SustainableTourism

and
CulturalHeritage
AReviewofDevelopmentAssistanceandItsPotential
toPromoteSustainability

TableofContents
ListofAbbreviations
Preface
Acknowledgements
ExecutiveSummary.....................................................................................................................................

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 1
2.TheContext........................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.Tourism:System,EconomicImpact,andMarket........................................................................
2.2.CultureandItsPreservation.........................................................................................................
2.3.CultureasaTourismAttraction...................................................................................................
2.4.TheImpactsofTourism...............................................................................................................
2.5.SustainableTourism:ConceptsandObjectives...........................................................................
2.6.EcotourismandParallelstoCulturalHeritageTourism..............................................................
2.7.IndustryResponsestoSustainableTourism.................................................................................
2.8.TheRealitiesofIndustryStructure:ARoleforDevelopmentCooperationPrograms..............

3
5
6
7
8
9
9
11

3. AchievingSustainability:SelectedStrategies..................................................................................... 14
3.1.FeasibilityStudies,ProjectFormulation,andEIAs...................................................................
3.2.GettingtheFrameworkRight:PolicyandPlanning..................................................................
3.3.OrganizingforSustainability:InstitutionalIssues.....................................................................
3.4.Partnerships:AKeyComponent................................................................................................
3.5.TheBasics:MarketingandInfrastructureDevelopment...........................................................
3.6.Financing:TheFundingNecessaryforSustainability...............................................................
3.7.Sitepurchase,Restoration,andPreservation.............................................................................
3.8.SitelevelPlanningandManagementTechniques.....................................................................
3.9.TraininginTourismManagement.............................................................................................
3.10.CertificationandAccreditation...............................................................................................
3.11.EntrepreneurialandHospitalityTrainingandFinancialAssistance........................................
3.12.InformationandCommunication.............................................................................................
3.13.ResearchandInformationGathering.......................................................................................
3.14.Summary.................................................................................................................................

14
15
16
17
18
19
21
21
23
23
24
26
27
28

4.DevelopmentCooperationAgenciesandTourism.............................................................................. 29
4.1.DevelopmentCooperation:ABriefSummary........................................................................... 29
4.2.DevelopmentCooperationandTourism:OverviewandSelectedAgencies............................. 30
4.3.DevelopmentCooperationandTourism:SomePrinciplesandLessonsLearned..................... 36
5. Conclusions......................................................................................................................................... 38
References................................................................................................................................................ 40
Endnotes................................................................................................................................................. 47
Appendices
1.Players,processes,anddocuments:Areviewofselectedactivitieswithin
culturalheritagetourismandsustainabletourism....................................................................... 55
2. TheimpactsofculturaltourisminTanaToraja,Indonesia.......................................................... 63
3. ListanddescriptionofrelevantIDB,USAID,andWorldBankprojects..................................... 67

4.Listanddescriptionofrelevantprojectssponsoredbyotheragencies
75
5.ListanddescriptionoftourismprojectsundertakenbyGermanDevelopmentCooperation 79
6.CaseStudy1:TheGhanaCentralRegionProject
85
7.CaseStudy2:TheTrainingandTechnologyTransferPrograminThailand
89

ListofAbbreviations
Abbreviationsarecommoninmanyfields,includingthoseoftourism,culturalheritagemanagement,
and development cooperation. Abbreviations used only in limited areas (e.g., in one paragraph) are
describedinthetext.Thosewithbroaderuseandrelevancearelistedbelow.
ADB

AsianDevelopmentBank

AfDB AfricanDevelopmentBank
BMZ

GermanFederalMinistryofEconomicCooperationandDevelopment

CHM CulturalHeritageManagement
CHT

CulturalHeritageTourism

DFID DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(UK)
EIA

Environmentalimpactanalysis

EU

EuropeanUnion

GEF

GlobalEnvironmentFacility

GTZ

DeutscheGesellschaftfrTechnischeZusammenarbeit(Germany)

ICCROM

InternationalCenterfortheStudyofthePreservationandRestorationofCulturalProp
erty

ICOMOS
IDB

InternationalCouncilonMonumentsandSites

InterAmericanDevelopmentBank

IUCN TheWorldConservationUnion
NGO

Nongovernmentalorganization

NORAD

NorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation

OECD OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment
PATA PacificAsiaTravelAssociation
SD

Sustainabledevelopment

SIDA SwedishInternationalDevelopmentAgency
SNV

NetherlandsDevelopmentOrganisation

ST

Sustainabletourism

UNCED

UnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment

UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme
UNESCO

UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization

USAID USAgencyforInternationalDevelopment

WTO WorldTourismOrganization
WTTC WorldTravelandTourismCouncil

Preface
TheobjectiveofthisreportonSustainableTourismandCulturalHeritageistopresentthestate
oftheartofknowledge,experiencesandbestpracticesfromdifferentmultiandbilateral
agenciesthathaveworkedwiththisissue.Thereportdrawsonexperiencefromsitesand
destinationsaroundtheworld,includingmanythatareinscribedontheUNESCOWorldHeritage
List.
ItisoftensaidthatknowledgeinthisfieldneedstobefurtherdevelopedbeforeSustainableTour
ismcanbeintegratedintomultiandbilateraldevelopmentcooperationpolicies.
NWHOwantstoshowthatthisisnotthecase.
ArildMolstadA/Shadadministrativeresponsibilityforthereport,andMr.Molstadcontributed
toitscontentinvariousways.KregLindberg(InstituteofTransportEconomicsTI)had
overallresponsibilityforreportwritingandcontent.DonHawkinscontributedinformationonthe
activitiesofselectedagencies,includingtheWorldBankandUSAID,aswellasthematerial
containedinAppendix3and4.WalterJamiesoncontributedbackgroundinformationonseveral
topicsdiscussedinthereport.ThecasestudiesarebasedonmaterialprovidedbyHawkins
(Appendix6)andJamieson(Appendix7).
Thisreportisbasedontheexperiencesoftheauthorsandavailablepublishedandunpublishedin
formation.Therewill,ofcourse,bealotofliterature,casestudiesandotherinformationrelevantto
theconceptofSustainableTourismandCulturalHeritagethatisnotpublishedinthisreport.
Nevertheless,inouropinion,therelevantknowledgeexists.Throughmultiandbilateralpartner
shipsthatalsoinvolvetheprivatesector,strategies,programsandprojectscanbedevelopedand
implemented.Itisduetimethatthisisrecognisedsothatactioncanbetaken.
TheStrategyforEnvironmentinNorwegianMultiandBilateralDevelopmentCooperationrec
ognizesasaprioritythedevelopmentofmodelsforsustainabletourisminprioritizedareasofcul
turalinterest(Agenda21).
NWHObelievesthetimetotakeactionisnow,andwewanttobeapartnerindevelopingthese
strategies,programsandprojects.

KrisEndresen
Director,NWHO
November1999

Acknowledgements
KimBlackfordprovidedresearchassistance,especiallyrelatingtoWorldBankandUSAIDactivities.
Thefollowingpeoplerevieweddraftsofthereportandprovidedhelpfulcomments:JanVidarHaukeland
(TI),HenningLauridsen(TI),JuanJorgeLunaKelser(IDB),MarkPhillips(USAID),andSynnve
Vinsrygg(Riksantikvaren).Inaddition,severalpeopleprovidedrelevantinformationduringreport
preparation.Thesecontributionsaregratefullyacknowledged.

ExecutiveSummary
onAfrica
This
andAsia.
report1)
provides Themutual
anupto dependenc
ethat
date
overview exists
between
ofthe
tourism
relations
and
hip
cultural
between heritageis
protectio becoming
nofcul moreevi
tural
dent.
heritage, While
including culture
World heritage
Heritage createsa
Sites,and foundation
tourism, for
tourisms
2)
growth,
describes
tourismhas
strategies thepower
thatcan togenerate
leadto fundsthat
sustainab make
le
conservatio
tourism npossible.
where Cultural
cultural heritage
heritage losesmuch
isakey ofits
meaning
factor,
withoutan
and3)
audience,
points anda
outhow society
de
participatin
velopmen ginand
t
benefiting
cooperati fromit.
oncan Without
playa sustainable
rolein manage
ment,
this
tourism
process,
losesits
witha
potential
particula forgrowth.
rfocus

The
focusof
this
reportis
howto
promote
symbios
israther
than
conflict
between
the
needsof
conserv
ation
manage
ment
and
tour
ism,and
particul
arly
how
develop
ment
coop
eration
canplay
arolein
achievin
gthis
sym
biosis.

Recent
growthhas
catapulted
the
tourism
industry
intothe
positionof
becoming
arguably
thebiggest
industryin
theworld,
witha
12%share

ofglobal on
GDP.Its countries.
size
Indeed,
threatens theBritish
vulnerabl developm
e
ent
destinatio cooperatio
nswhose nagency
culture (DFID)
heritage hasfo
istheir cusedona
main
propoor
attraction approach
,whileon aspartof
theother itsin
hand
volvement
sustainabl in
etourism tourism.
canplay
avital Tourism
partin poses
addressin important
gsuch challenges
developin for
gcountry develop
problems ment
as
assistance,
poverty, whichso
poor
farhas
infrastruc involved
ture,
itselfinthis
unemploy sectoronly
ment,and toaminor
adecline degree.The
ina
report
nations pointsout
senseof that
cultural arguments
identity. against
bilateral
Though and
ithasnot multilateral
developme
been
nt
fully
tapped, assistance
tourism rolesin
hasthe tourism
potential arereal,
tocreate butoften
benefits overstated
specifica andthat
llyfor these
thepoor
in
destinati

problems
arenot
uniqueto
tourism:
manyare
genericto
developm
ent
cooperatio
nandthe
devel
opment
process.
Thereport
concludes
thatafail
ureof
developm
ent
agencies
tobecome
involved
intourism
represents
afailureto
capitalize
onthe
considerab
le
opportunit
iesit
presentsin
termsof
resource
manageme
ntand
sustainabl
edevelop
ment.
Developme
nt
cooperatio
ncanhelp
tackle
challenges
suchas
global
underestim
ationofthe
valueof
culture
andnature
based
attractions;

currency "userpays"
leakage principleis
often
that
deprive neglected,
local
whilethe
communit "freeand
iesof
open
tourism access"
generated argumentis
income;a invokedby
private thetourism
industry industry.
preoccu The
piedwith industryis
short
characteriz
term
edby
profitsat "market
the
failure,"
expense which
oflong meansthat
term
alaissez
resource faire
managem approach
ent;anda maynot
lackof leadto
experienc socially
eand
desirable
administr results.
ative/orga Therefore,
nizational thereisa
structure.
needfor
governmen
These
t
challenge
interventio
sare
n.The
particularl
report
y
identifies
dramatic
and
inthearea
outlinesa
ofcultural
rangeof
heritage,
private
asdamage
public
inflicted
sector
uponlocal
alliances,
cultureis
using
accelerati
strategies
ngand
and
often
mechanism
irreparabl
s("best
e(these
practices")
arenon
thathave
renewable
proved
resources)
successful.
.The
Practical

casesare
provided
toillustrate
waysto
meetthese
challenges.
Thereport
arguesthat
developme
ntof
sustain
able
tourism
canbe
consistent
withthe
aimof
developme
nt
cooperatio
nin
general.
Moreover,
sustainable
tourism
represents
ahitherto
largely
neglected
opportunit
yfora
developing
countryto
generate
employme
nt
opportuniti
es
(including
forpoor
people),
growth,
andamore
viable
economy
onterms
thatdonot
run
counterto

itslong action.In
term
additionto
interests. the
knowledge
The
and
authorsof experience
thisreport of
conclude developme
thatthere nt
isasolid, agencies,
thereis
and
growing, extensive
basisfor expertise
i

withinthe
consultanc
yand
academic
world,
among
NGOs,as
wellas
insidethe
tourism
industry
itself.
How

ever,theimportanceofcollaborationandinfor
mationexchangeinprojectdevelopmentandim
plementationisvital.Asisasenseofurgencyto
combatthedisappearanceofculturallandscapes
thathavevaluefarbeyondwhatcanbemeasured
ineconomicterms;theyarecentral,oftenfast
disappearingsymbolsofnationalidentityand
uniqueness.AsexpressedbyWorldBankPresi
dentJamesWolfensohn,culturecanbejusti
fiedfortourism,forindustry,andforemploy
ment,butitmustalsobeseenasanessential
elementinpreservingandenhancingnational
prideandspirit.1

ii

1.Introduction
ratified
the
Touri World
smto Heritag
sites e
of Convent
cultu ionof
ral 1972
and (protecti
natur ngthe
al
world's
signif cultural
i
and
cance natural
has heritage
exist ),and
edat 582
least sitesare
since inscribe
the donthe
time UNESC
of O
Gree World
k
Heri
Antiq tage
uity, List.
as UNESC
reflec O's
ted Director
by General
Helle F.
nistic Mayor
worl express
ds edit
in this
venti way:
onof
The
the
pote
Seve
ntial
n
bene
Won
fits
ders
ofthe of
Worl
Worl
d
d.In
more Heri
tage
recen
ex
t
tend
times
far
,157
beyo
count
nd
ries
the
have
sites

whic
h
have
been
liste
d,
since
these
area
scan
play
a
lead
ershi
p
role
in
setti
ng
stan
dard
sfor
prot
ecte
d
area
sas
a
whol
e,
can
brin
g
reso
urce
sfor
train
ing
whic
h
will
beof
wide
r
appli
catio
n,
and
can
be
"flag
ships
"in

te ofthe
r tourism
m industry.
s Indeed,
of inscripti
ra onon
isi the
ng World
pu Heri
bl tageList
ic can
a quickly
w causea
ar siteto
e become
ne amajor
ss tourist
of attractio
co n.
ns
er Thereis
va some
ti debate
on regardi
is ngthe
su exact
es sizeand
. growth
of
Toget tourism
her ,butit
with clearly
other isoneof
cultur the
eand largest
natureindustri
areas, esinthe
these
world,
Worl
ifnot
d
the
Herita
absolute
ge
largest.
Sites
The
are
World
impor
Travel
tant
touris and
mat Tour
tracti ism
ons Council
and (WTTC
form )
the estimate
backb sthat
one tourism

generat
ed192
million
jobs
and
$3.6
billion2
inGDP
in1999,
whichis
12%of
the
world
total.
WTTC
forecast
s
continu
ed
growth,
withan
nual
ratesof
3%
between
1999
and
2010for
the
world
asa
whole.3
Inshort,
tourism
s
econom
ic
impact
is
signific
antand
still
growing
.
Moreov
er,
muchof
theem
ployme
ntand
associat
ed
income

invol mcan
ves makean
forei importa
gn nt
exch contribu
ange tionto
earni econom
ngs. ic
In develop
additi ment.
on, Tourism
thoug also
h
generate
there sa
is
variety
wide ofother
varia impacts,
bility both
acros positive
s
and
desti negative
natio .For
ns example
and ,itcan
regio help
ns, keep
touris tradition
m salive
gener and
ally finance
provi the
des protec
jobs tionof
of cultural
vario and
us natural
types heritage
(from ,aswell
unski as
lled
to
skille
d,
part
time
to
full
time)
and
for
both
gend
ers.
Thus,
touris

increase
visitor
apprecia
tionof
that
heritage.
Con
versely,
tourism
can
damage
heritage
when
notwell
manage
d.
Thus,
thereis
a
tension
betwee
n
touris
mand
cul
tural
and
natural
heritag
e
manag
ement,
indeed
betwee
n
touris
mand
broade
r
societa
l
values.
Touris
misa
double
edged
sword.
As
noted
by
UNES
CO:
Cult

ur
al
to
uri
sm
ca
n
en
co
ur
ag
e
th
e
re
viv
al
of
tra
dit
io
ns
an
d
th
e
res
tor
ati
on
of
sit
es
an
d
m
on
u
me
nts
.
Bu
t
un
bri
dle
d
to
uri
sm

can
have
the
oppo
site
effect
.
Here
there
isa
real
dilem
ma.
Is
there
nota
risk
that
the
boom
in
cultu
ral
touri
sm,
by
the
sheer
weig
htof
num
bers
invol
ved,
may
harb
our
the
seeds
ofits
own
destr
uctio
nby
erodi
ng
the
very
cul
tures

and
sites
that
are
its
stock
in
trade
?

Or,as
stated
by
Egyptol
ogist
Rainer
Stadelm
an,
Touris
mis
already
a
catastro
phe.But
wehave
toadmit
that
without
tourism
there
would
beno
public
interest,
and
without
that
there
would
beno
money
forour
work.4
The
tension
between
sym
biosis
and
conflict
hasbeen
repeated
inmany
contexts
and
provides

the cultural
motiv heritage,
ation and
for limitson
this visitatio
re ncan
port. damage
On tourism
the (or
one hinder
hand, its
cultur expansio
al
n).
herita
ge Whatis
can clearis
serve that
asa tourism
touris is
m growin
attractgand
ion, will
whilehavean
touris increasi
mcan ng
lead impact
to on
financcultural
ial heritag
and e.Inits
politi forecas
cal t
suppo Touris
rtfor m:
mana 2020
geme Vision,
ntof the
this World
herita Touris
ge. m
On Organi
the
zation
other
(WTO)
hand,
predict
there
sthat
is
cul
also
tural
po
tourism
tential
willbe
confli
oneof
ct
thefive
insofa
key
ras
tourism
touris
market
mcan
segmen
dama
tsin
ge
the

future,
and
notes
that
growth
inthis
area
will
present
an
increas
ing
challen
gein
terms
of
managi
ng
visitor
flows
to
cultural
sites.5
The
focus
ofthis
report
ishow
to
promot
e
symbio
sis
rather
than
conflict
,and
par
ticularl
yhow
develo
pment
cooper
ation
canfa
cilitate
achieve
mentof
this
objecti
ve.
The
meansto
achieve
symbiosi
sisto

pursu natural
e
heritage
well settings.
mana Althoug
ged h
touris member
min softhe
cultur tourism
aland industry
1
inspecific
settings,
industry
organizati
onsnote
thatthe
challenge
isto
manage
thefuture
growthof
the
industry
soasto
minimise
its
negative
impacts
onthe
environme
ntand
host
communiti
eswhilst
maximisin
gthe
benefitsit
bringsin
termsof
jobs,
wealthand
support
forlocal
culture
and
industry,
and
protection
ofthe
builtand
natural
environme
nt.

Arecurring

may
oppose
specific
measure
sor
manage
ment

themein
thisreport
isthe
motivation
for
involving
developme
nt
cooperation
inthepro
cessof
achieving
sustainable
tourism,as
wellasthe
rolesthat
assistance
canplay.
Onecan
justify
providing
technical
assistance,
training,
andfinan
cialsupport
intourism
justasin
other
economic
sectors,
like
agriculture,
thatcreate
jobsandin
come.
However,
forreasons
discussed
inSection
2.8,thereis
amore
specific
rationale
fordevel

opment
cooperation
thatstems
fromthe
natureof
thetourism
industry
and
relevant
power
relation
ships.
Developme
nt
cooperatio
ncanbean
important
lever,an
important
stimulus,
for
achieving
sus
tainable
tourism.If
sustainable
tourismis
achieved,it
willnot
onlyhelp
developme
ntcoop
eration
agencies
achieve
economic
developme
ntgoals,
butalso
cultural
heritage
manageme
ntgoals.
For
example,
tourism
can
financially
contribute
toresource
manageme
nt.In
addition,
local

residents
maysee
tourism
related
jobsas
concrete
benefitsof
cultural
heritage
manageme
nt,which
can
enhance
public
supportfor
that
heritage.
Section2
ofthis
report
describes
thetourism
de
velopment
context,
includinga
rationale
forde
velopment
cooperation
.Section3
reviews
several
strategies
that
promote
sustainabili
tyin
tourism.
Section4
reviews
issuesin
developme
ntcoopera
tion
generally,
aswellas
what
selected
agencies
havedone
within
tourism.
Section5is

aconclud
ing
statement
that
reiterates
the
importance
ofde
velopment
cooperation
inthe
sector.The
appendices
contain
various
material,
starting
withan
overviewof
relevant
agencies
and
processes
outsidethe
bilateral
and
multilateral
assistance
sector.
Other
appendices
containa
casestudy
oftour
isms
impactsin
Tana
Toraja,
Indonesia,
databases
ofrelevant
developme
nt
cooperation
projects,
andtwo
casestudies
oftourism
projects
fundedby
developme
nt
cooperation
,onein
Ghanaand

onein
Thailand.

Itisworth
noting
several
limitations,
assumptions
,and
definitions
inthe
contextof
thisreport.
First,the
focusison
cultural
heritage.
However,
culturaland
natural
heritage
often
overlap,
suchthatis
sues,
examples,
and
experiences
fromnature
tourismcan
alsobe
relevantin
thepresent
context(and
viceversa).
Thisis
discussedin
Section2.6.
Second,the
focusison
tourism,but
itisrecog
nizedthat
the
involvement
of
developmen
tagencies
incultural
heritage
clearlygoes
beyond
tourism.6
Culture,like
nature,can
bean
important
component

ofeconomic
developmen
tgenerally,
notjustin
tourism.
Moreover,
culture
provide
benefits
internationa
llytothose
whohave
notvisited,
andmay
nevervisit,
sites.Such
existence
and
option
values
helped
motivate
fundingfor
environmen
talprograms
suchasthe
Global
Envi
ronment
Facility(a
multi
billion
dollarfund
for
environmen
talprojects),
andsimilar
valuesin
theculture
contextalso
justify
developmen
tcoopera
tion.7
Third,for
purposesof
thisreport,
cultural
heritage
tourism
(CHT)is
viewedas
travel

concerned
with
experiencin
gcultural
environmen
ts,includ
ing
landscapes,
thevisual
and
performing
arts,and
special
lifestyles,
values,
traditions
andevents.
Itis
importantto
stressthat
CHT
involvesnot
only
tangibleor
visible
heritage
suchas
sites,colors,
materials,
and
settlement
patterns,but
alsointan
gible
heritage
suchas
societal
structures,
traditions,
values,and
religion.
However,
theprimary
focusofthis
reportwill
beon
tangible
culture.
Tourism
canbe,
andoften
is,defined
quite

broadlyto
include
business
andother
formsof
travel.The
present
focusison
recreationa
ltravel,
the
laymans
concept
oftourism.
Likewise,
thefocus
willnotbe
on
volunteer
tourism,in
which
tourists
workon
projects,
thoughthis
canbean
important
toolfor
cultural
resource
manageme
nt.For
example,
the
Cultural
Restoratio
nTourism
Projectis
organizing
aneffortto
rebuildthe
Baldan
Baraivan
templein
Mongolia.
Several
small
groupsof
"volunteer
tourists"
are
broughtto
thesiteto
helpwith
the

restoration
work.8
Thefocus
ofthis
reportis
on
assistance
bybilat
eraland
multilater
al
developm
ent
cooperati
on
agencies.
The
general
activities

of
UNESCO
,UNEP,
WTO,
andother
agencies
and
organiza
tionsare
discussed
in
Appendix
1.
Geograph
ically,
thefocus
isonAsia
and
Africa.9
2

Lastly,itshouldbenotedthatthisreportisbased
ontheexperienceoftheauthors,publishedand
unpublishedliterature,personalcommunication
withrelevantactors,andotherrelatedsources.
Sitevisitsanddetailedevaluationofthe
examplespresentedherewerenotundertakenas
partoftheproject.10

2.TheContext
later
(Sectio
Rea n4).
ders
of
this 2.1.
repo Touris
rt
m:
may
System,
com
Econom
e
from ic
vari Impact,
ed and
dis Market
cipli
nary There
area are
s,so numero
this us
secti books
on on
prov what
ides might
brief loosely
back be
grou called
nd the
on tourism
rele syste
vant m
aspe the
cts nature
of and
touri structur
sm eof
and actors
cult and
ure. their
Bac relation
kgro shipsin
und tour
on ism.
deve This
lop section
men provide
t
sa
coop brief
erati descript
onis ionof
pres that
ente system.
d
Oneof

thekey
features
of
tourism
isthe
diversit
yin
attracti
ons,
destinat
ions,
and
busi
ness
charact
eristics.
Given
this
diversit
y,the
fol
lowing
is
inevita
blya
simplifi
ed
overvie
w.
Atthe
core,
andthe
focusof
this
report,
areat
traction
s,in
this
case
cultural
and
natural
heritage
attractio
ns.
These
attractio
nscan
be
grouped
as:11

1 F

e
a
t
u
r
e
s
w
i
t
h
i
n
t
h
e
n
a
t
u
r
a
l
e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
.
M
a
n

m
a
d
e

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
,

str
uct
ure
s
and
site
s
tha
t
we
re
des
ign
ed
for
a
pur
pos
e
oth
er
tha
n
at
tra
cti
ng
visi
tor
s,
suc
h
as
reli
gio
us
wo
rsh
ip,
but
wh
ich
no
w
attr
act
sub
sta
nti
al
nu
mb
ers
of
visi
tor
s

wh
o
use
the
m
as
leis
ure
am
eni
ties
.
M
a
n

m
a
d
e

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
,
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s
,
a
n
d

s
i
t
e
s

t
h
a
t
a
r

e
de
si
gn
ed
to
att
ra
ct
vi
sit
or
s
an
d
ar
e
pu
rp
os
e
bu
ilt
to
ac
co
m
m
od
at
e
th
eir
ne
ed
s,
su
ch
as
th
e
m
e
pa
rk
s.

ts.
Destinat
ions
often
contain
more
thanone
attrac
tion,
though
major
attractio
ns(such
asthe
Egyp
tian
pyramid
s)can
beeither
thesole
orthe
leading
attractio
nata
destinati
on.
Withina
destinati
on,there
are
various
tourism
facilities
,suchas
hotels
and
restaura
nts.To
some
degree,
these
facilities
Sdepend
ponthe
e attractio
c ns,but
i the
a differen
cebe
l
tween
e
thetwo
v
canbe
e
blurred,
n
assome

facilities
(suchas
famous
hotels)
are
themsel
ves
attractio
ns.
Attractio
nscan
be
classifie
dusing
various
typolo
gies,
suchas
ownersh
ip(e.g.,
public
or
private)

a
n
d
w
h
et
h
e
r
t
h
e
y
a
r
e
p
ri
m
a
r
y
o
r
s
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y
i
n
te
r
m
s
o
f
v
is
it
o
r
d
e
ci
si
o
n

sto
visit
a
desti
nati
on.

Touri
smis
a
compl
ex
produ
ctand
can
be
classi
fied
by:

De
sti
nat
ion
/ac
tivi
ty
typ
e
(e. 3
g.,
be
ac
h,
nat
ure
,
cul
tur
e,
act
ivit
y,
vis
itin
g 4
fri
en
ds
an
d
rel
ati
ves

VF
R);

Sou
rce
mar
ket
(e.g
.,
do
me
stic
or
inte
rna

tion
al);
and
Tra
vel
cost
/styl
e
(e.g.
,
high

end/
luxu
ry
or

Ty
pe
of
tra
ve
l
(e.
g.,
or
ga
ni
ze
d
in
to
ur
or
fre
e
in
de
pe
nd
en
t
tra
ve
ler

FI
T)
;

b
u
d
g
e
t/
b
a
c
k
p
a
c
k
e
r)
.

nces
traveled
during
the
journey.
Though
muchof
the
focusin
Asia
and
Africa
ison
internati
onal
tourism,
More visitatio
over, nby
the nearby
scope resident
of scan
visita generate
tion someof
to the
cultur same
al impacts,
and both
natur positive
al and
herita negative
ge ,as
attrac visitatio
tions nby
goes persons
beyo living
nd thousan
techn dsof
ical kilomet
defini ers
tions away.
of
touris The
m, diversit
whic yof
travel
h
may relevant
requi inthe
re present
over context
night includes
stays both
or tourists
mini whopay
mum travel
dista agents

thousan
dsof
dollars
fortrips
tothe
furthest
reaches
ofthe
globeto
resident
s
visiting
anearby
museum
.To
simplify
matters,
key
actors,
espe
cially
for
internati
onal
visitatio
n,
include
1)the
outboun
d
(source
market)
operator
s,both
atthe
wholesa
leand
retail
levels,
thatsell
toursto
trav
elers,2)
the
inbound
(ground
)
operator
sthat
or
ganize
andlead
thetrips
inthe

desti
natio
n
coun
try,
and
3)
the
attrac
tion
that
is
being
visite
d.
Re
ga
rdl

essof
how
touris
ts
travel
,the
touris
m
phen
omen
on
gener
ates
subst
antial
positi
ve
eco
nomi

c
impa
cts
aroun
dthe
world
.The
follo
wing
table
provi
des
estim
ates
from
the
WTT
C.
4

Table1:WTTCEconomicImpactEstimatesforTravelandTourism(1999)
Region

Billions
of$

GDP
%ofTotal
inRegion

Annual%
Growth*

Employment
Millions
%ofTotal
ofJobs
inRegion

World

3,550

11.7

3.0

192.3

8.2

NorthAfrica
SubSaharanAfrica
NorthAmerica
LatinAmerica
Caribbean
Oceania
NortheastAsia
SoutheastAsia
SouthAsia
Europe
MiddleEast

20
26
1,171
90
29
68
537
81
27
1,461
41

6.8
11.2
11.8
5.6
20.6
14.7
10.0
10.6
5.3
14.0
7.3

6.0
5.2
2.5
6.1
5.5
3.8
2.8
5.5
9.1
2.6
5.2

2.2
9.6
21.2
8.9
3.6
2.1
57.2
15.2
22.3
47.8
2.0

7.4
7.4
11.9
6.0
15.8
16.0
7.1
7.3
5.4
13.2
6.1

*19992010estimated,adjustedfor
inflationGDP=GrossDomesticProduct
Source:WTTC(1999)

Thesedatanotonlyshowthecurrentimportance
oftourismasageneratorofjobsandincome,but
alsotheexpectedfuturegrowth,despitethe
recenteconomicproblemsinAsia.Withthe
exceptionofNortheastAsia,alltheregions
withinAfricaandAsiaareexpectedtogrow
fasterthantheworldaveragefor1999to2010.
Thoughinterregionaltravel,especiallyfrom
EuropeandNorthAmerica,historicallyhas
beenamajorpartofthemarket,intraregional
travel,especiallyinAsia,isexpectedtobe
increasinglyimportantaspopulation,incomes,
andleisuretimeincrease.12
Futuregrowthestimatespaintarosypicturefor
tourism,andthosethatwanttobenefitfromit.
However,theincreaseindemandiscomple
mentedbyanincreaseinsupply,asdestinations
reacttotheopportunitiescreatedbytourism.
Theavailabilityofculturalresources(especially
historictangibleresources)isultimately
limited.Nonetheless,newculturalattractions
continuetobedeveloped.13AstheEUnotes:
while global tourist demand is on the
increase, the number of destinations and
global capacity are advancing even more
quickly....Toholdon

totheirmarket
share,destinations
willhavetocope
withcompetitionby
enhancingquality
andbydiversifying
theirproductsand
markets.Emerging
andpotential
destinationswill
havetofindtheir
nicheinthis
competitivemarket
bycapitalisingon
theiruniqueness
andnoveltyandby
avoidingmistakes
madebyother
destinations.
Thiscompetitiondoes
notmeanthatCHT
sitesneedtobeturned
intocultural
Disneylands,but
ratherthatattention
needstobepaidto
consumertastesand

desiresshouldtourismbedesiredatheritagesites.
Thismightlead,forexample,togreaterattention
tocreativepresentationandinterpretation.With
respecttoheritagesitesinOECDcountries,ithas
beenobservedthat:14

itisperhapsnoaccidentthatsomeofthe
newheritageattractionswhichrapidly
gainedsubstantivemarketsharesinthe
ManyheritagesitesinAsiaandAfricahave
reliedprimarilyontheirphysicalresources,
anduniqueorunusualsitesmaybeableto
continuetodoso.However,lessuniquesites
willrequiregreaterattentiontothe
presentation,whileuniquesitesthatfollowthis
pathwillbeabletobenefitfinanciallyfrom
theirenhancedmarketposition.Thedynamics
ofsupplyanddemandwillleadtothe
paradoxicalsituationofsomesitesbeingchal
lengedtoattracttouristsandothersitesbeing
challengedtomanageanoverabundanceof
tourists.
Reinforcingtheincreaseinthenumberofsites
istheincreasingsophisticationoftourists.As
describedinthenextsection,manytourists
haveexperiencedsun,sand,andsurfholidays
andwantmorefromtheirvacations.Thisleads
toagreaterdemandfornicheactivitieslike
CHT,butalsotohigherexpectationsfor
quality.Theincreasingnumberofcompeting
destinationsprovidestheopportunityforthese
sophisticatedconsumerstobemore
discriminating.
Anotherformofcompetitionarisesinsource
marketsthemselvesintheformoftheme
parks,notonlyinNorthAmericabutnow
throughoutmuchoftheworld.Anevenmore
recentphenomenonisvirtualreality,inwhich
potentialvisitorsmaynotneedtoleavetheir
home,oratleasttheirhometown,tohave
CHTlikeexperiences.Thus,someseevirtual
realityasasignificantthreattotourism. 15
However,othersnotethatvirtualreality
experiences(andperhapsvisitstothemeparks)
mayleadtomore,ratherthanless,demandfor
originalsitesinsofarastheymaystimulatecon
sumerdesiretoexperiencetherealthing.
Nonetheless,thetrendtowardstheuseof
sophisticatedelectronicmediamayreinforce

1980sreliedless
onthephysical
resourceoftheir
locationandmore
onthe
presentationof
thisplacethrough
multimedia

interpretation:
quiteliterallycon
structingthe
resourcetomeet
perceivedde
mands.

thetrendtowardgreatervisitorsophistication
andhigherexpectationsforstimulatingand
informativepresentationsatCHTsites.Of
course,thedevelopmentofelectronicmedia
alsoprovidessignificantopportunitiesforsites
tobeinterpretedinamuchmoreinteractiveand
interestingmanner.
2.2.CultureandItsPreservation
Thissectionbrieflyidentifiessomeofthe
majorviewsofcultureanditsphysical
manifestations

relatedtotourism,aswellasthemeansthat
havebeenusedtoprotectheritage
environments.16

TheUNESCOWorldCommissiononCulture
andDevelopmentreportOurCreative
Diversitylooksatcultureaswaysofliving
together.Withthisasapointofdeparture,the
WorldBankdefinescultureas
thewholecomplexofdistinctivespiritual,ma
terial,intellectualandemotionalfeaturesthat
characterizeasocietyorsocialgroup.Itin
cludesnotonlyartsandletters,butalso
modesoflife,thefundamentalrightsofthe
humanbeing,valuesystems,traditions,and
beliefs.

17

Theabovereflectstheseparationofculture
andculturalheritageintobothmovableand
immovableforms.Thisreportfocuses
primarilyonculturesimmovableforms,
recognizingthattheculturallandscape
includesexpressionsoftraditionsand
lifestylesthatmustbetakenintocon
siderationwhenlookingateffectivewaysof
safeguardingacommunitysculturalheritage.
Cultureandculturalheritageareprominentre

sourcesinanysociety.Tangibleheritagemay
beconsideredamaterialmanifestationor
symbolofculturalexpression,eithertraditions
oflivingsocietyorthoseofpastsocieties
occupyingthesamearea.Therefore,material
heritageispivotalforanyonewantingtogaina
deeperunderstandingofthesociety.This
appliestothelocalinhabitantsaswellasthe
visitortoaneworforeignsocietyor
environment.
Agreatdealoftheactivitywithincultural
heritagepreservationhasbeenconcernedwith
maintainingsinglebuildingsofarchitectural
significanceandconnectedwithimportant
eventsandpeople.Variousactorshavebeen
involvedinthisprocess,includingnon
governmentalorganizations,alllevelsof
government,anddevelopers.Concernswiththe
limitationsofidentifyingandprotectingsingle
buildingshaveledtolawsandregulationsthat
protectentireenvironments.Thisallowedthe
processtoinvolvemorepeopleinheritagecon
servation,anditdefinedapastthatincludedthe
ordinaryaswellasthemostsignificant.Many
countriesmaintainheritagesitesfor
interpretationandeducation;theseareoften
characterizedbyhighlevelsofresearchand
documentation,aswellasgovernment
management.

Steadilyincreasingdemandforcultureoriented
activitiesaffectsculturalheritageofinterestat
alllevels,fromworldheritagebelongingto
internationalsocietyormankindingeneralto
heritageofnational,regionalandlocal
significance.Preservationissuesand
challengesvaryaccordingly.Inmany
developingcountries,thelegalframeworkfor
protectingheritageisbetterthanthemanage
mentcapacity.Surveyingandmonitoring
systemsforcontrollingthestateofconservation
ofculturalheritageandtakingthenecessary
precautionspresentgreatchallenges.
Throughouttheworld,festivalsandevents
oftenlinkedtoorperformedinareaswith
culturalrelicsoratsitesofculturalandnatural
significancearenowseenasimportant
dimensionofculturaltourism.Theyplay
importantrolesinhelpingtomaintaincultural
traditionsandvalueswhileproviding
communitieswiththeabilitytocreatejobsand

income.Handicraftsoftenformanimportant
dimensionofaregion'sculturaltourism
experience.Tourismcanbeimportantinhelping
tomaintainanddeveloptraditionalcraftskills,
thoughthereisalsotheriskthatincreased
demandleadstoalossofauthenticityinterms
ofprocessandproduct.

Thediscussionofdifferentformsalsoreflects
thatheritage,andconservation,canoccurat
differentspatialscales,includingthatofa
singleartifact,asinglebuilding,astreetscape,
anarea,anentirehistorictown/city,a
region/landscape,andevenuptonationaland
internationalscales.
Thereareseveralreasonsforpublicand
privatesectorinvolvementincultural
heritagemanagement(CHM),including:

1 Therecognitionthatheritageresourcescan
playanimportantroleincommunity
continuity,renewal,anddevelopment.

2 The increased quality of life associated

withheritageresources.
3 Theroleofheritageresourcesincreating
and maintaining individual and
communityidentity.
4 The value of heritage resources in the
educationofchildren.
5 Therolethatheritageresourcescanplay
in providing for pleasure/recreation
opportunities.

1 Therolethatheritageresourcescanplay
ineconomicrevitalizationandtourism
development.

Thelatterreasonisthefocusofthepresent
report,butthenontourismbenefitsarenoted
heretoillustratehowthevalueofcultureand
culturalheritagegoesbeyondservingas
tourismattractions.
OurCreativeDiversitygoesontonotethe
contradictoryforcesof1)globalization,which
leadstoculturaluniformity,and2)
fragmentation,whichreflectsadrivingapart.
Bothconceptsareimportantwhendiscussing
theroleoftourismandthewaysinwhichit
contributestotheconceptofaglobalculture,
whilealsohavinginitthepotentialtoprotect
andpromotelocalidentity.
2.3.CultureasaTourismAttraction
Fortourists,thedesiretotravelisthedesire,to
varyingdegrees,toexperiencesomethingunfa
miliar;foreignculturesandtheirmanifestations
thusserveasimportantattractions.Cultural
tourisminparticularisasearchforanda
celebrationofthatwhichisuniqueand
beautiful,representingourmostvalued
inheritance.
Cultureandculturalheritagearecrucialtopeo
ple'sidentity,selfrespect,anddignity.Thisap
pliestobothaffluentandpoorsocieties.Tangible
heritagemaybeanavenuethroughwhichthe
conscioustouriststartstograspabasic
understandingofthepastand/orlivingculture,
whichhasadaptedtoandinfluencedthe
environmentthevisitoristryingtomake
intelligible.Providedthesebasicfactsare
understoodandserveasguidelinesfor
presentationandcommunicationbetweentourists
andthelocalpopulation,culturaltourismhas
greatpotentialtoimproveunderstandingand
respectamongdifferentcultures,andinalong
termperspectivemayberegardedasatoolfor
creatingandpreservingpeace.

Culturaltourismhaslongexisted,butrecent
demographic,social,andculturalchangesin
themainsourcecountrieshaveledtoan
increasingnumberofnewnichemarketsin

destinationcountries,includingculture
orientedholidays.Thoughsun,sand,andsurf
holidaysarenotexpectedtodisappear,they
lenging,educational,and/orrelativelyunique
experiences.Thesechangeshaveledto
increasedpopularityfortourisminvolving
cultureandnatureasattractions.Somelament
thatrecentinterestinCHTdoesnotstemfrom
genuineinterestinlearningaboutthesites
themselvesaspartofaclassicaleducation,but
rathertonostalgia.Nonetheless,onecanalso
viewthisincreaseddemandasanopportunity
togenerateinterestandawarenessinabroader
swatheofthesocietythanwaspreviously
possible.Moreover,culturalattractionstendto
attractmarketsegmentswithrelativelyhigh
levelsofeducationandincome,whichcanlead
torelativelyhighnetbenefitstodestinations.
Estimatesofgrowthshouldbetreatedwith
caution,butonestudybyStanford
Universitypredictedthatnaturetourism
wouldgrowatanannualrateof25to30
percentduringthe1990s.
Culturaltourismwasexpectedtogrowat10
to15percentperyear.Itshouldbestressed
thatsomevisitorswilltakeentirevacations
focusedoncultureornature,butmanyothers
willseekculture/natureexperiencesaspartof
alargervacationfocusedonbeachorother
attractionsandactivities.Varioussitesand
countriesarerespondingtotheopportunity
providedbythisgrowthindemand.For
example,SouthAfricahashistoricallyreliedon
itsclimate,beaches,andnaturetoattract
tourists,butitrecently(1997to1999)imple
mentedamarketingcampaigntitledExplore
SouthAfricaCulturetoattractculture
orientedtourists.
Thoughmostoftheattentioninthisareahas
beenontourisminvolvingwestern/northern
visitorstosoutherndestinations,therehasalso
beenageneralincreaseinintraregional
(SouthSouth)tourism,asnotedabove.
Multiplesourcesofvisitorspresentsboth
opportunitiesintheformofincreasedbenefits
fordestinations(duetoincreasednumbers),but
alsochallengesintheformnotonlyoflimiting
negativeimpacts,butalsoineffectively
servingtwomarkets.Thereis,ofcourse,
diversityinvisitorexpectationsandpreferences
withinthenorthernmarketaswellaswithin

havedeclinedinrelativeimportanceasmore
andmorevisitorsseekchal
6

thesouthernmarket,butoftenthemost
strikingdifferenceisbetweenthetwo.This
diversityisillustratedinthecontextof
visitationtoabiospherereserveinChina,and
thechallengeitpresentstomanagerswhomay
wishtosatisfybothdomesticandforeign
visitorsaswellasnatural/culturalheritage
managementobjectives.18Inthecultural
context,thistensionisillustratedbyan
anecdote

ofhowwhatisseenasajoyouscountryfair
atmosphereoutsideandinsideChinese
templesintheeyesofdomesticvisitors(and
thebusinessestheypatronize)isdesecration
andvulgarizationintheeyesofWesterners.

6
7
8

2.4.TheImpactsofTourism
Tourismsimpactsareoftengroupedintoeco
nomic,environmental,social,andcultural;
thesecategoriesaresomewhatarbitraryand
overlapping,andthelattertwooftenare
combinedintoone.Listingoftheseimpactsis
providedinnumeroustourismreports,books,
andarticles.19Thefocusinthissectionisto
brieflynotecommonsocioculturalimpacts
andtostresssomegeneralconcepts.
Potentialpositiveimpactsinclude:20

1
2
3
4
5

buildingcommunitypride;
enhancing the sense of identity of a
communityorregion;
promoting intercultural/international
understanding;21
encouraging revival or maintenance of
traditionalcrafts;22
enhancing external support for

Giventhefundamentalrolethatcultureplays
insocietyandindividuallives,thesepositive
andnegativeimpactscanbeprofoundly
important.
Asnoted,thegroupingofimpactsinto
categoriesissomewhatarbitraryandisusedto
conveybasicissues.Forexample,positive
economicimpactscanultimatelyleadto
positiveculturalheritageimpacts.
In 1995 the Inter-American Development
Bank (IDB) provided a $1.7 million grant
to help preserve prehistoric cave
paintings at 260 sites within the Capivara
Park, a World Heritage Site in
northeastern Brazil. The grant included
funding to improve roads in order to
stimulate tourism as a source of in-come
for local residents, thereby improving
economic conditions and helping to
reduce activities that were destroying the
sites.

minoritygroupsandpreservationof
theirculture;
broadeningcommunityhorizons;
providingfundingforsitepreservation
andmanagement;and
enhancinglocalandexternalappreciation
andsupportforculturalheritage.

Potentialnegativeimpactsinclude:

1
2
3
4
5
6

1
2
3
7

commodification and cheapening of

cultureandtraditions;
alienationandlossofculturalidentity;
underminingoflocaltraditionsandways
oflife;
displacementoftraditionalresidents;
increaseddivisionbetweenthosewhodo
anddonotbenefitfromtourism;
conflict over (and at times loss of) land
rightsandaccesstoresources(includingthe
attrac
tionsthemselves);
damagetoattractionsandfacilities;
lossofauthenticityandhistoricalaccuracy
ininterpretation;and
selectivityinwhichheritageattractions
aredeveloped.23

Thisparallelstheprinciple,ifnotalwaysthe
reality,inecotourismthatcreationoftourism
jobsreducespressureonnaturalresources.
Thisprinciplecanalsobeanimportant
motivatorfordonorassistanceintourism
development,asexemplifiedbyUSAIDs
fundingofintegratedconservationand
developmentprojectsinThailand,Nepal,and
Madagascar.
Thegroupingofimpactsintopositiveand
negativeisalsoarbitrary,oratleastsubjective,
aswhetheragivenimpactisgoodorbadwill
dependononesperspective.Forexample,
somecommunityresidentsmaydesirecultural
change,whileothersmayopposeit.The
demonstrationeffect,resultingfromexposure
toWesternhabitsandlifestylesbecauseof
tourism,isblamedforerodinglocalculture.
However,itcanalsostimulateentrepreneurial
activityandeconomicdevelopment.
Likewise,somemaydesirecontinuityinlocal
economic(andpolitical)relationships,while

othersmaydesirereductionsinincome
inequalities.Personswishingtoselllandwould
welcomeincreasedlandprices,whilethose
whowishtobuylandortoretainlandtheyown
(andonwhichtheymaypaypropertytaxes)
wouldopposeincreasedprices.
Eveniftherewereconsensusregardingthedesir
abilityofcertainchanges,itwouldnotalwaysbe
clear that the change is occurring because of
tour

ism.Manynegativeeffectsfromtourismdevel
opment,bothculturallyandotherwise,canbeat
tributedtoglobalizationprocessesratherthanto
tourisminparticular.Nonetheless,tourismcan
contributetoprofoundchangesindestinationre
gionsand,rightlyorwrongly,ithasbeenper
ceivedbysomeasanewformofcolonialism
andNortherndominationofdeveloping
countries.24

Despitethesecomplicationsandqualifications,
itisclearthattourismgeneratesavarietyofim
pacts,andakeygoalofsustainabletourismis
togenerateamorefavorablebalanceinthese
impacts.Thebalancewillbesitespecificand
willdependonvariousfactors,including
(importantlyinthiscontext)howtourismis
planned,developed,andmanaged.Theextent
ofculturalimpactsinparticularmightdepend
onvariousaspectsofthelocalpopulation,
including1)thedegreeofisolationfromother,
particularlyWestern,cultures,2)local
inhabitantsreactionstopreviouscontextwith
outsiders,andremainingperceptions,3)
resistancetoexternalinfluences,whichinturn
dependsonprideandselfesteem,and4)rights
ofownershipandusagewithrespecttotheland
onwhichtheylive.
2.5.SustainableTourism:Conceptsand
Objectives
Theconceptofsustainabletourismhasgrownout
oftheconceptofsustainabledevelopment(SD),
whosemostpopulardefinitionhasarisenfrom
theWorldCommissiononEnvironmentand
Development(theBrundtlandCommission).
Their1986report(OurCommonFuture)defined
SDas:

developmentwhichmeetstheneedsofthe
present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own
needs.
Thisdefinitionissimpleenoughtobeapopular
catchphrase,andithasdonemuchtopublicize
theriskofeconomicdevelopmentactionsand
policiesthat,throughoverharvestofordamage
tonaturalresources,jeopardizelongtermhuman
survival.However,itssimplicityalsohidesthe
difficultiesofoperationalizingtheconcept,of

puttingittoworkinpractice.MuchaboutSDand
sustainabilityiscontested,includingWhode
Despitethislimitation,theconceptofSD,and
relatedprinciplessuchasintraandinter
generationalequity,hasbeenwidelyacceptedin
conceptand,increasingly,inpractice.
Predictably,SDhasbeenappliedtoindividual
sectors,suchthatonetalksofsustainable
agriculture,sustainableforestry,andsustainable
tourism(ST).

AswithSD,definitionsofSTareplaguedby
thechallengeofoperationalizationof
applyingtheconceptstospecificsituations.In
practice,STisoftenoperationalizedbylisting
severalcriteria,suchastourisminvolving
minimalenvironmentalimpact,enhancedlocal
benefitsandparticipation,andeducationof
visitors.Theselectionofcriteriaisinherently
subjectiveandvariesacrosspeopleand
organizations.Ingeneral,therehasbeena
broadeningfromtheenvironmentaldimension
toincludeeconomicandsociocultural
dimensions.25Inthetourismcontext,onecan
alsotalkofexperientialsustainability
(maintainingqualityinthevisitorexperience),
thoughthiscanbeviewedasaprecondition
foreconomicsustainability.
Inshort,itisessentiallyimpossibletosay
whetheraspecifictourismdestinationor
activityissustainable.Nonetheless,the
conceptofsustainabilityisusefulindescribing
generalconcernsandobjectives.Amore
practicalconcept,thoughstillgeneral,isto
thinkofmovingtowardsustainability.Itisthis
conceptthatisusedinthisreport,andthe
strategiesdescribedbelowaredesignedto
facilitateamovetowardsustainabilityinthe
senseofincreasingthebenefitsand
decreasingthecostsoftourismdevelopment.
2.6.EcotourismandParallelstoCHT
Inonesense,natureorecotourismshouldbein
corporatedwithinCHTinsofarasnaturealsoisa
culturalconstructandoftenisacomplementary
attraction.26However,thepresentfocusison
cultureandculturalheritagemorenarrowly
defined.Nonetheless,natureandecotourism
issuesandexamplesarediscussedinvarious

fineswhatsustainabilityis?or,inspecificand
practicalterms,what,exactlyistobesustained?
8
placesinthisreportbecauseexperiencefroma
decadeofpublic,industry,andresearchscrutiny
ofecotourismcanbeusefulinthecontextof
CHT.
Oneoftheseissuesinvolvesconsumer
demandsforauthenticnatureandculture.In
ecotourism,manyassumethatvisitorsseek
authenticnature,

naturethathasnotbeendegradedbyhuman
activities.Inprinciple,then,theinterestsof
touristsandthetourismindustrywillcoincide
withthoseofthenaturalheritagemanagersto
maintainnatureinanondegradedstate.
However,thisprinciplemaynotalwayshold
inpractice,notonlybecausetheindustryoften
seeksshorttermgainsattheexpenseoflong
termrevenues,butalsobecause1)notall
touristsseekauthenticnatureand2)notall
touristsrecognizedeparturesfromintegrity.
Asimilarissuearisesinculturaltourism.Itis
oftensaidthatculturaltouristsareseekinga
highquality,informed,andauthenticcultural
experience.However,manytouristsmaynot
recognizedeparturesfromauthenticity.Thisis
nottosaythatauthenticityshouldbe
discouraged,butthatthoseinchargeofcultural
heritageshouldnotbesurprisedifthetourism
industry,andconsumers,havesomewhatlower
expectationsofauthenticity.Ifauthenticityisto
bepreserved,theoriginalmotivationforthis
preservation(valuesthatgowellbeyond
heritageasanattractionfortourism)shouldnot
beforsakeninfavorofamotivationentirely
orientedaroundtourism.
AdependenceonconsumerdrivenCHMnotonly
turalawareness,ifitcanbeachieved,would
leadtosimilardevelopmentsinthecultural
arena.

2.7.IndustryResponsesto
SustainableTourism
Manyindividuals,companies,and
organizationsinthetourismindustryhave
respondedtothecallforsustainabletourism
withavarietyofinitiatives.27Consistentwith
thepublicfocusonenvironmental
sustainability,muchoftheindustrysresponse
hasbeeninthisarea,thoughtherehasalso
beensomeactivityinotherareas,including
CHMandlocalparticipationandcontrol.
Agenda21isacomprehensiveplanofaction
that,togetherwiththeRioDeclarationon
EnvironmentandDevelopment,wasadoptedby
morethan178GovernmentsattheUnited
NationsConferenceonEnvironmentand
Development(UNCED)heldinRiodeJaneiro,
Brazilin1992.In1996,theWTTC,WTO,and

maybelimitedbytheaboveconsiderations,but
mayalsoberiskyinsofarasconsumerdesires
maychange.Desiresmaybereasonablystable
acrosstimewithinonemarket,butmaydiffer
significantlyacrossmarkets;thepreferencesof
somevisitorsmaydifferfromthoseofothers.
Theymayalsodifferfromthoseofmainstream
(oftenWestern)conceptsofCHM.Thissituation
raisesimportantissuesofwhodefinesCHM
goals,whichisbeyondthescopeofthisreport.
Nonetheless,arelianceonmarketdrivenCHM
maynotalwaysbeconsistentwithtraditional
WesternCHMgoals.
Afinalcommonalityoccursonthebigpicture
level.Tosomedegree,broaddevelopmentsin
theareaofCHMhavefollowedthoseinthearea
ofenvironmentalmanagement.Forexample,the
UNreportsOurCreativeDiversityfollowedOur
CommonFuture,andtheWorldBankandothers
areadaptingtechniquesdevelopedtovalueenvi
ronmentalresourcestothemeasurementofcul
turalresources.Giventhatenvironmentalaware
nesshasledtofundingsourcessuchasthe
GlobalEnvironmentalFacilityandtourism
relatedassistancefocusedonnature/ecotourism
(e.g.,DFIDandUSAID),itisconceivablethat
increasedcul
9
theEarthCouncillaunched
Agenda21fortheTravelandTourismIndustry
basedontheRioactionplan.Recently,the
WTTCandtheInternationalCouncilforLocal
EnvironmentalInitiatives(ICLEI)agreedto
integratethisindustryAgenda21withthe
"LocalAgenda21"planningprogram(seealso
thediscussionoftheCSDprocessinAppendix
1).

WTTChasbeeninvolvedinvariousother
activities.Forexample,in1994itlaunchedthe
GreenGlobeprogram,whichprovidesa
certificationprocesslinkedtoISOstandards
andAgenda21principles.28Italsodeveloped
theECoNETTwebsitewhichcontainsadvice
anddataongoodpractice,abookstore,and
otherinformation.
Otherindustryorganizations,particularlyspe
cialtyorientedgroupssuchastheInternational
Hotel&RestaurantAssociation(IH&RA)and
theInternationalHotelsEnvironmentInitiative
(IHEI)havehelpedraiseenvironmental
awarenessintheindustryandhaveprovided

practicaladvice,suchastheEnvironmental
ActionPackforHotelsandtheEnvironmental
GoodPracticeinHotels.Variousother
industryassociations,suchastheAmerican
SocietyofTravelAgents(ASTA)andthe
PacificAsiaTourismAssociation(PATA),
haveproducedcodesandguidelinesfor
responsibletourism.

Turningtoindividualcompanies,AmericanEx
press(AMEX)hasbeenveryactive,
particularlyasadonorinthefieldofculture
tourism.AsnotedinAppendix1,AMEXmade
a$5millioncommitmenttotheWorld
MonumentsWatchfortheirannuallistofthe
100MostEndangeredSitesandforemergency
grants.
AspartofUNESCOsMemoriesofthe
FutureprojecttheACCORGroup,Radisson
SAS,andJetTourswillsupportspecificWorld
HeritageprojectsinPetra,Angkor,andMachu
Picchu.Inthisproject,UNESCOrecommends
thefollowingactionsforoperators.First,a
financialcontributionof$5pervisitorwillbe
made(bythevisitorsthemselvesorbythetour
operator).Second,theoperatormayadopta
project.Third,visitorswillreceiveabadge
fromUNESCOFriendsofHeritagein
recognitionoftheircontribution,andthe
operatorwillbeallowedtopublicizeitsofficial
relationshipwithUNESCO.Actionsforhotels
includeadoptingspecificprojects,renovation
ofoldbuildingsforuseashotelcenters,and
promotionofmovableandimmovable
heritage.FundsreceivedbyUNESCOare
depositedintoaspecialaccountandareused
solelyforsiteprotectionandenhancement,
ratherthanUNESCOadministrationorother
internalexpenses.
AnotherexampleisStarTour/Temaresor,
whichcontributestoWorldHeritageSites,
includingBhaktapur,Nepal.Asnotedinits
brochure,

TemaresorisScandinaviasleading
operatorofnatureandculturetrips.
Therefore,itisobviousthatweshould
supportthisimportantwork(World
Heritage)....Webelievethatthepeople
choosingTemaresortripsagreethatitis
importanttopreserveheritageforthe
future.Thereforewehopeyouarenot
opposedtotheaddedcostforyourtripfor
natures,cultures,andthefuturessake.29
Withrespecttoenvironmentalsensitivityand
workingwiththelocalcommunity,anexampleis
EccoTravelGroupsDreamCampintheMasai
Mara.Thisoperatorstressesclosecontactwith
theenvironment,usingabroaddefinitionto
includeboththenaturalandculturalenvironment.

Withrespecttoenvironmentalconsiderations,
DreamCampuseslocalbuildingmaterials,solar
cells,recyclingofwater,compostingandsorting

ties,thecamphireslocalemployees,stimulates
localproductionofsouvenirs,contributesto
thedevelopmentofthelocalvillage,provides
aneducationalstipend,andorganizesMasai
ledculturevisitsinthelocalvillage.
Manyoperatorshaveformalorinformal
programsthatchannelmoneyfromclientsto
environmentalorculturalprojectsin
destinationareas.Forexample,Wildland
Adventures,aUSoperator,establishedthe
TravelersConservationTrust(TCT)in1986as
anonprofitaffiliateofthebusiness.As
describedinthetrustoverview:
TCTidentifiesandsupportscommunity
levelprojectsandconservation
organizationswhichpromoteenvironmental
orculturalpreservation.Manyprojectsare
carriedoutwithvolunteerassistanceof
WildlandAdventuresstaff,travelersand
localofficialsandresidents....
ParticipantsonmanyWildlandAdventures
areinvitedtobecomeinternational
membersofalocalconservation
organizationidentifiedinadvancebythe
TravelersConservationTrust.Wildland
Adventuressimplyaddsanoptional$25
$50lineitemoneachtravelersinvoiceasa
voluntarycontributionwhichthecompany
thendonatesinitsentiretyinthenameof
eachclientasanindividualmembershipin
thelocalconservationorganization.Many
WildlandAdventurestripsincludevisitsto
siteswhereactivepreservationor
communitydevelopmentecotourism
projectsareunderway.
Severaloperatorshaveallianceswithlocalor
internationalconservationand/ordevelopment
NGOs,suchasWorldWildlifeFund,andtrips
oftenincludevisitstoprojectsites,witha
strongeducationalorientation.Manyofthese
operatorsaresmallanddrivenbypersonal
environmentalorsocialphilosophies,hoping
notonlytomakealivingwhilemakinga
contribution,butalsohopingtoserveas
examplesforlargeroperators.Therearealso

ofrubbish,andvariousmeansofreducing
transport.Withrespecttocooperationwithlocal
communi
10
larger,andmoreupmarket,operatorsactivein
suchways.Forexample,theConservation
CorporationinAfricahasdevelopedaseriesof
upmarketgameparksandlodgingfacilities,
withlocalcommunitiesbeingaspecific
beneficiary,inpartthroughinvigorationof
localcrafts.

2.8.TheRealitiesofIndustryStructure:A
RoleforDevelopmentCooperation
Programs
Theprevioussectionillustrateswhatindividual
operators,andtheindustryasawhole,have
donetocontributetosustainability.Businesses
arecomingunderincreasedpressuretofocus
onthetriplebottomline,toattendto
economic,environmental,andsocialfactors
ratherthanjustthefirst,andmanytourism
businesseshaverespondedwith
environmentallyand/orsociallyresponsible
actions.
Motivesfortheseactionsvaryacross
businesses,andmayincludethefollowing:

1
2

3
4
5

Personal or corporate philanthropy and

prosustainabilityphilosophy;
Adesiretoappealtoconsumerswho
selecttourismproducts(tourpackages,
flights,etc.)basedonconcernsfor
sustainability;
Adesiretoachievecostsavingsthrough,
forexample,usinglesswaterorenergy;
Enlightenedselfinterestinhelpingto
preservetheproductstheysell;and/or
A desire to beproactive in order to
avoidregulation.

mitigatedbythepresenceofintermediaries
whomaynotsharethesameconcernsas
consumers.

SurveysconductedintheUKindicatethatcon
sumersarereasonablyinterestedinreceiving
environmentalinformation.30However,
interesthaddecreasedsince1994.More
importantly,whenaskedtocharacterizetheir
purchasebehavior,41%selectedItisagood
ideaforairlineandtouroperatorstoconsider
environmentalissues,butitdoesnotinfluence
mypurchasingdecision,while53%selected
Allthingsbeingequal,Iwouldchoosethe
airlineortouroperatorthattookintoaccount
environmentalissues.Only4%selectedI
wouldonlyconsideranairlineortouroperator
thattookintoaccountenvironmentalissues.
Moreover,asnotedabove,itisnotcertainthat
consumerswillrecognizethequalityofan
operatorsordestinationsenvironmental
performance,eveniftheycareaboutthisin
theory.Alternatively,theymaynotice,but

Thestrategiesdescribedinthenextsectionare
basedinpartonreinforcingthese
considerations.Forexample,information
campaignstoraiseawarenesswithinthe
industrymayincreasethefirst,third,and/or
fourthmotives.Likewise,information
campaignstoraiseawarenessamongst
consumersmayincreasethesecondmotive.
However,thelimitationsofsuchcampaigns
shouldberecognized.Therecertainlyarecon
sumerswhochoosetripsbasedonconcernsfor
sustainability,andcompaniestrytoportray
favorableimagesinrecognitionofthis
(interestingly,fortheMemoriesoftheFuture
projectdescribedabove,industrydonationshave
comefromcommunicationsandpublicity
budgetswithinthecompanies).Nonetheless,
therearelimitstotheextenttowhichconsumers
considersustainabilityfactorswhenmaking
purchases.Thismaybeparticularlytruein
tourism,wheretheconsumersoftenarethinking
ofescapismandhedonismratherthan
environmentalorsocialresponsibility.Moreover,
consumersoftendonotpurchasedirectlyfrom
varioustourismactors,suchasinbound
operatorsthatsellviaoutboundoperators.The
pressurefortheseactorstoberesponsibleis
11

mayfocusonaestheticissues,whilesocietyas
awholemaycareaboutmorefundamental
issues,suchassurvivalofspeciesthatdonot
contributetoaestheticvalues.
Consumerdecisionscanbemuchmorecomplex
andnuancedthanrepresentedbythesesurveyre
sponsecategories,andconsumersinsomecoun
tries(e.g.,Norway)appeartoplacegreaterim
portanceonenvironmentalconsiderations.None
theless,researchindicatesthatconsumersprefer
companiestobeenvironmentallyresponsible,but
thatcompaniesmuststillofferequivalentlevels
ofprice/valuerelationshipsasthoseofferedby
competitorswhomaynotbeenvironmentally
responsible.31Thoughsimilarresearchinthe
culturalarenaapparentlyisnotavailable,itis
likelythatconsumersareevenlessresponsivein
thatcontextgiventhelackofpublicityfor
culturalheritageissuesasapartofan
environmentalapproach.

Giventheseresults,andstrongcompetitionin

many(thoughnotall)sectoralandgeographic
areaswithintourism,individualbusinessesare
facedwithadilemmaignoresustainability
exceptwhenitprovidesdirectfinancialgains
orriskbeingforcedoutofbusinessby
competitorsusinglowpricestrategiesto
achievemarketshare.Ofcourse,thedilemma
typicallyisnotsosimple,andmanybusinesses
havebeenabletopursuesustainabilitygoals
andremaincompetitivebyservingniche
marketsandthroughotherstrate

gies.However,thisisageneraldilemma
withinthetourismindustry.
Whatistobedoneinsuchasituation?Econo
mistsmightnotethattheindustryis
characterizedbystrongcompetition,easeof
entryfornewbusinesses,andhighmobility
amongstcertaintypesofbusinesses(e.g.,
outboundoperatorscanshiftdestinationsifa
currentonelosesitsappealthroughpollutionor
othercauses).Thissuggeststhatafreemarket
wouldleadtoefficientoutcomesthat,for
example,destinationswouldbesuretopursue
sustainabilitybecauseitisintheirown
financialselfinterest.
Unfortunately,tourismisalsocharacterizedby
externalities,commonpropertyresources,and
freeriders.Tourismgeneratesavarietyof
externalities,manyofwhicharenegative.For
example,itgenerates(oftennegative)
environmentalchangeforwhichitdoesnothave
topay,andthusdoesnotalwaysconsiderinits
businessdecisions.Withrespecttocommon
property,thereoftenareweakornonexistent
priceornumericallimitswithintourism,suchthat
theresourceisoneofopenaccess.Thisoften
leadstooverharvest(overuse)ofthecommon
propertyresourcesthatserveastourism
attractions.

Cooperationamongstusersinsuchsituations
canleadtoanefficientresult,butsuch
cooperationisoftendifficulttoachievewhen
therearemultiplebusinessescompetingwith
eachother(andinwhichmanyoftheactorsdo
notliveintheareaandmayhavelimited
motivationtocooperate).Thetendencyisfor
businessestoactasfreeridersbyusingthe
resourcewithoutpaying(directlyorindirectly)
forthisuse.Insuchcases,asingleownerof
theresourcecouldimplementpolicies(e.g.,
numericallimits)toavoidoveruse.However,
theseownerstendtobegovernmentsinthe
caseofculturalornaturalheritage,andgovern
mentsgenerallypermitopenaccessasaservice
tothepublic.
Asidefrombeingownersofculturaland
naturalattractions,governmentsarealsobest
equippedtouseplanningcontrolsandother
measurestoensurethatdevelopmentin
generalisconsistentwithsocietalgoals,
especiallyincasesofmarketfailuresuchas

this.AsnotedbyJosephStiglitz,SeniorVice
PresidentforDevelopmentEconomicsand

weneedtorecognizeboththelimitsand
strengthsofmarkets,aswellasthe
strengths,andlimits,ofgovernment
interventionsaimedatcorrectingmarket
failures.
Similarly,theInternationalCouncilforLocal
EnvironmentalInitiatives(ICLEI)stresses
that:
theprimarybarriertosustainable
developmentthroughtourismisanover
relianceonmarketmechanismstoguide
tourismdevelopmentandconsumption
decisions....Sustainabletourism
developmentrequiresapartnershipamong
thestakeholdersofthelocaltourist
destination.Thispartnershipmustuseboth
marketandnonmarketinstrumentsto
implementasharedsustainable
developmentvision.
Thechallengeisthattheprivatesector,whose
shorttermfinancialinterestsencourage
overuse,isoftenmorepowerfulthanthose
peopleandagenciesingovernmentwhomay
wishtocontrolthedevelopmentoftourism.In
addition,therearemanyingovernmentwho,
forvariousreasons,haveprioritiessimilarto
thatoftheprivatesectorprioritiesstressing
growthoverlongtermplanningand
management.Moreover,theremaybemanyin
destinationcommunitieswhobenefitfrom
tourismanddesireunlimitedgrowth,andtheir
voicesmaybestrongerthanothersinthe
communitywhobearthecosts.Forthese
reasons,manydevelopingcountrieshave
espousedtheprincipleofsustainabletourism,
but,astheEUobserves,fewofthemhave
beenabletoconvertthisintoconcreteaction
owingtotheshorttermeconomicintereststo
which,alltoooften,priorityisgiventothe
detrimentofprotectingsocialand
environmentalassets.
Inshort,theinterestsinfavorofcontinued
growthandthechallengesofachieving
sustainableusethrougheffectivemanagement
bysingleorcooperativeownershipleadtothe

ChiefEconomistattheWorldBank:
1
2

problemofoverusethatisencapsulatedinthe
destinationlifecycleconceptintourism.32This
conceptsuggeststhatdestinationshavea
tendencytoovershootandoverdevelop,
withstagnationanddeclineresultingunless
actionistakentoavoidoverdevelopmentorto
rejuvenatethedestinationifitoccurs(oftenat
greatcost).
Planningprocessesandmanagementactionsare
designed to help destinations avoid
overdevelopment.Inconcreteterms,planning
andmanage

mentaredesignedtoidentifypotential
problemsbeforetheybecomesosignificant
thattheresourceisunacceptablydegradedor
accesstotheresourceneedstobelimitedor
discontinued,asoccurredwhenKingTuts
tomb(Egypt)wasclosedin1992duetothe
basreliefsbeingerodedbyhumanexhalations
andperspiration.Theindustrytendstoprefer
selfregulationovermanagement,butitis
doubtfulthatthiswillleadtosustainabilityfor
thereasonsdiscussedabove.Indeed,many
withintheindustryrecognizetheroleof
government,inpartduetothefreerider
problem.33
Workingtogether,governments,thetourism
industry,anddevelopmentcooperationcan
playvitalrolesinthisactivity.Government
anddevelopmentcooperationcanfacilitate
selfregulationwithintheindustrythrough
provisionofinformationtobusinessesand
consumers,aswellasbysupporting
programslikeGreenGlobe.However,in
manycasesitwillbecriticaltoprovide
uniformencouragementorrequirements
acrossallbusinessesinanareatoavoidthe
freeriderproblem.
Encouragementcantaketheformofincentives

and/ordisincentives.Incentivescanbedirect,
suchasaccesstolowinterestloans,trainingpro
grams,orparticularattractions(e.g.,onlyallow
ingqualifiedoperatorstouseasite).Theycan
alsobeindirect,suchasdevelopmentof
certificationprogramsthatcanleadtomarket
advantagerelativetononcertifiedbusinesses.
Disincentivescanincludeleviesonnegative
impacts,suchasgenerationofwaste.
Governmentalregulationcanalsotakevarious
forms,rangingfromrequiringenvironmental
impactassessmentstolimitingaccessto
attractionsand/ordestinationsasawhole.
Developmentcooperationagenciescanplayvari
ousrolesinthisprocess.Directroles,for
instance,mightincludefundingforinformation,
training,orcertificationprograms.However,in
keepingwiththefindingsoftheWorldBank
describedbelow,developmentcooperation
agenciesmayplaytheirmostimportantroleina
broadermanner,byidentifyingandsupporting
individualreformersandreformprocesseswithin
governmentandcivilsociety.Thoughimmediate
visibleoutcomesmaybemodest,thetransferof
knowledgeandfundingcanraisethestatusand
powerofreformersandreformorientedactors
(e.g.,businessesorgovernmentagencies),with
theultimateobjective
13

beingtoprovideacounterbalancetothe
forcespushingforunsustainablepractices.
Itshouldbestressedthatmarketfailure,the
needforeffectivegovernmentintervention,and
thechallengesofachievingthisarenotunique
totourism.Moreover,thereexistotherjustifi
cationsfordevelopmentcooperationinthe
tourismsector,asinagricultureandothersec
tors.Thisdiscussionofmarketfailureispre

sentedtoexplainwhyeducation,responsible
consumerism,andmarketforcesaloneare
notadequateandtonotethatdevelopment
cooperation,throughprovisionof
knowledge,encouragement,andfunding,
canfacilitateachievementofsustainability.

1
4

3.AchievingSustainability:SelectedStrategies
3.1.Feasibility
What,then,arethepointsofinvolvement
Studies,Project
fordevelopmentcooperation?This
sectionoutlinesselectedstrategiesfor Formulation,
promotingsustainability,eachofwhich andEIAs
hasbeen,orcanbe,afocusofdevelop
mentcooperation.Thoughtheintention Thisstrategyis
istogobeyondconventionalwisdom, essentiallya
precursorthatcould
especiallywithrespecttoissueslike
carryingcapacity,werecognizethatin beusedto
generalthestrategiesoutlinedhereare incorporateseveral
fairlywellknown.Theyhaveappearedin ofthefollowing
variousdiscussionsandreportswithinthe strategies.It
particularly
culture,nature,andgeneraltourism
overlapswithsite
contexts.Thechallengeistoimplement
levelplanning,
them,andtobepatientintheknowledge
whichisusedinthe
thatchangeoccursslowly.Evenmore
presentcontextto
challengingwillbetoimplementthem
atearlystagesofdevelopment,when
theywillbemosteffective,ratherthanat
laterstages,whentheneedwillbemore
obvious,butimplementationlikelymore
difficultandmorecostly.
Thispresentationisinevitablylimitedby
thescopeofthisreportandthedesireto
provideaconciseoverview.Thegoalis
toidentifypotentialpointsof
developmentcooperationactionandto
noterelevantissuesandprinciples,rather
thantoprovidedetaileddescriptionof
thestrategies.Thisisnotahowto
guide,butratherawhattoconsider
guide.34Itislikelythatanygiven
contextwillinvolveissuesandstrategies
(suchasdealingwithlandrights)thatare
notdiscussedhere.Theclassificationof
strategiesisinevitablysomewhat
arbitrary,andcategoriesoverlapwith
eachother.
Itshouldbenotedthatthoughthese
strategieshavebeendevelopedand
appliedinvariouscountries,thereis
inevitablyabiastowardtheexperience
ofOECDcountries,inwhichmuchof
theevaluationandwritingabouttourism
occurs.Therefore,thestrategiesmay
needtobeadaptedduetovariationsin
decisionmakingprocesses,regulatory
structures,economicconditions,and
valuesandtraditions.

refertoplanningand
managementaftera
decisionhasbeen
madetoimplementa
project,orwhenthe
sitealreadyexists,
forinstanceonthe
WorldHeritageList.
Historically,many,if
notmost,feasibility
studieshavebeen
exactlythat
evaluationsof
whetherandhowa
siteorregioncould
bedevelopedto
attractvisitors.Such
evaluationsremain
critical,asthe
ecotourism
experiencesuggests
thatfailuretoun
derstandandevaluate
themarket(andwhat
thedestinationcan
offer)canleadto
wastedfundingon
infrastructureand
unmetcommunity
expectations
regardingtourism
benefits.
Nonetheless,studies
havebeenchanging
overtime,andthere
isincreasing
attentiontothe
complementary
aspectofdesirability.
Thatis,isitdesirable
todevelopthesiteor
regionfortourism
and,ifso,under
whatconditions?
Thischangeinthe
objectivesoftourism
development,andof
assistanceinthepro
cess,isa
fundamentalstep
towardimproving

choice of project
alternatives.
Acomplementaryactivitythattypically Aprimaryobjective
occursintheearlystagesoftheproject istoidentifypossible
cycleisenvironmentalimpactanalysis impactsatanearly
stagesothattheycan
(EIA).EIAsareoftenrequiredby
bemitigatedor
nationallegislationinrecipientcoun
tries,butmayalsoberequiredbydonor avoided.Thoughthe
nameimpliesafocus
legislation.Forexample,NORAD
requiresthatallongoingandplanned onthenatural
developmentcooperationprojectsmust environment,insome
casestheenviron
beassessedwithregardtoenviron
mentisinterpreted
mentalimpacts.
broadlytoinclude
EIAs canbe usedto identify aprojects economic,social,and
likely impacts on the environment, as culturalimpactsas
well as to influence project design and wellasimpactson
thenatural
14

outcomes.

environment.
ThoughEIAscanbe
animportanttoolin
promoting
sustainability,they
canalsosufferfrom
severallimitations.
EIAregulationsare
oftenexcellentin
principle,butmore
difficultinpractice.
Attimesthereis
pressuretoshortcut
theprocessonthe
partofinterested
parties(notably

theindustry),andEIAprocessesoftendo
notdealwellwithimpactsthatare
difficulttoidentify(suchasthosethatare
indirect),difficulttoquantify(suchas
thoseonculture),thosethatarecu
mulativeinnature(duetomanysmall
developmentsratherthanasinglelarge
development),andthosethatrequire
lengthyperiodsbeforebeingdetected.

tourism officials identified a range of

Thereisafrequentargumentbyproperty
developmentintereststhatsmallscale
changeinaheritageenvironment,suchas
thelossoralterationofasinglebuilding,
isinsignificant.However,experiencehas
shownthatthecumulativeeffectofwhat
canbeseenassmallscalechangescan
haveasignificantimpactontheheritage
valueandcharacterofanareaor
landscape.Mostheritageresource
managementactivityattemptstoinfluence
thelevelandpaceofchangeinorderto
maintainthevalueoftheartifactitselfor
thelargerenvironmentinwhichitis
situated.

welfare and health of local inhabitants

A joint project by the (Canadian)

Training and Technology Transfer
Program (TTTP) and the Minister of the
Environment in Cambodia illustrates
application of an EIA process at Siem
Reap, the community closest to Angkor
Wat, with a specific focus on cumulative
ef-fects. Cambodian environment and

environmental issues that face Siem

Reap as it further de-velops its tourism
potential, including sanita-tion, sewage,
availability of clean water, and river
quality. There is recognition of the importance of effectively dealing with
these is-sues not only to protect the
but also to avoid damaging the tourism
industry.
The assessment is cumulative in nature
in that it evaluates both present and
planned hotels. Based on the
assessment, mitigative measures will be
identified and specific initia-tives
undertaken. There will be a focus on
identifying feasible and appropriate
mitigative measures for the community.
The assess-ment and identified
measures are expected to assist the
community in their efforts to secure
international funding for the
implementation of specific actions (e.g.,
design and construction of an
appropriate sewage system).35

Thoughadistinctprocess,environmental
managementsystems(EMSs)canbe
viewedasexten

sionsofEIAs.Theyaredevelopedby
tourismbusinessesandprovideameans
foridentifyingadversesocialand
environmentalimpacts,aswellas
reducingthoseimpacts.EMSregistration
programssuchasISO14001and
EuropeanEMSregimesofferextensive
guidancetotourismbusinesses,andcan
beadaptedtoconditionsinotherpartsof
theworld.
3.2.GettingtheFrameworkRight:
Policyand
Planning
Thisstrategyisverybroad,butalso
extremelyimportant.Withouteffective
policyandplanning,itwillbedifficultto
achievesustainabletourismandprotection
ofculturalheritage.AsnotedbytheEU,
privateenterpriseisthemainspringof
tourism,butthesustainabledevelopment
ofthissectorrequirespublicsector
involvementinestablishingthenecessary
legislativeframeworkandregional
planning,incoordinatingthevariousad
ministrativelevelsofcompetence,and
ensuringcoordinatedactionamongstthe
variousstakeholders.Forexample,South
Africanpolicyisthattourismshouldbe
governmentled,privatesectordriven,and
communitybased.
cisionsoftheParliament,andhavebeen
a valuable guideline in planning and
implementingdevelopmentactivities.
Policiesareanaturaloutgrowthofthe
planningprocess,astheyareameansof
achievingtheobjectivessetoutinthe
plans.Aswithplanning,policy
developmentintourismisfairlywellad
vanced,thoughoftenorientedmore
towardgrowththansustainability.With
respecttoculturalheritage,many
countrieshaveyettodevelopacoherent
setofpoliciesfortheidentificationand
protectionofheritageresources.
One important concern within the policy
context is that, to varying degrees across
countries, many laws and regulations
remain on the books without being
implementedeffectivelyinpractice.

Manycountrieshavebeeninvolvedin
tourismplanningforseveralyears,but
theresultingplansandactionshavenot
alwaysaddressedimportantissues.In
addition,theplanningprocessoftenhas
notinvolvedimportantactors(discussed
below)and/orhasnotbeenwell
coordinatedwiththeplanningand
actionsofrelevantagencies,including
agenciesresponsibleforpreservationand
managementofculturalandnatural
heritage.Often,theproblemiseven
moreacuteforplanningintheheritage
arena.36
Developmentcooperationcanplayan
importantroleinsupportingplanning
efforts.Forexample,USAIDsupportedthe
developmentoftheRedSeaTourismAction
PlaninEgypt.Likewise,in1991UNESCO
becameactiveintheeffortstoconserveand
developAngkorandhasbeeninvolvedin
draftingrelevantlegislation(policy),aswell
aspreparingaZoningandEnvironmental
ManagementPlan(planning)forthesite.
Developmentcooperationcanalsobe
dependentoneffectiveplanningefforts.As
NORADnoteswithrespecttodevelopment
planning,welldesignedfiveyear
developmentplanshavebeencrucialin
developingBotswanaaccordingtothe
intentionsandde
15
Anotherconcernisthatindividual
policiesareoftenuncoordinatedand
workagainsteachother.Forexample,
governmentregulationsintheformof
lawsandbuildingcodescanhavea
positiveimpactonheritageresource
managementbysupportingquality
development,butcanalsobecon
tradictoryanddifficulttoimplement.

Onemeansforfocusingattentionona
specificnichesuchasCHT,and
promotingcoordinationacrossrelevant
agencies,istoconductnichetourism
strategies,suchastheecotourismand
ruraltourismstrategiesdevelopedin
Australia.Suchprocessesfacilitate
discussionandcoordinationacross
stakeholders,andhelpidentifyopportuni
tiesforstreamliningregulations.37

Thefollowingareselectedpolicyareas
relevanttoCHT:

1 environmentalandculturalstandards;
2 high

quality
3
4
5
6
7
8

registration/documentation;
landownershipandusepolicies;
investmentconditions(suchasjoint
venturerequirements);
humanresourcedevelopment;
touristsafety;
pricingpolicies;and
businessregulation(thechallengeof
liftingobstaclestoanefficient
privatesector,whileensuringthat
environmentalandsocialobjectives
arebeingachieved).

Some of these are discussed in the

following sections. Development
cooperation can assist in the
development of policyin eachof these
areas.For

example,USAIDhasemphasizedpricing
policiesinitsassistanceprogram.
3.3.OrganizingforSustainability:
InstitutionalIssues
AsnotedbytheEU,manydifferent
bodiesshareresponsibilityforthe
developmentoftourism,andinadequate
coordinationisoftenthecauseofun
balancedgrowth,aswellasthefailureto
fullyreapthebenefitsoftourism.Lackof
coordinationisnot,ofcourse,uniqueto
tourism.However,tourismcutsacross
severalsectors,includingtransport,
finance,immigration/foreignaffairs,and
culture/nature/environment.Moreover,
thetourismministry,ifitexists,oftenis
lesspowerfulthanmanyoftheother
ministries;thesameoftenistrueforthe
culture/naturemanagementministries.38
Thechallenge,then,istotakealeadership
roleincoordinatingacrossministries
despiteunfavorablepowerbalances.
Thoughthereisnoeasysolutiontothis
challenge,developmentcooperationagen
ciescanhelpbysupportingthetourismand
culture/natureministries,bothintermsof
fundingandintermsofpolicyandrhetoric.
Coordinationacrossministriesand
departmentswithinministriescanbe
promotedthroughestablishmentofworking
groups,boards,andotherfora.Specific
projectsrequiring(andfunding)
coordinationforeffectiveimplementation
(andreceiptofdonorassistance)canhelp
stimulatethisprocess.

Jordans Petra Regional Planning

Council (PRPC) is an example of
coordination across ministries.
Chaired by the minister of tourism, the
council includes representatives of the
department of antiquities, the
ministries of planning, finance, labor,
health, local gov-ernment, and
irrigation, the environmental protection
department and local communities.
There often is value in extending
cooperation to the international level,

as illustrated by the Mundo Maya

project in Central America, as well as
the Silk Route and Slave Route projects.

Manycountries,especiallyinAfrica,
housetheirenvironmentalandtourism
departmentswithinthesameministry.In
principle,ifnotalwaysinpractice,this
shouldfacilitatecoordinationbetween
thesetwosectors.

16

Theimportanceofpolicy,planning,and
institutionalissuesisreflectedin
NORADspriority,withinthe
environmentalfield,on:

1 Developmentofeffective

2
3

administrativeinstitutions,
includingthestrengtheningofde
centralisedenvironmental
administrationwhenthisis
appropriate.
Measures which create increased
cooperation between administrative
agencieslocally.
Supportfordrawingupnational
guidelinesandplansfor
environmentalefforts,including
sustainablemanagementofall
naturalresources.

Thoughthesefocusonthenatural
environment,theyareequallyrelevantin
theculturalheritagecontext.Thefocus
ofthissectionhasbeenoninstitutional
coordination,butNORADsprioritylist
includesthevitalandcomplementary
goalofinstitutionalstrengthening.
NORADcontinueswithadiscussionof
theimportanceofresearchand
development,aswellastheactive
participationoflocalcommunities,
issuesthatarediscussedbelow.
3.4.Partnerships:AKeyComponent
ThereareamultitudeofactorsinCHT,as
wellasamultitudeofscales(e.g.,local,
national,international)atwhichthey
interact.Achievingcoordinationand
partnershipsacrossthesegroupsis
challenging,butcanbeakeyto
sustainability.TheEUstressesthat:
theindustry,thepublicauthoritiesand
civilsocietymustworkinconcert,
takingaccountoftheneedsofthe
market,theneedsofthelocal

populationandthespecialfeaturesof
thedestination.
Suchpartnershipsnotonlypromotethe
settingofbalancedobjectives,butalso
promoteachievementoftheseobjectives
throughutilizationofthevariedskillsand
contributionseachactorcanmake.For
example,governmentclearlyhasan
importantroleinCHT,buttheprivate
sectorandNGOsofferskills,contacts,
flexibility,andpoliticalindependencethat
governmentagenciesandlocalcommunities
maylack.Existingtourismbusinesses,and
relatedassociationsorconsultancies,can
playparticularlyimportantrolesinterms

ofproductevaluation,product
development,andmarketing.
Privatesectorinvolvementintourismis
significantandlikelytoexpandgiven
currentforcesofincreasedglobalization,
privatization,andcommercialization.
However,thepublicsectorneedstoshape
theenvironmentinwhichtheindustrycan
developbytakingresponsibilityfor
security,health,basicinfrastructure,and
ownershipand/ormanagementofthe
naturalandculturalheritagethatservesas
tourismattractions.Communitiesplay
importantrolesasreceiversoftourists,as
wellasthepositiveandnegativeimpacts
thattheygenerate.NGOshavethevital
abilitytoforgepartnershipsbetween
stakeholders,tointerfacewithlocal
communities,andtoputitalltogetherby
providinganoverview.
Varioustypesofpartnershipsmightbe
pursued,withnationalorregionalCHT
councilsasoneoption.Forexample,the
USAIDsupportedPaseoPanteraproject
inCentralAmericahelpedtoestablish
nationalnaturetourismcouncilsin
HondurasandGuatemalainorderto
involvelocalcommunitiesandtourism
enterprises.Anexampleofpublicprivate
partnershipistheformationoftheNepal

TourismBoard,withrepresentationfrom
boththeprivateandpublicsectors.Joint
marketingundertakenbyheritagesites,
regional/nationaltourismagencies,and
tourismbusinessesisanotherexampleof
opportunitiesforpartnershipstoachieve
mutualobjectivesinacosteffectiveman
ner.
Theremainderofthissectionwillfocus
onlocalcommunities,andtheir
relationshiptotourismdevelopmentand
thetourismindustryinparticular.39At
themostbasiclevel,thereisgrowing
supportfortheconceptthatlocalresidents
shouldbeabletocontroltourismintheir
community.Thisisradicalintheeyesof
many,andgovernmentalandindustry
support(oratleastacceptance)willbe
requiredifitistobeachieved.Intheeyes
ofothers,thisisanecessaryconditionfor
achievingsustainabletourism
development:40
atitsheartsustainableculturaltourism
recognizesthevalueofcultural
diversity,andneedstoprovidelocal
cultureswithaforuminwhichtheycan
participateindecisionsthataffectthe
futureoftheirculture.Inotherwords,
hostculturesshouldbeempoweredto
saynooryes
17

totourism,andinthelattercase,to
setguidelinesfortourismiftheyso
wish.
Similarly,Principles4and5ofthe
ICOMOSCulturalTourismCharter
(reproducedinAppendix1),stressthe
importanceoflocalinvolvementin,and
benefitfrom,tourismdevelopment.

Communities have become increasingly

involvedintourism,andthisinvolvement
takesmanydifferentforms.Theseforms
canbegroupedasfollows:41

1 Employmentbyresidentsintourism
2
3

businessesrunbyoutsiders,orsale
oflocalproductstosuchbusinesses.
Ownershipoftourismbusinesses
byresidents.
Collective ownership and/or
managementofatourismbusiness.

4 Jointventurebetweencommunities
5

andoutsideoperators.
Consultationby,orparticipationin,
tourismplanningbody.

Thefirstformisperhapsthemost
traditional,buttheotherformsare
increasinglyfound.Thesecondandthird
formsdonotnecessarilyrepresenta
partnershipbetweenthecommunityand
outsidebusinesses,butthismayexist
eitherformallyorinformallyandinvolve
outsidebusinessesprovidingadvice,
marketingchannels,andotherformsof
assistanceoutofgoodwilland/orinex
changeforaccesstocommunityresources
thatserveasattractions(e.g.,aculturalsite
ornaturalarea),linkageswithrelevant
communitybusinesses(e.g.,guides),andso
on.Thefourthformisperhapsthemost
balancedformofcollaborationbetween
communitiesandoutsidebusinesses,in

whichtherearecontractualcommitments
involving,forexample,businessaccessto
landinexchangeforleasepayments,local
employmentandsupplycommitments,
and/orrevenuesharing.42

Giventheirlackofexperienceandpower
relativetothetourismindustry,
communitiesoftenneedcapacitybuilding
andinstitutionalsupport.InNamibia,
communities negotiating with the
private sector can receive support
from local, national, and international
NGOs, govern-ment staff, and now
from their own national organization,
the Namibia Community Based
43

Tourism Association (NACOBTA).

NACOBTA is supported by SIDA,
USAID, and others, and illustrates
how development

cooperation can support

community empowerment.
Itshouldbestressedthatthegoalisnotfor
communitiestotakeadvantageofthe
industry,butforthemtobeonequal
footing,arelationshipthathasrarelyexisted
inthepast.Oneimportantaspectofthisis
informationthathelpscommunitiesunder
standtourismasanindustry,anditsimpacts,
sothattheycanjudgethedesirabilityof,and
opportunitieswithin,tourism.Oneoutcome
ofsuchprocessesiscommunitycooperation
with,ratherthandependenceon,thetourism
industry.

3.5.TheBasics:Marketingand
Infrastructure
Development
AlthoughtheprimaryfocusofSection3
isonachievingamorefavorablemixof
impactsgivenastreamofvisitors,the
complementistoundertakemarketing
andinfrastructuredevelopmentto
promotesustainabilityinthatstream.
Suchactivitieshavebeenacommon
targetofdevelopmentcooperationinthe
past.Thoughmarketing,especially
nationallevelmassmarketing,may
diminishsomewhatasatarget,
infrastructureislikelytoremainan
importanttargetofdevelopmentcoop
eration.
ThemarketingchallengeinCHTis
similartothatinotherareas:howto
increasevisitorstoasiteorcommunity,
howtoincreasetheirlengthofstay,how
toincreasetheirspendingperday,and
howtoensurethattheycomeback
(and/orpassalonggood
recommendationstoothers).
Therehasbeensomediscussionwithin
tourism,andwithinnature/cultural
tourisminparticular,regardingtargeted
marketing,throughwhichadestination
attractsparticularlydesirabletourists,
usuallydefinedasbigspenders.If
successful,suchastrategycouldgreatly
contributetosustainabilityinsofaras
benefits(revenuesandjobs)couldbe

increasedwithoutincreasingnumbers.
However,toattractsuchasegment,and
tobeabletochargecommensurablyhigh
prices,adestinationneedstooffer
attractionsand/orserviceofaquality
levelsufficientlyhightodifferentiate
A comparative example comes from
marine tourism in Egypt.

45

At Ras

Mohammed Na-tional Park, the

government intervenes and regulates in
the form of urban planning (e.g.,
sewage control, height of buildings,
and road location), fishing regulations,
public aware-ness program, and
monitoring program. This does not
occur at Hurghada. On a per-hotel or
per-bed basis, there are more than
three times as many dive sites and
fixed moorings at Ras Mohammed as
at Hurghada.

Sixty-five percent of dive centers at

Ras Mo-hammed provide a pre-dive
briefing. Among other things, this
briefing includes advice about
avoiding coral damage. Fewer than
5% of the dive centers at Hurghada
provide such a briefing. There is
negligible anchor damage at Ras
Mohammed, while anchor damage at
Hurghada is extensive. Visibility at
Ras Mo-hammed is 15-30 meters,
while it is 1-2 me-ters at Hurghada.
The result of these differ-ences: the
average price of a dive package at
Ras Mohammed is $45. At Hurghada,
it is $27.
At Hurghada, regulation and funding for
re-source management were avoided in
order to keep costs/prices down. This
led to a rela-tively poor quality
attraction, which forced low prices and
profit margins. This led to a lack of
funding for regulation and resource
manage-ment, and to a continuation of

themselvesfromcompetitors.44Some
siteshavebeensuccessfulinthisregard,
thoughsuccessinvolvesfarmorethan
simplythepromotionalsideof
marketing.
18

the cycle.

At Ras Mohammed, regulation and

funding for resource management
were implemented in order to provide
a high quality attraction. This led to
relatively high prices and profit
margins. This led to continued ability
to fund regulation and resource
management, and to a continuation of
the cycle.
Othersitesthathavepursuedanupmarket
strategyincludeBhutan(comparedto
Nepal),NusaDua(vs.Kuta),Belize(vs.
Cancun),andBermuda,
St.Maarten/St.Martin,theBritishVirgin
Islands,andtheGrenadineswithinthe
Caribbean.Successrequiresastrong
governmentandindustrycommitment,an
attractionofsufficientqualitytoappealto
upmarketvisitors,andalocaleconomy
thatissufficientlyskilledandhealthythatit
canprovidehighqualityserviceandavoida
maximizejobsatallcostmentality.As
withanystrategy,thefeasibilityand
desirabilityofsuch

approachesshouldbecriticallyevaluated.
Forexample,manyruralcommunitiesin
AfricaandAsiasimplycannotprovidean
upmarketexperienceinthenearterm
withrespecttotheproductsorservices
offered.Asubstantialcommitmentof
resources,aswellaspatience,wouldbe
necessaryinsuchsituationstodevelop
therequiredhospitalityandmarketing
skills.
Returningtothemoregeneralcase,many
tourismdestinationrequirefinancial
assistancetoimprovetheirinfrastructure
giventheessentialrolethatcleanair,
sanitation,cleanwaterandpublicsafety
playinensuringqualityCHT
development.Examplesofthistypeof
assistanceincludefundsfor
improvementsinwastemanagement,
watersupply,airqualityandtraffic
management,andbasicservices(fire,
police,andfirstaid).Wherepossible,
infrastructureshouldnotonlyhelpto
attractandsatisfyvisitors,butalsoto
servetheneedsofresidents(roadsand
visitorcentersareexamplesofthis
potential).46
3.6.Financing:TheFunding
NecessaryforSustainability

Manyheritageresourcesarelostdueto
physicaldeteriorationbroughtaboutby
inadequatemaintenanceorbysimple
neglect.Oftentheseconditionsarethe
resultofalackoffinancialresources.In
short,publicfundingforculturalheritage
sitesisverylimited.Moreover,site
visitationtypicallygeneratesadditional
costsforunderfundedheritage
managers.47Insuchcircumstances,some
peoplespeakofcapturingtourismindustry
profitsinordertofinanceculture.Amore
realisticapproachistoviewcultureasan
inputtothetourismproduct,aninputfor
whichtheindustryshouldpay,justasthey
payforpetrol/gasolinefortourbusses.48
Inotherwords,theuserpaysprincipleis
adopted,andculturalandnatural
attractionsaresoldatapricehigh
enoughtogeneratethefundingneededto
encouragetheirestablishmentand
maintenance.
Theindustrytendstoopposeentranceand
otherfees.Tosomedegree,thisisaresult
ofoppositiontoanythingthatmight
reduceclientvolumeorprofits.Ifone
takestheviewthatattractionsareaninput
forwhichtheindustryshouldpay,then
thisconcernshouldbetreatedsimilarlyto
industrydesiresforsubsidizedpetroland
otherinputs.Moreover,thoughlittle
researchhasbeendone
19

regardingthepriceresponsiveness
(elasticity)offeesatdevelopingcountry
culturalattractions,experiencefrom
naturalattractions,aswellasanecdotal
evidence,indicatethatmodestfeeswould
notdramaticallyaffectvisitationlevels.49
In a World Bank contingent valuation
study of willingness to pay (WTP) of
visitors to reha-bilitate the Fs Medina
in Morocco, the aver-age visitor had
an estimated WTP of as much as $70
in the form of a special fee payable
upon hotel reservation to help
preserve and improve conditions in the
Medina.50
Additionalreasonsforindustryopposition
arethatgovernmentseestheindustryas

aneasysourceofrevenueandthatfees
areimposedquickly,withoutgiving
operatorsachancetoincorporatethem
intotourpackages.Thishasledtomany
conflictswhenitcomestofeesatnational
parksandothernaturalareas(e.g.,the
GreatBarrierReefinAustralia,national
parksinCostaRica,andrecentfee
increasesinZimbabwe).Fee
implementationtimingcanbeas
importantasfeesize.51
Collectingfeesisonlyhalfthechallenge.
Theremainderisensuringthatrevenues
benefitCHM.ManyWorldHeritage
Sitesdonotchargeentrancefees.When
theydo,revenueoftencontributeslittle
tositeconservationandmanagement,but
ratherislostinthegeneralgovernment
treasury.US/ICOMOSlamentsthat:52

muchhasbeenwrittenaboutre
routingpartofthetouristdollar
towardsconservationandpublic
awarenessfunds,butinactualprac
tice,littlehasbeendone.The
conservationcommunityhasbeen
unabletodevelopconvincing
argumentsthatwilllurepoliticians,
developmentorganizationsandthe
privatetouristindustrytoequitably
sharetouristrevenueswith
conservation.InJordan,where
hundredsofthousandsofforeign
touristspaynearly$30tovisitPetra,
alloftherevenueisdestinedtowhat
theauthoritiesconsidermorepressing
developmentconcerns.53
Similarly, Aya Sofya mosque in
Istanbul charges an entrance fee of
approximately $2.50, which
generates approximately $5.5 million
per year. However, the revenue goes
to city and national governments,
with only modest funding allocated to
maintenance of Aya Sofya. The
resultrelatively poor visitor

experience and poor conservation of

the cul-tural resource.
SriLankasCentralCulturalFund,the
countrysprincipalarchaeologicalheritage
managementorganization,providesamore
promisingexample.Thefundrunsthe
UNESCOCulturalTriangleproject,which
coversfiveWorldHeritagesitesandwhich
hasdevelopedafundingarrangementbased
largelyonentrancefees.Thefeeis$7.50
persite(or$32.50forallsites),with
concessionsforresidents,students,
researchers,andsoon.Revenuesgotothe
CentralCulturalFundandareexclusively
spentonresearch,conservation,pres
entationandpublicinformation,
maintenance,andgeneralmanagement.

AnotherexamplecomesfromBelizes
ProtectedAreasConservationTrust
(PACT).PACTinvolvesa$3.75
conservationfeeforallforeignvisitors,
whichisaddedtothepreexisting$11.25
airportdeparturetax.Givenanestimated
140,000foreignvisitorsperyear,this
recentlyimplementedprogramis
expectedtogeneratemorethan$500,000
annually.Thetrustisindependentofthe
governmentandissupervisedbyaboard
comprisedofbothgovernmentalandnon
governmentalrepresentatives.PACT
fundingcanbeusedforavarietyof
purposeswithinthenaturalandcultural
resourcearena,includingtraining,
environmentaleducation,protectedarea
planning,andinstitutionalsupport.The
trustisnotintendedtoreplacecore
governmentfunding.
Thedifficultyofestablishingsuchafund
shouldnotbeunderestimated;PACTwas
fiveyearsindevelopment,andthefinal
programdifferedsubstantiallyfromthe
initialproposal.Moreover,because
Belize'stourismisheavilydependenton
naturalandculturalattractions,thereisa
relativelyclearjustificationforlevying
suchafeeontourists.Thiswillnotbethe
caseforallcountries.Nonetheless,the
PACTrepresentsanexcellentexampleof
creativefinanceforconservation.
Earmarkingofrevenueforconservationand

managementofthesitethatgeneratedit(or
atleastfortherelevantdepartment/agency)
isacontroversialtopic,andthepolitical,and
legislative,obstaclestoachievingthiscanbe
significant.Nonetheless,theexampleof

rolesinfeerelatedissues,including
supportingstudiesoffeestructuresinthe
Galpagos(Ecuador)andhelpingthe
KingMahendraTrustforNature
ConservationinNepaldraftlegislation
forsharingfeerevenueatRoyalChitwan
NationalParkwithlocalcommunities.
TheChitwanexampleillustrateshow
revenuefromentranceandrelatedfeesat
attractionscanbeusedtofundcommunity
projects,therebyprovidingtangible
conservationrelatedbenefitstolocal
residents.TheMadagascarprotectedarea
managementagency(ANGAP)shareshalf
itsnationalparkentrancefeestofund
projectsinlocalvillages,andother
countries(e.g.,KenyaandZimbabwe)also
haverevenuesharingprograms.

Thisdiscussionhasfocusedonentrance
fees,buttheBelizeanPACTillustrates
howotherformsofvoluntaryor
mandatoryrevenuemechanismsalsoexist.
Inaddition,UNESCOsuggestedthatado
nationprogramforHuebeimplemented
andcouldinvolverecognizingdonations
vianamesonrooftiles,bricks,and
plaques.OneofSpain'smajortourist
destinations,theislandofMinorca,iscur
rentlyplanningtoimplementanecotax
ofupto12eurosperperson,tobe
collectedonarrivalorwhenregisteringat
hotels.ThisparallelsthePACTapproach,
butatamoretraditionaltourism
destination.Therevenuewillbe
earmarkedforthemaintenanceofnational
parksandtherestorationofdamaged
coastline.54
TheUSterritoryofGuamhasaTourism
AttractionFundfinancedbyahotel
occupancytax.Mostoftherevenueisused
formarketing,especiallyinJapan,butsome
ofthefundsarealsousedforlocal
improvements(suchasbetterstreets,
lighting,andsportsfields),aswellas
supportforculturalprograms,artists,tour
guidetraining,workshops,travelforlocal

BonaireMarineParkdescribedbelow
(Section4.3)illustrateshowdevelopment
cooperationcanbeimportantingenerating
suchchangeinsomecases.USAIDhas
playedvarious
20
artistsandmusicians,andmanyotheritems
relatedtoculturaltourism.

Thediscussionabovehasfocusedonhow
togeneraterevenuethroughtourismand
channelitintoagencyfundingforsite
protectionand/orintolocalcommunities.
However,suchrevenuecanalsopromote
CHMthroughothermeans.Forexample,
taxbreaksandincentiveshavebeenused
effectivelyinOECDcountriesto
encourageprivatesectorconservation
activities.Thoughsuchsystemsare
subjecttoabuse,theycanbevaluable
toolsforCHM.55

3.7.SitePurchase,Restoration,and
Preservation
Manysitesfacechallengessimilartothatof
thePreahViheartempleinCambodia.56
Cambodiawantstoupgradetouristfacilities
atthemountaintopPreahViheartempleon
itsnorthernborderwithThailandandhas
askedUNESCOtohelppreservetheruinsof
the12thcenturyAngkoreratemple,which
wasoccupiedbyKhmerRougeguerrillas
until1998.Thisisoneofmanysitesin
Cambodia,andKingNorodomSihanoukhas
alsocalledontheworldcommunitytohelp
tosavetheancientAngkortemplesfromthe
ravagesoftimeandlooters,whostill
regularlytohackoffstonecarvingsforsale
ontheinternationalblackmarket.Tropical
vegetationandrainsalsothreatenthe
Angkorruins,whichareaWorldHeritage
SiteandCambodia'smostpopulartourist
attraction.
Thepurchase,restoration,andpreservation
ofheritagesitesisthecenterofCHMand,
ultimately,CHT.57Development
cooperationcanplayanimportantfinancial
andtechnicalassistancerolenotonlywith
respecttoheritageartifactsandsites
themselves,butalsowithaccompanying
infrastructure(e.g.,museums)andactivities
(e.g.,interpretationandcultural

residents,andsoon.Therefore,itis
intuitivelyappealingtospeakof,andtry
todetermine,themaximumnumberof
visitors.59However,inpractice,CCis
impossibletodeterminewithoutvery
strongassumptions.60
Toestimateacarryingcapacity,onemust
selectindicatorsandstandards.One
indicatormightbevisitorperceptionsof
crowdingona1to8scale,witha
possiblestandardbeinganaverageof5
orless.Iftheaveragelevelofreported
crowdingexceeds5,thenmanagement
wouldtakeaction;thiscouldinclude
limitingthenumberofvisitors,butother
actions,suchasdispersalofvisitors,also
couldbeimplemented.Indicatorsand
standardscouldalsobedevelopedwith
respecttoresourceconditionsorfactors
thataffectthem.Forexample,an
indicatormaybecarbondioxidelevelsin

performances).Forexample,NORADhas
providedsupportforestablishmentof
culturalcentersandmuseumsinruralareas
inBotswana,fortrainingofmuseumstaff
(seeSection3.9),andforvariousgroups
thatstagepresentationsofcultural
traditions.

3.8.SitelevelPlanningand
Management
Techniques
Itisimportanttopreservesitesina
mannerthatbothmaintainstheir
attractivenesstovisitorsandmaintains
thevaluesforwhichtheywerepre
served(e.g.,culturalheritagevalues).
Giventhefocusofthisreport,adetailed
discussionofsiteplanningand
managementtechniquesisnotprovided
here.58
Oneissuethatmeritsdiscussionisthatof
carryingcapacity(CC).Theproposal
toestablishcarryingcapacitiesat
culturalandnaturalheritagesitesstems
fromtherealizationthatsitescanbe
comeoverused,thatatsomepoint
negativeimpactsoccuronthe
cultural/naturalattractionitself,onother
visitors(e.g.,crowding),onlocal
21

anenclosedenvironmentcontaining
limestoneformations,andarelevant
standardmightbe2,400partsper
million.61
Theproblemisthatexpertstypically
selecttheseindicatorsandstandards
whendoingCCestimation.Thoughthe
indicatorsandstandards
mayappearscientific(e.g.,carbondioxide
levels),theirselectionisultimately
subjectiveinnature.Therelikelywouldbe
consensusthatthelimestoneformations
shouldnotbeallowedtodeteriorate(and
thusagreementonthecarbondioxide
indicatorandstandard).Theremayalsobe
consensusthatthesiteshouldnotbetoo
crowded.Butitmaybedifficultto
achieveconsensusregardinganindicator
and,especially,astandardforcrowding.
Shouldtheindicatorreflectactualnumber

ofencounters,perceptionsofencounters,
perceptionsofcrowding,or?Ifthelatter,
shouldthestandardbeanaverageof5
(usingtheexamplefromabove)?The
industrymayfeelthatanaverageof6is
preferable.
Inshort,indicatorsandstandardsare
basedonwhatsomepersonorgroup
considerstobeapriority,anddifferent
people/groupsmayhavedifferent
priorities.Giventhatculturalheritagere
sourcestendtobenonrenewable,there
maybeagreementonsomestandards
(e.g.,astandardofnodegradationof
immovableheritage).Nonetheless,itis
importantforallstakeholderstoagreeon,
oratleastaccept,theindicatorsand
standardsthatwillbeusediftheyareto
supportresultingmanagementactions.

Thenextassumptionisthatthe
relationshipbetweenthenumberof
visitorsandtheselectedindicatorsis
known.Thisrelationshipwillbeeasierto
determineforsomemeasures(e.g.,
carbondioxidelevels)thanforothers
(e.g.,perceivedcrowding).Nonetheless,
ingeneral,thereisalackofdata
concerningthisrelationship,especiallyin
developingcountrycontexts.62
Finally,andperhapsmostimportantly,CC
assumesthatfactorsbeyondthenumberof
visitorsdonotaffecttheindicatoror,ifthey
do,thattheserelationshipsarealsoknown.
Forexample,therewillbearelationship
betweenthenumberofvisitorsandcarbon
dioxidelevels,butthisrelationshipcanbe
affectedbyotherfactors,suchasthequality
oftheventilationsystem.Akeypointisthat
nonlimitmanagementactions,suchasim
provingtheventilationsystem,canbeused
toachievethesameobjective(nodamageto
theresource).Moreover,inthetourism
context,afocusonalternativesto
limitationscanbeparticularlyappealing
givenindustryoppositiontolimits.
Otherapproaches,suchastheLimitsof
AcceptableChange(LAC)process,exist.
Thesefocusondevelopingindicatorsand
standards,andexplicitlyrecognizethe
subjectivenatureoftheprocess.Theyalso
takethefocusoffvisitornumbersin
recognitionthatlimitingnumbersisonly
oneofmanymanagementtoolsthatcanbe
usedtoensurethattourismdoesnotcause
undesirablechange.Managementby
objectives(MBO)processeslikeLAC
typicallyrequireacommitmentoftimeand
resources,andthisisonereasonwhythey
havenotbeenembracedasstronglyasone
wouldexpectitismucheasiertohirea
consultanttoprovidewhatappearstobea
scientificsolutiontoamanagement
problem.Unfortunately,thevalidityof
suchsolutionsisdeceptiveandcanbe,and
hasbeen,challenged,oftenbyinterestsin
favorofgreatervisitation.Processeslike
LACprovidestrongerbasesfordecisions
andlikelyaremoreresistanttochallenges.
Nonetheless,giventhecommitment
necessaryforimplementingprocesseslike

LAC,itmaybepossible,inatrisk
situations,tobeginwithvarioustechniques,
includinglimitingnumbersandmanaging
behavior,andthenmovetoindicatorsand
standardsovertime.Moreover,somevisitor

levelswillclearlyleadtoviolationof
acceptableconditionsunderrealistic
managementregimes,suchthattheycanbe
rejectedbasedoninformedman
22

agementjudgement,withoutcollecting
detailedindicatordata.Forexample,the
projectedtargetof1milliontouristsper
yeartoHue,Vietnamhasbeenevaluated
asbothunrealisticandunsustainable.
Onafinalnoteregardingvisitornumbers,
theretypicallyalsoaresoftmeasures
thatcanbeusedtomanagevisitorflows,
therebyavoidingtheneedtolimit
entrancesoverallorinparticularareas.
Forexample,asitecanoffermore
services(e.g.,greateravailabilityof
guides)atoffpeaktimesorcandevelop
markedroutesthatavoidsensitiveareas.
Ingeneral,softornonintrusive
methods(suchasaffectingtravelpatterns
throughroutedesignandinformation
provision)isfavoredoverhardor
intrusivemethods(suchasphysicalbar
riers).
Regardlessofwhethersitesimplement
formalprocesseslikeLAC,the
developmentandmonitoringofindicators
andstandardsisanimportanttoolfor
evaluatingandpromotingsustainability.
Putbluntly,goodplanning,controland
managementoftourismdevelopment,
whichissoimportanttolimittheadverse
effectsandmaximiseitsadvantages,is
inconceivablewithoutagoodmonitoring
system.63Therehasbeenmuchrecent
discussionanddevelopmentoftourism
relatedindicators,whichfacilitatesfuture
implementationofmonitoringprograms.
Developmentcooperationcanplay
importantrolesbyfundingandpossibly
requiringuseofindicators/standardsor
morecomprehensiveprocesseslikeLAC;
indeed,indicatorscanbeseenasalogical
extensionoftheEIArequirementsthat
mayalreadyexist.
3.9.TraininginTourismManagement
Manycountrieslacktherequiredrangeof

skillsandknowledgethatisessentialto
ensureauthenticheritageresource
managementandahighqualitytourism
product.Oneofthemajortasksofinter
nationaldevelopmentcooperationin
culturaltourismistoensurethatcountries
andregionshaveaccesstocapacity
buildinginordertoallowthemtoensure
theintegrityoftheirculture.Insome
cases,thereisaneedtotrainasignificant
numberofpeopleinparticularareasof
activitywhileinothersthereisaneedfor
onlyafewspecialists.

OneofthechallengesofCHMisthewide
rangeofactivitiesandprofessionsthatare
representedintheoverallactivity.CHM
activitiesincludebuilding/artifact
conservation;research,documentation,
recording;inventoryandevaluation;
planning;interpretationandstorytelling;
curatorial;management;marketing;
finance;eventsandfestivals
planning/management;landscapepreser
vation;archaeology;anddesign/archi
tecture.Addtothis,anunderstandingof,
andabilitytoworkwith,thetourism
industry,anditisclearthatprofessionals
workinginCHMandCHTneedtohave
broadtrainingthatincludessocialand
communication,aswellastechnical,
skills.
Akeyaspectoftrainingistoillustrate
thatrecommendedstrategiesand
policieswillwork;thatis,thata
maximumvisitation,laissezfaireap
proachisnottheonlypossible,ormost
desirable,one.Wellthoughtout
demonstrationprojects,aswellasvisits
toeffectivelymanagedsites,canserveas
importanttrainingtools.
Thereareseveralexamplesofinformation
exchangeandtrainingfundedby

Theseprogramscertainlyhavevalue,not
leastasalearningprocessforthe
businessesthemselves(aswithEIAsand
monitoringprograms,theactofgoing
throughtheevaluationprocesscanleadto
increasedawarenessandaction).Through
theInternationalHotelEnvironment
Initiative(IHEI),setupbythePrinceof
WalesBusinessLeadersForum,over
8,000hotelsin111countriesfollow
guidelinesforenvironmentalpractices.
Similarly,theGreenGlobeprogramhas
ledto500hotelsin100countriesmaking
commitmentstoenvironmentalstandards.
However,labelprogramsarelimitedby
theirdependenceonconsumerswhoboth
knowofandcareaboutsuchlabels.
Thoughresponsibleconsumershave
shapedmarketsforvariousproducts,such
ascosmetics,thediscussioninSection2.8
suggeststhatresponsibleconsumerism
withintourismmaynotbestrongenough

developmentcooperation,includingthe
Hu(Vietnam)WorkshoponSustainable
TourismDevelopmentinWorldHeritage
SitesfinancedbyNORADandseveral
otheragenciesandfoundations.Another
exampleistheEUURBSprogramdesigned
toshareexpertisebylinkingEuropean
citieswithdevelopingcountrycities.Lastly,
Germandevelopmentcooperation(GTZ)is
fundinganonsitetrainingcenteratPetrain
Jordan.

3.10.CertificationandAccreditation
Certificationandaccreditationhavebeen
widelytoutedastoolsforpromoting
sustainabilitywithrespecttotourisms
environmentalimpacts;byextension,they
canalsobeappliedintheculturalcontext.
Suchprogramsareaformofvoluntary
industryselfregulationthatinvolve
businesses(ordestinations)undergoingan
evaluationandcertificationprogress
leadingtoanawardthattheycanuseto
differentiatethemselvesinthe
marketplace.Thus,theyultimatelyrelyon
responsibleconsumerism.UNEP
providesagoodoverviewofsuch
programs,whichincludeGreenGlobe,
BlueFlag,andmanyotherlabels.64
23

toencouragewidespreadindustry
involvementinsuchprograms,especially
programsthatinvolvecostlydepartures
fromcurrentorplannedpractice.Asnoted
byUNEP,evaluationsoftheimpactof
suchprogramsontheenvironment,or
demandforindividualbusinesses,have
beenlimited.
Asidefromthechallengeofstimulating
consumerawarenessof,andinterestin,a
givenprogram,therearealsopractical
problemsthatneedtobeovercome,such
asthatofmultiplelinksinthetourism
supplychain.Forexample,shouldanout
boundoperatorbecertifiedifitissocially
responsibleitself,butoneportionofits
product(e.g.,aregionalairlineitusesora
siteitvisits)isnot?Inaddition,the
industrycomponentswitharguablythe
greatestimpactatthelocallevel,lodging
facilitiesandinboundoperators,oftenare
notbookeddirectlybyconsumersbut

ratherthroughoutboundoperators,travel
agents,andsoon.65
Despitetheseimportantconsiderations
andlimitations,certificationprograms
cancontributetosustainabletourism,and
developmentcooperationhasplayedarole
insuchprograms.Forexample,UNDP
providedsupportfortheearlystagesof
theGreenGlobedestinationprocessinthe
Philippines.Likewise,therecentCosta
Ricansustainabletourismcertification
programwassupportedbyUSAIDunder
thePROARCA/CAPASprogram.That
certificationprogramwasdevelopedby
theCostaRicanInstituteofTourismto
differentiate,stimulate,andpromote
tourismsectorbusinessesthatcomply
withsustainabletourism

standards.Standardsarewithinfour
categories,including:

1
2

Physicalbiological(evaluatesthe
interactionbetweenthecompanyand
itssurroundingnaturalhabitat).
Infrastructure(evaluatesthe
managementpoliciesandthe
operationalsystemswithinthe
companyanditsinfrastructure).
Externalclients(evaluatesthe
interactionofthecompanywithits
clientsintermsofhowmuchit
allowsandinvitestheclienttobean
activecontributortothecompanys
policiesofsustainability).
Socioeconomicenvironment
(evaluatestheinteractionofthe
companywiththelocalcommunities
andthepopulationingeneral).

Detailsontheprogramandadatabase
ofevaluatedhotelsareprovidedonthe
program

website
(http://www.sustainabletourism.co.cr).
3.11.EntrepreneurialandHospitality
Training
andFinancialAssistance
Akeyprincipleofsustainabletourismis
theprovisionofbenefits,especially
economicopportunities,tolocal
residents.66Thesebenefitscanbe
achievedthroughresidentparticipationin
tourismorancillaryindustries(e.g.,
farmerssellingfoodtorestaurants).The
challenge,then,istofacilitatethe
integrationofresidentsandlocalfirms
intothetourismeconomy,toincreasethe
localeconomiclinkageswithintourism,
whichconverselyreducestheleakages.
However,thesefirmstendtolackthe
knowledge,experience,andfinance
necessarytoenterthetourismmarket.The
EUobservethatproblemsencounteredby
localfirms,inparticularsmallbusinesses,
intappinginternationalservicesmarkets,
areexacerbatedbyalackofacommercial
andmarketingstrategy,madeallthemore
crucialbytightbudgets.DFIDliststhe
followinginformationneeds:67

basic skills such as financial

2
3

planningandbookkeeping;
marketing skills, to understand
potentialdemandandhowtomeet
it;
accesstosmallamountsofcapital,

4
24

nessestohelpcreatelocal
entrepreneurialhotspots.
TheEUgoontosaythat:
developing these small firms, andin
particular their ability to offer
competitiveandreliableservices,is
likely to contribute substantially to
economicandsocialdevelopment.

Asiscommonwithseveralofthe
strategiespresentedhere,thisiseasier
saidthandone.DFIDnotethat:
linkages are frequently discussed,
rarely seen, and particularly
important,butdifficulttodevelop.
DFIDprovideanexcellentsummaryof
thevariousactionsthatactorscan
pursuetopromotebusinesslinkages.The
followingisaneditedversionofthat
summary.Governmentscan:

1 Removeredtapeandregulations

thatsuppresstheinformalsector
(e.g.,theFijiTourismDevelopment
Planidentified24requirements
fromdifferentgovernmentdepart
mentsneededbynewbusinesses,
whichisaparticularobstaclefor
smallentrepreneurs).
Ensurethatplanningandsiting
decisionsdonotpreventmarket
accessforentrepreneurs(e.g.,locate
lodgesoutsideorattheedgeof
parksorgivelocalentrepreneursa
marketplaceinsidethepark).
Enhancetheassetsofresidents,
bothhumanassets(through
training)andnaturalassets(through
devolutionoftenure).
Assess which tourism market
segments generate the most local
economic opportunities (e.g.,
backpackers, domestic tourists, or
upmarket) and encourage that
market.
Encourageorrequirenonlocal

throughmicrocreditorloan
guaranteeprograms;and
asupportiveenvironmentinwhichto
operate, especially the existence of
similarbusi

businessestoexpandlocallinkages
(e.g.,potentialinvestorsinSouth
Africahavetospecifyhowtheywill
boostlocaldevelopment).
Enhance local participation in
decisionmaking (discussed above)
so they can shape economic
opportunities to their livelihood
interests.

NGOscan:

1 Providecreditandnonfinancial

servicesformicroenterprise(the
renownedGrameenBankin
Bangladesh,whichhasloaned$2.5

billiontoover2millionlenders,is
agoodexampleofasuccessful
microcreditoperation).
Buildthecapacityofresidentsto
assesstourismoptions,contribute
toplanning,andimplementtheir
chosenoptions.
Facilitatecommunicationand
timeconsumingnegotiation
betweentourismbusinessesand
localpeople.
Investtimeinunderstandingtourism
businessesinordertoadviseor
mediateoncombiningcommercial
anddevelopmentgoals.

Businessescanexploreopportunitiesto:

1
2
3
4

Outsource,suchaslaundryand
transportfunctions.
Supportlocalenterprise,suchasby
providingbusinessadvice,andby
sharingmarketingandinfrastructure.
Facilitate opportunities for
touriststovisitlocalsellers.
Explorepartnerships,suchas
buildingoncommunallandin
southernAfricainpartnershipwith
communities.
Joinpartnershipswithdonors,
NGOs,andgovernments,including
providingadviceoncommercial

toohigh,andinformationor
communicationislacking,thendonors,
NGOs,andcommittedbusinessescan
facilitatechange.However,iflocal
supplyisinherentlyinfeasible,
interventionisnotappropriate.DFID
finishbysayingthatthelackof
examplesofstronglinkagesuggestitis
difficultandtimeconsumingbutalso
thatconcertedeffortshaverarelybeen
applied.
Anexampleofconcertedeffortcomesfrom
St.LuciaintheCaribbean,whereafarmers
cooperativecoordinatesproductionand
marketingoffruitandvegetablestohotels
ontheisland.TheSt.LuciaHotel
AssociationandtheMinistryofAgriculture
havelaunchedanadoptafarmerscheme
inwhichhotelsbuyproducefroma
specifiedfarmeratapriceagreedbefore

feasibility.
Beopenminded(e.g.,ispoor
qualityorreliabilitythereal
obstacletolinkages,orisitpoor
attitudeandcommunication?).

Theabovefocusesprimarilyon
entrepreneurialaspects,buttrainingis
alsoneededatthebroaderlevelof
hospitalityemployeesingeneralifquality
standardsaretobemetandmaintained.
TheWTOnotes,intheAsiancontext,that
visitorexpectationsofqualityexacerbate
anexistingneedfortrainingin
hospitality/tourism;thesameistruein
Africa.
Donorscansupportalloftheabove
actions,canfacilitatestrategic
partnershipsbetweengroups,andcan
encourageexchangeofexperiences.In
somecases,developmentcooperation
mightbeusedtosubsidizethe
transactioncosts,suchastraining,of
changingtolocalsuppliers.
Thoughthereiswidespreadagreementthat
enhancedlinkagesaredesirable,a
practicalandcommerciallyoriented
viewpointisimportant.Iflinkagesdonot
currentlyexistbecauseproductsneed
improving,transactioncostsofchanging
are
25
planting.68

Inkeepingwiththegeneralneedfor
thoughtfulplanningandimplementation,
trainingprogramsideallywillbepartof
abroaderhumanresourcesdevelopment
planwithinthetourismsector.In
addition,therecanbesubstantialbenefits
fromcoordinationacrossbusinesses,
suchasthroughsponsoredbusiness
associations.Theseassociationsor
boardscouldassistindividualbusinesses
inimprovingtheirproducts(and
adherencetoSTprinciples),whilealso
servingtoenhanceormaintaintourisms
placeonthenationalpoliticalagenda.
Guidingisfrequentlycitedasaspecific
tourismrelatedsourceofincomeforlocal
residents,andatsomesitesthereisa
requirementtohirelocalguides.AsDFID

notes,thebenefitsoflocalguidesgo
beyondthefinancial,andincludepro
vidingvisitorsaricherunderstandingof
thelocalenvironmentandproviding
residentsasenseofinvolvementand
ownershipintourismandconservation.
Localguidingalsocanreinforcepreser
vationoflocalcultureinsofarasguiding
includeslocalstories,experiences,and
practices.Sitemanagementagenciescan
playimportantrolesinfacilitatingthe
developmentofalocalguideprogram
andthedevelopmentofothernetworks
andopportunities.Itshouldbe
rememberedthatgoodguidingrequiresa
combinationoftechnical,linguistic,and
communicationskills.
Craftsarealsooftencitedasopportunities
forlocalresidentstobenefitfromtourism,
andthispresumablyisespeciallytruein
thecaseofCHT,ascraftsareone
manifestationofculturalheritage.Though
incomefromcraftsmaynotbeasstable

asthatfromwagesfromregular
employment,theamountscanbe
significant.Inaddition,thisincomecanbe
earnedbyabroadcrosssectionofthe
community,ascapital,foreignlanguage
skills,andotherprerequisitesarerelatively
unimportant.

3.12.InformationandCommunication
Aswithcertificationprograms,the
informationandcommunicationapproach
reliesonvoluntaryactionsandthusshould
beonlyonepartofabroaderapproachto
achievingsustainability.69Nonetheless,it
canbeanimportantstrategyfor
sustainabletourism,onewhichhasnot
beenpursuedtoitspotential.Withinthis
area,atleastthreetargetgroupscanbe
considered:visitors,hostcommunities,
andprofessionalswithintheindustry
and/orgovernment.
Thefirstgrouphasreceivedthegreatest
attention,atleastintermsofformal
informationprograms.Therearenumerous
codesofconductdesignedtoinformvisitors
aboutappropriatebehaviorandto
encouragethemtoconformtothis(UNEP
listsmanyofthese,aswellascodesfor
communitiesandindustry).Often,such
codesareprovidedatdestinations,butthey
arealsoprovidedtomembersof
organizations(suchasenvironmental
NGOs)and/orthroughotherchannels.
Codesofconducttendtofocusprimarilyon
environmentallysensitivebehavior,but
oftenincludeitemsrelevanttotangible
culturalheritageaswellasrespectinghost
cultures.Thesecanrangefromthegeneral
(e.g.,acceptdifferencesandadoptlocal
customs)tothespecific(e.g.,appropriate
behaviorwhenphotographing,purchasing
goods,andtipping).Australiaiscurrently
developingacodeofconductspecifically
forculturalpurposes.

Inadditiontoformalcodes,thereexist
variouschannelsforraisingvisitor
awarenessandencouragingspecific
behavior,includinginflightvideosand
magazines,andadviceonticketwallets,
inholidaybrochures,byguides,andso
on.Generalpublicinformationcampaigns

insourcemarketscanalsobeusedto
reinforceresponsibleconsumerismintrip
choice.Developmentcooperationcanplay
animportantroleinthisprocess.
For example, the German GTZ and
enkreis fr Tourismus und
Entwicklung
(Study Group for Tourism and
Development). The goal is to create
understanding and posi-tive attitudes
toward destinations and local
populations, and many tour operators
offer these brochures to their
customers in prepa-ration for their
holidays.
Thesecondgroup,hostcommunities,has
beenthetargetoffewercodesofconduct.
Someofthesereflectmultipleobjectives,
includingencouragingfriendlybehavior
totouristsaswellasinformingresidents
oflikelychangesduetotourismdevel
opment,aswellashowtheycansafeguard
theircultureandtraditionsinresponseto
suchchanges(forexample,theMauritius
CodeofEthicsforTourism).
IntheCHTcontext,itislogicaltouse
suchcommunicationchannelstoalso
raiseawarenessofculturalheritage
issues.Lackofheritageknowledgeis
oneofthemajorforcesworkingagainst
theretentionofresources.Ontheother
hand,insituationswitheffective
educationandawarenessbuilding,
communitiesandindividualstendtobe
moresupportiveofCHMactivities.
InthecontextoftheHueworkshop,
UNESCOrecommendsimplementing
publicawarenesscampaignsinorder
to:

1 heightenawarenessoftheneedto
2

preserve cultural resources in the

area;
bolsterlocalcultureandtraditional
culturalvaluesinlightoftherapid
socialchangethattourismcould
bringtothearea;
promoteapositiveattitudetoward,

BMZ, to-gether with church and

private organizations, has promoted a
series of journals called
Sympathiemagazine, published by the
Studi26

andinterpretationof,thecross
culturalencountersthatwillresult
fromincreasedinternationaltourism;
and
informlocalentrepreneurs,
employers,andpotentialemployees
ofopportunitiesintourismrelated
industries.

Existingeducationalsystemsand
curriculacanplayimportantroleshere.
Theycanbeusednotonlyfortrainingof
potentialemployeeswithintourismor
CHM,butalsotoraiseawarenesswithin
thegeneralpublic.Forexample,
NORADsupportstheForestry
AssociationofBotswanainitseffortsto
introduceforestryaspartofthecur
riculumforseniorsecondaryschoolsin
cooperationwiththeMinistryof
Education.

Thethirdgroupscomprisesindustryand
governmentprofessionals.Industry
associationsandothershavedeveloped
variouscodesofconductfortheindustry,
withTheEcotourismSocietyguidelines
fornaturetouroperatorsbeingarelevant
example.Severalcountriesandindividual
destinationsalsohavedeveloped
guidelinesfortourismbusinesses.An
exampleofdevelopmentcooperationin
thisarenaisUSAIDsworkwithhotels
inJamaica,inwhichaconsultancy
(HaglerBailly)hasbeenhiredtowork
withhotelstoidentifyopportunitiesfor
reducingwateruseandmanaginghuman
waste.USAIDhasalsohelpedlodge
operatorsinSikkim,Indiautilize
alternativeheatingandcookingdevices.
Atthebroadestlevel,theWTOhas
developedacodeofethicsfortourism
thatfocusesonthefollowingareas:

1 Tourismscontributiontomutual

understandingandrespect
betweenpeoplesandsocieties.
2 Tourismasavehicleforindividual
andcollectivefulfilment.
3 Tourism, a factor of sustainable
development.
4 Tourism,auserofthecultural
heritageofmankindanda
contributortoitsen
andnaturalheritagetothepublic(visitors)
throughfirsthandexperienceswith
objects,artifacts,landscapes,traditionsor
sites.Currently,thereisverylittle
interpretationofanykindinmany
developingcountries,andmuchthatexists
involvesbasicprovisionoffacts.Raising
thequalityofinterpretivepracticewill
requiresignificantcapacitybuilding.
Amongstprofessionals,thereisaneedfor
awiderangeofinformationrelatedto
CHT.Databanks,basedonexistingor
newcollections,thatareeasilyaccessible
forrangeofuserscanbeimportant
resources,ascanconcentrationsof
resourceexpertsatvariousinstitutions.
Networking,throughcommonprojects,
workshops,andelectroniccommunication,
canalsobevital.Forexample,the
UNESCOLEAPprogramisdesignedto
encourageandassistpeoplelivingwithin

5
6
7
8
9
10

hancement.
Tourism, a beneficial activity for
host countries and
communities.
Obligations of stakeholders in
tourismdevelopment.
Righttotourism.
Libertyoftouristmovements.
Rights of the workers and
entrepreneurs in the tourism
industry.
Implementation of the principles of
the Global Code of Ethics for
Tourism.

Theabovepresentationfocusesonusing
informationandpersuasivecommunication
toinformandmodifybehaviorthough
informationlists,guidelines,andcodesof
conduct.Ofcourse,thereareseveralother
relevantinformationfunctionsandchannels.
Withrespecttovisitors,interpretationalso
can,andshould,playamajorroleinprovid
ingaqualityvisitorexperiencewhich,as
withmarketingandinfrastructure
development,facilitatessustainablevisitor
flows.Therearemanydiscussionsofgood
interpretation,70withacentralissuebeingto
viewinterpretationnotasprovisionoffacts,
butasacommunicationprocessdesignedto
revealmeaningsandrelationshipsof
cultural
27

ornearheritagesitestobeinvolvedin
managementandconservation.Itincludes
anonlinecomponentthatservesasan
emaildiscussionandadvocacyforum
designedtoenhancecommunicationbe
tweenthoseinterestedinCHMandto
increaseawarenessofproblems,solutions,
andsuccessstories.71Lastly,UNESCO
andPATAhavejoinedforcesinthe
IMPACTprogramdesignedtoeducate
policymakers,heritageconservationists,
andtourismindustrypersonnelabouthow
todevelopthetourismindustrywhile
preservingnaturalandculturalheritage.72
3.13.ResearchandInformation
Gathering
Thoughthesinglemostimportantinputto
achievingsustainabletourismisprobably

politicalwill,knowledgeandinformation
isalsovital.Asignificantamountof
knowledgeandinformationalreadyexists
invariousforms,fromthelocal
knowledgeofcommunitiestothe
academicknowledgeoftourismand
heritageresearchers.Nonetheless,the
discussionofstrategieshighlightsthe
importanceofgatheringadditionalin
formationinvariousarenas,from
consumerresearch(e.g.,onvisitor
preferencesanddecisionmaking
processes)totourismsimpacts(eco
nomic,environmental,social,and
cultural).Thisinformationcanserveas
vitalinputtoeffectiveplanningand
management.
Withrespecttoconsumerresearch,CHT
appearslargelytobeproductdriven,in
thesensethatitdevelopsfromthedesire
tointegrateexisting

heritageproductsintothetourismmarket.
Thisdiffersfromtheuserdriven
approachofdevelopingproducts
specificallyinresponsetoconsumer
desires.Italsoleadstoacomplacency
withrespecttomarketresearch,andthus
adangerthatdemandforspecific
destinationsmayeithernotexistornotbe
sustained.Therefore,consideredmarket
researchcanbecriticalforachievingsus
tainableCHT.
Withrespecttoimpacts,thelackofdata
concerninguseimpactrelationships(i.e.,
howincreaseduseaffectsthelevelof
impact)wasnotedinthediscussionof
carryingcapacity.IftheCCapproachis
tobeutilized,ataminimummorein
formationisneededontheserelationships
andhowtheyareaffectedbyother
managementactions(e.g.,visitor
dispersalandpersuasivecommunication
designedtopromoteresponsiblevisitor
behavior).
A current World Bank research
project in South Africa focuses on
many of these is-sues. The project
will evaluate the current fiscal (park
revenue), economic (local jobs), and
environmental impacts of nature
tourism in northeastern KwaZulu
Natal province. In addition, it will
evaluate how various policy
scenarios, such as increased fees or
en-hanced site quality, will affect
these impacts. The resulting
information can be used to make
informed policy decisions.
Onanotherlevel,thereisalsoaneedfor
researchandevaluationregardingwhat
strategiesandwhatdevelopment
cooperationrolesaremosteffectivein
achievingST.Thoughtherearemany
discussionsofthesestrategies,their
endorsementtendstobebasedoncommon
senseandanecdotalevidence.These
sourcesofknowledgeareimportant,but
focusedempiricalevaluationisstronglyrec
ommended.Stepsinthatdirectioninclude
DFIDsreportandtheresearchonwhichit

isbased.73

Developmentagenciesclearlycanplaya
rolehere,asevidencedbyDFIDswork,
notleastbecauseevaluationof
developmentcooperationprogramscan
enhancetheirfutureeffectiveness
M.Sc.andfivePh.D.studentshavereceived
Norwegianfinancialassistanceaspartofa
programtostrengthensustainable
managementofChobeNationalParkin
Botswana.Norwayisalsosupporting
researchattheUniversityofBotswana.

3.14.Summary
Section3hasbrieflydescribedseveral
strategies,fromthebroadtothespecific,
thatcanbeusedtopromotesustainable
tourism.Thegeneralstrategies,suchas
policydevelopmentandinstitutional
strengthening,canhavesignificantimpact,
buttendtohavealonggestationperiodit
maytakeyearstoobservetangibleresults.
Thespecific

(NORADalsostressestheimportanceof
utilizingresearchknowledgeintheir
activities,whileWorldBank(1998b)isan
exampleatamacroscale).Inaddition,
developmentcooperationcansupporton
siteresearch,aswellaseducational
trainingincountryorabroad.For
example,five

28

strategies, such as a certification

programorinformationcampaign,may
beimplementedmorequickly,buttend
toprovidelessextensivebenefits.
Thesecharacteristicssuggestthatalong
term,andmultiprongedapproachmaybe
necessary.Ifitwaseasytoachieve
sustainability,itwouldhavealready
happened.Suchstatementsarenotmeant
toinspirepessimism,butratherrealism
andacommitmenttothechallenge.
Anecdotalreportsindicatethat
developmentcooperationprojectsin
tourismhave,onoccasion,beenfailures.
However,theyalsoindicatethatthey
haveledtoconcretegains,particularlyat
locallevels.Itisthesegainsthatmotivate
futureactivityinthisarena.

2
9

4.DevelopmentCooperationAgenciesandTourism
4.1.DevelopmentCooperation:ABrief
Summary
Developmentobjectivesinevitablyvaryacross
agenciesandcountries.Nonetheless,thereare
severalobjectivesandfocusareasthatare
commonacrossmany,ifnotmost,
developmentagencies.74Theyinclude:

1 Reducethe number of people livingin

2
3
4
5
6
7

extremepoverty.
Investinsocialdevelopment,especially
education,primaryhealth,and
populationcontrol.
Facilitate public participation in
political and economic life, especially
forwomen.
Reducesocialinequalities.
Pursue sustainable development to
ensure environmental resource loss is
reversed.
Facilitate stable economies and good
conditionsforanactiveprivatesector.
Promotewellfunctioninggovernments
andbureaucracies,includingdemocratic
control,respectforhumanrights,and
ruleoflaw.

Thoughtheseobjectivesarefundamentaland
donotallinvolvetourism,tourismdevelopment
isgenerallyconsistentwiththem.Forexample,
tourismtypicallyinvolvesanactiveprivatesec
torandcreatesjobsofvaryingskilllevelsand
forbothgenders,whichcanhelptoreduce
socialinequalities.Inaddition,itcancontribute
tosustainabledevelopmentandthepreservation
andenhancementofenvironmentalresources.
TheEUnotesthattourismcanalsomakeama
jorcontributiontointegratingdevelopingcoun
triesintotheworldeconomy,whichisoneof
theEUgeneralobjectivesfordevelopment
cooperation.
Althoughtherehavebeennumerousstudiesof
developmentcooperation,theWorldBankhas
publishedarecentandusefuloverviewofcur
rentthinkingonthetopic.75Viewsondevelop
mentcooperationhavevariedovertime,and
currentviewsadmittedlymaysomedaybeseen

asoutdated(and
somemayappear
selfevident).

Nonetheless,they
reflectcurrent
thinkingand
provideacontext
forconsideringhow
development
cooperation
agenciesmayview,
andbeinvolvedin,
development
cooperation
relevanttotourism.
Theoverallthemeof
theWorldBank
reportisthat
effective
development
cooperationrequires
therighttimingand
therightmixof
moneyandideas.
Moneyhasalarge
impact,butonlyin
lowincome
countrieswithsound
management;before
countriesreform,
financehaslittleim
pact.Morespecific
findingsareas
follows.76

Financialaidworks
inagoodpolicy
environment.
Assistanceismost
effectivein
countrieswithsound
economic
management,which
involvesboth
macroeconomic
policyanddelivery
ofpublicservices.
Improvementsin
economic
institutionsandpoli

ciesarethekeytoaquantumleapinpoverty bysupporting
reduction.Therehavebeensignificantim
importantpublic
provementsingovernanceandpoliciesinthe services.
pastdecade,butfurtherreformcouldleadto
additionalbenefits.Itisimportantthatthe
Thevalueof
desireforreformexistinrecipientcountries, developmentprojects
withassistancehelpingthroughideas,training, istostrengthen
andfinance.Effortstopushpolicy
institutionsand
improvementsincountriesthatlackinternal
policiessothatserv
desireforreformtypicallyhavefailed.
icescanbe
effectivelydelivered.
Effectivefinancialassistancecomplementspri Development
vateinvestment.Incountrieswithsoundeco cooperationbrings
nomicmanagement,assistancecomplements, bothknowledgeand
ratherthancompeteswith,privateinvestment finance,butthelatter

tendsnottobenefit
specificsectors.
Sectoralsupport,
suchasineducation,
tendstoexpand
publicservicesin
generalratherthanin
thetargetedsectorin
particular.However,
knowledgeismore
specific,less
fungible,and
strengthenstargeted
sectors.

30

Anactivecivilsocietyimprovespublic
services.Thetopdown,technocratic
approachhasnotworkedwellincritical
areasofdevelopment.Moreparticipatory
approachesoftenresultinsignificant
improvementsinservicedelivery.

cooperationpolicybytheNordSr
Bistandskommisjonnotedthedifficulties
inherentinachievingdevelopmentgoals,and
theimpossibilityoffindingastandard
recipefordevelopmentcooperation.Some
oftheconclusionsinclude:

Developmentcooperationcannurture
reformineventhemostdistorted
environments,butitrequirespatienceanda
focusonideas,notmoney.Thegoalisto
helpreformersdevelopandtesttheirideas
ratherthantoprovidefundingforineffective
policiesorservices.

1 Assistancemustbetailoredtoeach

Turning the attention to the development

agencies themselves, the World Bank
recommended that development agencies
shouldbecome:

3
4

1 Moreselective,byputtingmoremoney
2

into
economies with sound
management.
Moreknowledgebased,byusing
resourcestosupportnewapproachesto
servicedelivery,identifyingwhat
works,anddisseminatingthis
information.
Bettercoordinated,bybeingless
interestedindonoragencyprestigeand
moreinterestedinhowcommunities,
governments,anddonorscanwork
togethertoimproveservices.
More selfcritical, by evaluating
agencyobjectivesandtheimpactsof
agencyactivities.

AreviewofNorwegiandevelopment

countryanditsconditions(notwo
countriesarealike).
Assistancemustsupplementand
contributetolocallydriven
development(ratherthantotrytobe
thedriverofdevelopment).
Recipients must be responsible for
planningandimplementation.
Assistanceshouldbuilduplocal
capacity,includinginstitutional
capacity,inordertohelprecipients
takeresponsibilityfordevelopment
(ratherthanbeingdependenton
assistance).
Assistance should be based on a
perspectiveofequalgenderstatus.

TheseNorwegianfindingsaregenerally
consistentwiththoseintheWorldBank
report,thoughdifferencesmightoccurin
interpretationandimplementation(e.g.,the
Norwegianapproachappearstostress
recipientinitiative,control,and
responsibilitytoagreaterdegreethanthatof
someotheragencies).
Ofcourse,theabovefindingsand
considerationsarefocusedonamuchmore
generallevelthantourism.Theycould,for
example,affectdevelopmentcooperation
acrosspotentialrecipientcountries.
Nonetheless,theyarealsorelevantinthe
morenarrow,andtosomedegreedifferent,
tourismcontext.Perhapsmost
fundamentally,theystressthatfundingina
pooreconomicpolicyenvironmentislikely
tobewasted.Inthetourismcontext,the
discussioninSection3ofSTstrategiesalso
stressestheimportanceofstronginstitutions,
goodpolicies,andeffectiveplanningand
management.Relatedly,thesestrategies
stresstrainingandknowledgetransferand
development.Theyalsoincludeimproved
servicesandinfrastructuretofacilitate
privatesectorinvestmentanddevelopment.
Lastly,theystresscollaboration,notonly
acrossgovernmentalagenciesbutalso
betweengovernmentandcivilsociety
(NGOs,unions,thepublicgenerally,etc.).
Theformofassistancehasvariedacross
organizations.Forexample,inter
governmentalagenciesliketheOrganization
ofAmericanStates(OAS)haveemphasized
technicalassistanceandplanpreparation.
TheIBRD(InternationalBankfor
ReconstructionandDevelopment)andIDA
(InternationalDevelopmentAssociation)
componentsoftheWorldBankGrouphave
concentratedontourisminfrastructure,
whiletheIFC(InternationalFinance
Corporation)componenthasconcentratedon
theprivatesector.Historicallythese
agenciesandothermultilateralbankshave
primarilyencouragedlargescaleprojects
withahighdegreeofnonlocalparticipation.
However,theyhave,tovaryingdegrees,
movedinthedirectionofsmallandmedium
sizedbusinesses(SMEs),community
development,andotherfocusareas
consistentwiththeabovestrategies.

4.2.DevelopmentCooperationand
Tourism:
OverviewandSelectedAgencies
Turningtotourisminparticular,development
cooperationhasfocusedrelativelyrarelyon
tourismperse.Morecommonhasbeen
fundingforitemslikeairportsandroads,which
contributetotourism,othereconomicsectors,
andsocietygenerally.Recently,tourismhas
alsobenefittedfromfundingofenvironmental
programs,whichoftenincludeatourism
component77(e.g.,biodiversityprojectsunder
GEF,andtheDFIDandUSAIDprograms
discussedbelow).Nonetheless,substantial
fundinghasalsogonetotourismspecific
activities,includingmarketingandfinancial
assistancetotourismbusinesses.

Assistancehasoccurredinthreemain
forms:78

1 technical assistance, especially in the

2
3

preparation of tourist development

plans;
loans for major infrastructure projects;
and
loans and equity investments in the
privatesector,especiallyinhotels.

30

Forexample,theInterAmerican
DevelopmentBank(IDB)haschangedthe
emphasisofitsparticipationandfocusinthe
tourismsector,especiallysincethe
beginningofthe1990s.Insteadoffinancing
themegadevelopmentofnewdestinations,
suchasCancunandBahasdeHuatulco
(1970s),theIDBismoreresponsivetohost
communitiesandtheirsociocultural,man
madeandnaturalenvironments.Special
emphasisisbeingplacedonindigenous
communities.Thethreeprincipalareasfor
theBank'sparticipationintourism
developmentare:

1 management of the environment and

naturalresources;

2 improvementinthequalityofservices
3

providedbymunicipalities;and
rehabilitation of physical

infrastructuretoreclaimhistoricaland
culturalheritage.
The IDB increasingly is focusing on
financing operations that will include,
among others, the following principal
components:

1 establishmentofanappropriatepublic

2
3

sectorframework(bothlegaland
regulatory)thatwillallowprivatesector
investmentandorganizedcivilsocietyto
participate;
establishment of certification
mechanisms;and
humanresourcestrainingmodular
programsforboththepublicand
privatesectors.

Likewise,theWorldBankstressesthat"we
mustdevelopabroadlyownedframeworkfor
investmentandtourismdevelopment.
Privateinvestors,publicauthorities,and
localcommunitygroupsneedtoworkon
severalfronts,to:

1 forgeaninvestmentclimateof

2
3

policies,regulations,andpublic
infrastructurethatconservesheritage
areasandtouristsites;
help local communities develop
attractionsandbusinesses;and
forge business linkages between
investors and local producers and
services."79

TheexamplespresentedinSection3(and
Appendices3through7)illustrateawide
rangeoftourismrelatedprojectssupported
bydevelopmentcooperation.Inaddition,
theincreasinginvolvementofbilateral
assistanceintourismsuggestsanincreasing
grantorientation.
Ithasbeensuggestedintheecotourism
contextthatacombinationofloansand
grantsarecriticalinpromotingcommunity
tourismventures,withloansgoingto
businessesandgrantsgoingtotraininglocal
residentstoparticipateinthesebusinesses.
Thisfollowsthelogicofprivateandpublic
goods,withlocalemploymentbeingvalued
bybroadersociety,whichcanthereforebe
expectedtopaytheadditionalcostof
bringinglocalresidentsintotheindustry.
Similarlogiccanbeappliedtoother
programs,includinginformationand
communication,research,andsoon.Given
thatgrantfundingfrommultilateral
institutionsisdecreasingovertime,a
loan/grantcombinationmayincreasingly
dependoncoordinationbetween
multilaterals(forloans)andbilaterals(for
grants).
Theremainderofthissectionsummarizesthe
tourismrelatedactivitiesofselected
agencies.80

WorldBank
TheWorldBankturnedawayfromspecific
tourismprojectsfollowingthecloseoftheir

TourismProjectsDepartmentin1978.None
theless,portionsoftheWorldBankGroup
(WBG),notablytheInternationalFinance
Corporation(IFC)andtheMultilateral
InvestmentGuaranteeAgency(MIGA),do

supporttourismthroughequityinvestments,
insurance,guarantees,andothermechanisms.
AsofWTOs1996publicationon
developmentfinancing,theIFC
31

hadinvestedinover100tourismprojects,
mainlyhotelsandresortvillages,atavalue
ofcloseto$600million.Tourism
represented5.5%oftheIFCsportfolioat
thatpoint.Inaddition,BankandGlobal
EnvironmentFacility(GEF)projectsfocused
onotheractivities,especiallyinfrastructure,
humanresources,andenvironmental
management,oftenhaveatourismcom
ponent.
TheBankwilllikelycontinuewithsuchnon
specific,buttourismrelated,activities.As
BankPresidentJamesWolfensohnnotedin
thecontextofcooperationwiththeWTO,
inthe140countrieswhereweoperate,
tourismhasbecomeoneofthefastest
growingeconomicsectors.Ouraimisto
createaframeworkofpower,water,health,
justice,andfinancialsystemsthatwillbe
conducivetothedevelopmentoftourismand
totravel.TheBankmayalsobemoving
towardmoredirectinvolvementintourism,
withitscooperationwithWTObeingan
example.MIGAobservesthattourismreally
deservesthesupportoftheWorldBank,
becausewhenproperlymanageditisan
excellentwayofalleviatingpoverty.81
Bankinvolvementintourismhasbeenfacili
tatedbyitssmall,communitybased
programsthroughtheLearningInnovation
Loans(LILs)andtheDevelopmentGrant
Facilities(DGFs).TheLILsprovide
opportunitiestointegrateCHMintolocal
andnationaleconomicdevelopment.These
willserveaspilotprojectsfordeveloping
approachestositeplanningandcon
servation,aswellasimprovingavailable
sourcesofinformationaboutconservation.
DGFfundingisminimalbyBankstandards
(nomorethan$50,000)andisfocusedon
determining,andpreserving,what
communityresidentsvalue.Relevant
potentialareasforDGFinclude1)
communitymanagedlowimpacttourism
development,2)participatoryassessmentof
culturalassetsalongwithparticipatory

prioritysettingandplanning,3)
programminganduseofcommunications
mediatolinkculturaltraditionsto
sustainabledevelopment(e.g.,theater,
literature,conservationoforalhistory,
culturalradioprogramming),and4)
developmentofcraftsmarketing.
Oneparticularactivityworthnotingisthe
developmentofastrategypaperfocused
ontour

isminAfrica.Principlesnotedinthe
strategyincludetheimportanceof:

1 an environmental component, such as

2
3
4

ecotourism;
engagementincommunityparticipation;
promotion of effective institution
building;and
working with private industry to
encouragetheircompetitiveness.

TheWorldBankInstitute(WBI)has
organizedvariousrelevantconferences,
includingonefocusedontheArchitecture
ofHistoricCitiesandanotheronCultural
HeritageandDevelopment:Sustainable
Management.In1999,theyhosteda
conferenceinFlorence,Italyonthe
economicsofculturalheritagedevelopment
projects.WBIwillintroduceacoursein
tourisminthenearfuture.
UNDP
Littleinformationregardingtheroleof
UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
(UNDP)intourismdevelopmentwas
receivedintimeforthisreport.Theyoften
workwithWTOandareinvolvedinhuman
EuropeanCommunityhasledthewayin
providingsupportfortheexpansionof
tourisminthedevelopingcountries....
TourismfeaturesinalltheEUsframework
cooperationagreements(LomConvention,
BarcelonaDeclaration,etc.).Article122of
LomIVprovidesthatsupportshouldfocus
on1)humanresourcesandinstitutional
development,2)productdevelopment,3)
marketdevelopment,and4)researchand
information.Relevantactivitieshavealso
beenundertakeninothercontexts,suchas
tourismtrainingandpromotionfor
MediterraneancountriesundertheBarcelona
Declaration.Inaddition,otherEUprograms
relatetotourismand/orCHM,withone
examplebeingtheAsiaURBSprogram,
whichtiesEUcitieswithAsiancitiesto
assistinurbandevelopment.
AsanexampleofEUactivities,itis
supportingtheSt.Lucia(WestIndies)
HeritageTourismProgramme,whose

resourcedevelopmentprojects,suchasthe
InstituteforHotelandCateringServices
hoteltrainingcenterintheMaldives.They
arealsosupportingdevelopmentofatour
ismmasterplanforMalawi,whichincludesa
focusoncreatingemploymentinruralareas
andconservingthecountrysnatural
environmentandculturalheritage.However,
UNDPappearstoconcentratemoreonother
sectors,suchassocialdevelopmentorurban
development,thatultimatelyhelptourism.
UNDPalsosupportssomemicroenterprise
programs,oneofwhichisdescribedinthe
Ghanacasestudy(Appendix6).
AccordingtotheWTO,lessthan0.001
percentofUNDPfundinggoestocultural
projects.TheagencydoeshaveaSustainable
CitiesprogramthatstartedinDarEsSalaam
andnowinvolvesadozenprojectsfocused
ondevelopingtheinfrastructureand
capacitybuildinginstitutionsofdeveloping
urbancenters.
EU
AsnotedbytheEU,overthelast20years
the
32

missionistoestablishnature/heritage
tourismasaviableandsustainable
componentofthecountrystourismproduct.
Programareasinclude1)publicawareness
andcommunitymobilization,2)human
resourcedevelopment,training,and
institutionalstrengthening,3)product
development,4)policydevelopmentand
advocacy,and5)nichemarketing.
AfDB
EnquiriestotheAfricanDevelopmentBank
(AfDB)werenotsuccessfulingeneratingin
formation,butasearchoftheBanksWeb
siteindicatesthattourismisfunded,atleast
aspartofbroaderprojects.Forexample,the
ThirdLineofCredittoDevelopmentBank
ofMauritius(aloanof$7.5million)hadas
anobjectivetocontributetothefurther
developmentofMauritiussmalland
mediumscaleenterprisessectorand

ultimatelytothecountryseffortsateco
nomicdiversificationandjobcreation,with
tourismbeingoneofthesectorstobenefit
fromtheloan.
IDB
ThoughLatinAmericaisnotafocusarea
forthisreport,theInterAmerican
DevelopmentBank(IDB)isperhapsthe
mostactiveoftheregionaldevelopment
bankswhenitcomesto

tourism.Since1970,theIDBhascommitted
$1.14billioninloanstotourism,$10.3
millioninnonreimbursabletechnical
assistance(grants),and$9.4millionin
MultilateralInvestmentFund(MIF)grants.
TheInterAmericanInvestmentCorporation
(partoftheIDBGroup)hascommitted
US$21.2millioninloansandUS$12million
ininvestmentfunds.

TheIDBisinvolvedinprojectsrelatingto
infrastructure,hotelmanagementtraining,
andtheprotectionofculturalheritage.Asan
exampleofthelatter,in1995theIDB
provideda$1.7milliongranttohelp
preserveprehistoriccavepaintingsat260
siteswithintheCapivaraPark,aWorld
HeritageSiteinnortheasternBrazil(de
scribedaboveinSection2.4).Tworecently
approvedprojectsinBrazilarethe
PreservationofUrbanHistoricalandCultural
SitesMonumentaProgram($62.5million)
andtheTechnicalCooperationProgramto
supporttheDevel
opmentofEcotourismintheBrazilian
Amazon($11million).82
WithintheIDBgroup,theMultilateral
InvestmentFundisanexampleofa
relevantmechanisminthisarena.Thefund
includes1)atechnicalcooperationprogram
thatassistsinthedevelopmentand
modernizationofthefinancial,regulatory
andpublicsectorframeworkneededforan
effective,competitiveprivatesector,2)a
humanresourcesdevelopmentprogramthat
helpsbuildtheskillsandcapabilitiesofthe
regionsworkforce,3)asmallenterprise
developmentprogramfocuseson
broadeningtheparticipationofsmaller
enterprisesintheregionaleconomy,and4)a
smallenterpriseinvestmentfundthat
demonstratestheuseofequityasa
developmenttool.
NORAD
Norwayisunusualinthatithasaspecific
politicalmandateforenvironmentalprograms
withinitsdevelopmentcooperationstrategy,
whichpresentsaspecialopportunityfor
effectiveaction.Theseprogramsincludethe
followingpriorityareaswithinthe

PreservationofCulturalHeritageand
ManagementoftheNaturalEnvironments
CulturalValuessection:

1
33

3
4

tionfortheProtectionoftheWorld
CulturalandNaturalHeritage(1972).
Contributetoenhancinginstitutional
andprofessionalcapacitieswhich
ensureadministrativestructuresfor
thepreservationofculturalheritage.
Helptoensurethatimportantsectors
acceptanindependentresponsibilityfor
themanagementofculturalheritage
andareasofculturalinterest(through,
e.g.,environmentalimpactanalyses).
Contributetotheintegrationofthe
preservationofculturalheritagein
nationalactionplans.
Contributetothedevelopmentof
modelsforsustainabletourismin
prioritisedareasofculturalinterest
(Agenda21).
Contributetothesustainableuseand
developmentofhistoricalcitiesand
areasofculturalheritage(HabitatII,
UrbanSustainableDevelopment).
Supportsustainableproductionandcon
sumptionsystemsthroughknowledge
abouttraditionalbuilding,customs,use
ofmaterialsandcrafts.

Todate,theNorwegianAgencyfor
DevelopmentCooperationhassupported
variousactivitiesrelevanttotheabove,
suchastheSlaveRouteprojectandthe
Africa2009trainingproject.However,it
hasnotundergonethetypeofextended
discussionregardingpotentialinvolvement
intourismthathasoccurredinother
agencies(likeSNV,GTZ,andDFID).
USAID
TheUSAgencyforInternational
Development(USAID)providesfinancial
assistancefortourismrelatedinfrastructure
andecotourismactivitiesaspartofits
economicdevelopmentandenvironmental
programs.Developmentcooperation
includesgrantstogovernmentalandnon
governmentalorganizations,including
technicalassistanceandprovisionof

Implementation and followup of

recipient countries commitments under
theConven

equipment.Developmentcooperationisalso
availableindirectlythroughUSAIDfunded
programs,suchastheBiodiversitySupport
Program.
USAIDsinvolvementintourismisfocusedon
ecotourism,becauseitofferscountriesnew
opportunitiesforsmallenterpriseinvestment
andemploymentandincreasesthenational
stakein

protectingtheirbiologicalresources.
Activitiesaresupportedoutofthe
biodiversityconservationprogramsand
includedevelopingnationalparksystems
(includingcreationofnewparks),
demarcatingandequippingparks,recruiting
andtrainingstaff,encouraginggovernment
reforms,andpromotingregulated
investmentsinprivatelodging,guide
service,andothertourismventures.

ArecentreviewofUSAIDinvolvementin
thisareadescribesthefollowingfocus
areas:

1 Effortstoempowerandencourage

localcommunitiestoplayanactiverole
inthepreservationandenhancementof
culturalenvironmentsandecotourism
sites.Thishasbeenaccomplishedby
creatingalternativesforlocal
inhabitantstoreplacerevenues
formerlyearnedbyutilizingnatural
resources.Thesealternativesinclude
tourismrelatedfood,lodging,
souvenirs,educationalmaterials,
guides,andtransportation.
Effortstodevelopstronginstitutionsthat
arechargedwiththeresponsibilityof
managingandprotectingnationalparks,
culturalsitesandecologicallysensitive

and3)provideinstitutionaldevelopment
supporttoMOTA.83

areas.
Economiclinkagesbetweenlocal
residents,privatebusiness,non
governmentalorganizations(NGOs),and
governmentagenciestoensurethatthe
bulkoftouristgeneratedrevenuesremain
withinthecountry.
Strategiestocreateprotectedarea
entrancefeestoproviderevenues
neededtomaintainandupgradesites.
Thisfrequentlyinvolvesemploying
economictechniquesthatattemptto
estimatetourist'swillingnesstopayto
entersites.

Thoughmuchofthisassistancehasbeenfor
sitesfocusedonthenaturalenvironment,ithas
alsogonetoculturalheritage,includingthe
BonampakMayanruinsintheMontesAzules
BiosphereReserveinMexico.Perhapsthe
mostcomprehensiverelevantUSAIDsupport
istotheJordanPromotionofCulturalTourism
project,whichisdesignedtopromoteJordan's
touristsectorbyassistinginthedevelopment
ofselectedculturalsites.Theprojectisbeing
implementedbytheMinistryofTourismand
Antiquities(MOTA).Itwill1)enhance
selectedsitesanddeveloptouristfacilities,2)
increasepublicawarenessof,andlocal
involvementat,thesites,
34
opportunitiesthandointerna
tional/packagedtourists,suchthatselective
marketdevelopmentcanbeappropriate.84

DFID
TheBritishDepartmentforInternational
Development(DFID)hasrecently
undergoneanevaluationofitsrolein
tourismandhasdecidedtofocusonnature
tourisminparticular.Inaddition,DFIDis
tryingtobringthefocusawayfrom
generationofforeignexchangeearningsand
towardeliminationofpoverty.Thislinks
directlywiththedevelopmentobjectivesde
scribedabove,andDFIDsgoalisto
generatenetbenefitsforthepoorinthe
contextoftourismdevelopment,withnet
benefitsincorporatingbothbenefits(suchas
jobs)andcosts(suchasnegativeculturaland
environmentalimpacts).DFIDnotesthat
domesticandindependenttravelersmay
createproportionallymorelocaleconomic

SNV
SNV,theDutchdevelopmentcooperation
agency,alsohasbeenactiveintourismover
theyears,andhasundergoneinternal
considerationanddiscussionofdesired
involvementinthisfield.Theprocessis
continuing,andSNVheldaworkshopin
NepalduringOctober1999withtourism
advisorsfromcountriesinwhichSNVis
involvedintourismprojects.Theobjectives
oftheworkshopareto:

1 Exchangeexperiencesandshare

knowledgeonthestrategies,methods
andresultsofSNVtourismdevelopment
programs.
Discussindepthtopicssuchas:How

canlocalpoorpeoplebenefitmorefrom
tourismdevelopment?Howcanlocal
participationbeensuredintourism
programs?Howcannegative
environmentalandsociocultural
impactsbemitigated?
Contribute to SNV's policy
development concerning economic
themes.

Theworkshopisexpectedtogenerateadocu
mentpresentingthebest(andworst)practices
ofSNV'sprojects,abetterunderstandingof
methodologiesandstrategiesforpoverty
alleviationintourismdevelopmentprograms,
andanover

view of relevant references (documents,

manuals, books, publications, etc.) that
SNVtourismprogramsareusing.
SNVsfocustodateissuccinctlystatedas
follows:85
Bybeingpresentincountry(SNV
maintainsfieldofficesin26countries),
SNVisabletoidentifyareasthathavea
potentialfortourism.Closecooperation
withlocalpeopleandorganisations
offersagoodstartingpointfromwhere
tourismcanbedeveloped:nomassive
scaleluxurytourismbutsmallscale
tourisminwhichthelocalpopulation
participatestothefullestextentand
reapsthebenefits.Peopleshapethe
ideas,executetheplans,gainextra
incomeandretaintheirdignity.Inshort,
thisistourismforpeople,cultureandthe
environment.
SNVsupportsthiskindofdevelopment
throughresearch,training,marketing
andthetransferofknowledgeand
finance.Inthepastfewyears,tourism
projectshavebeensetupinAlbania,
Tanzania,Botswana,Nepal,Cameroon,
NigerandBenin.ThishasenabledSNV
tobuildupexperienceandexpertise.
GTZandBMZ
Asearlyas1981,theGermanFederal
MinistryofEconomicCooperationand
Development(BMZ)publishedananalysisof
TourisminDevelopingCountries.This
wasupdatedin1993,andBMZsetupan
EcotourismWorkingGroup,an
interdisciplinarytaskforcethatcombines
researchandpracticeorientedconsultancy.
ThereportEcotourismasaConservation
Instrument,whichappearedin1995,setout
basicpoliciesandcasestudies.TheGerman
GTZ(DeutscheGesellschaftfrTechnische
Zusammenarbeit)isresponsibleforplanning
andimplementingtechnicalcooperation
projectswithdevelopingcountries.
ArecentGTZpublication86notesthat:
thoughtourismisnotcurrentlya

priorityissueinGermandevelopment
cooperationactivities,itcouldbea
gionalruraldevelopmentandnature
conservationareconcernedif
examinedcritically,plannedcompetently
andcarriedoutprudently.
Itgoesontosaythatthedevelopment
potentialoftourismhasbeenunsatisfactorily
exploited.Tourismalreadydoesplayarole
inmanycooperativeprojects,andGTZ/BMZ
havedevelopedsubstantialmaterialrelatingto
thistopic.Thismaterialwasreceivedtoolate
tobefullyincorporatedintothepresent
report,butagenciesinvolvedinthisfieldare
encouragedtoreviewit.

Limitationsofspace,time,andavailable
informationmeanthatonlyselected
examplesofagencyactivitiescanbe
presented.Itisacknowledgedthatmany
otheragenciesaredoingrelevantworkin
thisarea.Forexample,AusAidfunds
participationbyPacificregiontourism
leadersintourismconferencesheldin
Australiatofacilitateexchangeof
knowledgeandinformation.The
involvementofsomanyagenciesnotonly
illustratestheroletourismcanplayin
developmentcooperation,butalso
underscorestheneedfordonor
coordinationandpartnerships.
4.3.DevelopmentCooperationand
Tourism:
SomePrinciplesandLessonsLearned
Thereisvariationacrossdonoragencieswith
respecttoresources,objectives,and
approaches.Thereisalsovariationacross
recipientcountrieswithrespecttolevelsof
development,theroleoftourismwithinthe
economy,tourismdevelopmentpotential,
andsoon.Therefore,assistanceprograms
inherentlymustbecustomizedtosuit
specificsituations.Keepingthisinmind,this
sectionpresentssomegeneralprinciples
(lessonslearned),basedlargelyontheEU
experiencewithsuchprograms.

35

meaningfuldevelopmentpolicyoption
especiallywherere

First,manyassistanceeffortshavebeen
toothinlyspread.Therefore,amore
focusedeffortbasedonasectoralapproach
andclearlytargetedoperationsis
recommended.Thescope,duration,and
geographicareaofprojectswillbelimitedto
makeprogramsmoreeffective(thisneedsto
bebalancedwiththeneedtoensure
integrationandcoherencewithnationaland
regionaldevelopmentpoliciesand
activities).

Second,therehasbeenanarrowfocuson
marketing(toincreasethenumberof
arrivals),whichhasledtoheavydependence
oncontinuedfundingtomaintainmarket
share,aswellasafailuretoseekalternative
promotionandmarketinginstruments.
Futurefundinginthisareaisexpectedtobe
limited,notonlybecauseofincreasedcost
sharingbyrecipients(publicprivate
partnerships),butalsoduetotheincreasing
recognitionthatattentionshouldbepaidnot
justtoattractingvisitorstreams,whichhas
beenincreasinglydifficultinthefrequent
caseofdestinationsthathavenotadequately
managedtheproduct,butalsotofocusingon
sustainingtheproductitself.
Third,andrelatedtothesecond,itis
recognizedthatEUprogramshavenot
takenintoaccounttourismsimpactson
theenvironmentandhostsocieties.This
failuremayjeopardizelongterm
development,bothintermsofthebenefitsto
hostcommunitiesandintermsofthevisitor
experience.
Thesecondandthirdlessonslearnedare
consistentwiththecurrenttourism
assistanceprogramsinmanyagencies
insofarasmuchoftheirfundingisaimedat
likelytoemphasizedifferentrecipient
groups,bothgenerallyandwithrespectto
tourisminparticular.
AsnotedbyDFID,NGOshavethevital
abilitytoforgepartnershipsbetween
stakeholders,tointerfacewithlocal
communities,andtoputitalltogetherby
providinganoverview.Thus,theycanplay
pivotalroleswithrespecttomany
sustainabletourismstrategies,including
trainingandinformationprovision,and
lobbyingforfavorablepolicies.NGO
recipientscanincludethosebasedindonor
countries,thosebasedinrecipientcountries,
orinternationalgroups(e.g.,IUCNand
WWF).
Animportantissuewithindevelopment
cooperationgenerally,andalsorelevantin
thetourismcontext,istheextenttowhich

activitiesotherthanmarketing,andin
particularonprojectsdesignedtominimize
negativeenvironmentalorsocialimpacts,
aswellastoincreaselocaleconomic
benefits.
Fourth,therehasbeenaheavyfocuson
fundingnationaltouristoffices(NTOs)and
tourismauthorities.Thishaslednotonlyto
theheavyfocusonmarketing(described
above),butalsotoinadequate1)coordination
withtheprivatesector,2)attentionto
sustainability,and3)cloutvisvisother
governmentbodiesthathavemoresignificant
impactsonmatterssuchasairaccess,border
control,transport,fiscalpolicy,education,
andtheenvironment.
Thislastlessonlearnedisconsistentwith
thebroaderrangeofrecipientgroupsthat
existstoday.ThoughNTOslikelywill
remainanimportantrecipientgroup,and
theyprovidegoodcontactpointsforthe
tourismindustry,therangeshould
increasinglyincludenationalgovernment
agenciesbeyondNTOs,localandregional
governmentagencies,theprivatesector,and
NGOs(asrepresentativesofcivilsociety). 87
Ofcourse,differentdevelopmentcooperation
agenciesare
36

conditionsshouldbeattachedto
developmentcooperation.Theimpositionof
conditionscanbeseenasleadingtoan
imperial,unequalrelationship,inwhichthe
donorsimposetheirdesiresonrecipients.
However,itcanalsobeseenaspromoting
anequalpartnershipinwhichbothparties
makecommitmentstoprojects.
The case of Bonaire Marine Park in the
Netherlands Antilles provides an example.
The park was established in 1979, in part
with funds from World Wildlife Fund, Holland, as well as from the Dutch and Antillean governments. However, this funding
only covered the initial start up costs, and
active management of the park stopped after five years due to the lack of a firm financial base. In response, the Dutch government provided additional grant funding, but

with the condition that the park must become self-supporting within the term of the
grant (three years). Given that tourism
relies directly on the parks resources,
various tourism-related funding options
were con-sidered. After extensive
consultation with the dive community and
hotels, an entrance fee was established,
together with relevant legislation and
regulations to earmark fee revenues for
park operations. This example illustrates
how important conditions can be in
achieving sustainable tourism. The Dutch
government did not micro-manage the project, but the inclusion of the condition
helped ensure that its development
cooperation objectives (long term
conservation and

management of the natural resource)

were achieved.
Asnotedabove,effortstopushpolicyim
provementsincountrieswithnointernaldesire
forreformtypicallyhavefailed.Thissuggests
thatconditionalityislikelytoworkonlywhen
therationaleforconditionalpoliciesisunder
stoodandaccepted.Putdifferently,
conditionalitycanbeastimulustoaction,but
isunlikelytobeeffectivelyimplementedin
situationswithstrongoppositionbykey
actors.Conditionalityofthescopeconsidered
hereisunlikelytobeaspainful,andthusas
opposed,asthatinthestructuraladjustment
context.Forexample,arequirementthatasite
chargeentrancefeesandearmarkthemforsite
managementwillbefarlessonerousthan
reducedsubsidiesonfoodandenergy.
Nonetheless,theprinciplethatlasting
improvementinpolicieswillmostlikelyoccur
inanorganicreformenvironmentisagood
one.

Onecannotexpectallactorstoembracethe
conditions(e.g.,therewasoppositiontothe
Bonairefeebysomediveoperatorsandan
influentialdivemagazine),suchthat
educationaleffortsandpoliticalwillmaybe
necessaryinsituationswherethereis
underlyingsupportforthecondition.Lastly,
itshouldbenotedthatmoreorlessexplicit
conditions,suchasthoserelatedto
environmentalimpactassessments,areinfact
commonindevelopmentcooperation
programs(e.g.,bothNORADandSIDAhave
EIArequirements).
Finally,thereistheissueofrecipient
initiative,animportantprinciplefor
NORADandmanyotheragencies.Though
theprincipleofrecipientresponsibilityand
leadershipissound,dependingonhowitis
implementeditcanalsobeproblematicforat
leasttworeasons.
First,recipientssimplymaynotbeaware
thatagencies,suchasNORAD,havefunding
forandinterestintourismrelatedprojects.
Forexample,WTOnotesthatlackof
systematicanduptodateinformationon
financingsourcesappearstobeasignificant
handicapfortourismprojectdevelopers,

bothpublicandprivate.WTOpresumably
wasreferringtoactorswithrelativelystrong
informationnetworks.Thestatementwould

beevenmoretruewhenitcomestorural
communitiesandcommunitygroups.
37

Second,duetolackofexperiencewithtourism
development,recipientsmaytendtobemore
reactive(ratherthanproactive)relativetodonor
agencies,whoeitherhaveorcangatherinfor
mationandexpertisebasedonlongerhistoriesof
tourismdevelopment.Usingthelifecyclecon
ceptasanexample,recipientsmightrequestas
sistanceonlyaftersignificantnegativeimpacts
haveoccurred.
Inshort,itisrecommendedthatamoreactive
andinteractiveprocessbeimplemented,one
whichlocatesthefundamentalinitiativeand
leadershipwithrecipients,butwhichprovidesfor
activeexplorationbydonorsregardingpotential
assistanceprojects,aswellasactiveprovisionof
informationregardingpotentiallyimportant
considerations,policies,andactionsatvarious
levels.Thisperspectiveappearsconsistentwith
SNVsapproachintourismdevelopment,
describedabove.

3
8

5.Conclusions
ral
herita
As geit
noted can
inthe help
Intro keep
ducti traditi
on, ons
touri alive
sm and
depe financ
nds ethe
heavi protec
lyon tion
cultu of
ral herita
and ge,as
natur well
al as
attrac increa
tions, se
many visito
of r
whic appre
hare ciatio
Worl nof
that
d
Herit herita
age ge.
Sites. On
Conv the
ersel other
y, hand,
touri touris
sm mcan
can dama
make ge
herita
impo
ge
rtant
when
contr
not
ibuti
well
ons
mana
to ged.
prote
ction After
and descri
mana bing
geme the
ntof touris
cultu mand
ral heritag
and econ
natu text,

this
report
presen
ted
severa
l
strateg
iesfor
promo
ting
sustain
ability
in
touris
m
associ
ated
with
cultura
land
natural
enviro
nment
s.
Next,
it
review
edthe
activiti
esof
develo
pment
cooper
ation
agenci
es,
bothin
genera
land
with
respec
tto
touris
min
particu
larand
its
potenti
alto
allevia
te
povert
y.

sector
Ther for
e
cooper
certai ation
nly and
have most
been donors
diffic have
ulties little
experi
,
chal ence
lenge inthis
s, field...
and .Do
failur nors
esin agree
the that
conte operat
xtof ions
devel lacked
op clear
ment directi
coop on,
erati that
on the
and interlo
touri cutors
sm. were
The poorly
Worl chose
d
nor
Bank inef
close fective
dits and
Touri the
sm results
Proje difficu
cts ltto
Depa evalua
rtme te.
ntin Moreo
1978. ver,
The the
EU strateg
notes ies
that design
tour edto
ism leadto
has sustai
only nable
recen touris
tly mwill
emer not
ged alway
asa sbe

easy
to
imple
ment,
and
progre
sswill
not
alway
sbe
drama
tic.
When
one
consid
ersall
this,a
natura
l
reactio
n
would
beto
avoid
touris
min
develo
pment
coop
eratio
n
progra
ms.
Howe
ver,
these
difficu
lties
and
challe
nges
are
not
unique
to
touris
m
they
are
generi
cto
develo
pment
cooper
ation
and
the

devel devel
opme opme
nt nt
proce proje
ss.88 cts.
Touri Rece
sm nt
prese activi
nts tyhas
speci evolv
al ed
chall
towar
enge
s,but dnew
so, appro
too, aches
do anda
other focus
secto on
rs, small
from er
fores proje
tryto cts
hydr orient
oelec ed
tric towar
powe d
r
natur
gener
ation. eand
cultur
In al
addit touris
ion, m
man conte
yof xts.
the More
criti over,
cism thoug
hdo
s
have
been
of
top
dow
n
appr
oach
es
invo
lvin
g
large
"ma
ss
touri
sm"

nors
genera
lly
have
little
experi
ence
inthis
field,
experi
ence
canbe
obtain
edand
develo
ped
over
time,
asit
has
been
in
other
sectors
.
In
short,
the
argu
ments
agains
ta
develo
p
ment
coope
ration
rolein
touris
mare
real,
but
often
overst
ated.
More
over,
touris
mis
oneof

the (injob
large creati
st on,
indusecono
tries mic
in develo
the pment
worl ,
d, cultur
and al
one interc
of hange,
the and
faste cultur
st al
grow herita
ing. ge
A mana
failu gemen
reof t)and
devel a
opmefailur
nt eto
coop help
erati steer
on it
agen towar
cies da
to sustai
beco nable
me path.
invol
ved Sever
in al
touri devel
opme
sm
nt
repre coope
sentsration
a
agenc
failu ies
reto have
capit recog
alize nized
on this
and
the
have
oppo
active
rtuni ly
tiesit incor
prese porate
nts d

touris
m
into
their
progr
ams.
The
effort
sof
DFID
,
SNV,
and
GTZ
to
under
take
resear
ch,
revie
w,
and
policy
proce
sses
are
partic
ularly
praise
worth
y,as
this
gives
these
agenc
iesa
con
sidere
d,
rather
than
ad
hoc,
basis
for
action
.For
exam
ple,
DFID
devel
oped
its
action
agend

a
sthat
base can
don bethe
resea steppi
rch ng
carri stones
ed for
out action
in by
natur other
e
agenc
touri ies
sm consi
desti derin
natio g
nsin invol
India veme
,
ntin
Indo touris
nesia m.
,and
Zim In
bab additi
we. onto
The the
expe knowl
rienc edge
e
and
and experi
repo ence
rtsof of
these devel
agen opme
cies, nt
as agenci
well es,
as there
other is
s
extens
like ive
the rele
EU, vant
the expert
IDB, ise
and within
the the
Worl consul
d
tancy,
Ban acade
k, mic,
are NGO,
valu and
able other
reso sector
urce s.Put

simpl
y,
there
isa
solid,
and
growi
ng,
basis
for
action
.
The
import
anceof
collabo
ration
and
inform
ation
exchan
gein
project
imple
mentat
ion
was
dis
cussed
above.
Aspart
ofan
effort
to
enhanc
e
knowle
dge
and
streaml
ine
activiti
es,
there
isa
simila
r
ration
alefor
collab
oratio
nand

com collabo
muni ration
catio and
coor
n
acros dinatio
nare
s
stresse
devel
dby
opme
the
nt Norwe
coope gian
ratio Ministr
n
yof
agenc Foreig
ies. n
Indee Affairs
d, and
donor NORA
D.In
39

tage
Netwo
rk,of
like
minde
d
agenci
esand
NGOs
(the
netwo
rk
includ
esa
touris
m
theme
area).
Such
action
s,and
others
,
would
also
be
produ
ctive
amon
gst
agenci
es
specifi
cally

the
cultura
larena,
the
World
Bank
has
recentl
y
formed
a
knowle
dge
sharing
networ
k,the
Cultur
al
Heri

in
volve
din
touris
m.
Lackof
informa
tion
and
awaren
essmay
alsobe
a
proble
m
within
agencie
s.Thus,
network
ingand
informat
ion
sharing
regardin
g
tourism,
and
agency
objectiv
esfor
this
sector,

willbe
importa
nt
within
agencies
aswell
as
across
agencies
.
The
present
reporthas
focused
on
providing
backgrou
nd
informati
on,
identifyin
gwhatse
lected
agencies
are
already
doingin
tourism,
and
presentin
galistof
strategies
thatcan
formthe
basisfor
further
discussio
n,
strategy
de
velopmen
t,and
action.It
is
difficult
topriori
tize
strategies
in
general,
astheir
importanc

ewill
dependon
local
condition
s,agency
objec
tives,and
other
considerat
ions.
Moreover
,some
strategies,
suchas
the
developm
entof
partner
ships,are
broadand
cutacross
others.

Nonethel
ess,the
developm
entand
strengthe
ningof
institutio
ns,
planning
processe
s,
evaluatio
n,and
policies
are
fundame
ntalto
sustaina
bility,
suchthat
these
shouldbe
apri
ority
focus,at
leastat
the
national
level.On
theother

hand,
commun
ity
involvem
entand

trainin
g
would
bekey
prioriti
esfora
site
level
approa
ch.
Though
commu
nity
involve
ment
(and
control)
isnota
panacea
,itis
impor
tantfor
ensurin
gthat
local
cultural
values
are
maintai
nedand
strength
ened.
Again,
the
inter
relatedn
essof
the
strategi
es
should
be
stressed
,as,for
exampl
e,good
policies
areof
limited
valueif
instituti
onsare
too
weakto

implem
ent
them
effectiv
ely.
Lastly,
the
importan
ceof
including
abroad
rangeof
stakehol
dersand
other
actorsas
participa
ntsin
develop
ment
cooperat
ionpro
jects,
andas
recipient
sof
develop
ment
coop
eration
funding,
is
stressed.
Agencies
have
increasin
gly
reached
outto
NGOs
andother
compone
ntsof
civil
society.
An
equivalen
teffort
willbe
needed
with
respectto

the
tourism
in
dustry.
As
described
above,
the
industry
has
important
viewpoin
ts,
knowledg
e,skills,
and
business
connectio
nsthat
canbe
criticalto
the
successfu
l
developm
entof
sustainab
le
tourism.
Asthe
industry
continues
togrow,
itcanno
longerbe
ignored
ithas
tobea
more
active
partnerin
projects
that
promote
sustainab
le
tourism.
The
continued
growthof
the
industry,
thefuture
of
cultural

heritage
managem
ent,and
the
growthof
opportuni
tiesfor
thepoor

indesti
nation
areas
depend
onnew
alliances
andpart
nerships.

re job

att creation,
rib social
ut cohesion,
"

es tourism,

Fo

an andsoon.

d Cultural

to

art preservatio

ifa nand

lo

cts renewalis

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ha nota

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s luxury

no good,

ra

t something

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be tobedone

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es

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Pre
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ofthe
World
Bank

October4,
1999
Florence
40

6.References
CitationsbySection
Inordertoimprovereadability,citationsinthetextarenotintypicalacademicformat,butarecombined
andpresentedhere(endnotesretaintheacademicformat).Foreachmajorsection,thefirstparagraph
containscitationsforthegeneralmaterialpresented,andthesecondparagraphcontainscitationsfor
quotations(ifany).Pagenumbersforhtmldocumentsarenotprovidedastheywillvaryacrosssetups.
Citationsareseparatedbysemicolonsandfollowtheorderofmaterialinthetext.
1.Introduction
Malkin1999,WTTC1999;PrierDIeteren1998;Herreman1998.
UNESCO1999:21;TheEconomistmagazine,31July1999,p.74;WTTCandIH&RA1999:2.
2.TheContext
Cheong1995;Dewailly1999;Herbert1997;Bennett1999;Lindbergetal.1997;MowforthandMunt
1998;Butler1999;Lindberg1991;Healy1994b;Butler1980;FrankandBowermaster1994:134;
Canis1996;WilliamsandMontanari1999.
Swarbrooke1995:4;EU1998;Prentice1993:224;WTO1999a:6;UNESCO1998:Preface;World
Bank1998a:8;Loermans1995;Robinson1999b;WorldBank1998a:74;Lindberg,Enriquez,and
Sproule1996;WTO1996:140;DFID1999b;WCED1987:43;SwarbrookeandHorner1999:358360;
WorldBank1998b:11;EU1998;DFID1999a.
3.AchievingSustainability:SelectedStrategies
UNESCO1995;Steck,Strasdas,andGustedt1999;EU1998;Ayad1999;WTO1996:140;Gurung1996;
EU1998;Medio1996;Carsonetal.1997;Shackley1998b;Personalcommunication,S.Bandaranayake;
Peters1998;UNESCO1995;NORAD1998;Hawass1998,PrierDIeteren1998;UNESCO1995;Ayad
1999;UNEP1998;UN1999;UNEP1998;TelferandWall1996;AshleyandRoe1998;DFID1999a;
LindbergandEnriquez1994;Healy1994a;UNEP1995;UNESCO1995:8;NORAD1998;Richards
1999;Goulding1999;McArthur1998;Moscardo1999;vanderBorgandRusso1999;Prentice1993;
DFID1999a;Goodwinetal.1998;Morgan1992;NORAD1998.
NORAD1993:5;Steyn1998:138;NORAD1998:18;MFA1997:19;EU1998;DFID1999a;Robinson
1999a:23;AshleyandRoe1998;Loermans1995:42;EU1998;DFID1999a;EU1998;DFID1999b.

4.DevelopmentCooperationAgenciesandTourism
EU1998;ChristieandCrompton1999;WTO1997:115;WTO1999a:10;LeeandBarrett1994;WTO
1996;WTO1998;MFA1997;DFID1999b;GTZ1997;Steck1999;Steck,Strasdas,andGustedt
1999;DFID1999a;deMeyern.d.
WorldBank1998b:27;Pearce1989:45;WTO1998;WTO1999a:3;EU1998:2;WTO1996:139;WTO
1996:ii.
5.Conclusions
EU1998;MFA1999:3.

42

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48

WTO[WorldTourismOrganization].1999b.TourismatWorldHeritageCulturalSites:TheSite
ManagersHandbook.WTO:Madrid.
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4
9

21January1999ComprehensiveDevelopmentFrameworkmemo,page17.

AllmoneyfiguresinthisreportareinUS$unlessotherwisenoted.ThereportiswritteninUSEnglish,
exceptwherepassagesaretakendirectlyfromsourceswritteninBritishEnglish.Toincreasereadability,
thisreportwillnotutilizetheacademicauthor/datereferencingsystemexceptinendnotes.Instead,the
referencesectionincludeslistingsofmaterialutilizedinwritingeachsection,aswellasthecitationsfor
quotessuchasthisone.Inaddition,theconventionofusingbracketstoreferenceminorchangesinquo
tationsisnotusedhere.
3

Additional data and forecasts can be found in UNESCO (1999) or relevant WTTC and World
TourismOrganization(WTO)documents.
4

Or,asanAsianproverbstates,"Tourismislikeafire:Youcancookyoursouponit,butyoucanalso
burndownyourhousewithit."
5

Futuregrowthwillcomeontopofalreadysubstantialfigures.Forexample,Hawass(1998)notesthat

534 milliontouristsvisitedarchaeologicalsitesaroundtheworldin1995.Inrecognitionoftheimportant

connectionbetweencultureandtourism,theWTOselectedPreservingWorldHeritagefortheNew
MillenniumasitsthemeforWorldTourismDay1999(WTO1999a).
6

WorldBankPresidentJamesD.Wolfensohnnotesthat"physicalandexpressivecultureisanunder
valuedresourceinmanydevelopingcountries.Itcanearnincome,throughtourism,craftsandothercul
turalenterprises.Andwhetherincomeearningornot,supporttoculturalactivitiesoftheverypoorcan
haveaprofoundeffectontheirwellbeing,socialorganization,andsocialfunctioning."October4,1999
speechattheCultureCountsconferenceinFlorence.
7
Forexample,theWorldBank(1998a)hasrecentlymovedfromafocusonavoidingculturaldamagein
developmentprojectstoactivesupportthrough1)conceptualanalyses,suchasthecontributionofculture
toempowerment,aswellastheeconomicrationaleforinvestmentsinculture,2)financialandtechnical
support,and3)partnerships.
8

Moreinformationisavailableathttp://home.earthlink.net/~crtp

Giventhegeographicfocus,andpotentialnonScandinavianreaders,theliteraturereferencedinthis
reportwillbepredominantlyEnglish.VariousresourcesareavailableinNorwegian(e.g.,Jacobsenand
Viken1997),butmostofthesefocusonNorwayorScandinavia(anexceptionisthe1996issueof
MangoFredskorpsforum,whichhasatourismthemeandfocusesondevelopingcountryissues).See
alsotheNorth/SouthCoalition(IdgruppenomNord/Sr)InformationBulletinNo.1,1999,"Tourismin
aNorth/SouthPerspective."
10

Similarly,projecttimingandscopelimitedtheabilitytofullyreviewthesubstantialrelevantliterature.
ChristieandCrompton(1999),Steck,Strasdas,andGustedt(1999),andSweeting,Bruner,andRosenfeld
(1999)areexamplesofpotentiallyvaluablepublicationsthatwerenotreviewedintimeformorethancursory
inclusionhere.Furtherworkonthistopicwouldbenefitfromreviewofthese,andother,documents.In
addition,NORAD(1999)wasreceivedtoolatetobeadequatelyincorporatedintothisreport.
11

Swarbrooke(1995).

12

TheimportanceofdomesticandSouthSouthtourismisdiscussedinGhimire(1997)andinLindberg
etal.(1998).

13 Andmuchpotentialremains.Forexample,WTO(1999a:4)estimatesthatMexicoalonehas200,000
50

ancientarchaeologicalsites.
14

Prentice(1993).

15

Somearguethatvirtualrealityshouldreplacephysicaltravel,thatitistheultimateformofsustainable
tourism.Thisviewassumesthatphysicaltravel(tourism)iscurrentlyunsustainable,thatitgenerates
morenegativeimpactsthanpositiveimpacts.Thisreportassumes,andargues,thattourismis,oratleast
canbe,sustainable.
16

Additionaldiscussionoftheimportanceofculturalpreservationandthemotivationforenhancing
tourismsfunctioninthisprocessisprovidedelsewhere(e.g.,Boniface1999;KellyandNankervis
1998;WorldBank1998a).

17 InhisspeechattheOctober1999"CultureCounts"conferenceinFlorence,WorldBankPresident
WolfensohnreferredtothepresentationofWoleSoyinka,theNigerianNobellaureate,whonotedthat
"cultureisamatrixofinfinitepossibilitiesandchoicesfrom(which)wecanextractargumentsand
strategiesforthedegradationandennoblementofourspecies,foritsenslavementorliberation,forthe
suppressionofitsproductivepotentialoritsenrichment;thestagnationofsocialexistenceoritsrenewal."
AWorldBankWebpagedescribescultureasan:
elusivetermbecauseitisallpervasive.Itismaterialthingsandartifactsaswellasex
pressionofvaluesthatanchorpeople'sidentityandgivesasenseofmeaningtotheirlife;
itisexpressedoftenintheperformanceandvisualarts,musicanddance.Soitlinks
stronglytosocialdevelopmentorsimplyhavingfun.Itisalsotheculturalormeaning
makingindustrieslikefilm,publishingormusic,thefifthlargestindustrytheworldand
mainlybasedoncitiessoithasmajoreconomicandjobaccretionimpacts.Itishis
toricbuildings,festivals,theartsandanimationincitiesandthusthereasonwhytourism
visitplaces.Inturnthisaffectstheimagesofcitiesandareinwardinvestmentprospects.
18

Lindbergetal.(1997).

19

E.g.,Bosselman,Peterson,andMcCarthy(1999),whichalsosummarizesanunusuallyfrankreporton
negativeimpactsinThailandissuedbytheTouristAuthorityofThailand.
20

Robinson(1999b).

21

Apopularrefrainintourism,andprobablyoverstated,butlikelytruetosomedegree.

22

Therearemanyexamplesofthis,includingwhalebonecarvingamongsttheMaoriofNewZealand,
potteryandtilepaintinginTurkey,rugweavingamongsttheNavajooftheAmericansouthwest,andabo
riginalpaintinginAustralia.
23

Thelasttwomayleadtoafalseimpressionofhistoricalreality.

24

AsnotedintheConclusion,suchchallengesandperceptionsarenotuniquetotourism,butalsooccur
inothersectors.
25

Throsby(1994)goesonestepfurtherandproposesfourprinciples,whichmirrorthoseofSDgenerally,
specificallyforculturallysustainabledevelopment.Sofield(1991)definesprinciplesforsustainableeth
nictourism,basedonthePentecostLandJump(naghol)inVanuatu.

26Forarecentseriesofarticlesdiscussingindigenouscultureissuesinthecontextofecotourism,seethe
Summer1999issueofCulturalSurvivalQuarterly.
51

27

Thissectionpresentsafewofthose,butotherexamplescanbefoundontheWTTCWebsite
(http://www.wttc.org),inFrankandBowermaster(1994),andinothersources.
28

GreenGlobeiscurrentlygoingthroughareorganizationprocess.

29

Likewise,StarTour/FritidsresorisamajorsupporterofWorldwideFundforNature(WWF)activities
intheMediterraneanareaviadonationsrelatedtotripstoselectedMediterraneandestinations.
30

SwarbrookeandHorner(1999).

31

See,forexample,theBusinessandEnvironmentsurveysconductedforWTTCbyMORIin1998.

32

Thisconceptismuchdebatedinthetourismresearchliterature,butthereisgeneralsupportfortheidea
thatoverdevelopmentcanleadtodeclineinthedestination.Hudson(1999)providesarecentexample
fromJamaica.
33

Inasurveyof69outboundtourismbusinessesintheUK,Forsyth(1997)foundthat64%ofthesefelt
thathostgovernmentsshouldberesponsibleforimplementingsustainabletourism,30%feltitwasajoint
responsibilityofoperatorsandthegovernments,and6%feltitwastheresponsibilityofoperatorsaloneor
associations.ThoughWTTC,theleadindustryorganization,prefersvoluntarymeasures,itrecognizes
(e.g.,itsMilleniumVisionfactsheet)theneedforregulationinsomecases.

34
TherehasbeenaproliferationofbooksandothermaterialonCHTinOECDcountries(e.g.,
Boniface1995;Prentice1993;LeaskandYeoman1999),whiletheecotourismliteraturefocusessomewhat
moreondevelopingcountries(e.g.,Honey1999;Lindberg,EplerWood,andEngeldrum1998).Shackley
(1998a)includesdevelopingcountrycasestudiesofWorldHeritageSitesandtourism,butthebookismore
descriptivethananalytical,andthusoflimitedvalueforpresentpurposes.
Thefollowingisadditionalmaterialforreadersinterestedinmoredetail.Steck,Strasdas,andGustedt
(1999)isa(relatively)briefbutthoroughandrelevantdiscussionofissuesandstrategies.Sweeting,
Bruner,andRosenfeld(1999)provideanothergooddiscussion,withafocusonecotourism.Inskeep
(1998)andBosselman,Peterson,andMcCarthy(1999)areothergoodstartingpoints.
35

MoreinformationonthisprojectcanbeobtainedfromWalterJamieson(wjtourism@hotmail.com).

36

Withoutgoingintodetailregardingplanningtools,theimportanceofzoningshouldbestressed.Al
thoughzoningisoftenusedinsitelevelplanningandmanagement(seebelow),itisalsoanimportant
toolathigherlevels,suchaslocalandregionalplanning(e.g.,foratowncontaininghistoricbuildingsand
monuments).Zoningcanbeusedtosegregateactivities,withacommonrecommendationbeingthat
tourismrelatedinfrastructureandservicesbelocatedawayfromhistoricbuildingsbothtoreducethe
likelihoodofdamagetothesebuildingsandtopreserveauthenticityintheviewshedencounteredby
visitors.Suchrestrictionsareoftenrelaxedincasesinwhichinfrastructureandservicesareconsistent
withheritagevalues(e.g.,theymaintainarchitecturalauthenticityanddonotnegativelyimpactheritage
values).
37

GrantandAllcock(1998)describetheAustralianecotourismstrategyprocess,aswellasthe
outcomesofthisprocess.
38

Ofcourse,thepowerrelationshipscanbemuchmorecomplexthanpresentedhere,asthetourism
ministry/departmentmaybemorepowerfulthantheculture/natureministry,itspartnerinprinciple.In
addition,theremaybepowerstruggleswithinministries/departments,withprodevelopmentandmore
conservativefactionspotentiallyatodds.

39

Thereisagrowingliteraturethatlooksattherelationshipbetweengovernmentandlocalcommunities
52

inthemanagementandculturalandnaturalheritageresources,includingcomanagementandjoint
management.Wall(1999)discussesthistopicinthetourismcontext.
40

Robinson(1999a).

41

AshleyandRoe(1998).

42

Therearemanyvariationsonthesebasicformsofcommunityinvolvementintourismandcollabora
tionwiththeprivatesector.AshleyandRoe(1998)andEplerWood(1998)providegoodoverviewsand
outlineimportantconsiderations,whileChrist(1998)andDrumm(1998)describedexamplesinAfrica
andEcuador,respectively.
43

NACOBTAisoftenusedasanexampleofgoodcommunitybasedtourismdevelopmentinvolving
communityindustrypartnerships,andfutureassistanceprogramsinthisareawouldbenefitfromareview
oftheNACOBTAexperience(recentdescriptionsincludeAshleyandRoe(1998),Karwacki(1999),and
Schalken(1999)).
44

Somefeelthatupmarkettourism,andthehighpricessometimeschargedforculturalandnaturalat
tractionsinthesecases,isaformofelitism.Theseconcernsneedtobeweighedagainstthebenefitsthat
suchtourismcanbringintermsoflocalemploymentandrevenuesforCHM.
45

FromMedio(1996).

46

Bosselman,Peterson,andMcCarthy(1999)reportthatthedevelopmentofHuatulcoBayinMexico
broughtrunningwaterandelectricitytoareavillagesforthefirsttime.
47

Thoughmonetaryevaluationofthesecostswasnotfoundforculturalheritagesettings,Lindberg,En
riquez,andSproule(1996)provideanexamplefromnaturalheritagesettings(c.f.,Goodwinetal.1998).
48

Goingfurther,itmaybemorepalatabletotheindustrytopresentfeesasachargetovisitors,nottothe
industry;inthecaseofvisitorsontours,thiswouldimplythatfeecostsarepassedontovisitorsviathe
tourpackageprice.
49

LindbergandAylward(1999)provideanempiricalevaluationofpriceandvisitationatnationalparks
inCostaRica,aswellasreportanestimateoflossestothetourismindustryandemployeesresultingfrom
priceincreases.
50

Carsonetal.(1997).

51

This,aswellasotherprinciplesandtechniquesinthecontextofattractionfees,isdiscussedin
Lindberg(1998).
52

US/ICOMOSNewsletterNovember/December1996specialissueontourism,page3oftheWWW
version.
53

AccordingtoAyad(1999),25%ofPetrasentrancefeerevenuesnowgoestofundthePetraRegional
PlanningCouncilnotedabove.Thus,thequoteissomewhatoutdated,thoughtheprincipleholdsatmany
sites.

54
Questionedaboutwhetherthetaxmightdiscouragetourists,regionalfinanceministerJoan
Mesquidarepliedthat,iftheycouldnotpaythissortofmoney,"I'drathertheydidn'tcome."A
spokespersonfortheMinorcanhotelowners'associationtoldENDSDailythattheproposalwasa
wayofresponding"toourclientswhoaredemandingabetterqualityenvironment.Thisisarevolution
inthetouristindustryandonewhichwewelcome."
53

55

ThistopicwasathemeattheMay1999UNESCOconferenceinMalaysiaonTheEconomicsofHeri
tage.
56

BasedonaJuly9andJuly261999Reutersreports.

57PhysicalCHMgenerallyhasinvolvedrestorationbacktotheoriginalformofthebuilding,landscape
orartifactwithagoalofcapturingandmaintainingtheessenceandstyleofaresource.Reproductionofa
resourceisoftennotseenasanauthenticresponsetoCHM,thoughitcanbeseenasacceptablepractice
whentheoriginalhasbeenlostandisseenasessentialforinterpretivepurposesorwhenuseoftheorigi
nalwilldamageitsheritageproperties.
Internationalpracticetypicallydoesnotsupportanyinterventioninthephysicalfabricthatremoves
(scrapes)awaytheaccretionsoftime.Inthepast,accretionstoabuildingorenvironmentfrequently
wereremovedinordertogobacktotheoriginalformoftheartifact,buttheCharterofVeniceclearly
arguesagainstscraping.Nonetheless,thereareinstanceswherebringinganartifactbacktoitsoriginal
formmaybeappropriateorisclearlyrequiredforculturaltourismandeconomicdevelopmentpurposes.
Internationalpracticegenerallydoesnotencouragetherecreationoflostenvironments.Thisisbasedon
thefactthattheoriginalartifactwithitsmaterialsandworkmanshipisinfacttheheritageresource.
Basedonthisunderstanding,recreationscannotbeseenaspossessingheritagevalues.Still,thereare
instanceswhererecreationmaybejustified.
Manyheritageresourcesaresignificantinlargepartbecauseoftheirlocationwithinaparticularplacein
thelandscape.Themovingofresourceschangesthebuildingorartifactsheritagevalueandisgenerally
discouraged.However,incaseswherearesourcemaybelostduetoredevelopmentpressuresandas
sumingthatasensitivesiteisavailablemovingmaybejustified.
58

Thereisawealthofinformationonthistopicforreadersinterestedinlearningmore,withHalland
McArthur(1998)andWTO(1999b)beinggoodintroductoryreferences.Newpublicationscontinueto
appear,withaparticularlyrelevantforthcomingonebeingArtPedersensSuggestionsforManaging
TourismatWorldHeritageSites:APracticalManualforWorldHeritageSiteManagers.
59

Forexample,therecentUNCSDprocessincludedasanimportantpriorityacalltoidentifythe
limitstosocialandenvironmentalcarryingcapacitiesatdestinations.
60

Onlyabriefdiscussionispresentedhere;furtherdiscussion,andopposingviewpoints,isprovidedin
vanderBorg(1998),CanestrelliandCosta(1991),LindbergandMcCool(1998),andLindberg,McCool
andStankey(1997).
61

BasedonMcGregor(1999).

62

Indeed,collectionofsuchdatacanbeoneoftheresearchfocusareas,discussedbelow.

63

Loermans(1995).

64

SeealsoLoermans(1995),whonotestheopportunitytolearnfromexperienceinothersectors(e.g.,
timbercertification).

65Thisalsoillustrateswhycertificationprogramsfocusedonentiredestinations(e.g.,theGreenGlobe

program)havemetwithlimitedsuccess.Inaddition,certificationprogramsseemtobepushedbythe
North,withlessinterestinthemintheSouth.Forexample,theDutchorganizationRetourconsidered
developingalabelingprogram,butdidnotmoveforwardwithitwhentheyfoundthatNGOsinsouthern
countrieswerenotinterested(Loermans1995).
54

66

Here,aselsewhere,localisaloosetermandmightincludeallnationalresidents,dependingon
theobjectives.
67

McKercher(1998)expandsonthistopic.ThoughthefocusisnaturetourisminanOECDcontext,the
principlesarealsorelevanttothecurrentcontext.
68

AshleyandRoe(1998).LindbergandEnriquez(1994)discussthisissuesinthecontextofenhancing
agriculturallinkagesinBelize,andLindberg(Forthcoming)presentsrelevantconceptualissuesandex
amplesfromecotourism.SeealsoTelferandWall(1996).
69

Forexample,Roggenbuck(1992)discussesthepotential,andlimitations,ofusinginterpretationto
limitdepreciativebehavioratnaturalareas.Theroleofeducationandcommunicationisdiscussedin
variousfora,includingDFID(1999a)andintheUNCSDsummaryat
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdeve/tsout.htm.
70

Forexample,Goulding(1999),McArthur(1998),andMoscardo(1999).

71
LEAPOnlineisdescribedathttp://www.unescobkk.org/culture/lotxt.htm.SeealsovanderBorgand
Russo(1999),whodescribeanetworkingprograminEuropedesignedtoshareexperiencesamongst
professionals.
72

Moreinformationisavailableathttp://www.unescobkk.org/culture/imptxt.htm

73

SeealsoMorgans(1992)evaluationoftheTonganNationalCentre,theTongaVisitorsBureau,and
aTonganhandicraftproject.
74

ThisismodifiedfromWorldBank(1998b)andothersources.Moredetailisprovidedinthatdocu
ment,aswellastheOECDDevelopmentAssistanceCommittee(DAC)reportShapingthe21st
Century:TheRoleofDevelopmentCooperation.SeealsoNORAD(1999:9)forastatementofgoals
withinNorwegiandevelopmentassistance.

75 WorldBank(1998b).Theprimaryfocusofthatreportisonofficialdevelopmentassistance(grants
plusconcessionalloansthathaveatleasta25%grantcomponent).However,theprinciplesarealsogen
erallyrelevantforofficialdevelopmentfinancemorebroadly,whichincludesmarketoralmostmarket
rateloans.
ComplementaryissuesareraisedintheComprehensiveDevelopmentFrameworkapproachproposedby
WorldBankPresidentJamesWolfensohn(Wolfensohn1999).Thisapproachalsoplacescultureasone
ofthecoreareastobeaddressed.
76

ManyoftheseissuesalsohavebeenraisedspecificallyintheNorwegiandevelopmentcooperation
context(seeNORAD1999).
77
Whethertourismiswellservedbybeingpartofalargerprojectisopentodebate.Ontheonehand,it
helpstointegratetourismintoothersectorsandactivities.Ontheother,itmaynotreceivetheattention
andexpertisenecessarytoachieveobjectives.AsnotedbySteck,Strasdas,andGustedt(1999:2),techni
calcooperationstaff(forlargerprojectsinvolvingtourism)tendtohavelittleknowledgeofthetourist
industryandtourismmanagement.
78

Pearce(1989).

79 SpeechofWorldBankPresidentJamesD.WolfensohnattheCultureCountsconferenceinFlorence,
October4,1999.
55

80

BriefinformationonabroaderrangeofagenciesisprovidedinWTO(1996).Insomecases(e.g.,
theAsianandAfricanDevelopmentBanks),effortstoobtaininformationviaWebsitesandemail
contactyieldedlittlesuccess(theonlyinformationobtainedfortheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)is
fromWTO(1996)andstatesthattourismisarelativelynewsectorforADBassistance).Inothercases
(e.g.,WorldBank,DFID,andSNV,andGTZ),substantialinformationwasobtained.
81

StatementofGeneralDirectorKarinMillet.

82

WithintheIDB,thelinkbetweenheritageandeconomicdevelopment,aswellastheeconomicration
aleforpublicsectorinvolvementandIDBsupportofheritageprojects,iscurrentlybeingdiscussed.An
importantfocusformultilateral(e.g.,IDB)andbilateralagenciescanbetohelpthepublicsector(Minis
triesofCultureand/orTourism)improvetheirperformanceintermsofefficiencyandequityinthepres
ervationofheritageandotherareasthatareeconomicallyjustifiable.Techniquesandmechanismsthat
demonstratetheimportanceofheritagerestorationfortourismdevelopment(andnotjustwithinthecon
textofanurbanrenewalscheme)canmakeimportantcontributions.TheMayJune1999Vol.26No.56
issueofIDBAMRICAreportsonurbanculturalheritageprojectsfinancedbytheIDB.Itisavailable
onlineathttp://www.iadb.org/exr/idb/indexeng.htm.
83

TheWorldBank,throughtheSecondTourismDevelopmentProject,isalsoinvolvedinJordan,which
reliesheavilyonitsculturalheritageasatouristattraction(tourismgeneratesapproximately10%ofthe
countrysgrossnationalproduct)(WorldBank1998a:80).TheBankiscurrentlyformulatingamedium
tolongtermTourismDevelopmentProgram,withobjectivesbeingtocreatetheconditionsforenviron
mentallysoundandculturallysensitivetourisminPetra,WadiRum,Jerash,andKarak.Thisincludes
achievingemploymentandincomegenerationpotential,aswellasimprovinginfrastructure,environ
mentalprotection,andsitemanagement.
84
Thereissomedebateinthetourismliteratureonthistopic,ashigherbenefitsperdollarspentby
thesevisitorsmaybeoffsetbyfewerdollarsspentrelativetomoreupmarketvisitors.Anempirical
exampleofthisisprovidedinLindberg(1998).Inaddition,thenoneconomiccostsandbenefitsofeach
segmentcanbeverydifficulttoquantify.
85

deJong(n.d.:preface).

86

Beck,Strasdas,andGustedt(1999).

87

NORAD(1999:9)listspartnersinNorwegiandevelopmentcooperationasvoluntaryorganizations,
businesses,unions,culturalorganizations,researchorganizations,governmentagencies,andinstitutions.

88Forexample,NORAD(1999:12,5)notesthatdevelopmentcooperationisfilledwithchallenges,
dilemmas,anddifficultstraypaths.Further,developmentcooperationisaparticularlyrisky
business.Therearefeweasyanswersfromtimetotimeonemusttakechances.

56