, and that international agreements and action can save the planet's atmosphere.
While methane doesnt linger as long in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, it is initially far more
devastating to the climate because of how effectively it absorbs heat. In the first two decades
after its release, methane is 84 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Both types of emissions
must be addressed if we want to effectively reduce the impact of climate change.

Renewable Energies
What is a Renewable Energy?

29

Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural processes that are continuously
replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water, and various forms of
biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is constantly renewed. These energy is commonly
used as alternative energy. Alternative energy is a term used for an energy source that is an
alternative to using fossil fuels.
Our world currently relies heavily on coal, oil, and natural gas for its energy. Fossil fuels are
non-renewable, that is, they draw on finite resources that will eventually dwindle, becoming too
expensive or too environmentally damaging to retrieve. In contrast, many types of renewable
energy resources-such as wind and solar energy-are constantly replenished and will never run
out.
Types of Renewable Energy
1

Solar Energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range
of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal
energy, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis. Most renewable energy comes
either directly or indirectly from the sun. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used directly
for heating and lighting homes and other buildings, for generating electricity, and for hot
water heating, solar cooling, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses.
A solar panel works by allowing photons, or particles of light, to knock electrons
free from atoms, generating a flow of electricity. Solar panels comprise many, smaller
units called photovoltaic cells. (Photovoltaic simply means they convert sunlight into
electricity.) Many cells linked together make up a solar panel.
Each photovoltaic cell is basically a sandwich made up of two slices of semiconducting material, usually silicon the same stuff used in microelectronics.
To work, photovoltaic cells need to establish an electric field. Much like a
magnetic field, which occurs due to opposite poles, an electric field occurs when opposite
charges are separated. To get this field, manufacturers "dope" silicon with other materials,
giving each slice of the sandwich a positive or negative electrical charge.
Specifically, they seed phosphorous into the top layer of silicon, which adds extra
electrons, with a negative charge, to that layer. Meanwhile, the bottom layer gets a dose
of boron, which results in fewer electrons, or a positive charge. This all adds up to an
electric field at the junction between the silicon layers. Then, when a photon of sunlight
knocks an electron free, the electric field will push that electron out of the silicon
junction.

30

A couple of other components of the cell turn these electrons into usable power.
Metal conductive plates on the sides of the cell collect the electrons and transfer them to
wires. At that point, the electrons can flow like any other source of electricity
2

Wind Power
Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically
power generators for electricity. Wind turbines are devices that convert the wind's kinetic
energy into electrical power. Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, is
plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions
during operation, consumes no water, and uses little land.
Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two or
three propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which
spins a generator to create electricity. A wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead
of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity.
The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes
electricity.

Hydropower
Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water or
fast running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times,
hydropower from many kinds of watermills has been used as a renewable energy source
for irrigation and
the
operation
of
various
mechanical
devices,
such
as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip
hammers,
dock cranes,
domestic lifts,
and ore mills. A trompe, which produces compressed air from falling water, is sometimes
used to power other machinery at a distance.
Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A
turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a
generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.

Geothermal Energy
Not all renewable energy resources come from the sun. Geothermal energy taps
the Earth's internal heat for a variety of uses, including electric power production, and the
heating and cooling of buildings. And the energy of the ocean's tides come from the
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun upon the Earth. Geothermal energy is thermal
energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines
the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the
original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials (in currently
uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions). The geothermal gradient, which is the
difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a
continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface.

31

Water or working fluid is heated (or used directly incase of geothermal dry
steam power plants), and then sent through a steam turbine where the thermal energy
(heat) is converted to electricity with a generator through a phenomenon called
electromagnetic induction

Bio Energy
Bio Energy has three types namely, biomass, biogas and biofuel.
Biomass, is a renewable organic matter, and can include biological material
derived from living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels.
As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat,
or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to
biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified
into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods
Wood energy is derived both from harvested wood as a fuel and from wood waste
products. Waste energy can be generated from municipal waste, manufacturing waste,
and landfill gas. Biomass alcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived almost exclusively from
corn.
Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown
of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials
such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green
waste or food waste. Biogas is a renewable energy source and in many cases exerts a very
small carbon footprint.
A biofuel is a fuel that is produced through contemporary biological processes,
such as agriculture and anaerobic digestion, rather than a fuel produced by geological
processes such as those involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as coal and
petroleum, from prehistoric biological matter. Biofuels can be derived directly from
plants, or indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic, and/or industrial
wastes. Renewable biofuels generally involve contemporary carbon fixation, such as
those that occur in plants or microalgae through the process of photosynthesis. Other
renewable biofuels are made through the use or conversion of biomass(referring to
recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This
biomass can be converted to convenient energy-containing substances in three different
ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This
biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can
also be used directly for biofuels.

Importance of Renewable Energies

32

Renewable energy is reliable and plentiful and will potentially be very cheap once
technology and infrastructure improve. It includes solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and tidal
energy, plus biofuels that are grown and harvested without fossil fuels. Nonrenewable energy,
such as coal and petroleum, require costly explorations and potentially dangerous mining and
drilling, and they will become more expensive as supplies dwindle and demand increases.
Renewable energy produces only minute levels of carbon emissions and therefore helps combat
climate change caused by fossil fuel usage.
Coal, natural gas and oil reserves are finite and hidden. An unknown and limited amount
of each resource is buried deep underground or under the ocean. As more is harvested, finding
new sources becomes more difficult and more expensive, and exploiting them becomes more
challenging and sometimes dangerous as well. Marginal reserves, such as oil sands, require the
burning of huge amounts of natural gas to refine them into usable oil. Drilling under the ocean
floor can lead to catastrophic accidents, such as the British Petroleum oil spill of 2010.
Renewable energy, by contrast, is as easy to find as wind or sunlight.
The daily price of oil depends on many factors, including political stability in historically
volatile regions. Political strife has caused energy crises, including those that occurred in 1973
and 1979. Renewable energy can be locally produced and therefore is not vulnerable to distant
political upheavals. Many of the safety concerns surrounding fossil fuels, such as explosions on
oil platforms and collapsing coal mines, do not exist with renewable energy.
Renewable energy is far cleaner than fossil fuels. Coal mining and petroleum exploration
and refinement produce solid toxic wastes, such as mercury and other heavy metals. The burning
of coal to produce electricity uses large quantities of water, often discharges arsenic and lead into
surface waters and releases carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and mercury into the
air. Gasoline and other petroleum products cause similar pollution. These pollutants cause
respiratory illnesses and death in humans, produce acid rain that damages buildings and destroys
fragile ecosystems, and deplete the ozone layer.
Strong consensus in the scientific community states that climate change and global
warming are occurring and are caused by human production of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases. Climate change may also damage agriculture, cause widespread extinctions,
imperil clean water supplies and aid the spread of tropical diseases.

Environmental Laws
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 1152
PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL CODE

33

WHEREAS, the broad spectrum of environment has become a matter of vital concern to the
government;
WHEREAS, the national leadership has taken a step towards this direction by creating the
National Environmental Protection Council under Presidential Decree No. 1121;
WHEREAS, it is necessary that the creation of the Council be implemented with the launching
of a comprehensive program of environmental protection and management;
WHEREAS, such a program can assume tangible and meaningful significance only by
establishing specific environment management policies and prescribing environment quality
standards in a Philippine Environment Code:
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Republic of the
Philippines, by virtue of the powers vested in me by the Constitution, do hereby order and
decree:
Section 1. Short Title. This Decree shall be known and cited as the "Philippine Environment
Code."
TITLE I
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Section 2. Purposes. The purposes of this Title are:
(a) to achieve and maintain such levels of air quality as to protect public health; and
(b) to prevent to the greatest extent practicable, injury and/or damage to plant and animal
life and property, and promote the social and economic development of the country.
Chapter I
Standards
Section 3. Ambient Air Quality Standards. There shall be established ambient air quality
standards which shall prescribe the maximum concentration of air pollutants permissible in the
atmosphere consistent with public health, safety and general welfare.
In the establishment of ambient air quality standards, factors such as local atmospheric
conditions, location and land use, and available technology, shall be considered among others.
Section 4. National Emission Standards. There shall be established national emission standards
for new and existing stationary and mobile sources of pollution which shall consider among
34

others such factors as type of industry, practicable control technology available, location and
land use, and the nature of pollutants emitted.
Section 5. Community Noise Standards. Appropriate standards for community noise levels shall
be established considering, among others, location, zoning and land use classification.
Section 6. Standards for Noise-Producing Equipment. There shall be established a standard for
noise producing equipment such as construction equipment, transportation equipment, stationary
engines, and electrical or electronic equipment and such similar equipment or contrivances. The
standards shall set a limit on the acceptable level of noise emitted from a given equipment for the
protection of public health and welfare, considering among others, the magnitude and condition
of use, the degree of noise reduction achievable through the application of best available
technology and the cost of compliance.
The Installation of any noise-producing equipment shall conform with the requirements of
Presidential Decree No. 1096 and other applicable laws as well as their implementing rules and
regulations.
Section 7. Aircraft Emission and Sonic Booms. Appropriate government agencies shall
encourage research studies on the harmful effects of aircraft emissions in the environment in
order to establish permissible emission standards.
Research and studies shall also be undertaken to mitigate and/or minimize the effects of sonic
booms in the environment.
Chapter II
Regulation and Enforcement
Section 8. Air Quality and Noise Standards. The National Pollution Control Commission in
coordination with appropriate government agencies shall be responsible for the enforcement of
ambient air quality emission and noise standards, including the monitoring and surveillance of
air pollutants, licensing and permitting of air pollution control facilities, and the promulgation of
appropriate rules and regulations.
Existing air quality emission and noise standards may be revised and/or modified consistent with
new development and technology.
Section 9. Aircraft Noise. Community noise standards around airports shall be implemented by
the Civil Aeronautics Administration in coordination with the National Pollution Control
Commission.

35

Section 10. Vehicular Emissions. The Land Transportation Commission, in coordination with the
National Pollution Control Commission, shall implement emission standards for motor vehicles
and may deputize other appropriate law enforcement agencies for the purpose.
Section 11. Radioactive Emissions. The release and emission of radioactivity into the
environment incident to the establishment or possession of nuclear energy facilities and
radioactive materials, handling, transport, production, storage, use and disposal of radioactive
materials shall be regulated by the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission in coordination with
other appropriate government agencies.
Chapter III
Monitoring
Section 12. Air Quality Monitoring. The National Pollution Control Commission, in
coordination with appropriate government agencies, shall establish to the greatest extent
practicable an air quality monitoring network. Such air quality monitoring network shall put to
maximum use the capabilities of these agencies.
The National Environmental Protection Council shall be furnished with the results of air quality
monitoring activities.
Section 13. Weather Modification. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration shall monitor regularly meteorological factors affecting environmental
conditions in order to effectively guide air pollution monitoring activities.
Activities relating to weather modification such as rainfall stimulation and storm seeding
experiments shall be undertaken in consultation and/or in coordination with the Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration.
TITLE II
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Section 14. Purpose. It is the purpose of this Title to prescribe management guidelines aimed to
protect and improve the quality of Philippine water resources through:
(a) classification of Philippine waters;
(b) establishment of water quality standards;
(c) protection and improvement of the quality of the Philippine water resources, and
(d) responsibilities for surveillance and mitigation of pollution incidents.
36

Chapter I
Classification and Standards
Section 15. Classification of Philippine Waters. The National Pollution Control Commission, in
coordination with appropriate government agencies, shall classify Philippine waters, according to
their best usage. In classifying said waters, the National Pollution Control Commission shall take
into account, among others, the following:
(a) the existing quality of the body of water at the time of classification;
(b) the size, depth, surface area covered, volume, direction, rate of flow, gradient of
stream; and
(c) the most beneficial uses of said bodies of water and lands bordering them for
residential, agricultural, commercial, industrial, navigational, recreational, and aesthetic
purposes.
Section 16. Reclassification of Waters Based on Intended Beneficial Use. Where the public
interest so requires, the National Pollution Control Commission, in coordination with appropriate
government agencies, shall reclassify a body of water based on the intended beneficial use and
take such steps as may be necessary to upgrade the quality of said water. Other government
agencies may adopt higher standards for a particular body of water, subject to the approval of the
National Pollution Control Commission.
Section 17. Upgrading of Water Quality. Where the quality of water has deteriorated to a degree
where its state will adversely affect its best usage, the government agencies concerned shall take
such measures as may be necessary to upgrade the quality of such water to meet the prescribed
water quality standards.
Section 18. Water Quality Standards. The National Pollution Control Commission shall
prescribe quality and effluent standards consistent with the guidelines set by the National
Environmental Protection Council and the classification of waters prescribed in the preceding
sections, taking into consideration, among others, the following:
(a) the standard of water quality or purity may vary according to beneficial uses; and
(b) the technology relating to water pollution control.
Chapter II
Protection and Improvement of Water Quality

37

Section 19. Enforcement and Coordination. The production, utilization, storage and distribution
of hazardous, toxic and other substances such as radioactive materials, heavy metals, pesticides,
fertilizers, and oils, and the disposal, discharge and dumping of untreated wastewater, mine
tailings and other substances that may pollute any body of water of the Philippines resulting from
normal operations of industries, water-borne sources, and other human activities as well as those
resulting from accidental spills and discharge shall be regulated by appropriate government
agencies pursuant to their respective charters and enabling legislations. In the performance of the
above functions, the government agencies concern shall coordinate with the National
Environmental Protection Council and furnish the latter with such information as may be
necessary to enable it to attain its objectives under Presidential Decree No. 1121.
Section 20. Clean-up Operations. It shall be the responsibility of the polluter to contain, remove
and clean up water pollution incidents at his own expense. In case of his failure to do so, the
government agencies concerned shall undertake containment, removal and clean-up operations
and expenses incurred in said operations shall be charged against the persons and/or entities
responsible for such pollution.
Section 21. Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance. The various government agencies
concerned with environmental protection shall establish to the greatest extent practicable a water
quality surveillance and monitoring network with sufficient stations and sampling schedules to
meet the needs of the country. Said water quality surveillance network shall put to maximum use
the capabilities of such government agencies. Each agency involved in such network shall report
to the National Environmental Protection Council the results of these monitoring activities as the
need arises.
TITLE III
LAND USE MANAGEMENT
Section 22. Purpose. The purposes of this Title are:
(a) to provide a rational, orderly and efficient acquisition, utilization and disposition of
land and its resources in order to derive therefrom maximum benefits; and
(b) to encourage the prudent use and conservation of land resources in order to prevent
and imbalance between the nation's needs and such resources.
Section 23. National Land Use Scheme. The Human Settlements Commission, in coordination
with the appropriate agencies of the government, shall formulate and recommend to the National
Environmental Protection Council a land use scheme consistent with the purpose of this Title.
The Land Use Scheme shall include among others, the following:
38

(a) a science-based and technology-oriented land inventory and classification system;

(b) a determination of present land uses, the extent to which they are utilized,
underutilized, rendered idle or abandoned;
(c) a comprehensive and accurate determination of the adaptability of the land for
community development, agriculture, industry, commerce and other fields of endeavor;
(d) a method of identification of areas where uncontrolled development could result in
irreparable damage to important historic, cultural, or aesthetic values, or natural systems
or processes of national significance;
(e) a method for exercising control by the appropriate government agencies over the use
of land in areas of critical environmental concern and areas impacted by public facilities
including, but not limited to, airports, highways, bridges, ports and wharves, buildings
and other infrastructure projects;
(f) a method to ensure the consideration of regional development and land use in local
regulations;
(g) policy for influencing the location of new communities and methods for assuring
appropriate controls over the use of land around new communities;
(h) a system of controls and regulations pertaining to areas and development activities
designed to ensure that any source of pollution will not be located where it would result
in a violation of any applicable environmental pollution control regulations; and
(i) a recommended method for the periodic revisions and updating of the national land
use scheme to meet changing conditions.
Section 24. Location of Industries. In the location of industries, factories, plants, depots and
similar industrial establishments, the regulating or enforcing agencies of the government shall
take into consideration the social, economic, geographic and significant environmental impact of
said establishments.
TITLE IV
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION
Section 25. Purposes. The purposes of this Title are:

39

(a) to provide the basic policy on the management and conservation of the country's
natural resources to obtain the optimum benefits therefrom and to preserve the same for
the future generations; and
(b) to provide general measures through which the aforesaid policy may be carried out
effectively.

Chapter I
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Section 26. Management Policy. The National government, through the Department of Natural
Resources, shall establish a system of rational exploitation of fisheries and aquatic resources
within the Philippine territory and shall encourage citizen participation therein to maintain and/or
enhance the optimum and continuous productivity of the same.
Section 27. Measures for National Exploitation. Measures for the national exploitation of
fisheries and other aquatic resources may include, but shall not be limited to, the following:
(a) undertaking manpower and expertise development;
(b) acquiring the necessary facilities and equipment;
(c) regulating the marketing of threatened species of fish or other aquatic resources;
(d) reviewing all existing rules and regulations on the exploitation of fisheries and aquatic
resources with a view of formulating guidelines for the systematic and effective
enforcement thereof; and
(e) conserving the vanishing species of fish and aquatic resources such as turtles, sea
snakes, crocodiles, corals, as well as maintaining the mangrove areas, marshes and inland
waters, coral reef-areas and islands serving as sanctuaries for fish and other aquatic life.
Chapter II
Wildlife
Section 28. Management Policy. The national government through the Department of Natural
Resources, shall establish a system of rational exploitation and conservation of wildlife resources

40

and shall encourage citizen participation in the maintenance and/or enhancement of their
continuous productivity.
Section 29. Measures for Rational Exploitation. Measures for rational exploitation of wildlife
resources may include, but shall not be limited to, the following:
(a) regulating the marketing of threatened wildlife resources.
(b) reviewing all existing rules and regulations on the exploitation of wildlife resources
with a view of formulating guidelines for the systematic and effective enforcement
thereof; and
(c) conserving the threatened species of fauna, increasing their rate of reproduction,
maintaining their original habitat, habitat manipulation, determining bag/creel limits,
population control in relation to the carrying capacity of any given area, banning of
indiscriminate and/or destructive means of catching or hunting them.
Chapter III
Forestry and Soil Conservation
Section 30. Management Policy for Forestry. The national government, through the Department
of Natural Resources, shall undertake a system of rational exploitation of forest resources and
shall encourage citizen participation therein to keep the country's forest resources at maximum
productivity at all time.
Section 31. Measures for Rational Exploitation of Forest Resources. Measures for the rational
exploitation of forest resources may include, but shall not be limited to, the following:
(a) regulating the marketing of threatened forest resources;
(b) reviewing all existing rules and regulations on the exploitation of forest resources
with a view of formulating guidelines for the systematic and efficient enforcement
thereof;
(c) conserving threatened species of flora as well as increasing their rate of propagation;
the banning of destructive modes of exploitation, kaingin making or shifting cultivation,
indiscriminate harvesting of minor forest products the recycling methods of waste
materials, and
(d) carrying out a continuing effect on reforestation; timber stand improvement; forest
protection; land classification; forest occupancy management; agri-silviculture; range

41

management; agri-silvicultural/kaingin management; industrial tree plantation; parks and

wildlife management; multiple use forest; timber management and forest research.
Section 32. Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides. The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture
shall be regulated prescribing therefor a tolerance level in their use. Their use shall be monitored
by appropriate government agencies to provide empirical data for effective regulation.
Section 33. Management Policy on Soil Conservation. The national government, through the
Department of Natural Resources and the Department of Agriculture, shall likewise undertake a
soil conservation program including therein the identification and protection of critical watershed
areas, encouragement of scientific farming techniques, physical and biological means of soil
conservation, and short-term and long-term researches and technology for effective soil
conservation.
Chapter IV
Flood Control and Natural Calamities
Section 34. Measures in Flood Control Program. In addition to the pertinent provisions of
existing laws, the following shall be included in a soil erosion, sediment and flood control
program;
(a) the control of soil erosion on the banks of rivers, the shores of lakes, and the
seashores;
(b) the control of flow and flooding in and from rivers and lakes;
(c) the conservation of water which, for purposes of this Section shall mean forms of
water, but shall not include captive water;
(d) the needs of fisheries and wildlife and all other recreational uses of natural water;
(e) measures to control the damming, diversion, taking, and use of natural water, so far as
any such act may affect the quality and availability of natural water for other purposes;
and
(f) measures to stimulate research in matters relating to natural water and soil
conservation and the application of knowledge thereby acquired.
Section 35. Measures to Mitigate Destructive Effects of Calamities. The national government,
through the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration,
shall promote intensified and concerted research efforts on weather modification, typhoon,

42

earthquake, tsunami, storm surge, and other tropical natural phenomena in order to bring about
any significant effect to mitigate or prevent their destructive effects.
Chapter V
Energy Development
Section 36. Policy. Consistent with the environmental protection policies, the national
government, through the Energy Development Board, shall undertake an energy development
program encouraging the utilization of invariant sources such as solar, wind and tidal energy.
Section 37. Measures for Energy Development. Measures for energy development program may
include, but shall not be limited to, the following:
(a) setting up of pilot plants utilizing invariant sources of energy;
(b) training of technical personnel for purposes of energy development; and
(c) conducting researches aimed at developing technology for energy development.
Section 38. Safety Measures on Energy Development. Rules and regulations shall be
promulgated to prevent or mitigate the adverse effects of energy development on the
environment. For this purpose, all nuclear powered plants exploring and utilizing geothermal
energy, whether owned or controlled by private or government entities shall:
(a) observe internationally accepted standards of safety; and
(b) provide safety devices to ensure the health and welfare of their personnel as well as
the surrounding community.
Chapter VI
Conservation and Utilization of Surface and Ground Waters
Section 39. Management Policy. In addition to existing laws, the national government through
the National Water Resources Council in coordination with other appropriate government
agencies, shall prescribe measures for the conservation and improvement of the quality of
Philippine water resources and provide for the prevention, control and abatement of water
pollution.
Chapter VII
Mineral Resources

43

Section 40. Management Policy. - The national government, through the Department of Natural
Resources, shall undertake a system of gainful exploitation and rational and efficient utilization
of mineral resources and shall encourage citizen participation in this endeavor.
Section 41. Measures for Exploitation and Utilization of Mineral Resources. Measures for the
gainful exploitation and rational and efficient utilization of such mineral resources may include,
but shall not be limited to the following:
(a) increasing research and development in mineral resources technology;
(b) training of additional technical manpower needed in geology, geophysics, mining
engineering, and related fields;
(c) regulating the exploitation of identified mineral reserves;
(d) accelerating the exploration of undiscovered mineral deposits; and
(e) encouraging the establishment of processing plants for refined metals.
TITLE V
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Section 42. Purpose. The purposes of this Title are:
(a) to set guidelines for waste management with a view to ensuring its effectiveness;
(b) to encourage, promote and stimulate technological, educational economic and social
efforts to prevent environmental damage and unnecessary loss of valuable resources of
the nation through recovery, recycling and re-use of wastes and waste products; and
(c) to provide measures to guide and encourage appropriate government agencies in
establishing sound, efficient, comprehensive and effective waste management.
Chapter I
Enforcement and Guidelines
Section 43. Waste Management Programs. Preparation and implementation of waste
management program shall be required of all provinces, cities and municipalities. The
Department of Local Government and Community Development shall promulgate guidelines for
the formulation and establishment of waste management programs.
Every waste management program shall include the following:
44

(a) an orderly system of operation consistent with the needs of the area concerned;
(b) a provision that the operation will not create pollution of any kind or will constitute
public nuisance;
(c) a system for a safe and sanitary disposal of waste;
(d) a provision that existing plans affecting the development, use and protection of air,
water or natural resources shall be considered;
(e) schedules and methods of implementing the development, construction and operation
of the plan together with the estimated costs; and
(f) a provision for the periodic revision of the program to ensure its effective
implementation.
Section 44. Responsibility of Local Governments. Each province, city or municipality shall
provide measures to facilitate the collection, transportation, processing and disposal of waste
within its jurisdiction in coordination with other government agencies concerned. For this
purpose, the national government shall provide the necessary subsidy, to local governments upon
request made through the National Environmental Protection Council and subject to such terms
and conditions as the latter may provide.
Chapter II
Methods of Solid Waste Disposal
Section 45. Solid Waste Disposal. Solid Waste disposal shall be by sanitary landfill, incineration,
composing, and other methods as may be approved by competent government authority.
Section 46. Sanitary Landfills. Local governments, including private individuals, corporations or
organizations may operate one or more sanitary landfills. Any entity proposing to operate a
sanitary landfill shall submit to the appropriate government agency an operational work plan
showing, among other things, a map of the proposed work location, disposal areas for rubbish,
garbage, refuse and other waste matter; and the equipment or machinery needed to accomplish
its operations. In no case shall landfill or work locations under this Section be located along any
shore or coastline, or along the banks of rivers and streams. lakes throughout their entire length,
in violation of any existing rules and regulations.
Section 47. Incineration and Composting Plants. The installation and establishment of
incineration or composting plants, or the alteration/modification of any part thereof shall be
regulated by the local governments concerned in coordination with the National Pollution
Control Commission.
45

Section 48. Disposal Sites. The location of solid waste disposal sites shall conform with existing
zoning; land use standards, and pollution control regulations.
Section 49. Dumping into the Sea and Other Navigable Waters. The dumping or disposal of solid
wastes into the sea and any body of water in the Philippines, including shorelines and river
banks, where these wastes are likely to be washed into the water is prohibited. However,
dumping of solid wastes or other materials into the sea or any navigable waters shall be
permitted in case of immediate or imminent danger to life and property, subject to the rules and
regulations of the Philippine Coast Guard and the National Pollution Control Commission.
Government agencies and private entities which are undertaking solid waste management
programs shall make consultations with the government agencies concerned with respect to the
effects of such dumping to the marine environment and navigation.
Chapter III
Methods of Liquid Waste Disposal
Section 50. Liquid Waste Disposal. Wastewater from manufacturing plants, industries,
community, or domestic sources shall be treated either physically, biologically or chemically
prior to disposal in accordance with the rules and regulations promulgated by proper government
authority.
Section 51. Applicability of Sec. 8. The provisions of Sec. 8 hereof shall likewise apply to the
dumping or disposal of liquid waste into the sea and other bodies of water.
TITLE VI
MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS
Section 52. Population-Environment Balance. In the assessment of development projects, the
National Environmental Protection Council, hereinafter referred to in this Title as the "Council"
shall take into consideration their effect on population with a view to achieving a rational and
orderly balance between man and his environment.
Section 53. Environmental Education. The Department of Education and Culture shall integrate
subjects on environmental education in its school curricula at all levels. It shall also endeavor to
conduct special community education emphasizing the relationship of man and nature as well as
environmental sanitation and practices.
The Council and other government agencies implementing environmental protection laws in
coordination with public information agencies of the government shall undertake public
information activities for the purpose of stimulating awareness and encouraging involvement in
environmental protection.
46

Section 54. Environmental Research. The Council shall undertake and/or promote continuing
studies and research programs on environmental management and shall, from time to time,
determine priority areas of environmental research.
Section 55. Monitoring and Dissemination of Environmental Information of Foreign Origin. The
Council shall keep itself informed of current environmental developments by obtaining
information and literature from foreign sources through the Department of Foreign Affairs,
government agencies and other entities, both domestic and foreign. Such information and
literature shall be given the widest dissemination possible.
Section 56. Incentives. To operate the installation and the utilization of pollution control
facilities, the following incentives are hereby granted:
(a) exemption to the extent of fifty (50) per cent of tariff duties and compensating tax for
the importation of pollution control equipment, devices, spare parts and accessories for a
period of five (5) years from the effectivity of this Decree subject to the conditions that
will be imposed by the Council.
(b) a tax credit equivalent to fifty (50) per cent of the value of the compensating tax and
tariff duties that would have been paid on the pollution control equipment, devices, spare
parts and accessories had these items been imported shall, within a period of seven (7)
years from the effectivity of this Decree be given to the person or firm who or which
purchases them from a domestic manufacturer, and another tax credit equivalent to
twenty-five (25) per cent thereof shall be given to the said manufacturer subject to such
conditions as may be imposed by the Council; and
(c) deductions equivalent to fifty (50) per cent of the expenses actually incurred on
research projects undertaken to develop technologies for the manufacture of pollution
control equipment which have been proven effective and commercially reproducible,
from the taxable income of the person or firm actually undertaking such projects subject
to the conditions that may be imposed by the Council.
The pollution control equipment, devices, spare parts and accessories acquired under this Section
shall not be sold, transferred or disposed of within five (5) years from the date of acquisition
without the prior approval of the Council otherwise the importer or purchaser shall pay twice the
amount of the tax exemption or tax credit granted.
Section 57. Financial Assistance/Grant. Financial assistance/grant for the study, design and
construction of environmental protection facilities especially for waste disposal in favor of cities,
municipalities, small and medium-scale industries may be granted on a case to case basis subject
to such conditions as may be imposed by the Council.
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Section 58. Participation of Local Government Units and Private Individuals. It shall be the
responsibility of local government units as well as private individuals to actively participate in
the environmental management and protection programs of the government.
Section 59. Preservation of Historic and Cultural Resources and Heritage. It shall be the duty of
every person to help preserve the historic and cultural resources of the country such as sites,
structures, artifacts, documents, objects, memorials and priceless trees.
Section 60. Government Offices Performing Environmental Protection Functions. Government
agencies vested by law to exercise environmental management powers, shall continue to function
as such within their respective jurisdictions. The Council may, however, in the exercise of its
powers and functions under Presidential Decree No. 1121, inquire into any action or issue of
environmental significance.
Section 61. Public Hearings. The Council may, whenever it deems necessary, conduct public
hearings on issues of environmental significance.
Section 62. Definition of Terms. As used in this Code:
(a) "Ambient Air Quality" means the average atmospheric purity as distinguished from
discharge measurements taken at the source of pollution. It is the general amount of
pollution present in a broad area.
(b) "Emission" means the act of passing into the atmosphere an air contaminant,
pollutant, gas stream and unwanted sound from a known source.
(c) "Water Quality" means the characteristics of water which define its use in terms of
physical, chemical and biological contents; hence the quality of water for domestic use is
different from industrial use.
(d) "Water Quality Surveillance" means a close and continuous supervision of the water
quality to detect development movements or changes in the characteristics of the water.
(e) "Water Quality Standard" means a plan that is established by governmental authority
as a program for water pollution prevention and abatement. Such a standard may include
water use classification and the criteria to support the uses of the water.
(f) "Effluent Standards" means restrictions established to limit levels of concentration of
physical, chemical and biological constituents which are discharged from point sources.
(g) "Clean-up Operations" refers to activities conducted in removing the pollutants
discharged or spilled in water to restore it to pre-spill condition.
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(h) "Accidental Spills" refers to spills of oil or other hazardous substances in water that
result from accidents involving the carriers of such substance such as collisions and
grounding.
(i) "Areas of Critical Environmental Concern" are areas where uncontrolled development
could result in irreparable damage to important historic, cultural, or aesthetic values or
natural systems or processes of national significance.
(j) "Hazardous Substances" means elements or compounds which when discharged in
any quantity present imminent or substantial danger to public health and welfare.
(k) "Areas Impacted by Public Facilities" refers to areas where the introduction of public
facilities may tend to induce development and urbanization of more than local
significance or impact.
(l) "Environmental Impact" is the alteration, to any degree, of environmental conditions
or the creation of a new set of environmental conditions, adverse or beneficial, to be
induced or caused by a proposed project.
(m) "Government Agencies" refers to national, local and regional agencies and
instrumentalities including government-owned and controlled corporations.
TITLE VII
FINAL PROVISIONS
Section 63. Separability of Provisions. If any provision of this Code, or the application of such
provisions to any person or circumstance, is declared unconstitutional, the remainder of the Code
or the application of such provision to other persons or circumstances shall not be affected by
such declaration.
Section 64. Effectivity. This Code shall take effect upon its approval.
Done in the City of Manila, this 6th day of June in the year of Our Lord, nineteen hundred and
seventy-seven.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9729

AN ACT MAINSTREAMING CLIMATE CHANGE INTO GOVERNMENT POLICY
FORMULATIONS, ESTABLISHING THE FRAMEWORK STRATEGY AND

49

PROGRAM ON CLIMATE CHANGE, CREATING FOR THIS PURPOSE THE

CLIMATE CHANGE COMMISSION, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress
assembled:
Section 1. Title. This Act shall be known as the Climate Change Act of 2009.
Section 2. Declaration of Policy. It is the policy of the State to afford full protection and the
advancement of the right of the people to a healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and
harmony of nature. In this light, the State has adopted the Philippine Agenda 21 framework
which espouses sustainable development, to fulfill human needs while maintaining the quality of
the natural environment for current and future generations.
Towards this end, the State adopts the principle of protecting the climate system for the benefit of
humankind, on the basis of climate justice or common but differentiated responsibilities and the
Precautionary Principle to guide decision-making in climate risk management. As a party to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the State adopts the ultimate
objective of the Convention which is the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system which should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable
economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.1awphil As a party to the Hyogo
Framework for Action, the State likewise adopts the strategic goals in order to build national and
local resilience to climate change-related disasters.
Recognizing the vulnerability of the Philippine archipelago and its local communities,
particularly the poor, women, and children, to potential dangerous consequences of climate
change such as rising seas, changing landscapes, increasing frequency and/or severity of
droughts, fires, floods and storms, climate-related illnesses and diseases, damage to ecosystems,
biodiversity loss that affect the countrys environment, culture, and economy, the State shall
cooperate with the global community in the resolution of climate change issues, including
disaster risk reduction. It shall be the policy of the State to enjoin the participation of national
and local governments, businesses, nongovernment organizations, local communities and the
public to prevent and reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and, at the same time,
maximize the benefits of climate change. It shall also be the policy of the State to incorporate a
gender-sensitive, pro-children and pro-poor perspective in all climate change and renewable
energy efforts, plans and programs. In view thereof, the State shall strengthen, integrate,
consolidate and institutionalize government initiatives to achieve coordination in the
implementation of plans and programs to address climate change in the context of sustainable
development.
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Further recognizing that climate change and disaster risk reduction are closely interrelated and
effective disaster risk reduction will enhance climate change adaptive capacity, the State shall
integrate disaster risk reduction into climate change programs and initiatives.
Cognizant of the need to ensure that national and subnational government policies, plans,
programs and projects are founded upon sound environmental considerations and the principle of
sustainable development, it is hereby declared the policy of the State to systematically integrate
the concept of climate change in various phases of policy formulation, development plans,
poverty reduction strategies and other development tools and techniques by all agencies and
instrumentalities of the government.
Section 3. Definition of Terms. For purposes of this Act, the following shall have the
corresponding meanings:
(a) Adaptation refers to the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to
actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits
beneficial opportunities.
(b) Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of ecological, social or economic systems to
adjust to climate change including climate variability and extremes, to moderate or offset
potential damages and to take advantage of associated opportunities with changes in
climate or to cope with the consequences thereof.
(c) Anthropogenic causes refer to causes resulting from human activities or produced
by human beings.
(d) Climate Change refers to a change in climate that can be identified by changes in
the mean and/or variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period
typically decades or longer, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human
activity.
(e) Climate Variability refers to the variations in the average state and in other
statistics of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of individual
weather events.
(f) Climate Risk refers to the product of climate and related hazards working over the
vulnerability of human and natural ecosystems.
(g) Disaster refers to a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a
society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and
impacts which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its
own resources.
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(h) Disaster risk reduction refers to the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks
through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters,
including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and
property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for
adverse events.
(i) Gender mainstreaming refers to the strategy for making womens as well as mens
concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic, and
societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated.
It is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action,
including legislation, policies, or programs in all areas and at all levels.
(j) Global Warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths
near-surface air and oceans that is associated with the increased concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
(k) Greenhouse effect refers to the process by which the absorption of infrared
radiation by the atmosphere warms the Earth.
(l) Greenhouse gases (GHG) refers to constituents of the atmosphere that contribute
to the greenhouse effect including, but not limited to, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride.
(m) Mainstreaming refers to the integration of policies and measures that address
climate change into development planning and sectoral decision-making.
(n) Mitigation in the context of climate change, refers to human intervention to
address anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all GHG, including
ozone- depleting substances and their substitutes.
(o) Mitigation potential shall refer to the scale of GHG reductions that could be made,
relative to emission baselines, for a given level of carbon price (expressed in cost per unit
of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions avoided or reduced).
(p) Sea level rise refers to an increase in sea level which may be influenced by factors
like global warming through expansion of sea water as the oceans warm and melting of
ice over land and local factors such as land subsidence.
(q) Vulnerability refers to the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to
cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes.
52

Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate change and
variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity.
Section 4. Creation of the Climate Change Commission. There is hereby established a Climate
Change Commission, hereinafter referred to as the Commission.
The Commission shall be an independent and autonomous body and shall have the same status as
that of a national government agency. It shall be attached to the Office of the President.
The Commission shall be the sole policy-making body of the government which shall be tasked
to coordinate, monitor and evaluate the programs and action plans of the government relating to
climate change pursuant to the provisions of this Act.
The Commission shall be organized within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this Act.
Section 5. Composition of the Commission. The Commission shall be composed of the
President of the Republic of the Philippines who shall serve as the Chairperson, and three (3)
Commissioners to be appointed by the President, one of whom shall serve as the Vice
Chairperson of the Commission.
The Commission shall have an advisory board composed of the following:
(a) Secretary of the Department of Agriculture;
(b) Secretary of the Department of Energy;
(c) Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;
(d) Secretary of the Department of Education;
(e) Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs;
(f) Secretary of the Department of Health;
(g) Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government;
(h) Secretary of the Department of National Defense, in his capacity as Chair of the
National Disaster Coordinating Council;
(i) Secretary of the Department of Public Works and Highways;
(j) Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology;
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(k) Secretary of the Department of Social Welfare and Development;

(l) Secretary of the Department of Trade and Industry;
(m) Secretary of the Department of Transportation and Communications;
(n) Director-General of the National Economic and Development Authority, in his
capacity as Chair of the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development;
(o) Director-General of the National Security Council;
(p) Chairperson of the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women;
(q) President of the League of Provinces;
(r) President of the League of Cities;
(s) President of the League of Municipalities;
(t) President of the Liga ng mga Barangay;
(u) Representative from the academe;
(v) Representative from the business sector; and
(w) Representative from nongovernmental organizations.
At least one (1) of the sectoral representatives shall come from the disaster risk reduction
community.
The representatives shall be appointed by the President from a list of nominees submitted by
their respective groups. They shall serve for a term of six (6) years without reappointment unless
their representation is withdrawn by the sector they represent. Appointment to any vacancy shall
be only for the unexpired term of the predecessor.
Only the ex officio members of the advisory board shall appoint a qualified representative who
shall hold a rank of no less than an Undersecretary.
Section 6. Meetings of the Commission. The Commission shall meet once every three (3)
months, or as often as may be deemed necessary by the Chairperson. The Chairperson may
likewise call upon other government agencies for the proper implementation of this Act.

54

Section 7. Qualifications, Tenure, Compensation of Commissioners. The Commissioners must

be Filipino citizens, residents of the Philippines, at least thirty (30) years of age at the time of
appointment, with at least ten (10) years of experience on climate change and of proven honesty
and ntegrity. The Commissioners shall be experts in climate change by virtue of their educational
background, training and experience: Provided, That at least one (1) Commissioner shall be
female: Provided, further, That in no case shall the Commissioners come from the same sector:
Provided, finally, That in no case shall any of the Commissioners appoint representatives to act
on their behalf.
The Commissioners shall hold office for a period of six (6) years, and may be subjected to
reappointment: Provided, That no person shall serve for more than two (2) consecutive terms:
Provided, further, That in case of a vacancy, the new appointee shall fully meet the qualifications
of a Commissioner and shall hold office for the unexpired portion of the term only: Provided,
finally, That in no case shall a Commissioner be designated in a temporary or acting capacity.
The Vice Chairperson and the Commissioners shall have the rank and privileges of a Department
Secretary and Undersecretary, respectively. They shall be entitled to corresponding compensation
and other emoluments and shall be subject to the same disqualifications.
Section 8. Climate Change Office. There is hereby created a Climate Change Office that shall
assist the Commission. It shall be headed by a Vice Chairperson of the Commission who shall act
as the Executive Director of the Office. The Commission shall have the authority to determine
the number of staff and create corresponding positions necessary to facilitate the proper
implementation of this Act, subject to civil service laws, rules and regulations. The officers and
employees of the Commission shall be appointed by the Executive Director.
Section 9. Powers and Functions of the Commission. The Commission shall have the
following powers and functions:
(a) Ensure the mainstreaming of climate change, in synergy with disaster risk reduction,
into the national, sectoral and local development plans and programs;
(b) Coordinate and synchronize climate change programs of national government
agencies;
(c) Formulate a Framework Strategy on Climate Change to serve as the basis for a
program for climate change planning, research and development, extension, and
monitoring of activities on climate change;
(d) Exercise policy coordination to ensure the attainment of goals set in the framework
strategy and program on climate change;
55

(e) Recommend legislation, policies, strategies, programs on and appropriations for

climate change adaptation and mitigation and other related activities;
(f) Recommend key development investments in climate- sensitive sectors such as water
resources, agriculture, forestry, coastal and marine resources, health, and infrastructure to
ensure the achievement of national sustainable development goals;
(g) Create an enabling environment for the design of relevant and appropriate risksharing and risk-transfer instruments;
(h) Create an enabling environment that shall promote broader multi-stakeholder
participation and integrate climate change mitigation and adaptation;
(i) Formulate strategies on mitigating GHG and other anthropogenic causes of climate
change;
(j) Coordinate and establish a close partnership with the National Disaster Coordinating
Council in order to increase efficiency and effectiveness in reducing the peoples
vulnerability to climate-related disasters;
(k) In coordination with the Department of Foreign Affairs, represent the Philippines in
the climate change negotiations;
(l) Formulate and update guidelines for determining vulnerability to climate change
impacts and adaptation assessments and facilitate the provision of technical assistance for
their implementation and monitoring;
(m) Coordinate with local government units (LGUs) and private entities to address
vulnerability to climate change impacts of regions, provinces, cities and municipalities;
(n) Facilitate capacity building for local adaptation planning, implementation and
monitoring of climate change initiatives in vulnerable communities and areas;
(o) Promote and provide technical and financial support to local research and
development programs and projects in vulnerable communities and areas; and
(p) Oversee the dissemination of information on climate change, local vulnerabilities and
risks, relevant laws and protocols and adaptation and mitigation measures.
Section 10. Panel of Technical Experts. The Commission shall constitute a national panel of
technical experts consisting of practitioners in disciplines that are related to climate change,
including disaster risk reduction.
56

The Panel shall provide technical advice to the Commission in climate science, technologies, and
best practices for risk assessment and enhancement of adaptive capacity of vulnerable human
settlements to potential impacts of climate change.
The Commission shall set the qualifications and compensation for the technical experts. It shall
provide resources for the operations and activities of the Panel.
Section 11. Framework Strategy and Program on Climate Change. The Commission shall,
within six (6) months from the effectivity of this Act, formulate a Framework Strategy on
Climate Change. The Framework shall serve as the basis for a program for climate change
planning, research and development, extension, and monitoring of activities to protect vulnerable
communities from the adverse effects of climate change.
The Framework shall be formulated based on climate change vulnerabilities, specific adaptation
needs, and mitigation potential, and in accordance with the international agreements.
The Framework shall be reviewed every three (3) years, or as may be deemed necessary.
Section 12. Components of the Framework Strategy and Program on Climate Change. The
Framework shall include, but not limited to, the following components:
(a) National priorities;
(b) Impact, vulnerability and adaptation assessments;
(c) Policy formulation;
(d) Compliance with international commitments;
(e) Research and development;
(f) Database development and management;
(g) Academic programs, capability building and mainstreaming;
(h) Advocacy and information dissemination;
(i) Monitoring and evaluation; and
(j) Gender mainstreaming.

57

Section 13. National Climate Change Action Plan. The Commission shall formulate a National
Climate Change Action Plan in accordance with the Framework within one (1) year after the
formulation of the latter.
The National Climate Change Action Plan shall include, but not limited to, the following
components:
(a) Assessment of the national impact of climate change;
(b) The identification of the most vulnerable communities/areas, including ecosystems to
the impacts of climate change, variability and extremes;
(c) The identification of differential impacts of climate change on men, women and
children;
(d) The assessment and management of risk and vulnerability;
(e) The identification of GHG mitigation potentials; and
(f) The identification of options, prioritization of appropriate adaptation measures for
joint projects of national and local governments.
Section 14. Local Climate Change Action Plan. The LGUs shall be the frontline agencies in
the formulation, planning and implementation of climate change action plans in their respective
areas, consistent with the provisions of the Local Government Code, the Framework, and the
National Climate Change Action Plan.
Barangays shall be directly involved with municipal and city governments in prioritizing climate
change issues and in identifying and implementing best practices and other solutions. Municipal
and city governments shall consider climate change adaptation, as one of their regular functions.
Provincial governments shall provide technical assistance, enforcement and information
management in support of municipal and city climate change action plans. Inter-local
government unit collaboration shall be maximized in the conduct of climate- related activities.
LGUs shall regularly update their respective action plans to reflect changing social, economic,
and environmental conditions and emerging issues. The LGUs shall furnish the Commission with
copies of their action plans and all subsequent amendments, modifications and revisions thereof,
within one (1) month from their adoption. The LGUs shall mobilize and allocate necessary
personnel, resources and logistics to effectively implement their respective action plans.
The local chief executive shall appoint the person responsible for the formulation and
implementation of the local action plan.
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It shall be the responsibility of the national government to extend technical and financial
assistance to LGUs for the accomplishment of their Local Climate Change Action Plans.
The LGU is hereby expressly authorized to appropriate and use the amount from its Internal
Revenue Allotment necessary to implement said local plan effectively, any provision in the Local
Government Code to the contrary notwithstanding.
Section 15. Role of Government Agencies. To ensure the effective implementation of the
framework strategy and program on climate change, concerned agencies shall perform the
following functions:
(a) The Department of Education (DepED) shall integrate climate change into the
primary and secondary education curricula and/or subjects, such as, but not limited to,
science, biology, sibika, history, including textbooks, primers and other educational
materials, basic climate change principles and concepts;
(b) The Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) and Local Government
Academy shall facilitate the development and provision of a training program for LGUs
in climate change. The training program shall include socioeconomic, geophysical,
policy, and other content necessary to address the prevailing and forecasted conditions
and risks of particular LGUs. It shall likewise focus on women and children, especially in
the rural areas, since they are the most vulnerable;
(c) The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) shall oversee the
establishment and maintenance of a climate change information management system and
network, including on climate change risks, activities and investments, in collaboration
with other concerned national government agencies, institutions and LGUs;
(d) The Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) shall review international agreements
related to climate change and make the necessary recommendation for ratification and
compliance by the government on matters pertaining thereto;
(e) The Philippine Information Agency (PIA) shall disseminate information on climate
change, local vulnerabilities and risk, relevant laws and protocols and adaptation and
mitigation measures; and
(f) Government financial institutions, shall, any provision in their respective charters to
the contrary notwithstanding, provide preferential financial packages for climate changerelated projects. In consultation with the BangkoSentral ng Pilipinas (BSP), they shall,
within thirty (30) days from the effectivity of this Act, issue and promulgate the
implementing guidelines therefor.
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The Commission shall evaluate, recommend the approval of loans and monitor the use of said
funds of LGUs.
Section 16. Coordination with Various Sectors. In the development and implementation of the
National Climate Change Action Plan, and the local action plans, the Commission shall
coordinate with the nongovernment organizations (NGOs), civic organizations, academe,
peoples organizations, the private and corporate sectors and other concerned stakeholder groups.
Section 17. Authority to Receive Donations and/or Grants. The Commission is hereby
authorized to accept grants, contributions, donations, endowments, bequests, or gifts in cash, or
in kind from local and foreign sources in support of the development and implementation of
climate change programs and plans: Provided, That in case of donations from foreign
governments, acceptance thereof shall be subject to prior clearance and approval of the President
of the Philippines upon recommendation of the Secretary of Foreign Affairs: Provided, further,
That such donations shall not be used to fund personal services expenditures and other operating
expenses of the Commission.
The proceeds shall be used to finance:
(a) Research, development, demonstration and promotion of technologies;
(b) Conduct of assessment of vulnerabilities to climate change impacts, resource
inventory, and adaptation capability building;
(c) Advocacy, networking and communication activities in the conduct of information
campaign; and
(d) Conduct of such other activities reasonably necessary to carry out the objectives of
this Act, as may be defined by the Commission.
Section 18. Funding Allocation for Climate Change. All relevant government agencies and
LGUs shall allocate from their annual appropriations adequate funds for the formulation,
development and implementation, including training, capacity building and direct intervention,
of their respective climate change programs and plans. It shall also include public awareness
campaigns on the effects of climate change and energy-saving solutions to mitigate these effects,
and initiatives, through educational and training programs and micro-credit schemes, especially
for women in rural areas. In subsequent budget proposals, the concerned offices and units shall
appropriate funds for program/project development and implementation including continuing
training and education in climate change.1avvphi1
Section 19. Joint Congressional Oversight Committee. There is hereby created a Joint
Congressional Oversight Committee to monitor the implementation of this Act. The Oversight
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Committee shall be composed of five (5) Senators and five (5) Representatives to be appointed
by the Senate President and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, respectively. The
Oversight Committee shall be co-chaired by a Senator and a Representative to be designated by
the Senate President and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, respectively. Its funding
requirement shall be charged against the appropriations of Congress.
Section 20. Annual Report. The Commission shall submit to the President and to both Houses
of Congress, not later than March 30 of every year following the effectivity of this Act, or upon
the request of the Congressional Oversight Committee, a report giving a detailed account of the
status of the implementation of this Act, a progress report on the implementation of the National
Climate Change Action Plan and recommend legislation, where applicable and necessary. LGUs
shall submit annual progress reports on the implementation of their respective local action plan
to the Commission within the first quarter of the following year.
Section 21. Appropriations. The sum of Fifty million pesos (Php50,000,000.00) is hereby
appropriated as initial operating fund in addition to the unutilized fund of the Presidential Task
Force on Climate Change and the Office of the Presidential Adviser on Global Warming and
Climate Change. The sum shall be sourced from the Presidents contingent fund.
Thereafter, the amount necessary to effectively carry out the provisions of this Act shall be
included in the annual General Appropriations Act.
Section 22. Implementing Rules and Regulations. Within ninety (90) days after the approval of
this Act, the Commission shall, upon consultation with government agencies, LGUs, private
sector, NGOs and civil society, promulgate the implementing rules and regulations of this Act:
Provided, That failure to issue rules and regulations shall not in any manner affect the executory
nature of the provisions of this Act.
Section 23. Transitory Provisions. Upon the organization of the Commission, the Presidential
Task Force on Climate Change created under Administrative Order No. 171 and the InterAgency Committee on Climate Change created by virtue of Administrative Order No. 220, shall
be abolished: Provided, That their powers and functions shall be absorbed by the Commission:
Provided, further, That the officers and employees thereof shall continue in a holdover capacity
until such time as the new officers and employees of the Commission shall have been duly
appointed pursuant to the provisions of this Act. All qualified regular or permanent employees
who may be transferred to the Commission shall not suffer any loss in seniority or rank or
decrease in emoluments. Any employee who cannot be absorbed by the Commission shall be
entitled to a separation pay under existing retirement laws.

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Section 24. Separability Clause. If for any reason any section or provision of this Act is
declared as unconstitutional or invalid, the other sections or provisions hereof shall not be
affected thereby.
Section 25. Repealing Clause. All laws, ordinances, rules and regulations, and other issuances
or parts thereof which are inconsistent with this Act are hereby repealed or modified accordingly.
Section 26. Effectivity. This Act shall take effect fifteen (15) days after the completion of its
publication in the Official Gazette or in at least two (2) national newspapers of general
circulation.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 856

CODE ON SANITATION
WHEREAS, the health of the people, being of paramount importance, all efforts of public
services should be directed towards the protection and promotion of health; and
WHEREAS, with the advance in the field of sanitation in recent years, there arises the need for
updating and codifying our scattered sanitary laws to ensure that they are in keeping with
modern standards of sanitation and provide a handy reference and guide for their enforcement;
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Philippines, by virtue of
the powers vested in me by the Constitution, do hereby order and decree the following Code on
Sanitation:
CODE ON SANITATION OF THE PHILIPPINES
CHAPTER I
General Provisions
SECTION 1. Title. The title of this Code is Code on Sanitation of the Philippines.
SECTION 2. Definition of Terms. Whenever any of the following words or terms is used
herein or in any rule or regulation issued under this Code, it shall have the meaning given it in
this section, as follows:
a. Code Code on Sanitation of the Philippines.
b. Department The Department of Health.
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c. Secretary The Secretary of Health.

d. Regional Director an official who heads a Regional Health Office.
e. Local Health Authority an official or employee responsible for the application of a
prescribed health measure in a local political subdivision.
f. Health Officer Provincial, City or Municipal Health Officer.
g. Engineer A Sanitary Engineer.
h. Section any section of this code unless the term refers to other statutes which are specifically
mentioned.
SECTION 3. Functions of the Department of Health. The Department shall have the following
powers and functions:
a. Undertake the promotion and preservation of the health of the people and raise the health
standards of individuals and communities throughout the Philippines;
b. Extend maximum health services to the people in rural areas and provide medical care to those
who cannot afford it by reason of poverty;
c. Develop, administer and coordinate various health activities and services which shall include
public health, preventive, curative and rehabilitative programs, medical care, health and medical
education services;
d. Upgrade the standards of medical practice, the quality of health services and programs to
assure the people of better health services;
e. Assist local health agencies in developing public health programs including medical care, and
promote medical and public health research;
f. Issue permits to establish and operate government and private hospitals, clinics, dispensaries,
schools of nursing, midwifery, and other para-medical courses, puericulture centers, clinical
laboratories and blood banks;
g. Prescribe standard rates of fees for health, medical, laboratory, and other public health
services; and
h. Performs such other functions as may be provided by law.

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SECTION 4. Authority of the Secretary. In addition to the powers and authority of the
Secretary which are provided by law, he is likewise empowered to promulgate rules and
regulations for the proper implementation and enforcement of the provisions of this Code.
SECTION 5. Authority of the Bureau of Directors. The Bureau Directors shall be responsible
for staff activities involving the development of plans, programs, operating standards and
management techniques in their respective field of assignment.
SECTION 6. Authority of the Regional Directors. The Regional Directors shall administer
health functions in their regions, implement policies, standards and programs involving health
services; and enforce the provisions of this Code and the rules and regulations promulgated by
the Secretary under this Code.
SECTION 7. Authority of the Health Officers. The health officers shall administer health
functions in areas under their jurisdiction and enforce the provisions of this Code and the rules
and regulations promulgated by the Secretary under this Code.
SECTION 8. Miscellaneous Provisions.
a. International treaties, agreements and conventions The Republic of the Philippines
recognizes international treaties, agreements and conventions on public health. Their provisions
may be considered parts of this Code provided they do not contravene the Constitution, existing
laws or any provision of this Code.
b. Rights and proceedings Any proceeding which has commenced or any right which has
accrued upon the effectivity of this Code shall not be affected by any of its provisions. However,
matters of procedure and rights arising after the date of effectivity of this Code shall conform to
the provisions hereof.
c. Delegation of power and assignment of duty Whenever a power is granted or a duty is
assigned to any public health officer in this Code, the power may be exercised by a deputy or
agent of the official pursuant to law, unless it is expressly provided otherwise in this Code.
d. Language required Any notice, report, statement or record required or authorized by this
Code, shall be written in English or Pilipino.
e. Mailing of notices Unless otherwise expressly provided, any notice required to be sent to any
person by any provision of this Code, shall be sent through the postal service. The affidavit of the
official or employee who mailed the notice is prima facie evidence that the notice was sent as
prescribed herein.

64

f. Condemnation and seizure of property When any property is officially condemned or seized
by government authorities in the interest of public health, the owner thereof shall not be entitled
to compensation.
g. Command responsibility When a duty is expressly vested in a health officer as provided in
this Code, it shall be understood that it shall likewise be the concern of the superiors of the health
office under the principle of command responsibility.
CHAPTER II
Water Supply
SECTION 9. Prescribed Standards and Procedures.
Standards for drinking water and their bacteriological and chemical examinations, together with
the evaluation of results, shall conform to the criteria set by the National Drinking Water
Standards. The treatment of water to render it safe for drinking, and the disinfection of
contaminated water sources together with their distribution systems shall be in accordance with
procedures prescribed by the Department.
SECTION 10. Jurisdiction of the Department.
The approval of the Secretary or that of his duly authorized representative is required in the
following cases:
a. Sites of water sources before their construction;
b. Delivery of water to consumers from new or recently repaired water systems;
c. Operation of a water system after an order of closure was issued by the Department;
d. Plans and specifications of water systems of subdivisions and projects prior to the construction
of housing units thereat; and
e. Certification of potability of drinking water.
SECTION 11. Types of Water Examinations Required.
The following examinations are required for drinking water:
a. Initial examination. The physical, chemical and bacteriological examinations of water from
newly constructed systems or sources are required before they are operated and opened for
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public use. Examination of water for possible radio-active contamination should also be done
initially.
b. Periodic examination Water from existing sources is subject to bacteriological examination
as often as possible but the interval shall not be longer than six months, while general systematic
chemical examination shall be conducted every 12 months or oftener. Examination of water
sources shall be conducted yearly for possible radioactive contamination.
SECTION 12. Examining Laboratories and Submission of Water Samples.
The examination of drinking water shall be performed only in private or government laboratories
duly accredited by the Department. It is the responsibility of operators of water systems to
submit to accredited laboratories water samples for examination in a manner and at such
intervals prescribed by the Department.
SECTION 13. Other Protective Measures.
To protect drinking water from contamination, the following measures shall be observed:
a. Washing clothes or bathing within a radius of 25 meters from any well or other source of
drinking water is prohibited.
b. No artesians, deep or shallow well shall be constructed within 25 meters from any source of
pollution.
c. No radioactive sources or materials shall be stored within a radius of 25 meters from any well
or source of drinking water unless the radioactive source is adequately and safely enclosed by
proper shielding.
d. No person charged with the management of a public water supply system shall permit any
physical connection between its distribution system and that of any other water supply, unless the
latter is regularly examined as to its quality by those incharge of the public supply to which the
connection is made and found to be safe and potable.
e. The installation of booster pump to boost water direct from the water distribution line of a
water supply system, where low-water pressure prevails is prohibited.
CHAPTER III
Food Establishment
SECTION 14. Sanitary Permit.
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a. No person or entity shall operate a food establishment for public patronage without securing a
permit from the local health office. The term food establishment as used in this chapter means
an establishment where food or drinks are manufactured, processed, stored, sold or served.
b. Every Sanitary Permit shall be posted in a conspicuous place of the establishment.
c. Fees The fees payable on applications for permits and upon the issuances, renewal and
noting of such certificates shall be in such amounts as the City or Municipal Authority may by
resolution impose.
d. Noting of Permit Within 14 days after any change in the ownership or occupancy of any
establishment, the new occupant shall apply to the City or Municipal Health Officer to have such
change noted in the records and on the permit certificate which he shall produce for the purpose
and shall pay the corresponding fee in respect of such noting.
e. Record of Permit Certificates
1) Every City or Municipality shall keep a record of all establishments in respect of which
permits have been issued and of all permit certificates and renewals thereof.
f. The record shall in every case show the following:
i. The name and address of the holder of the permit who in every case shall be the actual
occupier of the establishment;
ii. The location of the establishment;
iii. The purpose or purposes for which the permit has been issued;
iv. The date the first permit was issued and the dates of any renewal thereof;
v. Every change of occupation and management of the establishment since the first permit was
issued; and
vi. Conditions under which the permit was issued or any renewal thereof granted.
The record shall be available at all reasonable times for inspection by any officer of the
Department of Health.
SECTION 15. Health Certificates.

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No person shall be employed in any food establishment without a Health Certificate issued by
the local health authority. This certificate shall be issued only after the required physical and
medical examinations are performed and immunizations are administered at prescribed intervals.
SECTION 16. Quality and Protection of Food. All food must be obtained from sources
approved by the local health authority. In this regard, the following requirements are applicable:
a. Meats, meat products and fish shall be procured from sources under sanitary or veterinary
supervision.
b. All meat and fish shall be properly cooked before serving.
c. No meat products, fish, vegetables and other food sources shall be procured from sources or
areas known to have been affected by radioactivity as for example, areas contaminated with a
very large amount of radioactive fallout.
d. Milk and fluid milk products shall be obtained from sources approved by the local health
authority. Milk obtained from other sources must be sterilized, pasteurized or otherwise heated.
e. Milk shall be stored in a refrigerator. Canned or package milk, other than dry milk powders,
shall be refrigerated after the container has been opened.
f. All perishable and potentially hazardous foods shall be stored at 45F (7C) or below.
g. Cooked food intended to be served hot shall be kept at a temperature not lower than 140F
(60C).
h. Raw fruits and vegetables shall be thoroughly washed before they are used.
SECTION 17. Structural Requirements. Food establishments shall be constructed in
accordance with the following requirements:
1. No person shall use any room or place for or in connection with the preparation, storage,
handling or sale of any article of food
a. Which is at anytime used or in direct communication with a sleeping apartment or toilet;
b. In which any animal is kept; or
c. Which is or has been used for any purpose which would be likely to contaminate the food or to
affect injuriously its wholesomeness or cleanliness; or

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d. Which is not used exclusively for the purpose; Provided, That in department stores or multipurpose business establishments, food may be manufactured, prepared, cooked, stored, or sold
only in the area set aside exclusively for said purpose and for which a sanitary permit has been
issued.
2. No sanitary permit shall be issued for any premises to be used for the preparation, handling
and sale of food unless it is constructed in accordance with the following requirements:
a. Floors. The Floors shall be
i. Constructed of concrete or other impervious and easily cleaned material that is resistant to
wear and corrosion and shall be adequately graded and drained; all angles between the floors and
walls shall be rounded off to a height of not less than 3 inches (7.62 cm.) from the floor; or
ii. Constructed of wood with dovetailed or tongue and grooved floor boards laid on a firm
foundation and tightly clamped together with all angles between the floor and walls rounded off
to a height of 3 inches (7.62 cm.); or
iii. Constructed in accordance with the requirements of sub-clause (i) and (ii) of this clause and
covered with linoleum, smooth surfaced rubber or similar material fixed to the floor with cement
or suitable adhesive: Provided, That with the approval in writing of the local authority, floors
may be covered with carpets or other floor covering in those parts of the premises where such
carpets or coverings can be satisfactorily cleaned and maintained.
b. Walls
i. The internal surface of walls shall have a smooth, even, non-absorbent surface capable of being
readily cleaned without damage to the surface and constructed of dust-proof materials;
ii. The walls, where subject to wetting or splashing, shall be constructed of impervious, nonabsorbent materials to a height of not less than 79 inches (2 meters) from the floor;
iii. The internal walls shall be painted in light colors or treated with such other wall finish as the
health authority may prescribe.
c. Ceilings
i. All ceilings or, if no ceiling is provided, the entire under-surface of the roof shall be dust-proof
and washable.
ii. The ceiling or undersurface of the roof of rooms in which food is prepared or packed or in
which utensils or hands are washed shall be smooth, non-absorbent and light coloured.
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d. Lighting
i. The general standards of illumination provided shall permit effective inspection and cleaning
and shall be of sufficient intensity appropriate to the purpose for which any room or place is
used;
ii. In rooms where food is prepared or packed or in which utensils or hands are washed there
shall be a minimum illumination intensity of 20 foot-candles; in premises where food is
consumed, there shall be a minimum illumination intensity of 5 foot-candles. Intensities of
illumination shall be measured at a point 30 inches (76.20 cm.) above the floor;
iii. All lighting shall be reasonably free from glare and distributed so as to avoid shadows;
iv. At other areas or working surfaces, the illumination shall be of such intensity as may be
required by the health authority.
e. Ventilation
i. Ventilation shall be provided which shall be effective and suitable to maintain comfortable
condition;
ii. The ventilation shall be adequate to prevent the air from becoming excessively heated, prevent
condensation and the formation of excess moisture on walls, ceilings and for the removal of
objectionable odours, fumes and impurities;
iii. In the absence of effective natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation with airflow from a
clean area, and discharging in such a manner as not to create a nuisance, shall be provided;
iv. Canopies, air ducts, fans or other appliances shall be provided as required by the health
authority in particular circumstances;
v. Effective provision shall be made for securing and maintaining a reasonable temperature;
f. Overcrowding There shall be sufficient floor space to enable every person working thereon
to carry out his duties efficiently and to permit easy access for cleaning. Working spaces, aisles
or passageways and areas to which customers have access shall be unobstructed and sufficient to
permit movement of employees and customers without contamination of food by clothing or
personal contact.
g. Changerooms

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1. There shall be provided adequate and suitable lockers or other facilities for the orderly storage
of clothing and personal belongings of employees or persons engaged or employed in the
premises. Such facilities shall be so situated and arranged so that there is no contamination of
food by contact with clothing, and where the number of persons engaged or employed is four or
more of either sex, there shall be provided separate changing rooms for each sex.
h. Wash-Hand Basins
i. Wash-hand basins shall be installed in convenient places and as near as practicable to where
the person for whose use they are provided are working while handling food for sale or in such
locations as may be otherwise prescribed in any particular case.
ii. If required in writing by the local health authority an additional wash-hand basin shall be
installed as near as practicable to the toilet facilities: Provided, that the wash-hand basins
specified in this Code need not be installed in premises where only food in sealed containers is
sold: and, Provided, further, that wash-hand basins specified in this regulation shall be installed
under specifications of the National Plumbing Code of the Philippines.
i. Wash-Hand Basins Maintenance
i. An adequate supply of soap, clean towels, roller towels presenting a clean surface to each user
from a continuous roller towel dispenser or other hand drying services approved by health
authorities.
ii. The wash-hand basin and all hand washing facilities shall, at all times, be maintained in good
repair and in a clean condition.
iii. All wash-hand basins shall, at all times, while the premises are being used, be supplied with
hot and cold or tempered running water at a minimum temperature of 100F (37.8C).
SECTION 18. Use of Food-Service Spaces.
a. Food-service spaces shall not be used as living or sleeping quarters.
b. Clothing or personal effects shall be kept in lockers or in designated places away from food
service spaces.
c. No animal or live fowls shall be allowed in such spaces.
d. Persons not directly connected with food preparation and serving shall not be allowed to stay
in food-serving spaces.

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e. Foods in storage or in preparation must not be handled by anyone other than the preparation
and serving staff.
SECTION 19. Food Handlers.
a. No person shall be employed in any food establishment without a health certificate issued by
the local health authority.
b. Food handlers shall at all times:
i. Wear clean working garments. The Cook shall wear prescribed caps and female employees
caps or hairnets.
ii. Observe good personal hygiene.
iii. Wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water and dry them with a clean or disposable
towel or a suitable hand-drying device immediately before working, or after visiting the toilet.
SECTION 20. Vermin Control.
Vermin A group of insects or small animals such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, fleas, lice,
bedbugs, mice, and rats which are vectors of diseases.
a. Spaces where food and drinks are stored, prepared and served shall be so constructed and
maintained as to exclude vermin.
b. All opening which connects spaces to the outer air shall be effectively protected with screen of
non-corrosive wire 16-mesh or finer. Door screens shall be tight-fitting.
c. A vermin abatement program shall be maintained in the establishments by their owners,
operators, or administrators. If they fail, neglect or refuse to maintain a vermin abatement
programs, the local health agency will undertake the work at their expense.
d. During deratting or disinfecting operations, all foodstuffs, utensils, food preparation and
cleaning equipment shall be covered to protect them from toxic chemical substances.
e. Vermin control in public places shall be the responsibility of the provincial, city or municipal
governments which have jurisdiction over them.
f. The procedure and frequency of vermin abatement program shall be determined and approved
by the local health authority.

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SECTION 21. Toilet and Washing Facilities.

a. Adequate and clean toilet facilities for male and female customers and personnel shall be
provided in properly located areas.
b. Toilet rooms shall not open directly into spaces where food is prepared, stored or served.
Where such toilets exist, the doors shall be tight fitting and self-closing.
c. Adequate hand-washing facilities shall be provided within or adjacent to toilet room.
d. Facilities shall include hot and cold running water, single-service paper or cloth towel
dispenser or drying device and soap or detergent.
SECTION 22. Disposal of Refuse.
a. Refuse cans may be used in food-preparation areas for immediate use only.
b. Storage refuse cans, filled and empty, shall be in a designated space separate from foodhandling operations.
c. These cans shall be constructed and maintained as to be vermin-proof and easily cleaned.
d. Cans containing refuse shall be tightly covered at all times, except during actual use in foodhandling areas.
e. Holding bins may likewise be used, provided they are constructed of impervious, readilycleaned materials, and fitted with tight-fitting covers.
f. Where refuse cans are used, a space separate from the food-handling spaces and adjacent to the
refuse-can storage space shall be provided for cleaning them. This space shall be equipped with
scrubbing-brushes, cleansing agents, steam or hot water under pressure, and a hose fitted with
adjustable nozzle.
SECTION 23. Equipment and Utensils.
a. They shall be so designed, fabricated and installed so that cleaning is easy and they do not
pose health hazards.
b. Lead-soldered containers and cadium-lined piping and fixtures shall not be used.
c. Surfaces that come into contact with food or drinks shall be constructed of materials that are
impervious, corrosion-resistant, non-toxic, easily cleanable, durable and resistant to chipping.
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d. Sliding doors on cabinets shall be easily cleanable and removable. Runners shall be allotted at
the ends to permit removal of dust and debris. The bottom shelves of open-based fixtures shall be
removable to facilitate inspection, cleaning and maintenance.
SECTION 24. Washing of Utensils.
a. They shall be scraped and pre-rinsed to remove food articles.
b. They shall be thoroughly cleansed in warm water at 120F (49C) with soap or detergent.
c. If running water is not used, the wash-water shall be changed frequently.
SECTION 25. Bactericidal Treatment.
Eating and drinking utensils and equipment, after thoroughly cleaned, shall be subjected to one
of the following bactericidal treatments:
a. Immersion for at least half a minute in clean hot water at a temperature of at least 170F
(77C);
b. Immersion for at least one minute in a lukewarm chlorine solution 50 ppm;
c. Exposure in a steam cabinet at a temperature of at least 170F (77C) for at least 15 minutes at
a temperature of 200F (90C) for at least 5 minutes;
d. Exposure in an oven or hot-air cabinet at a temperature of at least 180F (82C) for at least 20
minutes; or
e. Any other method approved by the local health authority.
SECTION 26. Handling of Washed Utensils.
a. Washed utensils shall be allowed to drain dry in wire racks without use of drying cloths, or
shall be stored in a self-draining position to permit ready air-drying.
b. The drying cloth on which to store dishes and utensils temporarily after bactericidal treatment
should be clean and changed frequently.
SECTION 27. Storage of Washed Utensils.
a. They shall be stored in a clean and dry place adequately protected against vermin and other
sources of contamination.
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b. Cups, bowls, and glasses, shall be inverted for storage.

c. When not stored in closed cupboards or lockers, utensils and containers shall be covered or
inverted whenever practicable. Utensils shall not be stored on the bottom shelves of open
cabinets below the working top level.
d. Racks, trays and shelves shall be made of materials that are impervious, corrosion-resistant,
non-toxic, smooth, durable and resistant to chipping.
e. Drawers shall be made of the same materials and kept clean. Felt-line drawers are not
acceptable, but the use of clean and removable towels for lining drawers is acceptable.
SECTION 28. Dry Storage of Non-Perishable Foods.
Non-perishable foods shall be stored in the following manner:
a. Designated spaces, lockers, cupboards, racks, shelves and containers shall be used for storage.
b. All spaces, lockers and cupboard shall be constructed of materials of the same quality as used
for food-preparation and food-serving operations. Containers shall be made of metal fitted with
tight covers.
c. The recommended temperature range for dry stores is 50-60C (10-15C) except where dry
foods for immediate use are stored in the preparation and servicing spaces.
SECTION 29. Refrigerated Storage of Perishable Foods.
Perishable foods shall be stored in the following manner:
a. They shall be kept at or below 45F (7C) except during preparation or when held for
immediate serving after preparation.
b. When such foods are to be stored for extended periods, a temperature of 40F (40C) is
recommended.
c. Fruits and vegetables shall be stored in cool rooms.
d. Recommended temperatures for perishable food storage are:
1) Frozen foods; not more than 10F (2C)
2) Meat and fish: 32-38F (0-3C)
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3) Milk and milk products: 40-45F (5-7C)

4) Fruits and vegetables: 44-50F (7-10C)
e. All refrigerating compartments and refrigerators must be kept clean, in good repair and free
from odours. They shall be provided with thermometers with scale divisions not larger than 2F
(1C). Sufficient shelving shall be provided to prevent stocking and to permit adequate
ventilation and cleaning.
SECTION 30. Food Servicing Operations.
These operations should be in accordance with the following requirements:
a. Hand contacts with food or drink shall be avoided; fingers shall not be used to serve butter,
ice, or similar items of food. Sugar shall be served in covered dispensers or containers, or in
packages wrapped for single service.
b. The surfaces of containers and utensils, including glasses and tablewares, which come in
contact with food and drink shall not be handled.
c. Disposable cups, plates, spoons and other single-service containers and utensils shall be
purchased in sanitary cartons and stored in a clean, dry place until used. These articles shall be so
handled on removal from the carton that the hand does not touch the surface which will be in
contact with food or drink.
d. Clean cloths, napkins, spoons, towels, and other cloth equipment shall be stored in clean
places designated specifically for them. Soiled linens, including towels, aprons, and coats, shall
be stored in a closed bin or locker, suitably marked.
e. Spoons, spatulas, dippers and scoops used intermittently for dispensing frozen desserts shall be
kept in running water or in water maintained at 170F (77C) and frequently changed, or they
may be washed and stored in a dry place after each use. Constant-temperature bottles and other
containers used for potable water and other beverages shall be kept clean and given effective
bactericidal treatment before and after subsequent use.
SECTION 31. Evaluation of Food Establishment. It shall be the duty of the Provincial,
Municipal or City Health Officer to cause an inspection and evaluation of every food
establishment requiring a permit for its operations, at least every six months and shall cause as
many additional inspections and re-inspections and evaluation to be made as are necessary for
the enforcement of the provision of this Chapter.

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During the inspection or evaluation carried out at least every six months, the inspector shall
record his findings on an inspection form provided for the purpose and shall furnish the original
of such report to the holder of sanitary permit, the manager or occupier of the premises. Demerits
entered in the appropriate column inspection forms shall indicate that the item does not, in the
opinion of the inspector, comply with the requirements of this regulation. Within 48 hours of the
inspection or evaluation, the original of the inspection report shall be furnished the holder of the
permit certificate, the manager or occupier of the food establishment. Whenever an inspection
form issued indicates non-compliance items relating to any particular type of premises, the
inspector shall notify the holder of the sanitary permit, the manager or occupier of the correction
to be made and indicate a reasonable period for its compliance. If upon re-inspection after the
deadline the inspector finds the correction has not been effected he shall forthwith report to the
Health Officer and the Health Officer shall revoke the sanitary permit. A copy of the inspection
form and any notices served shall, in all cases, be filed and kept by the local health authority and
be available at all reasonable time for inspection by an officer of the Department of Health.
a. Service of Notice Whenever an inspection or evaluation report form indicates noncomplying items, the Health Officer of the Province, Municipality or City may cause to be
served on the holder of the permit, the manager or occupier a notice requiring him, within the
time stated in the notice, to take such remedial action as may be specified therein. In the event
within the time stated in the notice, hereinafter called the first notice, the terms of the first notice
are not complied with, the Health Officer may cause to be served on the holder of the permit, the
manager or occupier a second notice calling on him to show cause, at a time and place stated in
the notice, why the permit issued in respect of the food establishment should not be revoked.
b.Revocation of Permits After prior notice and hearing as provided above, the Health Officer, if
satisfied that the terms of the two notices have not been complied with or that the failure to
comply therewith is not excusable, shall revoke the said permit.
c. Summary Suspension of Permits Whenever the Provincial, Municipal or City Health Officer
finds unsanitary or unhealthy conditions in the operation of a food establishment which in his
judgement constitute a substantial hazard to the public health, the Health Officer may order the
immediate suspension of the permit. Any person to whom such an order is issued written petition
shall be afforded a hearing as soon as possible.
d. Appeals The person or panel conducting the hearing may confirm, modify or reverse the
decision appealed from, which decision shall be final.
e. Protection of Food Notwithstanding the other provisions of this regulation relating to the
issuance of permits, every person who is engaged in the sale of food or in the manufacture,
preparation, storage, packing or delivery of food for sale shall protect such food from
contamination.
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f. Power of Entry Any Sanitary Inspector or duly authorized officer of the Department of
Health or of the Provincial, Municipal or City Health Officer, upon presentation of proper
credentials may at all reasonable times enter any premises engaged in the manufacture,
preparation or packing of any article of food for sale or any premises used for any of the
purposes referred to in this Code for the purpose of inspection or any other action necessary for
administration of this Code.
SECTION 32. Special Provisions.
a. Groceries or Sari-Sari Stores
1. No grocery or sari-sari store shall be established within a distance of 25 meters from any
source of contamination.
2. All foods which require no further cooking before they are eaten shall be protected from
contamination while in countries or showcases.
b. Bakeries
1. Delivery trucks and carts of bakery products shall always be kept clean and sanitary.
c. Dairies
1. No dairy shall keep unhealthy or infected cows, carabaos or goats for the production of milk,
or feed them unwholesome food which produces impure or unwholesome milk.
2. No animals used for the production of milk shall be allowed to graze on land which has been
contaminated by radioactivity.
3. No dairy shall sell unwholesome milk that has not been previously pasteurized or otherwise
sterilized.
d. Ice Plants
1. Only potable water shall be used in the manufacture of ice.
2. In storing and transporting ice intended for public consumption, precautionary measures shall
be taken to protect the ice from sources of contamination.
e. Ambulant Food Vendors
1. These vendors shall sell only bottled food drinks, biscuits and confectionaries.
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2. It is prohibited for food vendors to sell food that requires the use of utensils.
f. Oyster Beds
1. Oysters shall be planted and grown only in areas approved by the Secretary or his duly
authorized representatives and in places duly licensed by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources.
2. Oysters offered for sale, if not originating from approved areas, shall be confiscated and
destroyed by the local health authority.
g. Fish Marketing Areas
1. Only fresh and wholesome fish products shall be sold.
2. Fish caught in radioactive zones as well as in areas contaminated by toxic substances or high
in mercury count as determined by the health authorities shall be condemned and not be allowed
for public consumption.
3. The selling, distribution and buying of fish caught through the use of explosives and chemicals
are prohibited.
SECTION 33. Responsibility of the Local Health Authority. The local health authority shall:
a. Make periodic inspections to enforce the maintenance of adequate sanitation in food
establishments and their premises;
b. Take samples of food and drink from any establishments or vendor as often as necessary to
determine if there are unwholesome, adulterated, or contaminated by radioactivity;
c. Prevent the sale or condemn and destroy food and drinks if these are found unfit for human
consumption;
d. Seal and prohibit the use of devices, utensils, containers, vehicles, machines, piping and
appurtenances if in his opinion they are unsanitary; and
e. Enforce the provisions of this Chapter and the rules and regulations promulgated by the
Secretary.
CHAPTER IV
Markets and Abattoirs
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SECTION 34. Prescribed Standards of Construction. The construction of markets and abattoirs
shall conform to standards prescribed by the Department. These standards shall be set along the
following guidelines:
1. Suitability of site insofar as elimination of nuisance condition and prevention of contamination
are concerned;
2. Availability of ample water supply for cleaning;
3. Accessibility of adequate drainage facilities;
4. Durability of construction to protect vendors and customers from any hazard and exposure to
the elements; and
5. Facilities for sanitation maintenance, such as cleaning and elimination of harborages of
vermin.
SECTION 35. Responsibility of the Local Health Authority.
a. On Markets
1. Make periodic inspections to ascertain the maintenance of adequate sanitary conditions of
markets and their premises;
2. Supervise and control the proper care and use of market stalls;
3. Prohibit the construction of living quarters within any market and its premises;
4. Enforce the ban on construction of partitions, sheds or booths within the market area.
b. On Abattoirs
1. Supervise the maintenance of adequate sanitation in abattoirs and their premises;
2. Enforce the requirements on the examination of meat as provided in existing laws;
3. Permit the slaughter of animals for public consumption in other designated areas in certain
exigencies, provided public health is adequately protected;
4. Supervise the sanitary disposal of all abattoir wastes; and

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5. Ensure that only healthy animals shall be slaughtered, and that the method of slaughtering, the
techniques of dressing and the storing, handling and transporting procedures are in accordance
with prescribed standards.
SECTION 36. Responsibility of Local Governments and Private Operators. Local governments
and private operators in charge of public or private markets and abattoirs shall employ an
adequate number of personnel to ensure their efficient operation and hygienic maintenance.
These employees shall be under the direct supervision of the local health authority.
CHAPTER V
Public Laundry
SECTION 37. Sanitary Permit. No public laundry shall operate without a sanitary permit from
the Secretary or his duly authorized representative. As used in this Chapter, a public laundry is a
laundry established and operated for commercial purposes, open to the public, and not to an
exclusive clientele.
SECTION 38. General Requirements. The construction and operation of a public laundry shall
be governed by the following requirements:
a. Structural Requirements
1. The site should be distant from sources of nuisance.
2. Only durable construction materials shall be used.
3. Smooth and water-tight materials shall be used for flooring.
4. All work rooms shall be properly ventilated and provided with 10 foot-candles of lighting.
5. Adequate drying facilities shall be provided and articles for drying protected from sources of
contamination.
b. Sanitary Requirements
1. Laundry supplies in both liquid and solid state shall be properly stored, prepared and handled.
Containers of chemical shall be properly labeled.
2. Employees shall be provided with potable drinking water, toilets, bathing and washing
facilities.

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3. Employees shall be provided with lockers for their working garments and street cloths.
4. The plant and its premises and equipment shall be maintained clean and sanitary at all times.
SECTION 39. Special Requirements. The following requirements shall be enforced:
a. All articles to be laundered coming from hospitals and infected sources shall be treated by
exposure to a sufficient quantity of hot water detergents or by other effective means of
disinfection.
b. All linen, bed clothes, pajamas, towels, bedsheets, pillow cases, etc. that have come in contact
with any form of radioactivity should be isolated in a certain area and monitored by Radiation
Safety personnel before sending these articles for laundry. If any amount of radioactive
contamination is found, the affected article should be set aside and the radioactivity allowed to
completely decay before said article is sent for laundry.
c. All articles for delivery to the laundry shall be kept in containers which shall be kept closed
until the articles are removed at the laundry.
d. Laundry vehicles shall be kept clean and sanitary at all times.
e. A separate room shall be used solely for receiving, sorting, marking or handling unwashed
articles.
f. Diapers must be protected from pathogenic organisms and from chemical substances which are
irritating to the skin of the infant. Laundered diapers for delivery shall be pack in sealed sanitary
containers.
CHAPTER VI
School Sanitation and Health Services
SECTION 40. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter, the following terms shall mean:
a. School An institution of learning which may be public, private or parochial.
b. Special School A school which utilizes cadavers, plants, animals, bacterial and viral cultures
for studies and research.
c. Physical Environments The school plant, grounds and facilities.

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d. Emotional Environment Factors which affect the emotional health of students and members
of the faculty.
SECTION 41. The Physical Environment In the design and construction of the school plant,
the following factors shall be considered:
a. Site Traffic hazards are to be avoided but not to the point of sacrificing accessibility to public
transportation. It shall be distant from sources of nuisances.
b. Grounds The acreage shall be large enough to permit playgrounds, athletic fields and school
gardens.
c. Building Preferably it shall be constructed of strong and durable materials and designed
along functional lines. For the prevention of fire hazards, the requirements of the local fire
department shall be observed. Sufficient ventilation shall be provided. Wall and ceiling finishes
should be chosen so as to give optimum lighting with minimum glare. Artificial lighting with
louvered fluorescent or incandescent fixture shall be used to supply a minimum lighting of 25
foot-candles in the darkest corner. For flooring, suitable materials shall be used which will give
maximum durability without creating a slippery surface.
d. Sanitary Facilities The school population shall be provided with potable water, sewage and
waste disposal systems shall likewise conform to the requirements prescribed in this Code.
SECTION 42. The Emotional Environment. For the promotion of emotional health of the
school population the following requirements shall be observed:
a. Suitable Location The school site shall be located away from disturbances and places which
give undesirable influence.
b. Recreational Facilities The school must have safe and attractive playgrounds and adequate
facilities for suitable sports and games.
c. Rest Rooms Facilities shall be provided where faculty members can rest and get short respite
from teaching chores.
SECTION 43. Health Services. Trained personnel and adequate facilities should be available
so that students may be afforded the following health services:
a. Periodic physical and medical examination;
b. Periodic immunization;

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c. Medical and dental treatment;

d. Treatment for common emergencies; and
e. Counselling and guidance.
SECTION 44. Requirements for Special Schools.
a. Cadavers shall be stored in morgues and dissected in dissecting rooms, all of which shall be
constructed and maintained in accordance with standards prescribed by the Department.
b. Poisonous or harmful plants and animals shall be kept in adequate and a secured areas.
c. Viral and bacterial cultures shall be kept in laboratories under standard security laboratory
measures.
d. Schools utilizing radioactive materials or sources for study or research should closely conform
to the requirements and guidelines given by the Radiation Health Office and the Philippine
Atomic Energy Commission concerning radiation protection.
CHAPTER VII
Industrial Hygiene
SECTION 45. Sanitary Requirements for Operating an Industrial Establishment. The following
sanitary requirements shall be applicable to industrial establishments:
a. No person, firm, corporation, or entity shall operate any industrial establishment without first
obtaining a sanitary permit from the Secretary or his duly authorized representatives.
b. Industrial establishments shall be allowed to operate only in places or zones assigned for the
kind of industry by existing zoning laws, ordinances, or policies. The local health authority shall
determine the suitability of location where no zoning law, ordinance or policy exists.
c. Adequate potable water supply shall be provided to employees.
d. Sewage disposal shall be by means of a municipal or city sewerage system whenever possible.
If no municipal or city sewerage system exists it shall be done in accordance with the provisions
of this Code. Adequate and conveniently located toilet and bath facilities shall be provided for
each sex.

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e. All wastes incident to the operation of the industrial plant shall be collected, stored, or
disposed of in a manner to prevent health hazards, nuisances, and pollution. Where a city or
municipal collection and disposal system exists, it should be utilized.
f. An abatement program for the control of vermin shall be maintained.
g. Adequate restrooms and mass halls shall be provided for employees.
h. All places of employment and all workrooms, including machinery and equipment, shall be
kept clean and sanitary.
SECTION 46. Responsibility of the Secretary. The Secretary shall:
a. Issue a list of maximum concentration of atmospheric contaminants as a guide in appraising
health hazards and in evaluating control measures. The term maximum concentration as used in
this Chapter means the amount of atmospheric contaminant which can be tolerated by man for
continuous daily exposure with no impairment of health or well-being either immediate or after a
long period of exposure.
b. Review the concentration values at regular intervals to amend or alter the list where indicated.
c. Specify other concentrations of short intermittent duration capable of causing acute
impairment of health.
d. Require control of other contaminants known or believed to be capable of causing impairment
of health but not included in the list already issued by the Department.
e. Prescribe control measures to eliminate transmission of infection disease through processing
or handling of industrial products or wastes.
f. Prescribe illumination standard values and order their review at regular intervals to alter or
amend values when indicated.
g. Promulgate measures to effectively and adequately control any possible radioactivity to which
workers may be exposed while on their job.
h. Promulgate control measures to reduce noise and pollution.
SECTION 47. Responsibilities of the Employer and Employees. The following are the
responsibilities of the employer and employees in industrial establishments:
a. Employer responsibility
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1. Provide, install and maintain in good repair all control measures and protective equipment;
2. Inform affected employees regarding the nature of the hazards and the reasons for, and
methods of control measures and protective equipment;
3. Make periodical testing of the hearing of all employees in noisy areas of operation;
4. Adopt measures so that the noise produced is within allowable limits so as not to affect
neighboring offices, buildings or establishments;
5. Request the Department a permit for variation from the requirements when other means of
equivalent protection are provided; and
6. Provide personal protective equipment and/or protective barriers when they are necessary.
b. Employee responsibility
1. Observe strictly protective control measures which are prescribed; and
2. Use equipment provided them properly.
SECTION 48. Environmental Provisions. The environmental provisions enumerated hereunder
for the protection of the health of workers are applicable to all industrial establishments:
a. Control of atmospheric contaminants
1. Workers shall not be exposed to atmospheric contaminants hazardous to health.
2. Control of atmospheric contaminants shall be accomplished by methods approved by the
Secretary or his duly authorized representatives or other government authority.
b. Control of infectious agents
1. Control measures shall be provided to eliminate or control the transmission of infectious
diseases through processing or handling of industrial products or wastes.
c. Control of possible sources of radiation hazards should be carried out under the supervision of
the Radiation Health Officer or his authorized representative.
d. Noise

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Control measures shall be provided to reduce intensity of noise sufficiently to render it harmless
to workers and to eliminate it at its source as a nuisance by following the recommendations of
the local health or other government authority.
e. Illumination
1. Adequate lighting shall be provided and distributed in all work areas in amount required for
the type of work or seeing tasks measured by a light-meter with a minimum of glare and
contrasting intensities between work and workroom.
2. Where the specific task requires more light than provided by general illumination,
supplementary lighting shall be supplied.
f. Ventilation
1. Natural or artificial ventilation shall be provided in all work areas at a rate to insure a safe and
healthful working atmosphere, free from injurious amounts of toxic materials and reasonably
free from offensive odours and dust throughout the establishment.
2. Proper control measures shall be used to reduce concentration of toxic contaminants to
allowable limits.
3. Air inlets shall be arranged, located and equipped to insure sufficient air velocity and an
exhaust system which shall be located so that discharged materials shall not re-enter places of
employment or habitations nor create any hazard of nuisance.
SECTION 49. Personal Protective Equipment. The following requirements shall be applicable
for personal protective equipment.
a. Personal protective equipment and/or protective barriers shall be provided whenever
substances, radiations or mechanical irritants are encountered in a manner capable of causing any
pathological change or injury or impairment in functions of any part of the body through skin
and/or mucous membrane absorption.
b. Personal protection equipment which shall include respiratory protectors and other accessories
shall be fitted to each exposed worker when necessary.
c. X-ray film badges or pocket decimeters should be worn by workers who, during their course
of work are unavoidably exposed to even a small amount of radiation.
d. Supervisors and employees shall familiarize themselves with the use, proper sanitary care and
storage of this equipment.
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SECTION 50. Health Services. Medical services shall be provided to all employees in
accordance with existing laws and the rules and regulations prescribed by the Department.
CHAPTER VIII
Public Swimming or Bathing Places
SECTION 51. Sanitary Permit. No public swimming and bathing places shall be operated for
public use without a sanitary permit issued by the Secretary or his duly authorized representative.
SECTION 52.Protection of Customers. To protect the health and safety of persons who use
them, the Department shall promulgate:
a. Rules and regulations concerning:
1. Correct sanitary practices for persons swimming or bathing to prevent the transmission of
communicable diseases;
2. Correct sanitary procedures for personnel working in those places to maintain their adequate
sanitation and cleanliness of accessories used by customers;
3. Adequate number of trained personnel and necessary equipment needed for life-saving and
rescue work;
4. Post conspicuous signs to warn the public of the presence of artificial or natural hazards; and
b. Standards and criteria concerning:
1. Sanitary structural requisites for swimming pools and bath houses to prevent pollution of their
waters and to facilitate sanitation maintenance;
2. Sanitary structural standards for appurtenances, such as toilets, shower baths and dressing
rooms to eliminate the risk of infection;
3. Methods of determining the sanitary quality of water, particularly that which is used in
swimming pools; and
4. Criteria to be used in the limitation of swimming or bathing loads of swimming pools in
accordance with the type of water treatment applied.
SECTION 53. Responsibility of the Local Health Authority. The local health authority
concerned shall:
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a. Inspect the state of sanitation of public swimming or bathing places;

b. Ascertain if their personnel are examined regularly for the presence of any infections or
contagious disease;
c.Enforce rules and regulations of the Department under this Chapter; and
d. Recommend to the Department the revocation of their permits when it is deemed necessary for
the protection of public health.
CHAPTER IX
Rest Areas, Bus Terminals, Bus Stops, and Service Stations
SECTION 54.Rest areas, bus terminals, bus stops and service station areas with one or more
permanent sheds, buildings and service facilities for motor vehicles shall be provided with
sanitary facilities for the convenience and personal necessities of the travelling public.
a. Rest areas, bus terminals, bus stops and service stations shall be established with ample area to
prevent overcrowding of motor vehicles and travellers.
b. They shall be provided with adequate ventilation and lighting and away from sources of
nuisance.
c. Safe and adequate water supply shall be provided in accordance with the provisions of Chapter
II of this Code.
d. Excreta and sewage collection and disposal shall be provided in accordance with the
provisions of Chapter XVII of this Code.
e. Refuse collection and disposal shall be in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XVIII of
this Code.
f. Comfort rooms Adequate number of comfort rooms shall be provided as well as auxiliary
facilities therein in accordance with the provisions on Chapter XVII of this Code.
g. Waiting sheds for commuters shall be of adequate size to comfortably accommodate a
minimum of thirty (30) persons. Floors shall be of smooth concrete finish and adequate sitting
facilities provided for.
h. Sale of foodstuffs in those establishments shall be done in conformity with the provisions of
Chapter III of this Code.
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CHAPTER X
Camps and Picnic Grounds
SECTION 55. No camps and picnic grounds shall be open for public patronage without a
sanitary permit issued by Secretary or his duly authorized representative.
a. Camps and picnic ground sites shall not be subject to flooding, must be well drained, distant
from any source of nuisance and will not endanger sources of any public water supply.
b. Camp and picnic houses shall be provided with adequate lighting and ventilation. Where tents
are used flooring shall be at least 4 inches above the ground.
c. Adequate and safe drinking water shall be available at all times in accordance with the
provisions of Chapter II of this Code.
d. Adequate number of sanitary facilities shall be provided.
e. Sewage disposal shall be in accordance with the provisions on Chapter XVII of this Code.
f. The storage, preparation and serving of food shall be in accordance with Chapter III of this
Code.
g. Refuse cans shall be provided at strategic points in the ground area provided with tight fitting
cover. A regular collection service shall be maintained. Refuse disposal shall be in accordance
with the provisions of Chapter XVIII of this Code.
h. Camps and picnic grounds shall at all times be maintained clean, free from litter and
accumulated rubbish.
i. A program on Vermin Control shall be made in accordance with Chapter XVI of this Code.
CHAPTER XI
Dancing Schools, Dance Halls and Night Clubs
SECTION 56. General Provisions. The following provisions are applicable to dancing schools,
dance halls and night clubs:
a. These establishments shall be operated and opened for public patronage only when a sanitary
permit is issued by the local health authority.

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b. These establishments and their premises shall be kept clean and sanitary at all times.
c. Patrons shall be provided with adequate potable water and toilet facilities in accordance with
standards prescribed by this Code.
d. There shall be no private rooms or separate compartments for public use except those used for
lavatories, dressing rooms, bars and kitchens.
SECTION 57. Special Provisions. The following provisions are applicable in cases herein
specified:
a. For dancing schools
No person shall be employed as a dancing instructor or instructress without first securing a
health certificate from the local authority.
b. For dance halls and night clubs
1. No person shall employed as hostess or cook or bartender or waiter without first securing a
health certificate from the local health authority.
2. The storage, preparation and serving of food and drinks shall be in accordance with the
provisions prescribed in Chapter III of this Code.
CHAPTER XII
Tonsorial and Beauty Establishments
SECTION 58. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter, the term Tonsorial and Beauty
Establishments include barber shops, beauty parlors, hairdressing and manicuring
establishments and figure slendering salons.
a. Requirements These establishments are subject to the following requirements:
1. A sanitary permit shall be procured from the local health authority before their operation.
2. They shall be maintained clean and sanitary at all times.
3. No person shall be employed to service customers without a health certificate issued by the
local health authority.
b. Correct Sanitary Practices. The following sanitary practices shall be observed.
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1. Working personnel shall wash their hands with soap and water before servicing customers.
2. They shall wear clean working garments.
3. They shall not smoke nor eat while working.
4. Implements of their trade shall be cleaned and disinfected before and after their use.
5. Customers shall be supplied with clean and fresh towels, drapes and other linen necessary.
6. Precautionary measures to prevent disease transmission shall be observed when serving
customers showing any form of dermatoses.
CHAPTER XIII
Massage Clinics and Sauna Bath Establishments
SECTION 59. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter the following terms shall mean:
a. Massage A method wherein the superficial soft parts of the body are rubbed or stroked or
kneaded for remedial or aesthetic or hygienic purposes.
b. Massage Clinic An establishment where massage is administered to customers.
c. Masseur A trained person duly licensed by the Secretary or his authorized representative to
perform massage and to supervise massage clinic attendants.
d. Massage Clinic Attendant A trained person duly permitted by the Secretary or his authorized
representative to massage customers under the guidance and supervision of a masseur.
e. Sauna Bath Establishment An establishment where customers are exposed to steam which is
generated by sprinkling water on hot stones or by some other means.
f. Sauna Bath Attendant A person who applies the proper technique of giving steam bath to
customers.
SECTION 60. Sanitary Permit. No person or entity shall operate a massage clinic and/or a
sauna bath establishment without first securing a sanitary permit from the local health authority.
SECTION 61. Sanitary Requirements. The following requirements shall be enforced:
a. Massage Clinic
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1. The reception and office rooms shall be properly lighted and ventilated.
2. Every massage room shall be adequately ventilated, provided with a sliding curtain at the
entrance and equipped with a suitable and clean massage table.
3. Sanitary and adequate handwashing, bath and toilet facilities shall be available.
4. Customers shall be provided with soap, clean towels, sanitized rubber or plastic slippers. They
shall be required to take a thorough bath before massage.
5. Masseur and masseur attendant shall wash their hands with soap and water before and after
massaging a customer.
6. The establishment and its premises shall be maintained clean and sanitary at all times.
b. Sauna Bath Establishment
1. The reception and office rooms shall be properly lighted and adequately ventilated.
2. The sauna bath room shall be properly lighted, provided with thermometers, and maintained
clean and sanitary at all times.
3. Sanitary and adequate handwashing, bath and toilet facilities shall be available.
4. Customers shall be provided with soap, clean towels and sanitized rubber or plastic slippers.
SECTION 62. Personnel. The following requirements shall be enforced:
a. Masseur
1. The person must have a certificate as a registered masseur, issued by the Committee on
Examiners for Masseur of the Department.
2. He must possess an up-to-date health certificate issued by the local health authority.
3. The person shall wear a clean working garment when attending to customers or when
supervising massage clinic attendants.
b. Massage Clinic Attendant
1. The person shall be properly registered and authorized by the local health authority to work as
massage clinic attendant after compliance with the following requirements:
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a. Satisfactory completion of a training course or study given by a government office, school or

hospital, which is duly authorized and recognized by the Department; and
b. Up-to-date health certificate issued by the local health authority to include VD clearance
secured from any government clinic or hospital.
2. The person must clean working garments when attending to customers.
c. Sauna Bath Attendant
1. Attendant must possess an up-to-date health certificate issued by the local health authority.
2. The person must wear clean working garments when attending to customers.
CHAPTER XIV
Hotels, Motels and Apartments, Lodging, Boarding, or Tenement Houses, and
Condominiums
SECTION 63. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter, the following terms shall mean:
a. Hotel A building where transient guests are received and are supplied with and charged for
meals, lodging and other services.
b. Motel A roadside hotel for motorists, usually consisting of private cabins.
c. Boarding House A building where selected persons for fixed periods of time are supplied
with, and charged for sleeping accommodations and meals.
d. Lodging House A building where persons are supplied with and charged for sleeping
accommodations only.
e. Tenement House A building or portion thereof which is leased or sold to an occupied as
residence by four or more families doing their cooking within the premises but living
independently of one another although having a common right in the use of halls, stairways,
terraces, verandas, toilets, and baths.
f. Apartment House A building containing a number of separate residential suites.
g. Condominium A building with one or more storeys composed of multi-unit residential suites
under joint ownership of occupants, each unit provided with complete sanitary facilities, utilities
and other amenities.
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h. Establishments A collective term construed to include items (a) to (g).

SECTION 64. General Provisions. The following are required for the establishments defined in
the preceding Section:
a. No establishment shall be operated and opened for public patronage without a sanitary permit
issued by the Secretary or his duly authorized representative.
b. Any extension or additional construction in an establishment shall require a sanitary permit
before it could be operated.
c. All establishments shall provide their patrons with adequate water supply, toilet and bath
facilities in accordance with standards prescribed in this Code.
d. Establishments and their premises shall be kept clean and sanitary at all times.
e. Periodic insect and vermin control measures shall be undertaken to eradicate vectors of
diseases.
f. Animals, fowls and pets shall be housed in appropriate kennels or cages separate from living
quarters.
g. No person shall be employed in establishments without first procuring a health certificate from
the local health authority.
SECTION 65. Special Provisions. The following provisions are applicable.
a. Hotels and Motels
1. The storage, preparation and serving of food to customers shall be in accordance with the
standards prescribed in Chapter III of this Code.
2. Customers shall be provided with clean linen such as bedsheets, pillow cases, towels and
napkins.
3. When rooms or cabins are vacated, their toilets or baths shall be sanitized and clean and fresh
linen shall be provided before the room or cabin is rented for occupancy.
b. Condominium The following conditions are applicable:
1. The choice for sites should consider availability of bus and taxi transportation services.

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2. Nearness to place of work, schools, police stations and clinics.

3. Availability of low-cost goods.
4. Parking facilities and playgrounds for children.
5. Facilities for refuse disposal and cleanliness of buildings, and
6. Efficiency of lifts.
CHAPTER XV
Port, Airport, Vessel and Aircraft Sanitation
SECTION 66. Port and Airport Sanitation. In ports and airports, the following sanitary
requirements shall be applied:
a. Every port and airport shall be provided with potable drinking water and wholesome food
supplied from sources approved by the Secretary or his duly authorized representative.
b. The drinking water and food shall be stored and handled in a manner to ensure their protection
against contamination. The local health authority shall conduct periodic inspections of
equipment, installations and premises, and collect regularly samples of water and food for
laboratory examination to determine if they are fit for human consumption.
c. There shall be available to as many ports and airports as practicable organized medical and
health services with adequate staff, equipment and facilities for the prompt isolation and care of
infected persons, disinfection, disinsecting, deratting, laboratory examination, collection and
examination of rodents for plague infection, collection of water and food samples for
examination.
d. The local health authority for each port and airport shall take all practicable measures to keep
port and airport installation free of rodents.
e. In ports and airports of entry, facilities shall be provided for immunizations required in
international travel.
f. Every port of entry and the area within the perimeter of an airport of entry shall be kept free
from mosquito vectors of yellow fever, malaria and other diseases of epidemiological
significance.

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SECTION 67. Vessel Sanitation. For the purpose of this Section, the provisions of Art. II of the
Quarantine Regulations promulgated under Section 5 of Republic Act No. 123 shall be applied
and enforced.
SECTION 68. Aircraft Sanitation. For the purpose of this Section, the requirements in the
Guide to Hygiene and Sanitation in Aviation of the World Health Organization are adopted as
part of this Code.
CHAPTER XVI
Vermin Control
SECTION 69. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter, the following terms shall mean:
a. Place Land, building, residence, pier, watercraft, aircraft or any means of conveyance.
b. Vermin A group of insects or small animals such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, fleas,
lice, bedbugs, mice and rats which are vectors of diseases.
SECTION 70. General Requirements.
a. A vermin abatement program shall be maintained in places by their owners, operators or
administrators. If they fail, neglect or refuse to maintain a vermin abatement program, the local
health agency will undertake the work at their expense.
b. Vermin control in public places shall be the responsibility of the provincial, city or municipal
governments which have jurisdiction over them.
c. The procedure and frequency of vermin abatement program shall be determined and approved
by the local health authority.
CHAPTER XVII
Sewage Collection and Disposal, Excreta Disposal and Drainage
SECTION 71. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter, the following terms shall mean:
a. Public sewerage system A system serving twenty-five persons or more.
b. Septic tank A water tight receptacle which receives the discharge of a plumbing system or
part thereof, and is designed to accomplish the partial removal and digestion of the suspended

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solid matter in the sewage through a period of detention. Its construction shall be in accordance
with specifications prescribed in this Chapter.
c. House sewer The pipe line conveying sewage from the house or building to the septic tank or
to any point of discharge.
d. Septic tank absorption bed or drain field An underground system of pipes leading from the
outlet of the septic tank, consisting of open-jointed or perforated pipes so distributed that the
effluent from a septic tank is oxidized and absorbed by the soil.
e. Effective capacity of a septic tank The actual liquid capacity of a septic tank as contained
below the liquid level line of the tank.
f. Effective depth of a septic tank The actual liquid depth of a septic tank as measured from the
inside bottom of the septic tank to the liquid level line.
g. Freeboard or air space of a septic tank The distance as measured from the liquid level line to
the inside top of the septic tank.
h. Distribution box A small concrete receptacle between the septic tank and the drain field from
which lines of drain tile extends and which acts as surge tank to distribute the flow of sewage
equally to each line of drain tile.
i. Approved excreta disposal facilities shall mean any of the following:
1. Flush toilets properly connected to a community sewer;
2. Flush toilets connected to a septic tank constructed in accordance with this Chapter;
3. Any approved type pit privy built in accordance with this Chapter; and
4. Any disposal device approved by the Secretary or his duly authorized representative.
j. Privy A structure which is not connected to a sewerage system and is used for the reception,
disposition and storage of feces or other excreta from the human body.
k. Septic privy where the fecal matter is placed in a septic tank containing water and connected
to a drain field but which is not served by a water supply under pressure.
l. Box and can privy A privy where fecal matter is deposited in a can bucket which is removed
for emptying and cleaning.

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m. Concrete vault privy A pity privy with the pit line with concrete in such manner as to make
it water tight.
n. Chemical privy A privy where fecal matter is deposited into a tank containing a caustic
chemical solution to prevent septic action while the organic matter is decomposed.
SECTION 72. Scope of Supervision of the Department. The approval of the Secretary or his
duly authorized representative is required in the following matters:
a.Construction of any approved type of toilet for every house including community toilet which
may be allowed for a group of small houses of light materials or temporary in nature;
b. Plans of individual sewage disposal system and the sub-surface absorption system, or other
treatment device;
c. Location of any toilet or sewage disposal system in relation to a source of water supply;
d. Plans, design data and specifications of a new or existing sewerage system or sewage
treatment plant;
e. The discharge of untreated effluent of septic tanks and/or sewage treatment plants to bodies of
water;
f. Manufacture of septic tanks; and
g. Method of disposal of sludge from septic tanks or other treatment plants.
SECTION 73. Operation of Sewage Treatment Works. Private or public sewerage systems
shall:
a. Provide laboratory facilities for control tests and other examinations needed;
b. Forward to the local health authority operating data, control tests and such other records and
information as may be required;
c. Inform the local health authority in case of break-down or improper functioning of the sewage
treatment works; and
d. Provide for the treatment of all sewage entering the treatment plant.
SECTION 74. Requirements in the Operation of Sewerage Works and Sewage Treatment Plants.
The following are required for sewerage works and sewage treatment plants.
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a. All houses covered by the system shall be connected to the sewer in areas where a sewerage
system is available.
b. Outfalls discharging effluent from a treatment plant shall be carried to the channel of the
stream or to deep water where the outlet is discharged.
c.Storm water shall be discharged to a storm sewer, sanitary sewage shall be discharged to a
sewerage system carrying sanitary sewage only; but this should not prevent the installation of a
combined system.
d. Properly designed grease traps shall be provided for sewers from restaurants or other
establishments where the sewage carries a large amount of grease.
SECTION 75. Septic tanks. Where a public sewerage system is not available, sewer outfalls
from residences, schools, and other buildings shall be discharged into a septic tank to be
constructed in accordance with the following minimum requirements:
a. It shall be generally rectangular in shape. When a number of compartments are used, the first
compartment shall have the capacity from one-half to two-thirds of the total volume of the tank.
b. It shall be built of concrete, whether pre-cast or poured in place. Brick, concrete blocks or
adobe may be used.
c. It shall not be constructed under any building and within 25 meters from any source of water
supply.
SECTION 76. Disposal of Septic Tank Effluent. The effluent from septic tanks shall be
discharged into a sub-surface soil, absorption field where applicable or shall be treated with some
type of a purification device. The treated effluent may be discharged into a stream or body of
water if it conforms to the quality standards prescribe by the National Water and Air Pollution
Control Commission.
SECTION 77. Determination of Septic Tank Capacity. The septic tank capacity may be
determined from the estimated unit flow contained in Table I Quantities of Sewage Flow,
based on adequate detention time interval resulting in efficient sedimentation. Daily flow from
mattered results, may be used as estimated flow when available. For edifices with occupants, the
number of persons to be served shall be computed on the number of rooms with each room
considered as occupied by two persons or on the basis of the actual number of persons served by
the tank, whichever is greater.
SECTION 78. Sanitary Privies. The privy recommended for use is the sanitary privy. It shall
conform with the following minimum requirements:
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a. It shall consist of an earthen pit, a floor covering the pit, and a water-sealed bowl. It shall be so
constructed in order that fecal matter and urine will be deposited into the earthen pit which shall
be completely fly-proof.
b. The pit shall be at least one meter square.
c. The floor should cover the pit tightly to prevent the entrance of flies. It shall be constructed of
concrete or other impervious material.
d. The water-sealed bowl shall be joined to the floor so as to form a water-tight and insect proof
joint.
e. A suitable building, shall be constructed to provide comfort and privacy for the users of the
privy.
f. Wooden floors and seat risers shall not be used.
SECTION 79. Drainage.
a. Responsibility of cities and municipalities It shall be the responsibility of all cities and
municipalities to provide and maintain in a sanitary state and in good repair a satisfactory system
of drainage in all inhabited areas where waste water from buildings and premises could empty
without causing nuisance to the community and danger to public health.
b. Connection to the municipal drainage system Buildings or premises producing waste water
shall be connected to the municipal drainage system in all areas where it exists.
SECTION 80. Special Precaution for Radioactive Excreta and Urine of Hospitalized Patient.
a. Patients given high doses of radioactive isotope for therapy should be given toilet facilities
separate from those used by non-radioactive patients.
b. Radioactive patients should be instructed to use the same toilet bowl at all times and to flush it
at least 3 times after its use.
CHAPTER XVIII
Refuse Disposal
SECTION 81. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter, refuse is an inclusive term for all
solid waste products consisting of garbage, rubbish, ashes, night soil, manure, dead animals,
street sweepings and industrial wastes.
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SECTION 82. Responsibility of Cities and Municipalities. Cities and municipalities shall
provide an adequate and efficient system of collecting, transporting and disposing refuse in their
areas of jurisdiction in a manner approved by the local health authority.
SECTION 83. Additional Requirements.
a. Occupants of buildings and residences shall; provide a sufficient number of receptacles for
refuse. Refuse in receptacles shall be protected against vermin and other animals.
b. Refuse shall be disposed through a municipal collection service. If this service is not available,
disposal shall be by incineration, burying, sanitary landfill or any method approved by the local
health authority.
c. Refuse shall not be thrown in any street, sidewalk, yard, park or any body of water. It shall be
stored in a suitable container while awaiting its final disposal.
d. Streets shall be kept clean by occupants or owners of properties lining the street from the line
of the property to the middle of the street and from one property to the other.
e. Parks, plazas and streets adjacent to public buildings shall be kept clean by the local
government concerned.
CHAPTER XIX
Nuisances and Offensive Trades and Occupations
SECTION 84. Definition of Terms As used in this Chapter, the following terms shall mean and
include:
a. Nuisance Anything that injures health, endangers life, offends the senses or produces
discomfort to the community.
b. Offensive trades or occupations These are the following:
1. Soap boiling;
2. Guts cleaning;
3. Boiling of offal, bones, fat or lard;
*Permissible if process is performed in a public slaughterhouse under prescribed regulations.

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4. Manufacturing of glue or fertilizer;

5. Skin curing;
6. Scrap processing;
7. Manure storing;
8. Lime burning;
9. Lye making; and
10. Any manufacturing process in which lead, arsenic, mercury, phosphorous, or other poisonous
substance is used.
SECTION 85. Types of Nuisances For the purpose of this Chapter, the following shall be
considered nuisances:
a. Public or private premises maintained and used in a manner injurious to health;
b. Breeding places and harborages of vermin;
c. Animals and their carcasses which are injurious to health;
d. Accumulation of refuse;
e. Noxious matter or waste water discharged improperly in streets;
f. Animals stockage maintained in a manner injurious to health;
g. Excessive noise; and
h. Illegal shanties in public or private properties.
SECTION 86. Responsibilities of Owners, Managers or Operators. The Owners, managers or
operators of establishments shall:
a. Secure a sanitary permit from the local health authority before establishing and operating their
business or trade;
b. Remove daily all injurious by-products and wastes;
c. Prevent the escape of industrial impurities and adopt methods to render them innocuous;
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d. Maintain working establishments and their premises clean and sanitary at all times;
e. Store all materials properly to prevent emission of noxious or injurious effluvia.
CHAPTER XX
Pollution of the Environment
SECTION 87. General Provisions. For the purpose of this Chapter, the provisions of Republic
Act No. 3931, the rules and regulations of the National Water and Air Pollution Control
Commission promulgated in accordance with the provisions of Section 6(a) 2 of the said Act,
the provisions of Presidential Decree No. 480, and the rules and regulations of the Radiation
Health Office of the Department of Health shall be applied and enforced.
SECTION 88. Authority of the Secretary. The Secretary is authorized to promulgate rules and
regulations for the control and prevention of the following types of pollution:
a. Pollution of pesticides and heavy metals;
b. Pollution of food caused by chemicals, biological agents, radioactive materials, and excessive
or improper use of food additives;
c. Non-ionizing radiation caused by electronic products such as laser beams or microwaves;
d. Noise pollution caused by industry, land and air transport and building construction;
e. Biological pollutants including the causative agents of intestinal infections;
f. Pollution of agricultural products through the use of chemical fertilizers and plant pesticides
containing toxic chemical substances and unsanitary agricultural practices; and
g. Any other type of pollution which is not covered by the provisions of Republic Act 3931, the
Rules and Regulations of the National Water and Air Pollution Control Commission, the
provisions of Presidential Decree No. 480 and the rules and regulations of the Radiation Health
Office of the Department of Health which is likely to affect community Health adversely.
CHAPTER XXI
Disposal of Dead Persons
SECTION 89. Definition. As used in this Chapter, the following terms shall mean:

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a. Burial grounds cemetery, memorial park of any place duly authorized by law for permanent
disposal of the dead.
b. Embalming preparing, disinfecting and preserving a dead body for its final disposal.
c. Embalmer a person who practices embalming.
d. Undertaking the care, transport and disposal of the body of a deceased person by any means
other than embalming.
e. Undertaker person who practices undertaking.
f. Funeral establishment any place used in the preparation and care of the body of a deceased
person for burial.
g. Remains the body of a dead person.
h. Burial Interment of remains in a grave, tomb or the sea.
i. Disinterment the removal or exhumation of remains from places of interment.
SECTION 90. Burial Grounds Requirements. the following requirements shall be applied and
enforced:
a. It shall be unlawful for any person to bury remains in places other than those legally
authorized in conformity with the provisions of this Chapter.
b. A burial ground shall at least be 25 meters distant from any dwelling house and no house shall
be constructed within the same distance from any burial ground.
c. No burial ground shall be located within 50 meters from either side of a river or within 50
meters from any source of water supply.
SECTION 91. Burial Requirements. The burial of remains is subject to the following
requirements:
a. No remains shall be buried without a dead certificate. This certificate shall be issued by the
attending physician. If there has been no physician in attendance, it shall be issued by the mayor,
the secretary of the municipal board, or a councilor of the municipality where the death occurred.
The death certificate shall be forwarded to the local civil register within 48 hours after death.

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b. Shipment of remains abroad shall be governed by the rules and regulations of the Bureau of
Quarantine.
c. Graves where remains are buried shall be at least one and one-half meters deep and filled well
and firmly.
d. The cost of burial of a dead person shall be borne by the nearest kin. If the kin is not
financially capable of defraying the expenses or if the deceased had no kin, the cost shall be
borne by the city or municipal government.
e. The burial of remains in city or municipal burial grounds shall not be prohibited on account of
race, nationality, religion or political persuasion.
f. If the person who issues a death certificate has reasons to believe or suspect that the cause of
death was due to violence or crime, he shall notify immediately the local authorities concerned.
In this case the deceased shall not be buried until a permission is obtained from the provincial or
city fiscal. If these officials are not available the permission shall be obtained from any
government official authorized by law.
g. Except when required by legal investigation or when permitted by the local health authority,
no unembalmed remains shall remain unburied longer than 48 hours after death.
h. When the cause of death is a dangerous communicable disease, the remains shall be buried
within 12 hours after death. They shall not be taken to any place of public assembly. Only the
adult members of the family of the deceased may be permitted to attend the funeral.
SECTION 92. Disinterment Requirements. Disinterment of remains is subject to the following
requirements:
a. Permission to disinter remains of persons who died of non-dangerous communicable diseases
may be granted after a burial period of three years.
b. Permission to disinter remains of person who died of dangerous communicable diseases may
be granted after a burial period of five years.
c. Disinterment of remains covered in paragraphs a and b of this Section may be permitted
within a shorter time than that prescribed in special cases, subject to the approval of the Regional
Director concerned or his duly authorized representative.
d. In all cases of disinterment, the remains shall be disinfected and places in a durable and sealed
container prior to their final disposal.

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SECTION 93. Funeral and Embalming Establishments. These establishments are subject to the
following requirements:
a. Scope of inclusion for the purposes of this Section, requirements prescribed herein shall be
applied and enforced to funeral chapels, embalming establishments and morgues.
b. Sanitary permit No establishment mentioned in the preceding paragraph shall be operated
without a sanitary permit issued by the Secretary or his duly authorized representative. This
permit shall be revoked in case of any violation of the provisions of this Chapter and the rules
and regulations promulgated by the Secretary.
c. Classification Funeral establishment shall be classified in three (3) categories which are
described as follows:
1. Category I Establishments with chapels, and embalming facilities and offering funeral
services.
2. Category II Establishments with chapels and offering funeral services but without
embalming facilities.
3. Category III Establishments offering only funeral services from the house of the deceased to
the burial ground.
d. Sanitary requirements
For funeral chapels The requirements prescribed for places of public assembly in this Code
shall be applied.
For embalming and dressing rooms
1. They should be constructed of concrete or semi-concrete materials with sufficient space to
accommodate five bodies at one time.
2. The floors and walls shall be made of concrete or other durable impervious materials.
3. Ventilation and lighting should be adequately provided.
4. Embalming shall be performed on a table made of a single marble slab or other equally
impervious materials. It shall be so constructed that all washings and body fluids shall flow to a
drain connected to the waste piping system of the building.
5. Embalming and assistants shall use rubber gloves when working.
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6. Washing facilities with soaps, detergents and germicidal solutions shall be provided for use of
the following personnel.
SECTION 94. Licensing and Registration Procedures. The licensing and registration of
undertakers and embalmers are subject to the following requirements:
a. Issuance of license to practice
1. Any person who desires to practice undertaking or embalming shall be licensed to practice
only after passing an examination conducted by the Department.
2. Licensed undertakers or embalmers shall practice undertaking or embalming in accordance
with requirements prescribed by the Department.
3. Licensed undertakers or embalmers shall display their licenses conspicuously in the
establishments where they work.
b. Issuance of certificates of registration
1. An undertaker or embalmer shall apply annually for a registration certificates and pay an
annual registration fee of twenty-five pesos to the Regional Health Office concerned.
2. The first registration certificate issued shall cover the period from the date of issuance to the
last day of the current year. Subsequent certificates shall bear the date of January 1 of the year of
issue and shall expire December 31 of the same year.
3. Certificates of registration shall be posed conspicuously in establishments concerned.
c. Exemption Government and private physicians may perform embalming without license and
registration certificates as exigencies require.
SECTION 95. Autopsy and Dissection of Remains. The autopsy and dissection of remains are
subject to the following requirements:
a. Person authorized to perform these are:
1. Health officers;
2. Medical officers of law enforcement agencies; and
3. Members of the medical staff of accredited hospitals.

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b. Autopsies shall be performed in the following cases:

1. Whenever required by special laws;
2. Upon orders of a competent court, a mayor and a provincial or city fiscal;
3. Upon written request of police authorities;
4. Whenever the Solicitor General, provincial or city fiscal as authorized by existing laws, shall
deem it necessary to disinter and take possession of remains for examination to determine the
cause of death; and
5. Whenever the nearest kin shall request in writing the authorities concerned to ascertain the
cause of death.
c. Autopsies may be performed on patients who die in accredited hospitals subject to the
following requirements:
1. The Director of the hospital shall notify the next of kin of the death of the deceased and
request permission to perform an autopsy.
2. Autopsy can be performed when the permission is granted or no objection is raised to such
autopsy within 48 hours after death.
3. In cases where the deceased has no next of kin, the permission shall be secured from the local
health authority.
4. Burial of remains after autopsy After an autopsy, the remains shall be interred in accordance
with the provisions in this Chapter.
SECTION 96. Donation of Human Organs for Medical, Surgical and Scientific Purposes. Any
person may donate an organ or any part of his body to a person, a physician, a scientist, a
hospital or a scientific institution upon his death for transplant, medical, or research purposes
subject to the following requirements:
a. The donation shall be authorized in writing by the donor specifying the recipient, the organ or
part of his body to be donated and the specific purpose for which it will be utilized.
b. A married person may make such donation without the consent of his spouse.
c. After the death of a person the next of kin may authorize the donation of an organ or any part
of the body of the deceased for similar purposes in accordance with the prescribed procedure.
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d. If the deceased has no next of kin and his remains are in the custody of an accredited hospital,
the Director of the hospital may donate an organ or any part of the body of the deceased in
accordance with the requirement prescribed in this Section.
e. A simple written authorization signed by the donor in the presence of two witnesses shall be
deemed sufficient for the donation of organs or parts of the human body required in this Section,
notwithstanding the provisions of the Civil Code of the Philippines on matters of donation. A
copy of the written authorization shall be forwarded to the Secretary.
f. Any authorization granted in accordance with the requirements of this Section is binding to the
executors, administrators, and members of the family of the deceased.
SECTION 97. Use of Remains for Medical Studies and Scientific Research. Unclaimed
remains may be used by medical schools and scientific institutions for studies and research
subject to the rules and regulations prescribed by the Department.
SECTION 98. Special Precautions for Safe Handling of Cadavers Containing Radioactive
Isotopes.
a. Cadavers containing only traces (very small dose) of radioactive isotope do not require any
special handling precautions.
b. Cadavers containing large amounts of radioactive isotopes should be labelled properly
identifying the type and amount or radioactive isotopes present and the date of its administration.
c. Before autopsy is performed, the Radiation Health Officer or his duly authorized
representative should be notified for proper advice. The pathologist and/or embalmer should be
warned accordingly of the radioactivity of the cadaver so that radiation precautions can be
properly enforced.
d. Normal burial procedures, rules and regulations may be carried out on the above mentioned
cadavers provided that their amount of radioactivity has decayed to a safe level which will be
determined by the Radiation Health Officer or his authorized representative.
e. Cremation If cremation is performed without autopsy, there is no handling problem;
otherwise, autopsy precautions should be strictly enforced. Precautions should be taken to
prevent any possible concentration of radioactivity at the base of the stack of the crematorium.
SECTION 99. Responsibility of the Regional Director. The Regional Director shall:
a. Act on applications for the establishment of burial grounds; and

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b. Close any burial ground which is a menace to public health.

SECTION 100. Responsibility of the Local Health Authority. The local health authority shall:
a. Administer city or municipal cemeteries;
b. Issue permits to inter, disinter or transfer remains;
c. Apply prescribed measures when cause of death is due to a dangerous communicable disease;
d. Keep records of death occurring within his area of jurisdiction; and
e. Authorize the deliver of unclaimed remains to medical schools and scientific institutions for
purposes specified in this Chapter and in accordance with the rules and regulations of the
Department.
SECTION 101. Responsibility of Local Government. Local governments shall:
a. Reserve appropriate tracts of land under their jurisdiction, for cemeteries subject to approval of
Regional Directors concerned;
b. Utilize judiciously grants, gifts, bequests of property or financial donations for the
establishment or improvement of cemeteries; and
c. Close cemeteries under their jurisdiction subject to approval of the Regional Director.
SECTION 102. Penal Provisions.
a. The Secretary or his duly authorized representative may revoke or suspend the license of an
undertaker or embalmer who violates any provisions of this Chapter or the rules and regulations
promulgated by the Secretary under this Chapter.
b. Any person who shall engage in the business of undertaking or embalming in violation of any
provision of this Chapter shall be liable to a penalty of not more than one thousand pesos for
each violation.
c. Each day or any part thereof during which any prohibited business or practice is continued
shall be deemed a separate violation and subject to the same penalty prescribed in the preceding
paragraph.
CHAPTER XXII

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Final Provisions
SECTION 103. Penal Provision.
a. Unless otherwise provided in any Chapter or section in this Code, any person who shall
violate, disobey, refuse, omit or neglect to comply with any of the rules and regulations
promulgated under this Code shall be guilty of misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be
punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding six months or by a fine of not exceeding
one thousand pesos or both depending upon the discretion of the court.
b. Any person who shall interfere with or hinder, or oppose any officer, agent or member of the
Department or of the bureaus and offices under it, in the performance of his duty as such under
this Code, or shall tear down, mutilate, deface or alter any placard, or notice, affixed to the
premises in the enforcement of the Code, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and punishable upon
conviction by imprisonment for a period not exceeding six months or by a fine of not exceeding
one thousand pesos or both depending upon the discretion of the Court.
SECTION 104. Separability Clause. In the event that any section, paragraph, sentence, clause,
or word of this Code is declared invalid for any reason, other provisions thereof shall not be
affected thereby.
SECTION 105. Repealing Clause. All laws, as well as pertinent rules and regulations thereof
which are inconsistent with the provisions of this Code are hereby repealed or amended
accordingly.
SECTION 106. Effectivity. This Code is hereby made part of the law of the land and shall take
effect immediately.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 984 August 18, 1976

PROVIDING FOR THE REVISION OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 3931, COMMONLY
KNOWN AS THE POLLUTION CONTROL LAW, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

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WHEREAS, there is a need to modify the organizational structure of the NATIONAL

POLLUTION CONTROL COMMISSION to make it more effective and efficient in the
discharge of its functions and responsive to the demands of the times occasioned by the
accelerative phase of the country's industrialization program;
WHEREAS, there is an imperative need to strengthen this Commission to best protect the people
from the growing menace of environmental pollution; and
WHEREAS, it is urgently necessary to maintain the role of the Commission as the primary
agency responsible for the prevention and control of environmental pollution;
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Philippines, by virtue of
the powers vested in me by the Constitution, do hereby order and decree the revision of Republic
Act No. 3931, to be known as the "National Pollution Control Decree of 1976," to read as
follows:
Section 1. Statement of Policy. It is hereby declared a national policy to prevent, abate and
control pollution of water, air and land for the more effective utilization of the resources of this
country.
Section 2. Definitions. As used in this Decree:
(a) "Pollution" means any alteration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of
any water, air and/or land resources of the Philippines, or any discharge thereto of any
liquid, gaseous or solid wastes as will or is likely to create or to render such water, air and
land resources harmful, detrimental or injurious to public health, safety or welfare or
which will adversely affect their utililization for domestic, commercial, industrial,
agricultural, recreational or other legitimate purposes.
(b) "Sewage" means the water-carried human or animal wastes from residences,
buildings, industrial establishments, or other places, together with such water infiltration
and surface water as may be present. The admixture or sewage and industrial wastes or
other wastes as hereafter defined shall also be considered "sewage."
(c) "Industrial Waste" means any liquid, gaseous or solid matter, or other waste substance
or a combination thereof resulting from any process of industry, manufacturing trade or
business or from the development, processing or recovery or any natural resources which
may cause or tend to cause pollution, or contribute to the pollution of the water, air and
land resources of the Philippines.
(d) "Other Waste" means garbage, refuse, wood residues, sand, lime cinders, ashes, offal,
night-oil, tar, dye stuffs, acids, chemicals, and other substances not sewage or industrial
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waste which may cause or tend to cause pollution; or contribute to the pollution of the
water, air and land resources of the Philippines.
(e) "Sewage System or Sewerage System" means pipe lines or conduits, pumping
stations, force mains, constructed drainage ditches, and all other constructions, devices,
and appurtenances used for collecting or conducting sewage, and industrial wastes or
other wastes to a point of treatment, discharge or ultimate disposal.
(f) "Treatment Works" means any method, construction device or appliance appurtenant
thereto, installed for the purpose of treating, neutralizing, stabilizing, disinfecting, or
disposing of sewage, industrial waste or other wastes, or for the recovery of by-product
from such sewage, industrial waste or other wastes.
(g) "Sewage Works" means individually or collectively those constructions or devices use
for collecting, pumping, treating, and disposing of sewage, industrial wastes or other
waste, or for the recovery of by-products from such sewage, industrial waste or other
waste.
(h) "Outlet" means the terminus of a sewage works or point of emergence in the water, air
and land resources of the Philippines of any sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes.
(i) "Commission" means the National Pollution Control Commission.
(j) "Person" or "Persons" includes any being, natural or juridical, susceptible of rights and
obligations or of being the subject of legal relations.
Section 3. Creation of the National Pollution Control Commission; Members. There is hereby
created and established a National Pollution Control Commission under the Office of the
President. The Commission shall be headed by one full-time commissioner and assisted by two
full-time deputy commissioners, one of whom shall be responsible for standard-setting and
monitoring and the other for enforcement.
The Commissioner shall be a man of proven executive ability. The Deputy Commissioner for
Standard-Setting and Monitoring shall preferably be a sanitary engineer, while the Deputy
Commissioner for Enforcement shall preferably be a lawyer. The Commissioner and the Deputy
Commissioners must have technical expertise in the field of pollution control.
The Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioners shall be appointed by the President of the
Philippines.
Section 4. Inter-Agency Advisory Council. There is created an Inter-Agency Advisory Council,
attached to the Commission, which shall be composed of representatives designated by the
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Secretaries of the Department of Agriculture, Health, Industry, Justice, Labor, Local Government
and Community Development, National Defense, Natural Resources, and Public Works,
Transportation and Communications; the heads of the Laguna Lake Development Authority,
National Economic and Development Authority, the National Science Development Board and
the Human Settlements Commission. The Commissioner shall head the Inter-Agency Advisory
Council. Representatives from the private sector as may be affected, may be invited to the
deliberations of the Council.
Section 5. Organization of the Commission. The Commission shall have a Water Pollution
Control Division, an Air Pollution Control Division, a Research and Development Division, a
Legal Division, an Administrative Division and such other divisions or units as may be approved
in the General Appropriation Act. Nothing herein contained shall be construed as to
automatically terminate or abolish any existing position in the Commission nor shall it be
construed as a prohibition against termination of any position.
The Commission shall also establish such regional offices as may be necessary.
The Commission shall provide such technical, scientific and other services, including the
necessary laboratory and other facilities as may be required to carry out the provisions of this
Decree: Provided, That the Commission may secure such services as it may deem necessary from
other agencies of the National Government, and may make arrangements for the compensation of
such services. The Commission may also employ and compensate, within appropriations
available therefor, such consultants, experts, advisors, or assistants on a full or part-time basis as
may be necessary, coming from government or private business entities, associations, or from
local or foreign organizations, to carry out the provisions of this decree any may prescribe their
powers, duties and responsibilities.
The Commission may conduct scientific experiments, investigations and research to discover
economical and practical methods of preventing water, air and land pollution. To this end, the
Commission may cooperate with any public or private agency in the conduct of such
experiments, investigations and research, and may accept sums of money, for and in behalf of the
National Government, given by any international, national or other public or private agency for
water, air and land pollution control activities, surveys or programs.
Section 6. Powers and Functions. The Commission shall have the following powers and
functions:
(a) Determine the location, magnitude, extent, severity, causes, effects and other pertinent
information regarding pollution of the water, air and land resources of the country; take
such measures, using available methods and technologies, as it shall deem best to prevent

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or abate such pollution; and conduct continuing researches and studies on the effective
means for the control and abatement of pollution.
(b) Develop comprehensive multi-year and annual plans for the abatement of existing
pollution and the prevention of new or imminent pollution, the implementation of which
shall be consistent with the national development plan of the country. Such plans shall
indicate priorities and programs during the year.
(c) Issue standards, rules and regulations to govern the approval of plans and
specifications for sewage works and industrial waste disposal systems and the issuance of
permits in accordance with the provisions of this Decree; inspect the construction and
maintenance of sewage works and industrial waste disposal system for compliance to
plans.
(d) Adopt, prescribe, and promulgate rules and regulations governing the procedures of
the Commission with respect to hearings, plans, specifications, designs, and other data for
sewage works and industrial waste disposal system, the filing of reports, the issuance of
permits, and other rules and regulations for the proper implementation and enforcement
of this Decree.
(e) Issue orders or decisions to compel compliance with the provisions of this Decree and
its implementing rules and regulations only after proper notice and hearing.
(f) Make, alter or modify orders requiring the discontinuance of pollution specifying the
conditions and the time within which such discontinuance must be accomplished.
(g) Issue, renew, or deny permits, under such conditions as it may determine to be
reasonable, for the prevention and abatement of pollution, for the discharge of sewage,
industrial waste, or for the installation or operation of sewage works and industrial
disposal system or parts thereof: Provided, however, That the Commission, by rules and
regulations, may require subdivisions, condominium, hospitals, public buildings and
other similar human settlements to put up appropriate central sewerage system and
sewage treatment works, except that no permits shall be required of any new sewage
works or changes to or extensions of existing works that discharge only domestic or
sanitary wastes from a single residential building provided with septic tanks or their
equivalent. The Commission may impose reasonable fees and charges for the issuance or
renewal of all permits herein required.
(h) After due notice and hearing, the Commission may also revoke, suspend or modify
any permit issued under this decree whenever the same is necessary to prevent or abate
pollution.
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(i) Set up effluent, stream, ambient and emission standards and promulgate rules and
regulations therefor: Provided, That local governments, development authorities, and
other similar government instrumentalities or agencies may set up higher standards
subject to the written approval of the Commission.
(j) Serve as arbitrator for the determination of reparations, or restitution of the damages
and losses resulting from pollution.
(k) Deputize in writing or request assistance of appropriate government agencies or
instrumentalities for the purpose of enforcing this Decree and its implementing rules and
regulations and the orders and decisions of the Commission.
(l) Consult, participate, cooperate and enter into agreement with other agencies of the
government, and with affected political groups, political subdivisions, and enterprises in
the furtherance of the purpose of this Decree.
(m) Collect and disseminate information relating to water, air, and land pollution and the
prevention, abatement and control thereof.
(n) Authorize its representative to enter at all reasonable times any property of the public
dominion and private property devoted to industrial, manufacturing, processing or
commercial use without doing damage, for the purpose of inspecting and investigating
conditions relating to pollution or possible or imminent pollution.
(o) Prepare and submit sixty days after the close of each calendar year an annual report to
the President and such periodic reports of activities as may be required from time to time.
The annual report shall include the extent to which the objectives in the plans referred to
under Sec. 6 (b) have been achieved.
(p) Exercise such powers and perform such other functions as may be necessary to carry
out its duties and responsibilities under this Decree.
Section 7. (a) Public Hearing. Public hearings shall be conducted by the Commissioner, Deputy
Commissioners or any senior official duly designated by the Commissioner prior to issuance or
promulgation of any order or decision by the Commissioner requiring the discontinuance of
discharge of sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes into the water, air or land resources of the
Philippines as provided in this Decree: Provided, That whenever the Commission find a prima
facie evidence that the discharged sewage or wastes are of immediate threat to life, public health,
safety or welfare, or to animal or plant life, or exceeds the allowable standards set by the
Commission, the Commissioner may issue an ex-parte order directing the discontinuance of the
same or the temporary suspension or cessation of operation of the establishment or person
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generating such sewage or wastes without the necessity of a prior public hearing. The said exparte order shall be immediately executory and shall remain in force until said establishment or
person prevents or abates the said pollution within the allowable standards, or modified or
nullified by a competent court.
All records of the proceedings of said hearings shall be filed with the Commission. All
inquiries, hearings, investigations and proceedings conducted by the Commission shall be
governed by rules adopted by the Commission, and in the conduct thereof the
Commission shall not be bound by technical rules of evidence: Provided, That the
Commissioners or any of the duly designated Hearing Officers may summarily punish for
contempt, by a fine not exceeding two hundred pesos, any person committing such
misconduct in the presence of any of the Commissioners or any of the duly designated
Hearing Officers, or so near to them as to seriously interrupt any hearing or session or
any proceeding, or any person willfully fails or refuses, without just cause, to comply
with a summon, subpoena, or subpoena ducestecum issued by the Commissioners or by
the duly designated Hearing Officer or, being present at a hearing, session or
investigation, refuses to be sworn as a witness or to answer questions when lawfully
required to do so. The Sheriff or other police agencies of the place where the hearing or
investigation is conducted, shall, upon request of the Hearing Officer, assist in the
enforcement of the provisions of this paragraph.
(b) Appeal to Courts. Any decision of the Commission, in the absence of an appeal
therefrom as herein provided, shall become final fifteen days after the date of
notification, and judicial review thereof shall be permitted only after any party claiming
to be aggrieved thereby has exhausted the remedies before the Commission. The
Commission shall be deemed to be a party to any judicial action involving any decision.
(c) Court Review. The decision of the Commission upon any disputed matter may be
reviewed both upon the law and the facts of the case by the Court of Appeals. For
purposes of such review, the procedure concerning appeals from the Court of First
Instance shall be followed. Appeal from a decision of the Commission must be perfected
within fifteen days from notification of such decision: Provided, however, That any
decision of the Commission involving only questions of law, shall be appealed to the
Supreme Court. No appeal shall stay the execution of any order or decision of the
Commission unless the Commissioner himself or the Court of Appeals or the Supreme
Court so orders.
(d) Execution of Decision. Any decision or order of the Commission, after the same has
become final and executory, shall be enforced and executed in the same manner as
decisions of Courts of First Instance, and the Commission shall have the power to issue to
the City or Provincial Sheriff or duly constituted authorities whom it may appoint, such
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writs of execution as may be necessary for the enforcement of such decision or order and
any person who shall fail or refuse to comply with such decision, order, or writ, after
being required to do so shall, upon application by the Commission, be punished by the
proper court for contempt.
Section 8. Prohibitions. No person shall throw, run, drain, or otherwise dispose into any of the
water, air and/or land resources of the Philippines, or cause, permit, suffer to be thrown, run,
drain, allow to seep or otherwise dispose thereto any organic or inorganic matter or any
substance in gaseous or liquid form that shall cause pollution thereof.
No person shall perform any of the following activities without first securing a permit from the
Commission for the discharge of all industrial wastes and other wastes which could cause
pollution:
1. the construction, installation, modification or operation of any sewage works or any
extension or addition thereto;
2. the increase in volume or strength of any wastes in excess of the permissive discharge
specified under any existing permit;
3. the construction, installation or operation of any industrial or commercial
establishments or any extension or modification thereof or addition thereto, the operation
of which would cause an increase in the discharge of waste directly into the water, air
and/or land resources of the Philippines or would otherwise alter their physical, chemical
or biological properties in any manner not already lawfully authorized.
Section 9. Penalties. (a) Any person found violating or failing to comply with any order,
decision or regulation of the Commission for the control or abatement of pollution shall pay a
fine not exceeding five thousand pesos per day for every day during which such violation or
default continues; and the Commission is hereby authorized and empowered to impose the fine
after due notice and hearing.
The fines so imposed shall be paid to the Government of the Philippines through
the Commission, and failure to pay the fine in any case within the time specified
in the above-mentioned Order or Decision shall be sufficient ground for the
Commission to order the closure or the stoppage in the operation of the
establishment being operated and/or managed by said person or persons until
payment of the fines shall have been made. The Commission shall have the power
and authority to issue corresponding writs of execution directing the City or
Provincial Sheriff or other peace officers whom it may appoint to enforce the fine
or the order of closure or stoppage of operations.
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Payment of fines may also be enforced by appropriate action in a court of

competent jurisdiction. The remedies provided in this sub-section shall not be a
bar to nor shall affect any other remedies provided for in this Decree but shall be
cumulative and additional to such remedies.
(b) Any person who shall violate any of the provisions of Section Eight of this Decree or
its implementing rules and regulations, or any Order or Decision of the Commission,
shall be liable to a penalty of not to exceed one thousand pesos for each day during which
the violation continues, or by imprisonment of from two years to six years, or by both
fine and imprisonment, and in addition such person may be required or enjoined from
continuing such violation as hereinafter provided.
(c) Any person who shall refuse, obstruct, or hamper the entry of the duly authorized
representatives of the Commission into any property of the pubic domain or private
property devoted to industrial manufacturing, processing or commercial use during
reasonable hours for the purpose of inspecting or investigating the conditions therein
relating to pollution or possible or imminent pollution, shall be liable to a fine not
exceeding two hundred pesos or imprisonment of not exceeding one month, or both.
(d) Any person who violates any of the provisions of, or fails to perform any duty
imposed by this Decree or its implementing rules and regulations or by Order or Decision
of the Commission promulgated pursuant to this Decree hereby causing the death of fish
or other aquatic life, shall in addition to the penalty above prescribed, be liable to pay the
government for damages for fish or aquatic life destroyed.
(e) In case the violator is a juridical person, the penalty shall be imposed on the managing
head responsible for the violation.
Section 10. Jurisdiction. The Commission shall have no jurisdiction over waterworks or sewage
system operated by the Metropolitan Waterworks Sewerage System, but the rules and regulations
issued by the Commission for the protection and prevention of pollution under the authority
herein granted shall supersede and prevail over any rules or regulations as may heretofore have
been issued by other government agencies or instrumentalities on the same subject.
In case of development projects involving specific human settlement sites or integrated regional
or sub- regional projects, such as the Tondo Foreshore Development Authority and the Laguna
Lake Development Authority, the Commission shall consult with the authorities charged with the
planning and execution of such projects to ensure that their pollution control standards comply
with those of the Commission. Once minimum pollution standards are established and agreed
upon, the development authorities concerned may, by mutual agreement and prior consultation
with the Commission, undertake the pollution control activities themselves.
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Section 11. Appropriations. Such amount as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this
Decree, which in no case shall be less than five million pesos, is hereby appropriated yearly for
the operating expenses of the Commission out of any funds in the National Treasury.
Section 12. Repealing Clause. Any provision of laws, presidential decree, executive order, rules
and regulations and/or parts thereof inconsistent with the provisions of this Decree, are hereby
repealed and/or modified accordingly.
Section 13. Effectivity. This Decree shall take effect immediately.

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