Direct Speech / Quoted Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)
Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations." / "Today's lesson is on presentations", she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what
the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech,
we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke
originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
Direct speech

Present simple
She said, "It's cold."

Indirect speech
Past simple

She said it was cold.

Present continuous
She said, "I'm teaching English online."

She said she was teaching English online.

Past continuous

Present perfect simple

She said, "I've been on the web since
1999."

She said she had been on the web since 1999.

Past perfect simple

Present perfect continuous

She said, "I've been teaching English for
seven years."

Past simple
She said, "I taught online yesterday."

She said she had taught online yesterday.

Past continuous
She said, "I was teaching earlier."

perfect continuous
Past
She said she had been teaching earlier.

Past perfect
She said, "The lesson had already started
when he arrived."

perfect
Past
NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already

Past perfect continuous

She said, "I'd already been teaching for
five minutes."

perfect continuous
Past
NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

Past perfect continuous

She said she had been teaching English for seven
years.
Past perfect

started when he arrived.

teaching for five minutes.

Direct speech
will
She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow."

can
She said, "I can teach English online."

Indirect speech

would
She said she would teach English online
tomorrow.
could

She said she could teach English online.

must
She said, "I must have a computer to teach
English online."

had to
She said she had to have a computer to teach
English online.

shall
She said, "What shall we learn today?"

She asked what we should learn today.

may
She said, "May I open a new browser?"

She asked if she might open a new browser.

should

might

!Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.
Expressions of time if reported on a different day
this (evening)
today
these (days)
now
(a week) ago
last weekend
here
next (week)
tomorrow

that (evening)
yesterday ...
those (days)
then
(a week) before
the weekend before last / the previous weekend
there
the following (week)
the next/following day

Rumus Conditional Sentence

Secara umum, rumus kalimat pengandaian ini adalah sebagai berikut.
if + condition, result/consequence

atau tanpa tanda baca koma:

result/consequence + if + condition
Rumus Conditional Sentence Berbagai Tipe
Type

Rumus Conditional Sentence

if + simple present, simple present

if + simple present, will + bare infinitive

if + simple past, would/could/might + bare infinitive

if + past perfect, would/should/could/might have + past participle

Type
0

Contoh Conditional Sentence

If we burn paper, it becomes ash.
(Jika kita membakar kertas, itu menjadi abu.)
If I meet him, I will introduce myself.

(Jika saya bertemu dia, saya akan memperkenalkan diri.)

If it rained tomorrow, I would sleep all day.

(Jika besok hujan, saya akan tidur sepanjang hari.)

If you had remembered to invite me, I would have attended your party.

(Jika kamu ingat mengundang saya, saya akan hadir di pestamu.)

Negatif if + condition
Rumus: ifnot dapat digantikan dengan unless.
Contoh conditional sentence: ifnot dan unless:
Dengan menggunakan rumus negatif if, contoh conditional sentence seperti di bawah ini.

If the students do not understand, they will raise their hand to ask.

Unless the students understand, they will raise their hand to ask. (Jika para siswa tidak
mengerti, mereka akan mengangkat tangan untuk bertanya.)

Prepositions
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence.
The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence
She went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by
bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence They will be here at three

o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under
is a preposition which shows place.
A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the
preposition. The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it
is called a preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called
a prepositional phrase. The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the
preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.
Preposition
Object of the Preposition
Prepositional Phrase
to
the store
to the store
by
bus
by bus
at
three o'clock
at three o'clock
under
the table
under the table
Prepositional phrases are like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading
as much as possible. Below are some common prepositions of time and place and examples
of their use.
Prepositions of time:

Prepositions of place:

at two o'clock

at my house

on Wednesday

in New York, in my hand

in an hour, in January; in 1992

on the table

for a day

near the library

across the street
under the bed
between the book

Types of Conjunctions
There are several different types of conjunctions that do various jobs within sentence structures.
These include:

Subordinating conjunctions Also known as subordinators, these conjunctions join

dependent clauses to independent clauses.

Coordinating conjunction Also known as coordinators, these conjunctions coordinate

or join two or more sentences, main clauses, words, or other parts of speech which are of
the same syntactic importance.

Correlative conjunction These conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join phrases

or words that carry equal importance within a sentence.

Conjunctive adverbs While some instructors do not teach conjunctive adverbs

alongside conjunctions, these important parts of speech are worth a mention here. These
adverbs always connect one clause to another, and are used to show sequence, contrast,
cause and effect, and other relationships.

When people first learn to write, they usually begin with short, basic sentences like these: My
name is Ted. I am a boy. I like dogs. One of the most important jobs conjunctions do is to
connect these short sentences so they sound more like this: I am a boy named Ted, and I like
dogs.
Conjunction Rules
There are a few important rules for using conjunctions. Remember them and you will find that
your writing flows better:

Conjunctions are for connecting thoughts, actions, and ideas as well as nouns, clauses,
and other parts of speech. For example: Mary went to the supermarket and bought
oranges.

Conjunctions are useful for making lists. For example: We made pancakes, eggs, and
coffee for breakfast.

When using conjunctions, make sure that all the parts of your sentences agree. For
example: I work busily yet am careful does not agree. I work busily yet carefully
shows agreement.

Conjunctions List
There are only a few common conjunctions, yet these words perform many functions: They
present explanations, ideas, exceptions, consequences, and contrasts. Here is a list of
conjunctions commonly used in American English:
( And, As, Because, But, For, Just as, Or, Neither, Nor, Not only, So, Whether, Yet )
Examples of Conjunctions
In the following examples, the conjunctions are in bold for easy recognition:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

I tried to hit the nail but hit my thumb instead.

I have two goldfish and a cat.
Id like a bike for commuting to work.
You can have peach ice cream or a brownie sundae.
Neither the black dress northe gray one looks right on me.
My dad always worked hard so we could afford the things we wanted.
I try very hard in school yet I am not receiving good grades.
Determiners in English

There are many different determiners in the English language.

Articles
Articles are among the most common of the determiners. A, an, and the all express the
definiteness and specificity of a noun.

For example, the is a definite article, meaning the person using the word is referring to a
specific one. On the other hand, a or an are indefinite articles.

The dog is barking too loudly.

A student returned the book.

Demonstratives
Demonstratives, such as this, that, these and those, require a frame of reference in which an
individual can point out the entities referred to by a speaker or a writer.

Do you want this piece of chicken?

I don't want to go to that movie.

Quantifiers
Quantifiers, such as all, few, and many, point out how much or how little of something is being
indicated.

He took all the books.

Few of the children wanted to go to the zoo.

Possessives
When referring to an entity that belongs to another, you can use possessives. My, your, their, and
its are a few examples.

Is this your car?

The dog growled and showed its teeth.