A

SEMINAR REPORT ON

SLUDGE REMOVAL FROM PONDS

PREPARED BY:
AAKASH AGRAWAL
B.TECH IV
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
GUIDED BY:
DR. ARVIND K. MUNGRAY
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, SURAT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled

SLUDGE REMOVAL FROM PONDS

Submitted by:

Aakash Agrawal (Roll No.: U13CH012)

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of bachelor degree in Chemical Engineering
From Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat

It is the record of his work carried out under the guidance of

Dr. Arvind K. Mungray
(Assistant Professor, Chemical Engineering Department, SVNIT, Surat)

Dr. Arvind K. Mungray

(Guide)

Dr. Z.V.P. Murthy

(HOD, Chemical Engineering Department)

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This is to certify that Mr. Aakash Agrawal registered in Chemical Engineering

Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat having Roll No.
U13CH012 has successfully presented his seminar (as a part of 7th semester curriculum) on
06/12/2016. The seminar is presented before the following members of the committee.

Signature

Examiner 1: Dr. ZVP Murthy

Examiner 2: Dr. G.C. Jadeja

Examiner 3: Dr. Smita Gupta

Date

Place: Surat
Date: 06/12/2016

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Words often fails to express ones feeling toward others, still I would like to express
my sincere gratitude to Dr. Arvind K. Mungray (Assistant Professor, Department of
Chemical Engineering, SVNIT, Surat) for his valuable guidance, motivations and extreme
cooperation to complete my seminar work successfully.
I would also like to thank all the teaching and non-teaching staff for cooperating us in
completing this seminar.
In addition, I would also like to thank the Chemical Engineering Department for
including seminar in the curriculum so that we could gain the thrust to go through the various
innovations that have been brought for the betterment of mankind and nature.

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ABSTRACT

When oxygen is depleted in a water body, anaerobic bacteria partially break down the
sediment. In the process, they expel hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide is the rotten egg
smell present when you stir up the muck in most lakes or ponds. One has to find the solution to
oxygenate the water body such that it removes hydrogen sulphide. Odorous gases are the most
important reason that people register complaints with organizations responsible for wastewater
collection and treatment systems (WCTS). Although several studies have been conducted for
prevention and control of odorous gases, no comprehensive research exists about recent
achievements in this area. The aim of the present study is to collect and categorize the new
achievements in preventing and controlling odorous gases in WCTS.
Two strategies for controlling odor emissions from WCTS are (1) prevention of odor
production and (2) removal of odorous compounds from emissions of WCTS. Between the two,
priority goes to preventing odorous compounds' production. Several methods have been
developed to prevent odor production, such as increasing oxidation reduction potential; chemical
removal of hydrogen sulfide; Biological methods of odor removal; applying formaldehyde and
paraformaldehyde to prevent hydrogen sulfide production; and using fuel cells in hydrogen
sulfide inhibition and gradual release of oxygen in gas phase by using MgO2 or CaO2. Methods
for removal of solid sludge by dredging; by using lake mat have also been discussed.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

1. Introduction

07

2. Odor and odorous compounds in water bodies

09

3. Hydrogen sulphide production in waste water

12

4. Odor control methods in waste water facilities

16

5. Increasing Oxidation-Reduction potential to control level of hydrogen

sulfide
23
6. Hydrogen sulfide removal prospects in future

24

7. Biological method for odor removal

26

8. Getting rid of solid contents

29

Conclusion

33

References

34

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Large build-ups of organic sediment, sludge, or muck are common place in many water
bodies. This is the result of years of nutrients and organic matter entering the pond water through
runoff containing fertilizers, grass clippings, animal waste, septic waste, etc. Also, leaves
dropping or blowing into the pond. All of the above contributes the majority of this organic
material but aquatic weeds, algae, dust, pollen, fish and waterfowl droppings are also
contributors.
The cause of the odor is a lack of oxygen. Hydrogen sulphide is not only highly toxic to
aerobic or good bacteria; it is also toxic to insects, and to fish at levels of 0.3 mg/l (a very low
amount). The anaerobic (bad) bacteria also release ammonia into the water column. Ammonia
feeds weeds and algae, and is toxic to fish at levels greater than 3.0 mg/l. Also released are
methane, nitrogen gas and carbon dioxide. These also are toxic to aerobic (good) bacteria, insects
and fish. Carbon dioxide and methane kill fish at levels greater than 30 mg/l. So the cause of
organic sediment (sludge) accumulation, unpleasant odor and fish kills in lakes are a lack of
oxygen and high levels of toxic gases.
The presence of sludge or a rotten egg smell, are sure signs that the bottom is lacking in
oxygen at times during the year. Bottom oxygen tests may show that the bottom is oxygenated.
But these tests are usually made during the day, when aquatic plants are putting oxygen into the
water. Bottom oxygen tests in the middle of the night may show no oxygen because plants take
up oxygen during the night. Lack of oxygen also depends on the time of year. Just a few hours
without oxygen are enough to kill the beneficial bacteria and insects that feed on organic sludge.
If oxygen is present throughout the water column at all times, beneficial aerobic
microorganisms and insects feed on the organic sediment. It is similar to bacteria and insects
feeding on compost. The bacteria feed on the organic sediment, and insects feed on either the
bacteria or the muck, or both. Bacteria are high protein food for insects. The bacteria convert
organic sediment into carbon dioxide and water and a microscopic amount of inorganic ash. In
this process, the good bacteria exude an enzyme to break down the cells of waste material in
order to consume the various types of muck within the sludge layer. It is evident that these
problems will not go away on their own, and while some methods such as chemicals work to

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reduce algae, they are dangerous to the fish and can be harmful to the environment. Remember,
just as aspirin relieves some cold symptoms, but does not cure the cold, chemical additives
temporarily relieve the symptoms of a poor aquatic environment, but do not cure the problem.
Gases that primarily affect the sense of smell are known as the odorous gases. In many
cases, by cleaning wastewater treatment facilities, removing excess sand and sludge, and
optimized operation, odor generation in sewer installations can be dramatically reduced. In some
cases, by bringing in clean outside air or by discharging polluted air in indoor facilities, odorcausing pollutants can be reduced. Sometimes, discharging polluted gases outside facilities can
lead to protests from local residents. In such circumstances, pollutant control must be achieved
through exhaust air treatment [1,3,2]

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CHAPTER 2
ODOR AND ODOROUS COMPOUNDS IN WATER BODIES
Hydrogen sulphide is considered the most important reason for odor emission and
corrosion in wastewater collection and treatment facilities. There are studies which show that the
lack of hydrogen sulphide control has lead to huge losses. [4]
During the wastewater collection and treatment operation, odor producing compounds are
generated through the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter containing sulphur and
nitrogen [1,3,2]. These volatile compounds possess relatively low molecular weight. Odorous
compounds have an odor threshold value, the odor unit, in which the odor is not detectable below
a given concentration. To measure accurately the odor in water, at least five individuals are
needed. Each individual attempts to smell the odor. If they detect the odor, the water is then
diluted with distilled water and the process is repeated. The dilution is repeated until the odor is
no longer detectable. Ultimately, the odor threshold value is calculation using equation (1) [5];
TON= (A+B)/A

(1)

A: volume of odorous water, B: volume of odorless distilled water used in the test, and TON:
threshold odor number. The compound that produces the most odors usually possesses low
molecular weight. Gaseous compounds with molecular weight higher than 300g per mole are
generally considered odorless. Hydrogen sulphide, one of the most important odor-causing
compounds, possesses a molecular weight of 34g per mole.
Other then hydrogen sulphide, Indoles, skatoles, mercaptans, various volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), ammonia are among the odorous compounds that are capable of producing
odor in water bodies. It should be noted that odor-producing compounds would definitely release
flavor into the water as well. However, the flavor-producing compounds will not necessarily
produce any odor. One such substance that produces odor in wastewater collection networks
ducts in ammonia, caused by bacterial decomposition of urea produced in networks.
During the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixing bacteria and plants absorb nitrogen from air
and convert it to ammonia, urea, nitrite, nitrate, and nitrogen-containing organic compounds,
which are stored by these organisms. The fixated nitrogen is then cycled through the food chain
after defecation, urination, or death, and ultimately converted back to molecular nitrogen through
various processes, such as ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Nitrogen organic

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compounds and urea are converted into ammonia through ammonification aerobic process, but
due to absence of necessary oxygen in the wastewater collection networks, the nitrogen cycle
cannot continue further into the nitrification process and remain at ammonification level.
Ultimately, nitrite is converted into molecular nitrogen through anoxic denitrification process.
Early wastewater entry into the collection pipes carries small amount of dissolved
oxygen, which are completely depleted in the first few kilometers, leading to the anaerobic
condition in the pipe. In the first few kilometers, the existing urea in the wastewater, in the
presence of remaining oxygen, is converted into ammonia by the bacteria through
ammonification process. Thus, the conversion of nitrogen organic compounds to ammonia is
haulted. This chemical process is then resumed in the wastewater treatment plants. Ammonia
possesses a low evaporation temperature, thus is easily evaporated and leads to release of
wastewater odors in the environment.
Some groups of odor-causing compounds could be released into the water through the
dissolution of small amounts of existing substances in wastewater collection of through water
distribution polyethylene pipes. The most important compound of this group is 2,4,6trichloroanisole [6]. The prevailing odor-causing compounds in drinking water are geosmin,
methylisoborneol, and hydrogen sulphide in wastewater, of which methylisoborneol is the main
cause of odor.
Hydrogen sulphide is a principal component in odor production and corrosion in sewer
installments. Thus far, a large number of biochemical reactions that can lead to the production of
hydrogen sulphide have been identified. Some of these reactions are identified below [7]

SO + 2C + 2HO
S + 10 +
+ 2 +

= + +

2HCO + HS ---------------------------------------(2)

2 + 4 2 ---------------------------------------------------(3)

-------------------------------------------------------------------(4)

-------------------------------------------------------------(5)

According to reaction (2), the sulphate ion can react with organic carbon and water in the
presence of appropriate micro-organisms to produce bicarbonate ions and hydrogen sulphide.

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According to reaction (3), the sulphate ion can also produce hydrogen sulphide in acidic
conditions. Reaction (4) shows that elemental sulphur can also be converted to hydrogen
sulphide in biochemical reactions. Although reaction (5) will not directly produce any hydrogen
sulphide, it can lead to production of RSH sets or merceptans. Merceptans are sulphur-containing
compounds that possess not only intense and unpleasant odor, but can also cause serious
problems such as tears, difficulty in breathing, headache, abdominal pain, and nausea in humans.

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CHAPTER 3
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE PRODUCTION IN WASTEWATER
Lens and Kuenen (2001) concluded that the sulphur cycle is highly complex and
associated with many factors such as wastewater volume, the concentration of micro-organisms
in wastewater, the amount of sediments in wastewater collection pipes, and wastewater contact
area with air [8]. Despite the complexity of the cycle, some researchers, such as Lahav et al.
(2004), have successfully provided mathematical models to predict the amount of sulphur
produced in one cycle. Sulphur cycle includes processes such as sulphide, sulphide transition
from liquid phase into the gas phase, chemical and biological oxidation of sulphur, and,
ultimately, the reactions of sulphide ion-containing compounds with iron and chemical
sequestration [1]. The sulphate ion is the most common type of sulphur, observed in
concentrations between 20-400 mg/l [9], and is converted into sulphide by sulphur regenerative
bacteria. This conversion takes place essentially in anaerobic conditions by micro-organisms
present in sediment-inhabited regions of the wastewater collection. The activity of sulphatereducing bacteria is mostly observed in areas where the wastewater flow moves slowly and is
poorly aerated. At a pH of about 7, sulphur is observed in two forms: HS and HS. At a pH of
more than 7, the dominant form of sulphur is S . Various forms of sulphur are converted into
one another (Reactions 6 and 7)
HS + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(6)
HS + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(7)

In reactions (5) and (6), only hydrogen sulphide can transfer from liquid phase into gas
phase and vice versa. Hydrogen sulphide transition from one phase to another depends upon
factors such as temperature, pH, the rate of wastewater flow turbulence, and air conditioning. In
numerous studies, researchers have demonstrated that the air in wastewater collection networks
collected by the slope of the land contains about 300 mg/m hydrogen sulphide. In Fig. 1, various
possible outcomes of sulphur in wastewater collection networks are presented. Based on Fig. 1,
the chief consequence of sulphur resources is chemical sequestration caused by hydrogen
sulphide reaction with metals such as zinc, lead, nickel, and iron. As mentioned earlier, the
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metallic sulphides are poorly soluble in water, and so are quickly sedimented. Oxidation of
sulphur compounds in wastewater proceeds both biologically and chemically; making the
process more complex.

Fig. 1 Different outcomes of sulfur after entering into the wastewater collection network [10]

Biological oxidation of hydrogen sulphide is normally carried out on the free wastewater
surface, where there is contact with air. Thiobacillus sp. is a chemoautotrophic aerobic
bacterium, through which a wet layer of pipe crown has the capability to oxidize hydrogen
sulphide into sulphuric acid. The main source for chemoautotrophic bacteria is carbon dioxide
and their main source of energy is chemical compounds. By absorbing carbon dioxide s a source
of carbon and hydrogen sulphide as its main source of energy, this bacterium can properly grow

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and reproduce. The produced sulphuric acid can attack concrete constituents and cause intense
corrosion in metals.

Fig. 2 Cycling of sulfur in Sulfuretum [10]

In different depths of a pond, diverse species of sulphur are converted into each other
(Fig. 4). In surface water, which contain the highest amount of oxygen, elemental sulphur and
hydrogen sulphide are biologically converted to CHO and SO. In middle depth of water,
where the concentration of oxygen is lower than at the surface, only facultative bacteria can
grow; in this facultative area, hydrogen sulphide is converted to CHO and elemental sulphur.
Finally, the deepest part of the water is where anaerobic conditions prevail. In this area, organic
sulphur, CHO, and SO are coverted to hydrogen sulphide by anaerobic bacteria. This
situation often occurs in natural lakes or facultative ponds and is called a sulfuretum. Fig 4
shows cycling of sulphur in a sulfuretum. Different bacteria tend to live in those areas of the
pond where their particular capabilities provide them with an ecological niche. Near the ponds
surface, chemotrophic bacteria dominate; here they can obtain energy from the aerobic oxidation
of HS and elemental sulphur to form SO. Therefore, chemotrophic bacteria are essential to
prevent hydrogen sulphide emission from lakes or wastewater treatment ponds.
Many researchers claim that biological degradation of proteins and particularly the
biological degradation of the amino acid methionine are the main reasons that volatile sulphur
compounds are produced during anaerobic digestion. Volatile sulphur compounds are a group of
chemicals with sulphur in their chemical structure. In addition, this group of chemicals has low
molecular weight, allowing them to evaporate easily. Some of the well-known volatile sulphur
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compounds are hydrogen sulphide, methanethiol, dimethyl sulphide, dimethyl disulphide, and
dimethyl trisulphide. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein structure. The following
pathway is suggested for production of methyl mercaptan (methanethiol) from proteins through
methionine (reaction (8))

Proteins

Polypeptides

CHON-S-CH

H-S-CH ---------------------------------------------------------------------------(8)

Cycling of sulphur comprises two forward and reverse steps of sulphurication and
desulphurication. During sulphurication process all forms of sulphur including hydrogen
sulphide (HS), sulphides (S), sulphites (SO), thiosulphates (SO) and sulphates (SO)
are oxidized by different species of microorganisms.

Features of bacteria suitable for converting hydrogen sulphide to elemental sulphur are:
1. The bacterium must have reliable capability of converting hydrogen sulphide to S;
2. The bacterium should need minimal nutrient inputs; and
3. The converted S should be easily separated from the biomass.

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CHAPTER 4
ODOR CONTROL METHODS IN WASTEWATER FACILITIES
Evaporation and degassing are the two primary methods for the emission odor-causing
agents from wastewater collection and treatment systems. In balanced conditions, the amount of
evaporated matter would be equal to the matter returned to the liquid level. However, in
ventilated conditions or where the liquid is in contact with the atmosphere, the evaporation rate
would be higher than the returned gas into the liquid level. Primarily, odor-causing substances
possess low molecular weight, which is detectable in low concentrations. Thus, even smallest
amounts of evaporation can lead to odor generation. Increments of the joint surface of the gas
and liquid phases can also increase evaporation. In other words, as the contact surface of
wastewater and air increases, the evaporation of odor-causing substances mutually increases.
In the degassing process, dissolved gases in water or wastewater transfer from liquid
phase into the gas phase due to temperature increase or turbulence. In general, the emission
control strategies of odor-causing compounds include:
1. Reducing the amount of odor-causing compounds produced at the source;
2. Eliminating turbulence in sewage;
3. Applying a prevention plan for wastewater pre-treatment or the discharge of odor-causing
compounds in the municipal wastewater collection networks;
4. Establishing mean intervals;
5. Dilution of contaminated air through mixture with clean air;
6. Combustion of odor-causing compounds in high temperatures (Incineration process);
7. Catalytic combustion of odor-causing compounds;
8. Adsorption of odor-causing compounds from wastewater and surrounding contaminated
air;
9. Biological decomposition of odor-causing compounds in wastewater and surrounding air;
10. Utilizing overlying chemical compounds to reduce generated odor;
11. Improvement of concrete resistance to HSO generated from biological decomposition
of HS;
12. Establishing covered odor-management installations.

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Establishing covered installments possess two major problems:

a. The treatment necessity of collected gases from installations.
b. Corrosion of mechanical equipment due to increase of corrosive gases such as HS.
Preventing the discharge of odor-causing compounds into the wastewater collection networks is
a difficult and, in some cases, financially impossible task. Air-locking the entrance to municipal
wastewater collection networks would reduce emission of odor-causing compounds into the air,
reducing the ventilation in wastewater collection networks and aggravating the corrosion.
Turbulence could be greatly diminished through proper design of wastewater collection
networks. The amount of dissolved hydrogen sulphide in water is highly dependent on
temperature. Thus, with slight changes of temperature, hydrogen sulphide would transfer from
liquid phase into gas phase. The solubility of hydrogen sulphide at various temperatures is
presented in Fig.3

Fig. 3 Solubility of Hydrogen Sulfide in water at various temperatures [1]

* Establishing mean intervals is another method in odor control. An average distance of 70500 m between odor source and residential areas can lead to dilution of odor-causing
gases. This interval is dependent on the odor-source and climate conditions. Maintaining
such a distance, however, especially in municipal areas, is not always attainable. Dilution
by odorless gases is another strategy in odor control. The odorous gases can be directed
through long funnels to be diluted by fresh air before reaching the surface. Chimneys
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with an effective height of 35-45 m already exist to dilute odorous gases. However,
sometimes this method is very expensive and not applicable to a given situation.

* Odorous gases can also be incinerated at temperatures between 650-815 C. Combustion

of gases and treatment plants solid waste is achievable through incinerator devices.
Important factors in designing a thermal ablation system include combustion temperature
and air retention time. Their importance stems from the fact that they determine volatile
organic compounds subversion efficiency. As effective as it is, this method is very
expensive and leads to the emission of secondary pollutants such as carbon dioxide.

* The catalytic incineration process is another method of odor control. In this process,
volatile organic compounds in the emitted gasses are oxidized in temperatures between
300 and 500 C in the presence of a catalyst. The catalyst increases the rate of reaction at
a given temperature without significant changes during the reaction. Platinum and
palladium are catalysts used in the incineration process of volatile organic compounds.
This method is substantially expensive.

* Another method in eliminating odor-causing compounds is adsorption. In adsorption, the

odorous gas is removed through passing the wastewater or the ventilated air of the
wastewater collection network through a bed of active carbon, silica gel, or alumina.
Activated carbon is among the most utilized adsorbents. Active carbon is much cheaper
than other odor control methods. In certain circumstances, the amount of natural organic
compounds is high. In this case, the adsorption of odor-causing compounds competes
with adsorption of natural organic compounds, decreasing the absorbents' removal
efficiency. [7]

* Biological methods can also eliminate odor-causing compounds in wastewater and

surrounding air. Many microorganisms possess the capability to absorb and decompose
odorous compounds. These biological methods include bio-filters, bio-scrubbers,
suspended growth reactors, and bio-trickling filters. All these methods are inexpensive
and effective despite their complex steering.

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* Overlying chemical compounds are another way to control odor in the environment.
Unpleasant odors near wastewater treatment plants are overlaid or overshadowed by
aromatic odors dispersed in ultrafine particles of liquid (mist), or evaporated state
(steam). To some individuals, however, the overlying odors are much more unpleasant
than the original odor, and occasionally the effective-ness of masking agents is limited.
Among the many odor-causing compounds, hydrogen sulfide is the most important
odorous agent in wastewater collection networks. Therefore, more specific methods have
been developed by researchers for its control [2]. Sulfide occurs in microbial layers
(biofilm) on the inner surface of the wastewater collection pipes. Its production rate
depends on:

i)

The concentration of organic matter and nutrients;

ii)

The concentration of sulfur in the wastewater;

iii)

The level of dissolved oxygen;

iv)

The pH of wastewater;

v)

The temperature of wastewater and the internal environment of collection pipes;

vi)

Turbulence and flow speed of wastewater in the pipes;

vii)

Wastewater retention time in wastewater collection pipes; and

viii)

The level of wastewater free surface in disposal for compound exchange between
wastewater and the contacting air. [1]

The presence of hydrogen sulfide is associated with pipe corrosion, unpleasant odor
production, and wastewater treatment plants' staff poisoning [2]. Slight problems with corrosion
in concrete pipes are initiated when the concentration of sulfur in wastewater is between 0.1 and
0.5 mg/l in anaerobic conditions [3]. Intense pipe corrosion problems are initiated when the
concentration of sulfur rises above 2.0 mg/l in anaerobic conditions.

* Increasing the oxidation and reduction potential is one effective way to prevent the
production of hydrogen sulfide. Increasing the oxidation and reduction potential means
adding electron acceptor compounds, such as oxygen, nitrate, and nitrite to water. Adding

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nitrate and nitrite to wastewater can effectively reduce hydrogen sulfide production. In
the presence of nitrite and nitrate, the bacteria tend to reduce nitrite and nitrate and
oxidize sulfide, which leads to the decline of hydrogen sulfide production.

* Physical methods, such as air ventilation of wastewater collection networks, can also
have promising results in preventing the corrosion of pipes by hydrogen sulfide.
However, releasing the ventilated air into the environment can cause inconvenience for
area residents. Therefore, treating the ventilated air prior to release into the environment
is advisable.

* The advanced oxidation processes have also proved effective in eliminating odor and
taste from water and wastewater. Some of the most common advance oxidation processes
include:

(i)

Application of ozone;

(ii)

Simultaneous use of ozone and hydrogen peroxide in combination with UV light;

(iii)

Fenton method;

(iv)

Photo-Fenton method;

(v)

Semiconductor photo-catalysis;

(vi)

Electrolysis;

(vii)

Ultrasound irradiation; and

(viii) Wet air oxidation

The advantages of the advanced oxidation process are its speed and the possibility of
simultaneous oxidation of a wide range of contaminates [7]. However, each advanced oxidation
method has its own specific way to produce hydroxide, making each suitable for use in specific
conditions. Despite the efficiency of advanced oxidation methods in eliminating odor, thus far no
practical application has been found due to the complexity of the operation. It is clear that the
best option for odor control is prevention of odorous compounds' production and not their
removal from air. Restricting hydrogen sulfide production can hamper the corrosion of
wastewater collection networks and treatment equipment.

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Fig. 4 presents the known hydrogen sulfide prevention or elimination methods in wastewater or
contacting air;

Fig. 4 Classification of Hydrogen Sulphide prevention methods in waste water collection networks

Some fungi can occasionally produce odor and corrosion in wastewater and water
networks. Fungi are heterotrophic organ-isms that have no roots, stems, or leaves. Lacking
chlorophyll, these organisms are unable to synthesize organic materials and thus are compelled
to live on organic matter, such as dead animals and plants, or as parasites on or inside living
cells. These organisms use organic materials and produce considerable amounts of organic acids

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such as oxalic acid, acetic acid, and citric acid, which can lead to odor production (Table 1) and
corrosion in wastewater installments. Fungus can grow on various surfaces and objects, causing
serious problems. In tropical regions, corrosion by fungi (white mold) is very common. Fungi
can corrode rubber and steel (coated or uncoated). In most cases, fungi do not inflict much
mechanical damage but can harm the appearance and color of objects. In addition to organic
acids production, fungi can also cause crevice corrosion on metal surfaces. The following
measures can be carried out to prevent corrosion by fungi:

(i)

Periodic cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic surfaces to prevent the growth of mold;

(ii)

Where possible, reducing relative humidity; and

(iii)

Using toxic organic substances such as Gentian violet to prevent fungi growth.

Gentian violet is an antimicrobial, antifungal and anti-worm dye used for coloring
purposes in biology and microbiology. This compound can reduce the growth of mold and fungi
on metallic surfaces. One way to prevent corrosion in metal pipes is cathodic protection.

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CHAPTER 5
INCREASING THE OXIDATION REDUCTION POTENTIAL TO CONTROL THE LEVEL
OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE
1

Air or pure oxygen injection into the wastewater

Inadequate oxygen levels in wastewater cause hydrogen sulfide production in sedimentations

of wastewater collection networks with a depth of more than 1 mm [11]. This occurs because the
maximum oxygen penetration into the sedimented layer in wastewater pipes is limited to 0.4 mm
[11]. In aerated and aerobic conditions, the accumulated hydrogen sulfide in sedimented layers
would be exposed to oxygen and immediately oxidized biologically or chemically [2]. If the
wastewater contains no dissolved oxygen, the produced hydrogen sulfide can then easily take
soluble form. If waste-water contains oxygen concentration of more than 0.5 mg/l, all hydrogen
sulfide is easily oxidized in sedimented layers with depth of 1 mm or more. The dissolved
oxygen level can easily reach a concentration of 0.2 and 1 mg/l by injecting air into the
wastewater. Doing so possesses advantages such as non-toxicity and lower levels of biological
oxygen demand (BOD) in wastewater [12]. The disadvantage of this method is the limited
solubility of oxygen in the wastewater. Since the concentration of pure oxygen is five times
greater than in air, by injecting pure oxygen higher oxygen concentrations in wastewater can be
achieved, in the range of 5e7 mg/l. How-ever, due to the presence of flammable gases, the risk of
fire and explosion would greatly increase [12]. Furthermore, using pure oxygen can significantly
increase total expense.

2 Inhibiting hydrogen sulfide by nitrate injection into wastewater

Both long-term and short-term prevention of pipe corrosion by nitrate and nitrite has been
reported by researchers [13, 2]. Carpenter (1932) reported that the production of odors in
wastewater was greatly reduced by injecting sodium nitrate. This is due mainly to the fact that
the microorganisms are more able to reduce nitrate than sulfide; as a result, less odor is
produced. Allen concluded that by adding 1 mg/l nitrate can halt hydrogen sulfide production for
29 days. Nitrate injection can increase the oxidation and reduction of wastewater, which would
inhibit hydrogen sulfide. One study re-ported that by increasing the potential oxidation and
reduction rate to 500 mV, one can halt hydrogen sulfide production in wastewater. The
production delay of hydrogen sulfide is highly dependent on the amount of initial injected
nitrate.

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CHAPTER 6
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE REMOVAL PROSPECTS IN FUTURE
* Application of formaldehyde and paraformaldehyde in elimination of
hydrogen sulfide
Today, the application of formaldehyde in microbial growth, especially in food
industries, is widely recognized. Formaldehyde can suspend microbial growth and is ultimately
fully eliminated in wastewater treatment plants. Para-formaldehyde is an inexpensive compound
and an excellent replacement for formaldehyde. The transformation of paraformaldehyde to
formaldehyde occurs in conditions where pH is neutral, and the environment contains water and
remains at room temperature. Studies suggest that by suspending bacterial activity, formaldehyde
can inhibit the production of hydrogen sulfide [2]. Formaldehyde is water soluble, and upon
entering water reversibly transforms into methanediol (CH2(OH)2). Since wastewater collection
networks are closed systems, ingress of formaldehyde into the atmosphere would not occur.
Formaldehyde can be transferred to treatment plants for disposition. Formaldehyde is a toxic,
mutagenic, teratogenic com-pound, suspected of being carcinogenic. This can cause serious
problems for treatment plants' workers. Thus, it is essential to ensure that formaldehyde is
entirely eliminated through the treatment process. The application cost of formaldehyde is
estimated in the range of US$1.63-2.00/kg of sulfur in wastewater.

Gradual release of Oxygen in gas phase (MgO/CaO)

Several methods have been applied in oil industries to inhibit the production of hydrogen

sulfide in oil reservoirs, which are rarely used in wastewater. Solid compounds like magnesium
peroxide (MgO2) and calcium peroxide (CaO) can gradually release their oxygen, which would
in time transfer into magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2),
respectively. By injecting these compounds into oil wells and river bed sediments, their aerobic
condition can be maintained for long periods of time. The inhibition of hydrogen sulfide by
magnesium peroxide and calcium peroxide is mainly due to the chemical oxidation of hydrogen
sulfide and toxicity to sulfate-reducing bacteria. Study results suggest that the presence of 4%
magnesium peroxide can inhibit the production of hydrogen sul-fide for 40 days. The best option
in inhibiting the production of hydrogen sulfide over time is through gradual release of oxygen in

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solid phase. Although it is quite possible to apply this method to sediments in wastewater
collection pipes, it still faces the issue of being washed off when applied in solid phase.

* Fuel cell application in hydrogen sulfide inhibition

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy into electrical
energy. The conversion process continues until the fuel and the oxidants are depleted. Many
studies have confirmed the applicability of hydrogen sulfide in fuel cells. Microbial fuel cells are
devices capable of converting chemical energy into electrical energy directly through
electrochemical re-actions associated with biological processes. Some researchers report that
hydrogen sulfide can be converted into elemental sulfur in microbial fuel cells. Oxidation of
hydrogen sulfide in the anodic region of microbial fuel cells can generate electrical energy equal
to 101 mW. Fuel cells made by upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors are capable of
eliminating 98% of acetate and 46% of sulfate from wastewater. Applying this system in
hydrogen sulfide removal from wastewater is an interesting idea, illustrated in Fig. 5 [2]. In
addition to the elimination of hydrogen sulfide, odor, and corrosion, this application can also
generate some electricity. Hydrogen sulfide elimination in fuel cells occurs while transferring
electrons from bacteria to the electron receptor.

Fig. 5 Schematic of wastewater collection pipes protection against hydrogen sulphide by microbial fuel cell. [10]

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CHAPTER 7
BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF ODOR REMOVAL
There are other methods of deodorization than mentioned thermals and biological
processes (eg. activated carbon, chemical oxidation etc.) but these are not the subject of
presented study and would not be described here. The basic advantage of biological
deodorization methods over high-temperature methods is the fact that they are much less laborconsuming.[14]
Two types of biological methods of odor removal, namely:
1. Bio-filtration method,
2. Method of diffusing odor-polluted air through a biological deposit, e.g. activated sludge
used in biological reactors at wastewater treatment plants.
* Diffusion through activated sludge
The activated sludge is the method for biological neutralization of odors, which involves
the odor-polluted air being passed through activated sludge. The activated sludge flora by
conducting the metabolic processes de-composes the pollutants as a result of oxidation of
chemical compounds. Process parameters are the pH, the oxygen content and the quantity and
condition of the activated sludge. Activated sludge may adapt to the conditions in activated
sludge chambers, which change together with the inflow of pollutants, both those arriving with
raw wastewater and those introduced together with deodorized air. The principle of odor removal
from the air in biological reactors is presented in Fig. 6. If strains of sulfur- and iron-oxidizing
bacteria develop in the activated sludge, the bacteria it contains acquire the ability to reduce odor
emissions, which are responsible for the rotten smell.

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Fig. 6 Diagram of the process of odor purification using diffusion of polluted air through activated sludge
in aerated biological reactor;
a) Pump supplying air to aeration nozzle
b) System of aeration nozzles placed at the bottom of the biological reactor
c) Activated sludge flock
d) Purified air bubbles

The efficiency of odorants, which undergo oxidation as a result of diffusion by the

activated sludge, is even 99%. The purification efficiency is much lower in the case of
purification of chemical compounds, such as toluene and dimethyl trisulphide, and it amounts to
approx. 80%. The level of concentrations of some odorants, such as -pinene, can be reduced at
the beginning to a very small degree (7.371.9%), as the activated sludge must be adapted by the
formation of appropriate organisms to reduce the level of specific pollutants.
The use of diffusion of polluted air through activated sludge is a particularly profitable
alternative in wastewater treatment plants, where the process of biological treatment of
wastewater. Entities conducting such a process has necessary fittings, which considerably reduce
investment costs. Operation costs are usually related to the costs of the treatment process and,
thus, the cost of the odor treatment process may be regarded as relatively low. Despite the fact
that the degree of reduction of the hydrogen sulfide concentration is very high 96100%), the use
of diffusion of polluted air through the activated sludge is still not characterized by such
efficiency of reduction in the odorant concentration level as in the case of the use of biofilters

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* Bio-filtration

Biofiltration is one of the best-researched methods of air pur-ification. Biofilters have

already been used since the early 1950s, mostly due to low costs, both investment costs related to
the construction of the installation and maintenance costs. This method is characterized by a
much higher efficiency of removing volatile organic compounds from the air as compared to
other methods, which do not use a biological deposit, such as filters or scrubbers [15, 16]

The principle of bio-filter operation is simple. Polluted air is introduced into the
biological deposit, which is placed in an open chest filled with pine bark, sawdust, compost,
inorganic materials or a mixture of these products and directed to the chamber so that the
biological deposit is reached by as much air as possible. In case of biotrickling filters several
layers of packing, may be filled with variety of organic and inorganic materials such as activated
sludge, compost, bark, coconut fiber, activated carbon, polyurethane foam, ceramic rings and
many others. Bacteria in the form of bio-film formed on the surface of the deposit absorb and
biodegrade pollutants contained in the air. The filling of a biological filter should have
parameters, which ensure a high permeability of gases and liquids, should be characterized by a
good buffering ability and the bio-film formed on its surface should be as biologically diverse as
possible, which makes it possible to retain and biodegrade a broad range of pollutants.
Regardless of the material used as the bio-filter filling, each biological treatment system
re-quires appropriate preconditioning under conditions identical with those, under which the air
purification process will be con-ducted. Such an operation usually lasts from 6 to 7 days. During
this time, the bio-film flora is adapted to the neutralization of specific kinds of waste, which are
present in the air which reaches the deposit [15, 16]. Some bio-filter systems require more time
to adapt, but their application usually allows the achievement of higher efficiency of purified air
or a broader range of degraded chemical unit. However, biotrickling filers can successfully be
used for simultaneous H2S and NH3 removal. In these cases the efficiency of deodorization
process can reach up to 98.5% in relation to H2S and 99.9% in relation to NH3 in laboratory scale
[17]. The use of chemical analysis makes it possible to select an appropriate system of biofilters.

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CHAPTER 8
GETTING RID OF SOLID SEDIMENTS
Well, the major problem that occurs due to sludge formation is the foul odor. Until now,
we have stated the various chemicals, various reactions through which odor-causing occur at the
first place. Also, we have given various ways to overcome the serious issue be it the chemical
dozing way or the biological treatment plant. But what if we want to remove the sludge that has
been settled down for ages? Yes, there are many ways to clean the ponds/lakes. Below listed are
some of the commercialized methods adopted by the agencies:

1) Dredging

About
Dredging is the removal of accumulated lake bottom sediments muck. The decision to
dredge should be based on sufficient study that shows accumulated sediment is having an
adverse impact on water quality, recreation, or navigation. This decision process includes
defining how we want to use our lake (such as aquaculture or water supply) and how wed
like the lake water to appear (water quality). Dredging is too expensive to do repeatedly! It is
recommended to employ an experienced professional to conduct a dredging feasibility study
and help determining if dredging is the most practical alternative.

How are sediments dredged?

For small yards of a few to no more than 50 to 100 cubic yards, we may be able to do it by
ourselves using buckets, shovels, small pumps, or small excavating equipment. For large
earthmoving equipment or hydraulic dredges are needed.

Where are sediments put?

Landfills are an option for trucked sediments, although landfill fees greatly increase project
costs. The closer the disposal site is to the lake, the better. As an alternative, sediments are
forced to dry and then can be utilized into landscape at the disposal site. Also, the dried
sediments may be removed and used as fill or disposed of elsewhere.

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Fig. 7 A typical hydraulic dredging set-up [18]

2) Lake Mat

A bottom screen or benthic barrier covers the sediment like a blanket, compressing
aquatic plants while reducing or blocking light. Materials such as burlap, plastics, perforated
black Mylar, and woven synthetics can all be used as bottom screens. Some people report
success using pond liner materials. There is also a commercial bottom screen fabric called
Texel, a heavy, felt-like polyester material which is specifically designed for aquatic plant
control and a product called the noWEEDmat which is sold by a Canadian firm. An ideal
bottom screen should be durable, heavier than water, reduce or block light, prevent plants from
growing into and under the fabric, be easy to install and maintain, and should readily allow gases
produced by rotting weeds to escape without "ballooning" the fabric upwards. Even the most
porous materials, such as window screen, will billow due to gas buildup. Therefore, it is very
important to anchor the bottom barrier securely to the bottom. Unsecured screens can create
navigation hazards and are dangerous to swimmers. Anchors must be effective in keeping the
material down and must be regularly checked. Natural materials such as rocks or sandbags are
preferred as anchors.
Bottom screens will control most aquatic plants, however freely-floating species such as
the bladderworts or coontail will not be controlled by bottom screens. Plants like Eurasian
watermilfoil will send out lateral surface shoots and may canopy over the area that has been
screened giving less than adequate control.
In addition to controlling nuisance weeds around docks and in swimming beaches,
bottom screening has become an important tool to help eradicate and contain early infestations of

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noxious weeds such as Eurasian watermilfoil and Brazilian elodea. Pioneering colonies that
are too expensive to be hand pulled, can sometimes be covered with bottom screening material.
For these projects, we suggest using burlap with rocks or burlap sandbags for anchors. By the
time the material decomposes, the milfoil patches will be dead as long as all plants were
completely covered. Snohomish County staff reported native aquatic plants colonizing burlap
areas that covered pioneering patches of Eurasian watermilfoil. When using this technique for
Eurasian watermilfoil eradication projects, divers should recheck the screen within a few
weeks to make sure that all milfoil plants remain covered and that no new fragments have taken
root nearby.
Advantages

Installation of a bottom screen creates an immediate open area of water.

Bottom screens are easily installed around docks and in swimming areas.
Properly installed bottom screens can control up to 100 percent of aquatic plants.
Screen materials are readily available and can be installed by homeowners or by divers.

Disadvantages
Because bottom screens reduce habitat by covering the sediment, they are suitable only for
localized control.

For safety and performance reasons, bottom screens must be regularly inspected and
maintained.
Harvesters, rotovators, fishing gear, propeller backwash, or boat anchors may damage or
dislodge bottom screens.
Improperly anchored bottom screens may create safety hazards for boaters and
swimmers.
Swimmers may be injured by poorly maintained anchors used to pin bottom screens to
the sediment.
Some bottom screens are difficult to anchor on deep muck sediments.
Bottom screens interfere with fish spawning and bottom-dwelling animals.
Without regular maintenance aquatic plants may quickly colonize the bottom screen.

Costs
Barrier materials cost $0.22 to $1.25 per square foot. The cost of some commercial
barriers includes an installation fee. Commercial installation costs vary depending on sediment

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characteristics and type of bottom screen selected. It costs up to about $750 to have 1,000 square
feet of bottom screen installed. Maintenance costs for a waterfront lot are about $120 each year.

Fig. 8 A layout of a Lake Mat [19]

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CONCLUSION

This manuscript discussed the causes of odor production and its emission into the
atmosphere in wastewater collection and treatment facilities. In addition, the manuscript
introduced several methods to prevent or control odorous compound emissions with emphasize
on hydrogen sulfide. In general, the emissions control strategies of odor-causing compounds,
especially hydrogen sulfide, include: (i) prevention of hydrogen sulfide production, and (ii)
elimination of produced hydrogen sulfide. The strategic priority is prevention of hydrogen
sulfide production. Prevention of sulfur-reducing bacteria growth is accomplished by adding
electron donors such as nitrite and nitrate or by adding germicides or increasing wastewater pH.
These are the most important methods to prevent hydrogen sulfide production. There are also
many methods to eliminate produced odor-causing compounds, such as combustion in high
temperatures; catalytic combustion; adsorption, and biological decomposition of odor-causing
compounds in wastewater and surrounding air. Some novel approaches for prevention of
hydrogen sulfide have been developed by the oil and gas industries, such as application of fuel
cells or gradual release of oxygen in gas phase by using MgO2 or CaO2 which have never before
been used for removal of odor in wastewater collection and treatment facilities.
Methods for removal of solid sludge have also been discussed. The control of odor
emissions should take place at the moment of implementing economically justified emissions of
odors and deodorization of air polluted with malodorous substances. However, it should be
remembered that the economically promoted approach to stop emissions together with
neutralization of the appearing air pollution.

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[18] http://www.clearpond.com/docs/articles/sludge-removal.php Clear Pond Sludge removal
motto
[19]https://www.lakemat.com/sites/default/files/public/images/lakemat_pro_landing_xl-lakematpro.jpg LakeMat Advantages and Disadvantages

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