Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 144 (2005) 1 5

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Preface

The tectonics and physics of volcanoes

Agust Gudmundssona,*, Valerio Acocellab, Giuseppe de Natalec
a

Department of Structural Geology and Geodynamics, University of Gottingen, Goldschmidtstrasse 3, D-37077 Gottingen, Germany
b
Dipartimento Scienze Geologiche, Universita` Roma TREe, Largo S.L. Murialdo, I-00146 Roma, Italy
c
Osservatorio Vesuviano, INGV. Via Diocleziano, 328, I-80124 Napoli, Italy

1. Why a special issue on volcanotectonics?

In the past two decades, there has been considerable progress in the general understanding of the
hazards involved once an eruption has started. This
applies particularly to the physics of eruptive columns
(Sparks et al., 1997), evolution of lava flow fields
(Walker, 1991; Kilburn and Lopes, 1991; Self et al.,
1996; Rossi, 1996; Calvari et al., 2003), and the
formation and behaviour of pyroclastic rocks (Fisher
and Schmincke, 1984; Cas and Wright, 1987; Freundt
and Rosi, 2001; Schmincke, 2004).
At the same time, many new data and models have
been obtained regarding the deformation of volcanoes. These include surface deformation (Pollard et
al., 1983; De Natale and Pingue, 1993; Gudmundsson, 2003), dyke emplacement (Rubin, 1995; Gudmundsson, 2002), caldera collapse and structure
(Lipman, 1984; Mori and Mckee, 1987; Newhall
and Dzurisin, 1988; Roche et al., 2000), and flank
failure (Borgia et al., 1992; van Wyk de Vries and
Francis, 1997). These and other studies have con-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: agust.gudmundsson@gwdg.de
(A. Gudmundsson).
0377-0273/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.12.002

tributed to define the modern discipline of volcanotectonics, where many techniques of structural
geology and geophysics are used to advance our
understanding of the physical processes that occur
inside volcanoes during unrest periods, some of which
are manifest in surface deformation, landslides,
caldera formation, and eruptions.
For a correct interpretation of the deformation of a
volcano during an unrest period, with a view of
evaluating the hazard, we must know the answers to
several basic questions, such as:
!

What stress conditions favour the arrest of magmadriven fractures (dykes and sheets) or, alternatively, their propagation to the surface, and how do
these conditions relate to the mechanical properties
of typical composite volcanoes and rift zones? A
dyke-fed eruption cannot occur unless the local
stresses in the volcano favour dyke propagation to
the surface. These stresses are normally not well
known since they depend on the poorly defined
physical properties of the rocks that constitute the
volcano, its magma-chamber geometry, and its
tectonic environment.
How does the surface deformation during volcanic
unrest periods relate to the associated subsurface
volcanotectonic processes, and why are periods of

Preface

volcanic unrest so much more common than

volcanic eruptions (Newhall and Dzurisin, 1988)?
What are the conditions for the formation of
collapse calderas and how do these conditions
relate to magma-chamber geometries, host-rock
properties, and the local stresses? Why are
eruptions in calderas so much more common than
slips on existing ring faults; and how can largescale collapses occur with little or no eruptions?
No caldera forms or slips unless the local stresses
in the volcano are favourable to slip. As is
indicated above, these stresses depend on many
factors and are poorly known.
Which relationships exist between volcanic activity and the failure of a flank of a volcano? What
conditions bring the flank of a volcano to a critical
(unstable) stage?
How do regional stress fields and structures
control the location of, and the activity in, volcanic
edifices? In particular, how do the regional and
local stresses affect the intrusion and extrusion
frequencies and productivities of rift zones and
volcanic edifices?

The structure and contents of this special issue are

motivated primarily by two factors. First, we believe
that the answers to these and similar questions can
be found through a greater research emphasis on
volcanotectonics. Also, we think that correct deformation interpretations are crucial for understanding
volcano behaviour and, thereby, assessing volcanic
hazards. Second, we believe that a special issue
providing a brief treatment of most of the methods
and typical results related to deformation of volcanoes is better than an issue focusing on just a few
selected topics. By including all the main aspects of
volcanotectonics in this issue, we hope to better
define this recent and rapidly developing discipline
and provide a useful reference for researchers working in this field.
This issue derives partly from a special session on
volcanotectonics at the 2003 EGSAGUEUG Joint
Assembly in Nice, France. The focus is on five main
topics within the field of volcanotectonics. These are
regional structures and volcanic activity, collapse
calderas, mechanical stability of volcanic edifices,
surface deformation and eruptions, and dyke propagation and arrest. Each of the 18 papers in the issue is

primarily concerned with one of these topics, and is

grouped accordingly in the discussion below. It should
be understood, however, that most papers treat more
than one topic, and all are related in the sense that they
throw light on one or several aspects of the tectonics
and physics of volcanoes.

2. Regional structures and volcanic activity

Spinks et al. (2005) discuss the Taupo Volcanic
Zone in New Zealand, which contains many calderas.
They focus on the relationship between the regional
structures and volcanism and, in particular, the
structural control on the evolution of the calderas
within the zone. An important finding is that caldera
structure along and across the rift depends on the
tectonic environment within the zone. Most calderas
within the main zone of rifting are multiple and with
rectilinear margins, whereas those outside the main
zone of rifting are single and sub-circular.
Lagmay et al. (2005) propose a close structural and
genetic connection between a graben and regional
strike-slip faults in the vicinity of the Mayon Volcano,
Philippines, and the volcano itself. One basic result is
that these faults may contribute to the instability of the
volcano and the likelihood of landslides from its slopes.
Girard and van Wyk de Vries (2005) study the
Managua Graben in the Las SierrasMasaya Volcano
in Nicaragua. Their main conclusion is that the graben
and the volcano itself are linked tectonically and,
therefore, should be treated as one dynamic system
and monitored accordingly.

3. Collapse calderas
Jonsson et al. (2005) discuss recent trapdoor faulting
of the Sierra Negra Volcano, the largest volcano of the
western Galapagos Islands. The volcano, a large,
elliptical collapse caldera with a major axis of 10 km
and a minor axis of 7 km, has erupted at least 11 times
since 1813. Using new geodetic field and satellite data,
the authors provide evidence for a very recent 12 m
trapdoor faulting in the caldera.
The paper by Galindo et al. (2005) discusses a
recently identified 1-km-wide graben within the Las
Canadas Caldera (a multiple caldera) in Tenerife. As

Preface

in the paper by Jonsson et al. (2005), the focus here is

on a structure inside the main caldera, the idea being
that analysis of such small-scale structures may throw
light on the origin of the ring faults of the main
caldera. The authors conclude that the graben was
active for at least 0.5 Ma prior to the collapse of the
westernmost part (caldera) of the Las Canadas
Caldera. A detailed review of the geology and
geophysics of Tenerife, including the Las Canadas
Caldera, is provided in a recent JVGR special issue
(Marti and Wolff, 2000).
Formation of a new ring fault, or slip on an existing
one, depends on the state of stress in the associated
volcano. Miura (2005) presents the results of a
palaeostress study for the 14-Ma-old Kumano Caldera
in Japan. The results underline the importance of
knowing the in-situ stresses in active calderas so as to
be able to evaluate the probability of renewed slip on
the ring faults.
The Campi Flegrei Caldera in Italy is one of the
most intensively studied calderas in the world. Its
structure is discussed in several papers in two recent
JVGR special issues (Orsi et al., 1999; Civetta et al.,
2004). Here, Trasatti et al. (2005) provide new
model constraints on the depth and magmatic overpressure (driving pressure) related to the 19821984
unrest period and uplift in Campi Flegrei. They
emphasise the effects that the mechanical properties
of layers at shallow depths have on the stress and
displacement fields during unrest periods, a conclusion that is increasingly recognised as fundamental when interpreting surface deformation in active
volcanoes.
Holohan et al. (2005) also discuss the geometry of
collapse calderas, but focus on those with elliptical
shape. Elliptical calderas are known from many areas
(Acocella et al., 2003a), but their formation is still not
well understood. Holohan et al. (2005) discuss six
possible mechanisms by which calderas can become
elliptical in shape, and then provide analogue experiments to simulate such caldera geometries. One main
conclusion of these experiments is that magma
chambers with circular cross-sectional areas can
develop elliptical calderas provided the regional stress
field is biaxial. More specifically, in the experiments
the calderas tend to become elongated in the direction
of the minimum compressive (maximum tensile)
principal stress.

4. Mechanical stability of volcanic edifices

Calderas and volcanotectonic grabens result from
mechanical instabilities in volcanic zones and edifices. Such instabilities may also give rise to landslides;
large landslides are, for example, known from Hawaii,
the Canary Islands, and Etna. The stability, or lack
thereof, of large volcanic edifices such as Etna
(Acocella et al., 2003b) is of great concern in
volcanotectonics. Rust et al. (2005) provide an
analysis of large-scale flank instability on Etna,
focusing on recent and continuing deformation along
major faults that dissect the flanks of the volcano.
They conclude that there are many unstable areas,
some forming nested zones, on the flanks of Etna.
In this issue, the May 1980 flank failure of Mount
St. Helens, USA, is investigated by Vinciguerra et al.
(2005). Using primarily seismic data, they conclude,
first, that the fracturing inside the volcano that
eventually led to its failure began at the end of
March, but then slowed down prior to the main
failure. Second, that the main flank failure was
attributable to the pressure effects of accumulated
gas in the interior of the volcano.
Oehler et al. (2005) present an analogue model for
landslides and spreading on semi-ductile layers, such
as marine sediments, hyaloclastites, and hydrothermally altered rocks, and apply the results to the
spreading of volcanic islands. Their model results
indicate that landslides and spreading are very likely
to occur under such conditionsa conclusion that is,
indeed, supported by numerous observations from
volcanic islands.
Landslides (and stability in general) on volcanic
edifices, including volcanic islands, depend much on
the mechanical properties of the rocks that constitute
the edifices. Apuani et al. (2005) use information on
the mechanical properties of the rock layers, rock
masses and deposits, together with other data, to
analyse the stability of the Stromboli Volcano, Italy.
Their results suggest that, in the absence of volcanotectonic activity, Stromboli is mechanically stable.

5. Surface deformation and eruptions

In addition to calderas and major volcanotectonic
grabens, numerous smaller structures, such as fissures,

Preface

faults and grabens, develop on volcanic edifices during

unrest periods. And these smaller structures may
provide important information on the tectonic environment within which eruptions take place. Monaco et al.
(2005) and Neri et al. (2005) both analyse the surface
deformation associated with, and the triggering mechanisms of, the 2001 and 20022003 eruptions of Etna.
More specifically, Monaco et al. (2005) give a detailed
description of the course of events, whereas Neri et al.
(2005) focus more on the associated plumbing systems
of these eruptions, in particular the dykes that supplied
magma to the eruptions. They conclude that the 2002
2003 eruption was partly in response to a major flank
slip on the eastsoutheast side of Etna, whereas the
2001 eruption was primarily the result of the emplacement of a north-trending dyke.
Lungarini et al. (2005) also analyse the surface
deformation of Etna, using a numerical model. They
emphasise the effects of the real topography of the
volcano on the surface deformation observed during
unrest periods. They compare their results with
analytical (bMogiQ) point-source results with a flat
surface and conclude that the topography of the volcano
has significant effects on the surface deformation.

6. Dyke propagation and arrest

Surface deformation associated with dyke emplacement has normally been analysed in terms of models
where the host rock is taken to be homogeneous and
isotropic. Because of the paucity of observations of
actual dyke emplacement, analytical, numerical and
analogue models (tested on field data) have been used
to throw light on the emplacement mechanisms. Here,
Rivalta et al. (2005) present results on buoyant-driven
fractures in a layered gelatine as an analogue to dyke
emplacement. Their results underline the great effects
that layers of contrasting properties can have on the rate
of propagation, geometry, and arrest of fluid-filled
fractures such as dykes.
Stewart et al. (2005) show that the lava flows
exposed in the Hess Deep (Pacific Ocean) dip towards
the axis of the East Pacific Rise, so that most of the
dykes dip away from the axis. This is exactly what is
observed in Iceland (Walker, 1960). Furthermore, the
results of Stewart et al. (2005) indicate that most of
the about 1-Ma-old dykes, generated at the East

Pacific Rise, did not act as feeders to lava flows but

rather became arrested at some crustal depths.
Dyke arrest is also one of the themes in the last
article in this issue (Gudmundsson and Loetveit,
2005). The authors provide field data and numerical
models on dyke emplacement in layered and faulted
rift zones and conclude, first, that soft and faulted
layers tend to arrest dykes and, second, that on entering
a graben, an overpressured dyke may encourage
reverse slips on the (normal) boundary faults.

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