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Transistor
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Atransistorisasemiconductordeviceusedtoamplifyorswitchelectronicsignals
andelectricalpower.Itiscomposedofsemiconductormaterialusuallywithatleast
threeterminalsforconnectiontoanexternalcircuit.Avoltageorcurrentappliedto
onepairofthetransistor'sterminalscontrolsthecurrentthroughanotherpairof
terminals.Becausethecontrolled(output)powercanbehigherthanthecontrolling
(input)power,atransistorcanamplifyasignal.Today,sometransistorsare
packagedindividually,butmanymorearefoundembeddedinintegratedcircuits.
Thetransistoristhefundamentalbuildingblockofmodernelectronicdevices,and
isubiquitousinmodernelectronicsystems.JuliusLilienfeldpatentedafieldeffect
transistorin1926[1]butitwasnotpossibletoactuallyconstructaworkingdeviceat
thattime.Thefirstpracticallyimplementeddevicewasapointcontacttransistor
inventedin1947byAmericanphysicistsJohnBardeen,WalterBrattain,and
WilliamShockley.Thetransistorrevolutionizedthefieldofelectronics,andpaved
thewayforsmallerandcheaperradios,calculators,andcomputers,amongother
things.ThetransistorisonthelistofIEEEmilestonesinelectronics,[2]and
Bardeen,Brattain,andShockleysharedthe1956NobelPrizeinPhysicsfortheir
achievement.[3]

Assorteddiscretetransistors.
Packagesinorderfromtop
tobottom:TO3,TO126,
TO92,SOT23.

Contents
1 History
2 Importance
3 Simplifiedoperation
3.1 Transistorasaswitch
3.2 Transistorasanamplifier
4 Comparisonwithvacuumtubes
4.1 Advantages
4.2 Limitations
5 Types
5.1 Bipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT)
5.2 Fieldeffecttransistor(FET)
5.3 Usageofbipolarandfieldeffecttransistors
5.4 Othertransistortypes
6 Partnumberingstandards/specifications
6.1 JapaneseIndustrialStandard(JIS)
6.2 EuropeanElectronicComponentManufacturersAssociation(EECA)
6.3 JointElectronDevicesEngineeringCouncil(JEDEC)
6.4 Proprietary
6.5 Namingproblems
7 Construction
7.1 Semiconductormaterial
7.2 Packaging
7.2.1 Flexibletransistors
8 Seealso
9 Directoryofexternalwebsiteswithdatasheets
10 References
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10 References
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

History
Thethermionictriode,avacuumtubeinventedin1907,
enabledamplifiedradiotechnologyandlongdistance
telephony.Thetriode,however,wasafragiledevicethat
consumedalotofpower.PhysicistJuliusEdgarLilienfeld
filedapatentforafieldeffecttransistor(FET)inCanadain
1925,whichwasintendedtobeasolidstatereplacementfor
thetriode.[4][5]Lilienfeldalsofiledidenticalpatentsinthe
UnitedStatesin1926[6]and1928.[7][8]However,Lilienfeld
didnotpublishanyresearcharticlesabouthisdevicesnor
didhispatentsciteanyspecificexamplesofaworking
prototype.Becausetheproductionofhighquality
semiconductormaterialswasstilldecadesaway,Lilienfeld's
solidstateamplifierideaswouldnothavefoundpractical
useinthe1920sand1930s,evenifsuchadevicehadbeen
built.[9]In1934,GermaninventorOskarHeilpatenteda
similardeviceinEurope.[10]

Areplicaofthefirstworkingtransistor.

FromNovember17,
1947toDecember23,1947,JohnBardeenandWalterBrattainatAT&T's
BellLabsintheUnitedStatesperformedexperimentsandobservedthat
whentwogoldpointcontactswereappliedtoacrystalofgermanium,a
signalwasproducedwiththeoutputpowergreaterthantheinput.[11]Solid
StatePhysicsGroupleaderWilliamShockleysawthepotentialinthis,and
overthenextfewmonthsworkedtogreatlyexpandtheknowledgeof
semiconductors.ThetermtransistorwascoinedbyJohnR.Pierceasa
contractionofthetermtransresistance.[12][13][14]AccordingtoLillian
HoddesonandVickiDaitch,authorsofabiographyofJohnBardeen,
JohnBardeen,WilliamShockleyand
ShockleyhadproposedthatBellLabs'firstpatentforatransistorshouldbe
WalterBrattainatBellLabs,1948.
basedonthefieldeffectandthathebenamedastheinventor.Having
unearthedLilienfeldspatentsthatwentintoobscurityyearsearlier,lawyers
atBellLabsadvisedagainstShockley'sproposalbecausetheideaofafieldeffecttransistorthatusedanelectric
fieldasa"grid"wasnotnew.Instead,whatBardeen,Brattain,andShockleyinventedin1947wasthefirstpoint
contacttransistor.[9]Inacknowledgementofthisaccomplishment,Shockley,Bardeen,andBrattainwerejointly
awardedthe1956NobelPrizeinPhysics"fortheirresearchesonsemiconductorsandtheirdiscoveryofthe
transistoreffect."[15]
In1948,thepointcontacttransistorwasindependentlyinventedbyGermanphysicistsHerbertMatarand
HeinrichWelkerwhileworkingattheCompagniedesFreinsetSignaux,aWestinghousesubsidiarylocatedin
Paris.MatarhadpreviousexperienceindevelopingcrystalrectifiersfromsiliconandgermaniumintheGerman
radareffortduringWorldWarII.Usingthisknowledge,hebeganresearchingthephenomenonof"interference"in
1947.ByJune1948,witnessingcurrentsflowingthroughpointcontacts,Matarproducedconsistentresultsusing
samplesofgermaniumproducedbyWelker,similartowhatBardeenandBrattainhadaccomplishedearlierin
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December1947.RealizingthatBellLabs'scientistshadalreadyinvented
thetransistorbeforethem,thecompanyrushedtogetits"transistron"into
productionforamplifieduseinFrance'stelephonenetwork.[16]
Thefirst
high
frequency
transistor
wasthe
surface
barrier

HerbertF.Matar(1950)

germaniumtransistordevelopedbyPhilcoin
1953,capableofoperatingupto60MHz.[17]
Theseweremadebyetchingdepressionsintoan
Ntypegermaniumbasefrombothsideswithjets
ofIndium(III)sulfateuntilitwasafewten
thousandthsofaninchthick.Indium
electroplatedintothedepressionsformedthe
collectorandemitter.[18][19]
Philcosurfacebarriertransistordevelopedandproducedin1953

Thefirst"prototype"pockettransistorradiowas
shownbyINTERMETALL(acompanyfounded
byHerbertMatarin1952)attheInternationaleFunkausstellungDsseldorfbetweenAugust29,1953and
September9,1953.[20]

Thefirst"production"alltransistorcarradiowasproducedin1955byChryslerandPhilco,hadusedsurface
barriertransistorsinitscircuitryandwhichwerealsofirstsuitableforhighspeedcomputers.[21][22][23][24]
ThefirstworkingsilicontransistorwasdevelopedatBellLabsonJanuary26,1954byMorrisTanenbaum.The
firstcommercialsilicontransistorwasproducedbyTexasInstrumentsin1954.ThiswastheworkofGordonTeal,
anexpertingrowingcrystalsofhighpurity,whohadpreviouslyworkedatBellLabs.[25][26][27]ThefirstMOS
transistoractuallybuiltwasbyKahngandAtallaatBellLabsin1960.[28]

Importance
Thetransistoristhekeyactivecomponentinpracticallyallmodernelectronics.Manyconsiderittobeoneofthe
greatestinventionsofthe20thcentury.[29]Itsimportanceintoday'ssocietyrestsonitsabilitytobemassproduced
usingahighlyautomatedprocess(semiconductordevicefabrication)thatachievesastonishinglylowpertransistor
costs.TheinventionofthefirsttransistoratBellLabswasnamedanIEEEMilestonein2009.[30]

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Althoughseveralcompanieseachproduceoverabillion
individuallypackaged(knownasdiscrete)transistorseveryyear,[31]
thevastmajorityoftransistorsarenowproducedinintegrated
circuits(oftenshortenedtoIC,microchipsorsimplychips),along
withdiodes,resistors,capacitorsandotherelectroniccomponents,
toproducecompleteelectroniccircuits.Alogicgateconsistsofup
toabouttwentytransistorswhereasanadvancedmicroprocessor,as
of2009,canuseasmanyas3billiontransistors(MOSFETs).[32]
"About60milliontransistorswerebuiltin2002for[each]man,
woman,andchildonEarth."[33]
Thetransistor'slowcost,flexibility,andreliabilityhavemadeita
ubiquitousdevice.Transistorizedmechatroniccircuitshave
replacedelectromechanicaldevicesincontrollingappliancesand
machinery.Itisofteneasierandcheapertouseastandard
microcontrollerandwriteacomputerprogramtocarryoutacontrol
functionthantodesignanequivalentmechanicalcontrolfunction.

Simplifiedoperation

ADarlingtontransistoropenedupsothe
actualtransistorchip(thesmallsquare)canbe
seeninside.ADarlingtontransistoris
effectivelytwotransistorsonthesamechip.
Onetransistorismuchlargerthantheother,
butbotharelargeincomparisontotransistors
inlargescaleintegrationbecausethis
particularexampleisintendedforpower
applications.

Theessentialusefulnessofatransistorcomesfromitsability
touseasmallsignalappliedbetweenonepairofitsterminals
tocontrolamuchlargersignalatanotherpairofterminals.
Thispropertyiscalledgain.Itcanproduceastrongeroutput
signal,avoltageorcurrent,whichisproportionaltoaweaker
inputsignalthatis,itcanactasanamplifier.Alternatively,
thetransistorcanbeusedtoturncurrentonoroffinacircuit
asanelectricallycontrolledswitch,wheretheamountof
currentisdeterminedbyothercircuitelements.
Therearetwotypesoftransistors,whichhaveslight
differencesinhowtheyareusedinacircuit.Abipolar
transistorhasterminalslabeledbase,collector,andemitter.
Asmallcurrentatthebaseterminal(thatis,flowingbetween
thebaseandtheemitter)cancontrolorswitchamuchlarger
currentbetweenthecollectorandemitterterminals.Fora
fieldeffecttransistor,theterminalsarelabeledgate,source,
anddrain,andavoltageatthegatecancontrolacurrent
betweensourceanddrain.

Asimplecircuitdiagramtoshowthelabelsofanp
nbipolartransistor.

Theimagerepresentsatypicalbipolartransistorinacircuit.
Chargewillflowbetweenemitterandcollectorterminalsdependingonthecurrentinthebase.Becauseinternally
thebaseandemitterconnectionsbehavelikeasemiconductordiode,avoltagedropdevelopsbetweenbaseand
emitterwhilethebasecurrentexists.Theamountofthisvoltagedependsonthematerialthetransistorismade
from,andisreferredtoasVBE.

Transistorasaswitch

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Transistorsarecommonlyusedindigitalcircuitsaselectronic
switcheswhichcanbeeitherinan"on"or"off"state,bothfor
highpowerapplicationssuchasswitchedmodepower
suppliesandforlowpowerapplicationssuchaslogicgates.
Importantparametersforthisapplicationincludethecurrent
switched,thevoltagehandled,andtheswitchingspeed,
characterisedbytheriseandfalltimes.
Inagroundedemittertransistorcircuit,suchasthelightswitch
circuitshown,asthebasevoltagerises,theemitterand
collectorcurrentsriseexponentially.Thecollectorvoltage
dropsbecauseofreducedresistancefromcollectortoemitter.
Ifthevoltagedifferencebetweenthecollectorandemitterwere
zero(ornearzero),thecollectorcurrentwouldbelimitedonly
bytheloadresistance(lightbulb)andthesupplyvoltage.This
iscalledsaturationbecausecurrentisflowingfromcollectorto
emitterfreely.Whensaturated,theswitchissaidtobeon.[34]

BJTusedasanelectronicswitch,ingrounded
emitterconfiguration.

Providingsufficientbasedrivecurrentisakeyproblemintheuseofbipolartransistorsasswitches.Thetransistor
providescurrentgain,allowingarelativelylargecurrentinthecollectortobeswitchedbyamuchsmallercurrent
intothebaseterminal.Theratioofthesecurrentsvariesdependingonthetypeoftransistor,andevenfora
particulartype,variesdependingonthecollectorcurrent.Intheexamplelightswitchcircuitshown,theresistoris
chosentoprovideenoughbasecurrenttoensurethetransistorwillbesaturated.
Inaswitchingcircuit,theideaistosimulate,asnearaspossible,theidealswitchhavingthepropertiesofopen
circuitwhenoff,shortcircuitwhenon,andaninstantaneoustransitionbetweenthetwostates.Parametersare
chosensuchthatthe"off"outputislimitedtoleakagecurrentstoosmalltoaffectconnectedcircuitrythe
resistanceofthetransistorinthe"on"stateistoosmalltoaffectcircuitryandthetransitionbetweenthetwostates
isfastenoughnottohaveadetrimentaleffect.

Transistorasanamplifier
Thecommonemitteramplifierisdesignedsothatasmallchangeinvoltage(Vin)changesthesmallcurrent
throughthebaseofthetransistorthetransistor'scurrentamplificationcombinedwiththepropertiesofthecircuit
meanthatsmallswingsinVinproducelargechangesinVout.
Variousconfigurationsofsingletransistoramplifierarepossible,withsomeprovidingcurrentgain,somevoltage
gain,andsomeboth.
Frommobilephonestotelevisions,vastnumbersofproductsincludeamplifiersforsoundreproduction,radio
transmission,andsignalprocessing.Thefirstdiscretetransistoraudioamplifiersbarelysuppliedafewhundred
milliwatts,butpowerandaudiofidelitygraduallyincreasedasbettertransistorsbecameavailableandamplifier
architectureevolved.
Moderntransistoraudioamplifiersofuptoafewhundredwattsarecommonandrelativelyinexpensive.

Comparisonwithvacuumtubes
Beforetransistorsweredeveloped,vacuum(electron)tubes(orintheUK"thermionicvalves"orjust"valves")
werethemainactivecomponentsinelectronicequipment.
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Advantages
Thekeyadvantagesthathaveallowedtransistorstoreplace
vacuumtubesinmostapplicationsare
nocathodeheater(whichproducesthecharacteristic
orangeglowoftubes),reducingpowerconsumption,
eliminatingdelayastubeheaterswarmup,andimmune
fromcathodepoisoninganddepletion
verysmallsizeandweight,reducingequipmentsize
largenumbersofextremelysmalltransistorscanbe
manufacturedasasingleintegratedcircuit
lowoperatingvoltagescompatiblewithbatteriesof
onlyafewcells
circuitswithgreaterenergyefficiencyareusually
possible.Forlowpowerapplications(e.g.,voltage
amplification)inparticular,energyconsumptioncanbe
verymuchlessthanfortubes
inherentreliabilityandverylonglifetubesalways
degradeandfailovertime.Sometransistorizeddevices
havebeeninserviceformorethan50years
complementarydevicesavailable,providingdesign
Amplifiercircuit,commonemitterconfiguration
flexibilityincludingcomplementarysymmetrycircuits,
withavoltagedividerbiascircuit.
notpossiblewithvacuumtubes
verylowsensitivitytomechanicalshockandvibration,
providingphysicalruggednessandvirtuallyeliminatingshockinducedspurioussignals(e.g.,microphonics
inaudioapplications)
notsusceptibletobreakageofaglassenvelope,leakage,outgassing,andotherphysicaldamage.

Limitations
Transistorshavethefollowinglimitations:
silicontransistorscanageandfail[35]
highpower,highfrequencyoperation,suchasthatusedinovertheairtelevisionbroadcasting,isbetter
achievedinvacuumtubesduetoimprovedelectronmobilityinavacuum
solidstatedevicesaresusceptibletodamagefromverybriefelectricalandthermalevents,including
electrostaticdischargeinhandlingvacuumtubesareelectricallymuchmorerugged
sensitivitytoradiationandcosmicrays(specialradiationhardenedchipsareusedforspacecraftdevices)
vacuumtubesinaudioapplicationscreatesignificantlowerharmonicdistortion,thesocalledtubesound,
whichsomepeopleprefer.[36]

Types
Transistorsarecategorizedby
semiconductormaterial:themetalloidsgermanium(firstusedin1947)andsilicon(firstusedin1954)in
amorphous,polycrystallineandmonocrystallineform,thecompoundsgalliumarsenide(1966)andsilicon
carbide(1997),thealloysilicongermanium(1989),theallotropeofcarbongraphene(researchongoing
since2004),etc.(seeSemiconductormaterial)
structure:BJT,JFET,IGFET(MOSFET),insulatedgatebipolartransistor,"othertypes"
electricalpolarity(positiveandnegative):npn,pnp(BJTs),nchannel,pchannel(FETs)
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maximumpowerrating:low,medium,high
maximumoperatingfrequency:low,medium,high,
radio(RF),microwavefrequency(themaximum
effectivefrequencyofatransistorinacommon
PNP
emitterorcommonsourcecircuitisdenotedbythe
termfT,anabbreviationfortransitionfrequencythe
frequencyoftransitionisthefrequencyatwhichthe
transistoryieldsunityvoltagegain)
application:switch,generalpurpose,audio,high
NPN
voltage,superbeta,matchedpair
physicalpackaging:throughholemetal,throughhole
plastic,surfacemount,ballgridarray,power
modules(seePackaging)
BJT
[37]
amplificationfactorhFE,F(transistorbeta) orgm
BJTandJFETsymbols
(transconductance).

Pchannel

Nchannel

JFET

Hence,aparticulartransistormay
bedescribedassilicon,surface
mount,BJT,npn,lowpower,
highfrequencyswitch.
Apopularwaytorememberwhich
symbolrepresentswhichtypeof
transistoristolookatthearrowand
howitisarranged.WithinanNPN
transistorsymbol,thearrowwill
NotPointiN.Conversely,within
thePNPsymbolyouseethatthe
arrowPointsiNProudly.

Bipolarjunctiontransistor
(BJT)

Pchannel

Nchannel

JFET

MOSFETenh

MOSFETdep

JFETandMOSFETsymbols

Bipolartransistorsaresonamedbecausetheyconductbyusingbothmajorityandminoritycarriers.Thebipolar
junctiontransistor,thefirsttypeoftransistortobemassproduced,isacombinationoftwojunctiondiodes,andis
formedofeitherathinlayerofptypesemiconductorsandwichedbetweentwontypesemiconductors(annpn
transistor),orathinlayerofntypesemiconductorsandwichedbetweentwoptypesemiconductors(apnp
transistor).Thisconstructionproducestwopnjunctions:abaseemitterjunctionandabasecollectorjunction,
separatedbyathinregionofsemiconductorknownasthebaseregion(twojunctiondiodeswiredtogetherwithout
sharinganinterveningsemiconductingregionwillnotmakeatransistor).
BJTshavethreeterminals,correspondingtothethreelayersofsemiconductoranemitter,abase,andacollector.
Theyareusefulinamplifiersbecausethecurrentsattheemitterandcollectorarecontrollablebyarelativelysmall
basecurrent.[38]Inannpntransistoroperatingintheactiveregion,theemitterbasejunctionisforwardbiased
(electronsandholesrecombineatthejunction),andelectronsareinjectedintothebaseregion.Becausethebaseis
narrow,mostoftheseelectronswilldiffuseintothereversebiased(electronsandholesareformedat,andmove
awayfromthejunction)basecollectorjunctionandbesweptintothecollectorperhapsonehundredthofthe
electronswillrecombineinthebase,whichisthedominantmechanisminthebasecurrent.Bycontrollingthe
numberofelectronsthatcanleavethebase,thenumberofelectronsenteringthecollectorcanbecontrolled.[38]
Collectorcurrentisapproximately(commonemittercurrentgain)timesthebasecurrent.Itistypicallygreater
than100forsmallsignaltransistorsbutcanbesmallerintransistorsdesignedforhighpowerapplications.
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Unlikethefieldeffecttransistor(seebelow),theBJTisalowinputimpedancedevice.Also,asthebaseemitter
voltage(VBE)isincreasedthebaseemittercurrentandhencethecollectoremittercurrent(ICE)increase
exponentiallyaccordingtotheShockleydiodemodelandtheEbersMollmodel.Becauseofthisexponential
relationship,theBJThasahighertransconductancethantheFET.
Bipolartransistorscanbemadetoconductbyexposuretolight,becauseabsorptionofphotonsinthebaseregion
generatesaphotocurrentthatactsasabasecurrentthecollectorcurrentisapproximatelytimesthephotocurrent.
Devicesdesignedforthispurposehaveatransparentwindowinthepackageandarecalledphototransistors.

Fieldeffecttransistor(FET)
Thefieldeffecttransistor,sometimescalleda
unipolartransistor,useseitherelectrons(inn
channelFET)orholes(inpchannelFET)for
conduction.ThefourterminalsoftheFETare
namedsource,gate,drain,andbody
(substrate).OnmostFETs,thebodyis
connectedtothesourceinsidethepackage,and
thiswillbeassumedforthefollowing
description.
InaFET,thedraintosourcecurrentflowsvia
OperationofaFETanditsIdVgcurve.Atfirst,whennogate
aconductingchannelthatconnectsthesource
voltageisapplied.Thereisnoinversionelectroninthechannel,the
regiontothedrainregion.Theconductivityis
deviceisOFF.Asgatevoltageincrease,inversionelectrondensityin
variedbytheelectricfieldthatisproduced
thechannelincrease,currentincrease,thedeviceturnson.
whenavoltageisappliedbetweenthegateand
sourceterminalshencethecurrentflowing
betweenthedrainandsourceiscontrolledbythevoltageappliedbetweenthegateandsource.Asthegatesource
voltage(VGS)isincreased,thedrainsourcecurrent(IDS)increasesexponentiallyforVGSbelowthreshold,and
thenataroughlyquadraticrate(IGS(VGSVT)2)(whereVTisthethresholdvoltageatwhichdraincurrent
begins)[39]inthe"spacechargelimited"regionabovethreshold.Aquadraticbehaviorisnotobservedinmodern
devices,forexample,atthe65nmtechnologynode.[40]
ForlownoiseatnarrowbandwidththehigherinputresistanceoftheFETisadvantageous.
FETsaredividedintotwofamilies:junctionFET(JFET)andinsulatedgateFET(IGFET).TheIGFETismore
commonlyknownasametaloxidesemiconductorFET(MOSFET),reflectingitsoriginalconstructionfrom
layersofmetal(thegate),oxide(theinsulation),andsemiconductor.UnlikeIGFETs,theJFETgateformsapn
diodewiththechannelwhichliesbetweenthesourceanddrain.Functionally,thismakesthenchannelJFETthe
solidstateequivalentofthevacuumtubetriodewhich,similarly,formsadiodebetweenitsgridandcathode.Also,
bothdevicesoperateinthedepletionmode,theybothhaveahighinputimpedance,andtheybothconductcurrent
underthecontrolofaninputvoltage.
MetalsemiconductorFETs(MESFETs)areJFETsinwhichthereversebiasedpnjunctionisreplacedbya
metalsemiconductorjunction.These,andtheHEMTs(highelectronmobilitytransistors,orHFETs),inwhicha
twodimensionalelectrongaswithveryhighcarriermobilityisusedforchargetransport,areespeciallysuitable
foruseatveryhighfrequencies(microwavefrequenciesseveralGHz).

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FETsarefurtherdividedintodepletionmodeandenhancementmodetypes,dependingonwhetherthechannelis
turnedonoroffwithzerogatetosourcevoltage.Forenhancementmode,thechannelisoffatzerobias,andagate
potentialcan"enhance"theconduction.Forthedepletionmode,thechannelisonatzerobias,andagatepotential
(oftheoppositepolarity)can"deplete"thechannel,reducingconduction.Foreithermode,amorepositivegate
voltagecorrespondstoahighercurrentfornchanneldevicesandalowercurrentforpchanneldevices.Nearlyall
JFETsaredepletionmodebecausethediodejunctionswouldforwardbiasandconductiftheywereenhancement
modedevicesmostIGFETsareenhancementmodetypes.

Usageofbipolarandfieldeffecttransistors
Thebipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT)wasthemostcommonlyusedtransistorinthe1960sand70s.Evenafter
MOSFETsbecamewidelyavailable,theBJTremainedthetransistorofchoiceformanyanalogcircuitssuchas
amplifiersbecauseoftheirgreaterlinearityandeaseofmanufacture.Inintegratedcircuits,thedesirableproperties
ofMOSFETsallowedthemtocapturenearlyallmarketsharefordigitalcircuits.DiscreteMOSFETscanbe
appliedintransistorapplications,includinganalogcircuits,voltageregulators,amplifiers,powertransmittersand
motordrivers.

Othertransistortypes
Bipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT):
heterojunctionbipolartransistor,uptoseveralhundred
GHz,commoninmodernultrafastandRFcircuits
Schottkytransistor
avalanchetransistor:
DarlingtontransistorsaretwoBJTsconnectedtogether
toprovideahighcurrentgainequaltotheproductof
thecurrentgainsofthetwotransistors
insulatedgatebipolartransistors(IGBTs)usea
mediumpowerIGFET,similarlyconnectedtoapower
BJT,togiveahighinputimpedance.Powerdiodesare
oftenconnectedbetweencertainterminalsdepending
onspecificuse.IGBTsareparticularlysuitablefor
TransistorsymbolcreatedonPortuguese
heavydutyindustrialapplications.TheASEABrown
pavementintheUniversityofAveiro.
Boveri(ABB)5SNA2400E170100illustratesjusthow
farpowersemiconductortechnologyhasadvanced.[41]
Intendedforthreephasepowersupplies,thisdevicehousesthreenpnIGBTsinacasemeasuring38
by140by190mmandweighing1.5kg.EachIGBTisratedat1,700voltsandcanhandle2,400
amperes
phototransistor
multipleemittertransistor,usedintransistortransistorlogicandintegratedcurrentmirrors
multiplebasetransistor,usedtoamplifyverylowlevelsignalsinnoisyenvironmentssuchasthe
pickupofarecordplayerorradiofrontends.Effectively,itisaverylargenumberoftransistorsin
parallelwhere,attheoutput,thesignalisaddedconstructively,butrandomnoiseisaddedonly
stochastically.[42]
Fieldeffecttransistor(FET):
carbonnanotubefieldeffecttransistor(CNFET),wherethechannelmaterialisreplacedbyacarbon
nanotube
junctiongatefieldeffecttransistor(JFET),wherethegateisinsulatedbyareversebiasedpn
junction
metalsemiconductorfieldeffecttransistor(MESFET),similartoJFETwithaSchottkyjunction
insteadofapnjunction
highelectronmobilitytransistor(HEMT)
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metaloxidesemiconductorfieldeffecttransistor(MOSFET),wherethegateisinsulatedbya
shallowlayerofinsulator
invertedTfieldeffecttransistor(ITFET)
finfieldeffecttransistor(FinFET),source/drainregionshapesfinsonthesiliconsurface
fastreverseepitaxialdiodefieldeffecttransistor(FREDFET)
thinfilmtransistor,inLCDs
organicfieldeffecttransistor(OFET),inwhichthesemiconductorisanorganiccompound
ballistictransistor
floatinggatetransistor,fornonvolatilestorage
FETsusedtosenseenvironment
ionsensitivefieldeffecttransistor(IFSET),tomeasureionconcentrationsinsolution,
electrolyteoxidesemiconductorfieldeffecttransistor(EOSFET),neurochip,
deoxyribonucleicacidfieldeffecttransistor(DNAFET).
Tunnelfieldeffecttransistor,whereitswitchesbymodulatingquantumtunnellingthroughabarrier.
Diffusiontransistor,formedbydiffusingdopantsintosemiconductorsubstratecanbebothBJTandFET.
Unijunctiontransistor,canbeusedassimplepulsegenerators.ItcompriseamainbodyofeitherPtypeor
Ntypesemiconductorwithohmiccontactsateachend(terminalsBase1andBase2).Ajunctionwiththe
oppositesemiconductortypeisformedatapointalongthelengthofthebodyforthethirdterminal
(Emitter).
Singleelectrontransistors(SET),consistofagateislandbetweentwotunnelingjunctions.Thetunneling
currentiscontrolledbyavoltageappliedtothegatethroughacapacitor.[43]
Nanofluidictransistor,controlsthemovementofionsthroughsubmicroscopic,waterfilledchannels.[44]
Multigatedevices:
tetrodetransistor
pentodetransistor
trigatetransistor(prototypebyIntel)
dualgatefieldeffecttransistorshaveasinglechannelwithtwogatesincascodeaconfiguration
optimizedforhighfrequencyamplifiers,mixers,andoscillators.
Junctionlessnanowiretransistor(JNT),usesasimplenanowireofsiliconsurroundedbyanelectrically
isolated"weddingring"thatactstogatetheflowofelectronsthroughthewire.
Vacuumchanneltransistor,whenin2012,NASAandtheNationalNanofabCenterinSouthKoreawere
reportedtohavebuiltaprototypevacuumchanneltransistorinonly150nanometersinsize,canbe
manufacturedcheaplyusingstandardsiliconsemiconductorprocessing,canoperateathighspeedsevenin
hostileenvironments,andcouldconsumejustasmuchpowerasastandardtransistor.[45]
Organicelectrochemicaltransistor.

Partnumberingstandards/specifications
Thetypesofsometransistorscanbeparsedfromthepartnumber.Therearethreemajorsemiconductornaming
standardsineachthealphanumericprefixprovidescluestotypeofthedevice.

JapaneseIndustrialStandard(JIS)
TheJISC7012specificationfortransistorpartnumbersstartswith"2S",[46]e.g.2SD965,butsometimesthe"2S"
prefixisnotmarkedonthepackagea2SD965mightonlybemarked"D965"a2SC1815mightbelistedbya
supplierassimply"C1815".Thisseriessometimeshassuffixes(suchas"R","O","BL",standingfor"red",
"orange","blue",etc.)todenotevariants,suchastighterhFE(gain)groupings.

EuropeanElectronicComponentManufacturersAssociation(EECA)

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TheProElectronstandard,theEuropeanElectronic
ComponentManufacturersAssociationpartnumbering
scheme,beginswithtwoletters:thefirstgivesthe
semiconductortype(Aforgermanium,Bforsilicon,and
CformaterialslikeGaAs)thesecondletterdenotesthe
intendeduse(Afordiode,Cforgeneralpurpose
transistor,etc.).A3digitsequencenumber(oroneletter
then2digits,forindustrialtypes)follows.Withearly
devicesthisindicatedthecasetype.Suffixesmaybe
used,withaletter(e.g."C"oftenmeanshighhFE,suchas

JISTransistorPrefixTable
Typeoftransistor

Prefix
2SA

highfrequencypnpBJTs

2SB

audiofrequencypnpBJTs

2SC

highfrequencynpnBJTs

2SD

audiofrequencynpnBJTs

2SJ

PchannelFETs(bothJFETsandMOSFETs)

2SK NchannelFETs(bothJFETsandMOSFETs)
in:BC549C[47])orothercodesmayfollowtoshowgain
(e.g.BC32725)orvoltagerating(e.g.BUK854800A[48]).Themorecommonprefixesare:
ProElectron/EECATransistorPrefixTable
Prefix
class

Typeandusage

Example Equivalent

Reference

AC

GermaniumsmallsignalAFtransistor

AC126

NTE102A

Datasheet(http://www.weisd.com/store
2/NTE102A.pdf)

AD

GermaniumAFpowertransistor

AD133

NTE179

Datasheet(http://www.weisd.com/store
2/nte179.pdf)

AF

GermaniumsmallsignalRFtransistor

AF117

NTE160

Datasheet(http://www.weisd.com/store
2/nte160.pdf)

AL

GermaniumRFpowertransistor

ALZ10

NTE100

Datasheet(http://www.weisd.com/store
2/nte100.pdf)

AS

Germaniumswitchingtransistor

ASY28

NTE101

Datasheet(http://www.weisd.com/store
2/NTE101.pdf)

AU

Germaniumpowerswitchingtransistor

AU103

NTE127

Datasheet(http://www.weisd.com/store
2/nte127.pdf)

BC

Silicon,smallsignaltransistor("general
BC548
purpose")

2N3904

Datasheet(http://www.fairchildsemi.co
m/ds/BC/BC547.pdf)

BD

Silicon,powertransistor

BD139

NTE375

Datasheet(http://www.fairchildsemi.co
m/ds/BD/BD135.pdf)

BF

Silicon,RF(highfrequency)BJTor
FET

BF245

NTE133

Datasheet(http://www.onsemi.com/pu
b_link/Collateral/BF245AD.PDF)

BS

Silicon,switchingtransistor(BJTor
MOSFET)

BS170

2N7000

Datasheet(http://www.fairchildsemi.co
m/ds/BS/BS170.pdf)

BL

Silicon,highfrequency,highpower(for
BLW60
transmitters)

NTE325

Datasheet(http://www.datasheetcatalo
g.org/datasheet/philips/BLW60.pdf)

BU

Silicon,highvoltage(forCRT
horizontaldeflectioncircuits)

BU2520A NTE2354

Datasheet(http://www.datasheetcatalo
g.org/datasheet/philips/BU2520A.pdf)

CF

GalliumArsenidesmallsignal
Microwavetransistor(MESFET)

CF739

Datasheet(http://www.kesun.com/pdf/r
f%20transistor/CF739.pdf)

CL

GalliumArsenideMicrowavepower
transistor(FET)

CLY10

Datasheet(http://www.datasheetcatalo
g.org/datasheet/siemens/CLY10.pdf)

JointElectronDevicesEngineeringCouncil(JEDEC)
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TheJEDECEIA370transistordevicenumbersusuallystartwith"2N",indicatingathreeterminaldevice(dual
gatefieldeffecttransistorsarefourterminaldevices,sobeginwith3N),thena2,3or4digitsequentialnumber
withnosignificanceastodeviceproperties(althoughearlydeviceswithlownumberstendtobegermanium).For
example,2N3055isasiliconnpnpowertransistor,2N1301isapnpgermaniumswitchingtransistor.Aletter
suffix(suchas"A")issometimesusedtoindicateanewervariant,butrarelygaingroupings.

Proprietary
Manufacturersofdevicesmayhavetheirownproprietarynumberingsystem,forexampleCK722.Sincedevices
aresecondsourced,amanufacturer'sprefix(like"MPF"inMPF102,whichoriginallywoulddenoteaMotorola
FET)nowisanunreliableindicatorofwhomadethedevice.Someproprietarynamingschemesadoptpartsof
othernamingschemes,forexampleaPN2222Aisa(possiblyFairchildSemiconductor)2N2222Ainaplasticcase
(butaPN108isaplasticversionofaBC108,nota2N108,whilethePN100isunrelatedtootherxx100devices).
Militarypartnumberssometimesareassignedtheirowncodes,suchastheBritishMilitaryCVNamingSystem.
Manufacturersbuyinglargenumbersofsimilarpartsmayhavethemsuppliedwith"housenumbers",identifyinga
particularpurchasingspecificationandnotnecessarilyadevicewithastandardizedregisterednumber.For
example,anHPpart1854,0053isa(JEDEC)2N2218transistor[49][50]whichisalsoassignedtheCVnumber:
CV7763[51]

Namingproblems
Withsomanyindependentnamingschemes,andtheabbreviationofpartnumberswhenprintedonthedevices,
ambiguitysometimesoccurs.Forexample,twodifferentdevicesmaybemarked"J176"(onetheJ176lowpower
JFET,theotherthehigherpoweredMOSFET2SJ176).
Asolder"throughhole"transistorsaregivensurfacemountpackagedcounterparts,theytendtobeassignedmany
differentpartnumbersbecausemanufacturershavetheirownsystemstocopewiththevarietyinpinout
arrangementsandoptionsfordualormatchednpn+pnpdevicesinonepack.Soevenwhentheoriginaldevice
(suchasa2N3904)mayhavebeenassignedbyastandardsauthority,andwellknownbyengineersovertheyears,
thenewversionsarefarfromstandardizedintheirnaming.

Construction
Semiconductormaterial
ThefirstBJTs
Semiconductormaterialcharacteristics
weremadefrom
Junctionforward Electronmobility Holemobility
Max.
germanium(Ge).
Semiconductor
voltage
junctiontemp.
Silicon(Si)types
material
m2/(Vs)@25C m2/(Vs)@25C
V@25C
C
currently
Ge
0.27
0.39
0.19
70to100
predominatebut
certainadvanced
Si
0.71
0.14
0.05
150to200
microwaveand
GaAs
1.03
0.85
0.05
150to200
highperformance
AlSijunction 0.3

150to200
versionsnow
employthe
compoundsemiconductormaterialgalliumarsenide(GaAs)andthesemiconductoralloysilicongermanium
(SiGe).Singleelementsemiconductormaterial(GeandSi)isdescribedaselemental.
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Roughparametersforthemostcommonsemiconductormaterialsusedtomaketransistorsaregivenintheadjacent
tabletheseparameterswillvarywithincreaseintemperature,electricfield,impuritylevel,strain,andsundry
otherfactors.
ThejunctionforwardvoltageisthevoltageappliedtotheemitterbasejunctionofaBJTinordertomakethebase
conductaspecifiedcurrent.Thecurrentincreasesexponentiallyasthejunctionforwardvoltageisincreased.The
valuesgiveninthetablearetypicalforacurrentof1mA(thesamevaluesapplytosemiconductordiodes).The
lowerthejunctionforwardvoltagethebetter,asthismeansthatlesspowerisrequiredto"drive"thetransistor.The
junctionforwardvoltageforagivencurrentdecreaseswithincreaseintemperature.Foratypicalsiliconjunction
thechangeis2.1mV/C.[52]Insomecircuitsspecialcompensatingelements(sensistors)mustbeusedto
compensateforsuchchanges.
ThedensityofmobilecarriersinthechannelofaMOSFETisafunctionoftheelectricfieldformingthechannel
andofvariousotherphenomenasuchastheimpuritylevelinthechannel.Someimpurities,calleddopants,are
introduceddeliberatelyinmakingaMOSFET,tocontroltheMOSFETelectricalbehavior.
Theelectronmobilityandholemobilitycolumnsshowtheaveragespeedthatelectronsandholesdiffusethrough
thesemiconductormaterialwithanelectricfieldof1voltpermeterappliedacrossthematerial.Ingeneral,the
highertheelectronmobilitythefasterthetransistorcanoperate.ThetableindicatesthatGeisabettermaterial
thanSiinthisrespect.However,Gehasfourmajorshortcomingscomparedtosiliconandgalliumarsenide:
Itsmaximumtemperatureislimited
ithasrelativelyhighleakagecurrent
itcannotwithstandhighvoltages
itislesssuitableforfabricatingintegratedcircuits.
Becausetheelectronmobilityishigherthantheholemobilityforallsemiconductormaterials,agivenbipolarnp
ntransistortendstobeswifterthananequivalentpnptransistor.GaAshasthehighestelectronmobilityofthe
threesemiconductors.ItisforthisreasonthatGaAsisusedinhighfrequencyapplications.Arelativelyrecent
FETdevelopment,thehighelectronmobilitytransistor(HEMT),hasaheterostructure(junctionbetweendifferent
semiconductormaterials)ofaluminiumgalliumarsenide(AlGaAs)galliumarsenide(GaAs)whichhastwicethe
electronmobilityofaGaAsmetalbarrierjunction.Becauseoftheirhighspeedandlownoise,HEMTsareusedin
satellitereceiversworkingatfrequenciesaround12GHz.HEMTsbasedongalliumnitrideandaluminiumgallium
nitride(AlGaN/GaNHEMTs)provideastillhigherelectronmobilityandarebeingdevelopedforvarious
applications.
Max.junctiontemperaturevaluesrepresentacrosssectiontakenfromvariousmanufacturers'datasheets.This
temperatureshouldnotbeexceededorthetransistormaybedamaged.
AlSijunctionreferstothehighspeed(aluminumsilicon)metalsemiconductorbarrierdiode,commonlyknown
asaSchottkydiode.ThisisincludedinthetablebecausesomesiliconpowerIGFETshaveaparasiticreverse
Schottkydiodeformedbetweenthesourceanddrainaspartofthefabricationprocess.Thisdiodecanbea
nuisance,butsometimesitisusedinthecircuit.

Packaging
Discretetransistorsareindividuallypackagedtransistors.Transistorscomeinmanydifferentsemiconductor
packages(seeimage).Thetwomaincategoriesarethroughhole(orleaded),andsurfacemount,alsoknownas
surfacemountdevice(SMD).Theballgridarray(BGA)isthelatestsurfacemountpackage(currentlyonlyfor
largeintegratedcircuits).Ithassolder"balls"ontheundersideinplaceofleads.Becausetheyaresmallerandhave
shorterinterconnections,SMDshavebetterhighfrequencycharacteristicsbutlowerpowerrating.
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Transistorpackagesaremadeofglass,metal,ceramic,orplastic.The
packageoftendictatesthepowerratingandfrequencycharacteristics.
Powertransistorshavelargerpackagesthatcanbeclampedtoheatsinks
forenhancedcooling.Additionally,mostpowertransistorshavethe
collectorordrainphysicallyconnectedtothemetalenclosure.Attheother
extreme,somesurfacemountmicrowavetransistorsareassmallasgrains
ofsand.
Oftenagiventransistortypeisavailableinseveralpackages.Transistor
packagesaremainlystandardized,buttheassignmentofatransistor's
functionstotheterminalsisnot:othertransistortypescanassignother
functionstothepackage'sterminals.Evenforthesametransistortypethe
terminalassignmentcanvary(normallyindicatedbyasuffixlettertothe
partnumber,q.e.BC212LandBC212K).
NowadaysmosttransistorscomeinawiderangeofSMTpackages,in
comparisonthelistofavailablethroughholepackagesisrelativelysmall,
hereisashortlistofthemostcommonthroughholetransistorspackagesin
alphabeticalorder:ATV,Eline,MRT,HRT,SC43,SC72,TO3,TO18,
TO39,TO92,TO126,TO220,TO247,TO251,TO262,ZTX851

Assorteddiscretetransistors.

SovietKT315btransistors.

Flexibletransistors
Researchershavemadeseveralkindsofflexibletransistors,includingorganicfieldeffecttransistors.[53][54][55]
Flexibletransistorsareusefulinsomekindsofflexibledisplaysandotherflexibleelectronics.

Seealso
Bandgap
Digitalelectronics
Moore'slaw
Semiconductordevicemodeling
Transistorcount

Transistormodel
Transresistance
Verylargescaleintegration

Directoryofexternalwebsiteswithdatasheets
2N3904(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3903D.PDF)/2N3906(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Col
lateral/2N3906D.PDF),BC182(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC182D.PDF)/BC212(http://ww
w.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC212D.PDF)andBC546(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC546
D.PDF)/BC556(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC556BD.PDF):Ubiquitous,BJT,general
purpose,lowpower,complementarypairs.TheyhaveplasticcasesandcostroughlytencentsU.S.insmall
quantities,makingthempopularwithhobbyists.
AF107:Germanium,0.5watt,250MHzpnpBJT.
BFP183:Lowpower,8GHzmicrowavenpnBJT.
LM394(http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM194.pdf):"supermatchpair",withtwonpnBJTsonasingle
substrate.
2N2219A(http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9288.pdf)/2N2905A(http://www.st.com/stonline/boo
ks/pdf/docs/9037.pdf):BJT,generalpurpose,mediumpower,complementarypair.Withmetalcasestheyare
ratedataboutonewatt.
2N3055(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055D.PDF)/MJ2955(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Col
lateral/2N3055D.PDF):Foryears,thenpn2N3055hasbeenthe"standard"powertransistor.Its
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complement,thepnpMJ2955arrivedlater.These1MHz,15A,60V,115WBJTsareusedinaudio
poweramplifiers,powersupplies,andcontrol.
2SC3281/2SA1302:MadebyToshiba,theseBJTshavelowdistortioncharacteristicsandareusedinhigh
poweraudioamplifiers.Theyhavebeenwidelycounterfeited[1](http://sound.westhost.com/counterfeit.ht
m).
BU508(http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/4491.pdf):npn,1500VpowerBJT.Designedfor
televisionhorizontaldeflection,itshighvoltagecapabilityalsomakesitsuitableforuseinignitionsystems.
MJ11012/MJ11015(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/MJ11012D.PDF):30A,120V,200W,high
powerDarlingtoncomplementarypairBJTs.Usedinaudioamplifiers,control,andpowerswitching.
2N5457(http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5457.pdf)/2N5460(http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2
N%2F2N5460.pdf):JFET(depletionmode),generalpurpose,lowpower,complementarypair.
BSP296/BSP171:IGFET(enhancementmode),mediumpower,nearcomplementarypair.Usedforlogic
levelconversionanddrivingpowertransistorsinamplifiers.
IRF3710(http://www.irf.com/productinfo/datasheets/data/irf3710.pdf)/IRF5210(http://www.irf.com/produc
tinfo/datasheets/data/irf5210.pdf):IGFET(enhancementmode),40A,100V,200W,nearcomplementary
pair.Forhighpoweramplifiersandpowerswitches,especiallyinautomobiles.

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Furtherreading
AmosSW&JamesMR(1999).PrinciplesofTransistorCircuits.ButterworthHeinemann.ISBN07506
44273.
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Bacon,W.Stevenson(1968)."TheTransistor's20thAnniversary:HowGermaniumAndABitofWire
ChangedTheWorld".BonnierCorp.:PopularScience,retrievedfromGoogleBooks20090322.Bonnier
Corporation.192(6):8084.ISSN01617370.
Horowitz,Paul&Hill,Winfield(1989).TheArtofElectronics.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521
370957.
Riordan,Michael&Hoddeson,Lillian(1998).CrystalFire.W.WNorton&CompanyLimited.ISBN0
393318516.Theinventionofthetransistor&thebirthoftheinformationage
Warnes,Lionel(1998).AnalogueandDigitalElectronics.MacmillanPressLtd.ISBN0333658205.
"HerbertF.Matar,AnInventoroftheTransistorhashismoment".TheNewYorkTimes.February24,
2003.
MichaelRiordan(2005)."HowEuropeMissedtheTransistor".IEEESpectrum.42(11):5257.
doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906.
C.D.Renmore(1980).SiliconChipsandYou.ISBN0825300223.
WileyIEEEPress.CompleteGuidetoSemiconductorDevices,2ndEdition.

Externallinks
TheCK722Museum(http://www.ck722museum.com/).Website
Wikibookshasabookon
devotedtothe"classic"hobbyistgermaniumtransistor
thetopicof:Transistors
TheTransistor(http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/tran
sistor/function/index.html)EducationalcontentfromNobelprize.org
WikimediaCommonshas
BBC:Buildingthedigitalage(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technolog
mediarelatedtoTransistors.
y/7091190.stm)photohistoryoftransistors
TheBellSystemsMemorialonTransistors(http://www.porticus.org/
bell/belllabs_transistor.html)
IEEEGlobalHistoryNetwork,TheTransistorandPortableElectronics(http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.
php/The_Transistor_and_Portable_Electronics).Allaboutthehistoryoftransistorsandintegratedcircuits.
Transistorized(http://www.pbs.org/transistor/).HistoricalandtechnicalinformationfromthePublic
BroadcastingService
ThisMonthinPhysicsHistory:November17toDecember23,1947:InventionoftheFirstTransistor(http://
www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm).FromtheAmericanPhysicalSociety
50YearsoftheTransistor(http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html).From
ScienceFriday,December12,1997
Pinouts
Commontransistorpinouts(https://web.archive.org/web/20141030170632/http://hamradio.lakki.iki.fi/new/
Datasheets/transistor_pinouts/)
Datasheets
Chartsshowingmanycharacteristicsandlinkstomostdatasheetsfor2N(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellaso
n/transistors2n.html),2SA(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors2sa.html),2SB(http://www.clas
siccmp.org/rtellason/transistors2sb.html).2SC(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors2sc.html),
2SD(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors2sd.html),2SHK(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellaso
n/transistors2shk.html),andother(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors3up.html)numbers.
DiscreteDatabook(Historical1978)(https://archive.org/details/NationalSemiconductorDiscreteDatabook19
78),NationalSemiconductor(nowTexasInstruments)
DiscreteDatabook(Historical1982)(https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_sgsdataBooDevices5ed_4632537
8),SGS(nowSTMicroelectronics)
SmallSignalTransistorDatabook(Historical1984)(https://archive.org/details/MotorolaSmallSignalTransist
orDataBook1984),Motorola
DiscreteDatabook(Historical1985)(https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldDiscreteDataBook_35
122751),Fairchild
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor

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TransistorWikipedia

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