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DESIGN FOR
STRENGTH

PART B:
1

Chapter 2

Design for Strength

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Static Strength
Failure Theories
Stress Concentration
Fatigue Strength
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

Reference:
R. Budynas and J. Nisbett, Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th ed. in SI Unit, McGraw-Hill, 2015
Dieter, G. Engineering Design A Materials and Processing Approach, 24th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2009

Static Strength
In engineering practices, there are many cases in which
machine members are subjected to combined stresses
due to simultaneous action of either tensile or
compressive stresses combined with shear stresses.
E.g. propeller shaft, crankshaft.
Understanding the basic principal stresses are important
to determine the yield strength.

Free Body Diagram (FBD)

o Sketch that represents
the body/combination of
bodies as being
isolated or free from all
surrounding bodies.
o Simplifying a body by
isolating each element
with its physical
attributes and showing
all forces that are acting
on it to be in an
equilibrium state.
o Must identify all the
o

forces acting on the

object of interest.
If the free body diagram
is incorrect, the solution
will likely be incorrect.

E.g.: Free Body Diagram (FBD)

E.g.: Free Body Diagram (FBD)

Four types of internal loading

oNormal force, N.
This force act perpendicular to the area
oShear Force, V.
This force lies in the plane of the area (parallel)
oTorsional Moment or Torque, T.
This torque is developed when the external
loads tend to twist one segment of the body
with respect to the other
oBending Moment, M.
This moment is developed when the external
loads tend to bend the body. Normal force, N.
This force act perpendicular to the area.

Normal Stress

The intensity of the force acting normal to A

o It called as tensile stress

if the normal force pulls
and
called
as
compressive stress when
it pushes.

Shear Stress:
Stress that acts parallel to the surface of a
material creating shear.
The intensity of the force acting tangent to
A

Shear Stress

Single

Double

Review Exercise 1

The single lower arm for suspension system of

race-car prototype is pinned at C and supported
by the shock absorber BD. The pin B has a
diameter of 10 mm, and pin C has a diameter of
12 mm. Both pin are subjected to double shear
and pin B made of material having shear failure

stress of B,fail=100 MPa while Pin C C,fail=60

MPa. If this suspension system is designed to

support a load of P = 2000N, determine:

allowable shear stress at pin B and C.

Normal Strain
Deformation of a body by changes in length of line segments and the changes in the angles
between.

Shear Strain
The change in angle between two line segments that were originally perpendicular

10

Torque:
Moment that tends to a twist a member about its longitudinal axis

Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts remain plain

and undistorted because a circular shaft is axisymmetric.

Cross-sections of noncircular (non-axisymmetric) shafts are

distorted when subjected to torsion.

11

Solid Shaft
The polar moment of inertia J can be determined
using an area element in the form a differential
ring, thus:

Tubular shaft
The polar moment of inertia J can be determined
by substrating J for a shaft radius ci from that
determined for a shaft of radius c0, thus;

12

Review Exercise 2
The motor delivers a torque of 50 N.m to the shaft AB. This torque is transmitted to shaft CD using the
gears at E and F. Determine the equilibrium torque T on shaft CD and the maximum shear stress in each
shaft. The bearings B, C, and D allow free rotation of the shafts.

13

Poissons Ratio

Linear Elastic Material

Behaviour

E= Modulus of Elasticity / Youngs modulus

G= Shear Modulus of Elasticity / Modulus of Rigidity

14

Bending Moment:
Rotational forces within the beam that cause bending. At any point within a beam, the
Bending Moment is the sum of: each external force multiplied by the distance that is
perpendicular to the direction of the force.

The maximum normal stress due to bending,

Consider a rectangular beam cross section,

15

Principal stresses occur on the principal planes of stress with zero shearing stresses.

Maximum shearing stress occurs for

16

Review Exercise 3
The engine crane is used to support the engine,which has a weight of 6kN. Draw the shear and
moment diagrams of the boom ABC when it is in the horizontal position shown.

17

Failure
Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces; has become permanently distorted, thus
ruining its geometry; has had its reliability downgraded; or has had its function compromised, whatever
the reason.

18

Why we need Failure Theories?

To design structural components and calculate margin of
safety.
To guide in materials development.

To determine weak and strong directions.

Ductile failure
A ductile material deforms significantly before fracturing.
(extensive plastic deformation and energy absorption
(toughness) before fracture

Ductility is measured by % elongation at the fracture point.

Materials with 5% or more elongation are considered ductile.

Imagine that the matrix of circles shown represent an isotropic

material.

As the material is being loaded it stretches linearly.

As the material is being pulled further apart, its resistance

becomes greater.

The material continues to stretch linearly until the yield stress of

the material is reached.

At this point the material begins to behave differently. Planes of

maximum shear exist in the material at 45, and the material
begins to slide along these planes.

The sliding between relative planes of material allow the

specimen to deform noticeably without any increase in stress.
We call this a yield of the material.

Brittle failure

o Brittle material yields very little before fracturing (Little

plastic deformation and low energy absorption before
failure)
o The yield strength is approximately the same as the
ultimate strength in tension.

o The ultimate strength in compression is much larger than

the ultimate strength in tension.
o The brittle material also behaves in a linear fashion as it
is being loaded.
o The material continues to stretch as more and more load
is applied.

o When the normal stress in the specimen reaches the

ultimate stress, ult, the material fails suddenly by
fracture.
o This tensile failure occurs without warning, and is initiated
by stress concentrations due to irregularities in the
material at the microscopic level.

Failure Theories

There is no universal theory of failure for the general case of material properties and stress state.
Instead, over the years several hypotheses have been formulated and tested, leading to todays
accepted practices most designers do.

The generally accepted theories

are:
Ductile materials (yield criteria)
Maximum shear stress (MSS) a.k.a
Tresca Theory
Distortion energy (DE) a.k.a Von
Misses
Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)
Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
Maximum normal stress (MNS)
Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
Modified Mohr (MM)

Selection of Failure Criteria in Flowchart Form

Fig. 521

Need for Static Failure Theories

Uniaxial stress element (e.g. tension test)

Multi-axial stress element

One strength, multiple stresses
How to compare stress state to single strength?

Failure theories propose appropriate means of comparing multi-axial stress states to single strength

Usually based on some hypothesis of what aspect of the stress state is critical

Some failure theories have gained recognition of usefulness for various situations

25

Maximum Normal (Principal) Stress Theory

Theory:
Yielding begins when the maximum
principal stress in a stress element exceeds the
yield strength.

For any stress element, use Mohrs circle to find

the principal stresses.

Compare the largest principal stress to the yield

strength.

Often the first theory

engineering students.

Is it a good theory?

Experimental data shows the theory is unsafe in

the 4th quadrant.

This theory is not safe to use for ductile materials.

to

be

proposed

by

26

Failure Theories - Ductile Materials

Maximum-Shear-Stress (MSS) Theory

Theory: Yielding begins when the maximum shear stress in any stress element equal or exceeds the
maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen of the same material when that specimen begins to
yield.
For a tension test specimen, the maximum shear stress is 1/2.
At yielding, when 1 = Sy, the maximum shear stress is Sy/2 .
Could restate the theory as follows:
Theory: Yielding begins when the maximum shear stress in a stress element exceeds Sy/2.
The MSS theory is also referred to as the Tresca or Guest theory.
For any stress element, use Mohrs circle to find the maximum shear stress. Compare the maximum
shear stress to Sy/2.
Ordering the principal stresses such that 1 2 3,
or

Incorporating a design factor n,

Solving for factor of safety

or

o To compare to experimental data, express max in terms of principal stresses and plot.
o To simplify, consider a plane stress state
o Let A and B represent the two non-zero principal stresses, then order them with the zero principal
stress such that 1 2 3
o Assuming a plane stress problem with A B there are three cases to consider

Case 1: A B 0
For this case, 1 = A and s3 = 0
Eq. (51) reduces to A Sy
Case 2: A 0 B
For this case, 1 = A and 3 = B
Eq. (51) reduces to A B Sy
Case 3: 0 A B
For this case, 1 = 0 and 3 = B
Eq. (51) reduces to B Sy

Fig. 57

Distortion-Energy (DE) Theory

Also known as: Octahedral Shear Stress/ Shear Energy/ Von Mises/ Von Mises Hencky

Theory: Yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or exceeds the
distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension or compression of the same
material.

DE theory predicts failure when distortion energy, Eq. (58), exceeds distortion energy of tension test
specimen, Eq. (59)

Left hand side is defined as von Mises stress,

For plane stress, simplifies to

29

In terms of xyz components, in three dimensions

In terms of xyz components, for plane stress

Von Mises Stress can be thought of as a single, equivalent, or effective stress for the entire general
state of stress in a stress element.

Distortion Energy failure theory simply compares von Mises stress to yield strength.

Introducing a design factor,

Expressing as factor of safety,

Example 5.1

31

32

33

34

Fig. 511

Fig. 511

Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)Theory

Not all materials have compressive strengths equal to their corresponding tensile values.
The idea of Mohr is based on three simple tests: tension, compression, and shear, to yielding if the
material can yield, or to rupture.
The practical difficulties lies in the form of the failure envelope.
A variation of Mohrs theory, called the Coulomb-Mohr theory or the internal-friction theory, assumes that
the boundary is straight.
For plane stress, when the two nonzero principal stresses are A B , we have a situation similar to the
three cases given for the MSS theory

Case 1: A B 0.
For this case, 1 = A and 3 = 0.
Equation (522) reduces to a
failure condition of

Case 2: A 0 B . Here,
1 = A and 3 = B , and
Eq. (522) becomes

39

Case 3: 0 A B . For this

case, 1 = 0 and 3 = B , and
Eq. (522) gives

Failure of Ductile Materials Summary

Either the maximum-shear-stress

theory or the distortion-energy theory
is acceptable for design and analysis
of materials that would fail in a ductile
manner.
For design purposes the maximumshear-stress theory is easy, quick to
use, and conservative.
If the problem is to learn why a part
failed, then the distortion-energy
theory may be the best to use.
For ductile materials with unequal
yield strengths, Syt in tension and Syc
in compression, the Mohr theory is the
best available.

40

Failure Theories - Brittle Materials

Maximum-Normal-Stress (MNS) Theory

Theory: Failure occurs when one of the three principal stress in a

stress element equal or exceeds the strength.
For a general stress state in the ordered form 1 2 3.
This theory then predicts that failure occurs whenever

where Sut and Suc are the ultimate tensile and compressive
strengths, respectively, given as positive quantities.

For plane stress,

Incorporating design factor,

Fig. 518

41

Failure of Brittle Materials Summary

Brittle materials have true strain at fracture is 0.05 or

less.
Experimental data indicates some differences in failure
for brittle materials.
Failure criteria is generally ultimate fracture rather than
yielding
Compressive strengths are usually larger than tensile
strengths
In the first quadrant the data appear on both sides and
along the failure curves of maximum-normal-stress,
Coulomb-Mohr, and modified Mohr. All failure curves
are the same, and data fit well.
In the fourth quadrant the modified Mohr theory
represents the data best.
In the third quadrant the points A, B, C, and D are too
few to make any suggestion concerning a fracture
locus.
Fig. 519

42

Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)

Same as previously derived,

using ultimate strengths for
failure

Failure equations dependent on

quadrant

Fig. 514

Quadrant condition

43

Failure criteria

Quadrant condition

Modified Mohr (MM)

Coulomb-Mohr

is
conservative in 4th
quadrant.

Modified

Mohr criteria
adjusts to better fit the
data in the 4th quadrant.

Fig. 514

44

Failure criteria

Example 5.5

Fig. 516

45

46

47

STRESS CONCENTRATION

In the development of the basic stress equations (axial, bending, and torsion), it was assumed that no
geometric irregularities occurred in the member under consideration.
But it is quite difficult to design a machine without permitting some changes in the cross sections of the
members.
E.g.: Rotating shafts must have shoulders designed on them so that the bearings can be properly seated and
so that they will take thrust loads; and the shafts must have key slots machined into them for securing pulleys
and gears, A bolt has a head on one end and screw threads on the other end, both of which account for
abrupt changes in the cross section.
Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the neighbourhood of the discontinuity so
that the elementary stress equations no longer describe the state of stress in the part at these locations.
Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the regions in which they occur are called areas of stress
concentration.
All the shape or holes on parts and components have potential to contribute to failure or cracks.
Stress concentrations can arise from some irregularity not inherent in the member, such as tool marks, holes,
notches, grooves, or threads.
Avoiding cross-section, holes, notches, shoulders, etc. is quite impossible in machine members.
Examples of machine members leading to stress concentration:

48

Stress concentration is a highly localised effect.

Ratio of maximum and nominal stress is known as a theoretical, or geometrical stress concentration
factor or Kt (normal stress) and Kts (shear stress).

An example is shown in Fig. 329, that of a thin plate loaded in

tension where the plate contains a centrally located hole.

The factors relates the maximum stress at the discontinuity over the nominal stress (free from the
stress riser).
The possibility of crack initiated is higher especially when stress concentration factor is greater than
critical stress concentration.

49

Stress distribution at a section A-A passing through the hole and another section BB away from the
hole.
Stress distribution away from the hole is uniform but at AA there is a sharp rise in stress in the vicinity
of the hole.
Stress concentration factor is defined as:
where av at section AA is simply:

**This is the theoretical or geometric stress concentration factor and the factor is not affected by the material
properties.

50

For an elliptical hole in an infinite plate, subjected to a uniform tensile stress 1, stress distribution
around the discontinuity is disturbed and at points remote from the discontinuity the effect is
insignificant.
It is shown as:

If a=b the hole reduces to a circular one and therefore 3 = 31 which gives kt =3 (circular hole).
If, however b is large compared to a then the stress at the edge of transverse crack is very large and
consequently k is also very large.
If b is small compared to a then the stress at the edge of a longitudinal crack does not rise and k t =1.

51

A number of methods are available to reduce stress concentration in machine parts:

1.

Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually.

2.

Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used.

3.

If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number of small notches rather than a long one. This
reduces the stress concentration to a large extent.

4.

If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it is preferable to provide a narrow notch than a
wide notch.

5.

Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided.

52

Fatigue Strength

Static conditions : loads are applied gradually, to give sufficient time for the strain to fully develop.
Variable conditions : stresses vary with time or fluctuate between different levels, also called
repeated, alternating, or fluctuating stresses.
When machine members are found to have fail under the action of fluctuating stresses, the actual
maximum stresses were well below the ultimate strength of the material, even below the yield
strength.
Since these failures are due to stresses repeating for a large number of times, they are called fatigue
failures.
Fatigue failure gives no warning. It is sudden and total, and hence dangerous.
The most distinguishing characteristic of the fatigue failure is that the stresses have been repeated a
very large number of times.
A fatigue failure has an appearance similar to a brittle fracture as the fracture surface are flat and
perpendicular to the stress axis with the absence of necking
Properties of materials and the material behavior can be observed using the stress-strain diagrams or
S-N curve

53

Fatigue failures may contribute in 2 areas of failure:

1. Due to progressive development of crack.
2. Due to sudden fracture.

Cracks are initiated at the discontinuity, for example:

Change in cross-section.
A key way.
A hole.

Fatigue failure is quite different from a static brittle fracture as it arise from three stages of
development.
1. Crack initiation.
2. Crack propagation.
3. Final catastrophic failure.

54

Stage 1: Crack initiation

Initiation of microcracks due to cyclic plastic deformation

Near stress concentration

90% of fatigue life is trying to initiate a crack

Mechanism intrusion and extrusion

Formation of persistent slip bands (PSB)

Only micron meter (m)

These cracks are not usually visible to the naked eyes

Stage 2: Crack propagation

Propagation of microcracks to macrocracks forming parallel

plateau like fracture surfaces separated by longitudinal
ridges (in the form of dark and light bands referred to as
beach marks).

Crack increase because of stress cycle.

Crack propagate normal to loading direction.

10% of fatigue life.

Mechanism blunting and reshaping.

Stage 3: Final catastrophic failure

Remaining area (ligament) cannot sustain loading anymore.

Unstable (significant) crack propagation and rapid failure.

Fracture when the remaining material cannot support the loads.

55

initiation

propagation

fracture

Fracture Patterns of Fatigue Failure

56

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure Analysis

Let N be the number of cycles to fatigue for a specified level of loading

For

For

, generally classified as low-cycle fatigue

, generally classified as high-cycle fatigue

Three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis are:

1. Stress-life method : is based on stress only, least accurate especially for low-cycle fatigue; however, it
is the most traditional and easiest to implement for a wide range of applications.
2. Strain-life method : involves more detailed analysis, especially good for low-cycle fatigue; however,
idealizations in the methods make it less practical when uncertainties are present.
3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method : assumes a crack is already present. Practical with
computer codes in predicting in crack growth with respect to stress intensity factor.

57

Stress-Life Method : R. R. Moore

The most widely used fatigue-testing device is the R. R. Moore high-speed rotating-beam
machine.
Specimens in R.R. Moore machines are subjected to pure bending by means of added
weights.
Other fatigue-testing machines are available for applying fluctuating or reversed axial stresses,
torsional stresses, or combined stresses to the test specimens.

58

In R. R. Moore machine tests, a constant bending load is applied, and the number of revolutions of the
beam required for failure is recorded.
Tests at various bending stress levels are conducted.
These results are plotted as an S-N diagram.
Log plot is generally used to emphasize the bend in the S-N curve.
Ordinate of S-N curve is fatigue strength, Sf, at a specific number of cycles

S-N diagram from the results of completely reversed axial fatigue test.
59 Material : UNS G41300 steel.

UNS G41300 steel.

Characteristics of S-N Curves for

Metals

In the case of steels, a knee occurs

in the graph, and beyond this knee
failure will not occur, no matter how
great the number of cycles - this
knee is called the endurance limit,
denoted as Se

Non-ferrous metals and alloys do

not have an endurance limit, since
their S-N curve never become
horizontal.

For materials with no endurance

limit, the fatigue strength is
normally reported at

test

Aluminum Alloy

is the simple tension

60

The Strain-Life Method

The best approach yet advanced to

explain the nature of fatigue failure.
However, it needs to compound
several idealizations, and so
uncertainties will exist in the results.

A fatigue failure begins at a local

stress raisers. When the stress at
these discontinuity exceeds the
elastic limit, plastic strain occurs.

Bairstow using experiments to

verify that elastic limits of iron and
steel can be changed by the cyclic
variation of stress.

A stress-strain plot of controlled

cyclic loads could show the
strength variation due to stress
repetitions.

61

Manson-Coffin Relationship

The total-strain amplitude is the sum of elastic and plastic strain

is the fatigue strength

coefficient, the true stress
corresponding to fracture in one
reversal.

is the fatigue strength

exponent as the slope of the
elastic-strain line.

is the fatigue ductility

coefficient, the true strain
corresponding to fracture in one
reversal.

is the fatigue strength

exponent as the slope of the
elastic-strain line.

62

Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method

Fatigue cracking consists

three stages
Stage I : crack
initiation, invisible to
the observer.
Stage II : crack
propagation, most of
a cracks life
Stage III : final
fracture due to rapid
acceleration of crack
growth.

63

Paris Law for Crack Growth

Assuming a crack is discovered early in stage II, the crack growth can be approximated by the Paris
equation
is the variation in stress intensity factor due to fluctuating stresses.

crack length

number of cycles

material constants

64

Endurance Limit for Steels

For steels, the endurance limit relates directly to the minimum tensile strength as observed in
experimental measurements.
From the observations, the endurance of steels can be estimated as

with the prime mark on the endurance limit referring to the rotating-beam specimen.

65

Fatigue Strength: Basics

Low-cycle fatigue considers the range from N=1 to about 1000 cycles.
In this region, the fatigue strength Sf is only slightly smaller than the tensile strength Sut.
High-cycle fatigue domain extends from 103 to the endurance limit life (106 to 107 cycles).
Experience has shown that high-cycle fatigue data are rectified by a logarithmic transform to both stress
and cycles-to-failure.
For actual mechanical applications, the fatigue strength calculated above is extended to a more general
form as

: cycle to failure

Fatigue Strength at Different N

Define the fatigue strength at a specified number of cycles as

By combining the elastic strain relations, we can get

Define f as the fraction of tensile strength. The value of f at 10 3 cycles is then

To find b, substitute the endurance strength and the corresponding cycles and solving for b as

For example, for steels when

67

Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

The endurance limit of the rotating-beam specimen might differ from the actual application due to
the following differences from laboratory tests.
Material : composition, basis of failure, variability
Manufacturing : method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion, surface condition, stress
concentration
Environment : corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation times.
Design : size, shape, life, stress state, stress concentration, speed, fretting, galling

Modifying factors of surface condition, size, loading, temperature, and miscellaneous items are
proposed by Marin to quantify these differences.

68

Marin Modification Factors on Endurance Limit

where
= surface condition modification factor

= size modification factor

= load modification factor

= temperature modification factor

= reliability factor

= miscellaneous-effects modification factor

= rotary-beam test specimen endurance
limit

69

Surface Factor :
It depends on the finishing quality of the actual part surface and on the tensile strength of the part
material. It can be calculated as

Loading Factor :
The axial and torsional loadings results in different endurance limit than that of a standard rotatingbending test. The load factor applies to other loading conditions as

70

Size Factor :
the size factor has been evaluated using 133 set of data points in the literature. For axial loading,
. For bending and torsion can be expressed as

Temperature Factor :
If only tensile-strength data are available, polynomial fitting to the data could provide the
temperature factor at various temperature values.

If the rotating-beam endurance limit is known at room temperature, we have

If the rotating-beam endurance limit is known at room temperature, we have

71

Reliability Factor :
Most endurance strength data are reported as mean values.
To account for the scatter of measurement data, the reliability modification factor is written as

Miscellaneous effect Factor :

The miscellaneous factor intends to account for the reduction in endurance limit due to all other
effects, such as residual stresses, different material treatments, directional characteristics of
operations, and corrosion.

72

Example 6.2

55kpsi = 385MPa

a = 1084 MPa

73

Fracture Mechanics: Introduction

The linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) assume that cracks can grow during service.
The use of elastic stress-concentration factors provides an indication of the average load required on a
part for the onset of plastic deformation, or yielding.
For the infinite plate loaded by an applied uniaxial stress , the maximum stress occurs at (a, 0) and is
given by

such that the crack growth occurs when the energy release rate from applied loading is greater than the
rate of energy for crack growth.

75

Fracture Mechanics: Stress Intensity Factor

Three distinct modes of crack propagation exist
a. Mode I : the opening crack propagation
mode ( the most common and
important mode)
b. Mode II : the sliding mode
c. Mode III : the tearing mode

Consider a mode I crack of length 2a in the infinite plate, the stress field on a dx dy element in the
vicinity of the crack tip is given by

where KI is the stress intensity factor with a mode I crack defined as

For various load and geometric configurations,
where is the stress intensity modification factor

76

Fracture Mechanics: Fracture Toughness

When the magnitude of the mode I stress

intensity factor reaches a critical value, the
critical stress intensity factor KI c crack
propagation initiates.
The critical stress intensity factor KIc is
also called the fracture toughness of the
material.

Fracture toughness KIc for engineering metals lies in the range 20 KIc 200 MPa m; for
engineering polymers and ceramics, 1 KIc 5 MPa m. For a 4340 steel, where the yield strength
due to heat treatment ranges from 800 to 1600 MPa, KIc decreases from 190 to 40 MPa m.

The strength-to-stress ratio KIc /KI can be used as a factor of safety as

77