TAD SALEN POWER CO.

, LTD

TAD SALEN SMALL-SCALE HYDROPOWER PROJECT

AT
XEPON, SAVANNAKHET, LAO PDR.

REPORT NO.TSL-STR-03
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PENSTOCK

CONTRACTOR : THE CONSORTIUM OF TOKYO DENKI GROUP CO., LTD

AND
ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION AND SUPPLY CO., LTD
DESIGN CONSULTANT : WISIT ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS LTD.

4 FEBRUARY 2011

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PENSTOCKS

SURFACE PENSTOCKS

1.

SCOPE
1.1

2.

This design standard lays down the various forces acting on surface
penstocks and structural design of penstocks conveying water under
pressure flow conditions. This standard also covers specialty of penstocks
like penstock supports, manifolds, bends, expansion joints, manholes,
branch outlets, etc.

NOTATIONS
2.1

For the purpose of this standard, the following notations shall have the
meaning indicated against each:
A
Ar
b
C
E
f1, f2, f3
f4
fx
fv
l
L
M, M1
P
P1
q1
r
r1
S
S1
Sx, Sy
T
t
t1
W

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

cross sectional area of pipe shell material, mm2

cross sectional area of stiffener ring, mm2
width of ring girder or stiffener ring, mm.
moment coefficient
modulus of elasticity
longitudinal stresses, N/ mm2
secondary bending stress, N/ mm2
total circumferential stress, N/ mm2
total longitudinal stress, N/ mm2
height of stiffener ring or ring girder, mm.
Span length of pipe, mm.
moments
internal pressure including water hammer, N/ mm2
total reaction at support, N
shear stress, N/ mm2
radius of pipe shell, mm.
mean radius of shell, mm.
hoop stress in pipe, N/ mm2
equivalent stress, N/ mm2
principal stresses, N/ mm2
temperature rise or drop, C
thickness of pipe shell, mm.
thickness of stiffener ring or ring girder, mm.
total distributed weight, that is, self-weight of
Shell + weight of water, N/ mm2

3.

=
=

total weight, that is, weight of shell + weight of

Water, N
section modulus of pipe shell, m3
coefficient of linear expansion or contraction of
Pipe shell material, per C
coefficient of friction

DATA USED
3.1

4.

W1

The following data is used for the structural design of penstocks:

a) Layout of penstock;
b) Complete longitudinal profile;
c) Type of penstock;
i)
Free penstock pipe laid above ground, and
ii) Steel lined pressure shaft.
d) Soil investigation report;
i)
Geology of area,
ii)
Type of ground/rock,
iii) Bearing capacity of ground,
iv) Shear properties of soil,
v)
Modulus of deformation, and
vi) seismic coefficient.
e) Climatic conditions;
i)
Temperature (maximum, mean, minimum, by day and night
and in summer and winter),
ii)
wind conditions (direction and maximum speed), and
f) Hydraulic data;
i)
Diameter of penstock, and
ii)
Discharge through penstock.
.

LOADS ON PENSTOCK
4.1

The following are the main loads considered for the design of penstocks:
a) Internal water pressure,
b) Weight of penstock and water, and
c) Temperature.
In addition, the other loads considered depending on location are:
a) wind load,
b) seismic forces.

4.2

The loads given in 4.1 are of the following nature:

a) Permanent loads,
b) Intermittent loads, and
c) Exceptional loads.
4.2.1 The loads of permanent nature are the forces which act upon the
penstock in normal operation. They correspond to:
a) The maximum operating pressure which is the sum of
maximum static pressure and over pressure due to water
hammer under normal operating conditions.
b) The weight of penstock and water between the supports;
c) Spacing and type of supports;
d) The difference between the temperature which may exist in the
penstock in normal operation and the temperature existing
when coupling up the sections during erection;
e) Friction at supports; and
f)

Temperature variation.

4.2.2 The loads of intermittent nature are the forces which though not
exceptional, do not arise often.
The two main cases are:
a) Penstock during filling, and
b) Empty penstock under partial vacuum.
The forces to be taken into account in each case correspond to:
a) The weight of penstock and water between the supports;
b) The type and spacing between supports,
c) The temperature effect, and
d) Friction at supports.
In addition to the forces enumerated in (a) to (d), intermittent loads
may also occur due to wind and earthquakes.
4.2.3 The loads of exceptional nature the may act upon the penstocks
are:
a) Shop or site test;
b) Erection stresses;

c) Bad operation of safety devices during filling such as nonoperation of air valves which would create vacuum inside
during empting operation of penstocks;
d) Pressure rise caused due to unforeseen operation of regulating
equipment of turbine/pump distribution:
i)

In case of impulse turbine, pressure rise due to needle

slam on loss of oil pressure or mechanical failure; and

ii) In case of reaction turbine, turbine gates may be closed

instantaneously at any time by action of governor manual
control of main relay valve or by the emergency solenoid
device.
e) Stresses developed due to resonance in penstock (As far as
possible, the frequency of penstock pipe in any reach shall not
match with the frequency of machine, frequency of vortex
shedding in the draft tube, frequency of the system, etc, and
resonance shall be avoided); and
f)

5.

Seismic forces.

STRESSES IN PENSTOCK SHELL

5.1

The stresses in the penstock shell of surface penstocks are subjected to

circumferential and longitudinal stresses. The stresses in pipe at the midspan and at the supports are as below:
a) At mid-span:
i)

Hoop stresses developed due to internal pressure equal to sum

of static pressure due to maximum water level in reservoir or
surge tank plus the dynamic pressure due to water hammer as
calculated for operating conditions,

ii)

Longitudinal stresses developed due to its own weight and

weight of water by beam action,

iii)

Longitudinal stresses developed due to sliding friction over the

supports, and

iv)

Longitudinal stresses developed due to expansion or contraction

of penstock shell due to variation of temperature.

b) At supports:
i)

Circumferential stresses developed at the supports due to

bending caused by internal pressure,

5.2

ii)

Longitudinal stresses due to secondary bending moments caused

by the restraints imposed by ring girder of stiffener rings,

iii)

Longitudinal stresses developed at the supports due to beam

action, and

iv)

Longitudinal stresses developed by forces enumerated in 4.1.

The stresses in penstock shell is also be checked to withstand the stresses

developed due to intermittent and exceptional loading and for the
following forces:
a) Longitudinal stresses developed due to earthquake and wind,
b) Circumferential stresses developed due to pressure rise called by nonoperation as specified in 4.2.3 (d),
c) Longitudinal stresses developed due to wind, and
d) Stresses developed due to filling and draining of penstocks.

6.

METHOD OF CALCULATION OF STRESSES IN PIPE SHELL

6.1

The stresses for different forces are calculated as given in 6.1.1 to 6.1.7
6.1.1

Hoop stress due to internal pressure

6.1.1.1

The hoop stress developed due to internal pressure is

given by:
S =

Pr
t

Note : The internal pressure P is due to static head +

dynamic head.

6.1.2

Longitudinal joint efficiency (e)

6.1.2.1

6.1.3

It is taken as 1.0 for fully radiographed joint.

Longitudinal stresses due to beam action

6.1.3.1

The stress developed due to self-weight and weight of

water pipe spanning over supports due to beam action is
calculated by the following formula:
f =

M
N/m 2
Z

where
M
=

bending moment caused due to self-weight

and weight of water.

Note : Bending moment, M, at mid-span and at support

shall be calculated for each case considering the
pipe as a beam spanning continuously over
intermediate supports

6.1.4

6.1.3.2

The longitudinal stresses developed due to radial strain

caused by internal pressure may be taken equal to 0.303
times the hoop tension.

6.1.3.3

The longitudinal stresses developed due to seismic

forces in the pipe spanning over the support due to
beam action is equivalent to seismic coefficient times
stresses calculated in 6.1.3.1. These stresses will be
added to stresses calculated in 6.1.3.1.

6.1.3.4

The longitudinal stresses developed due to wind load

acting on the pipe spanning over the support are
calculated as given in 6.1.3.1, where bending moment,
M, is caused due to wind load .

Longitudinal stresses due to sliding friction

6.1.4.1

The maximum longitudinal stress developing over all

supports within a section between an expansion joint
and the subsequent support shall be calculated by the
formula:
fa =

where
Pf
=

=
=

a Pf
Pf
+
,
A
Z

total sliding friction in section between

and expansion joint and subsequent
support = W Cos ,
eccentricity of frictional force relative to
centre line of penstock,
section modulus of pipe shell, and
angle of section under consideration with
the horizontal

The coefficient of friction, , between shell and support will be taken from Table 6.1

TABLE 6.1 FRICTION COEFFICIENTS FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS

(Clause 6.1.4.1)

SL.
No.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)

Type or Support

Friction Coefficient

Steel on concrete
Steel on concrete with asphalt roofing paper in between
Steel on steel (rusty)
Steel on steel (greased)
Steel on steel with two layers of graphite service sheets in
between
Rocker support
Roller support
Concrete on concrete

6.1.5

0.60
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.15
0.10
0.75

Temperature Stress
6.1.5.1

Longitudinal stresses cause due to expansion or

contraction of pipe shell shall be calculated by the
following formulae:
a) Pipe shell without expansion joint
fa

ET

b) Pipe shell with expansion joint

fa

where:
1
=

Ac

1, P Ac,

coefficient of friction between packing

material and pipe shell, and
contact area between penstock shell
and packing material in mm2

6.1.6

Circumferential bending stresses at supports

6.1.6.1

Circumferential stresses at supports due to bending

caused by internal pressure shall be calculated by the
following formula:
M

C P1 r

The value of C for different angles of support is given in Fig.1.

The effective length of shell resisting the bending moments is
equal to 4 times the radius of the shell.

Figure 6.1 : Variation of Circumferential Moment Around Shell Resting

on Saddle Support
6.1.7

Longitudinal bending stresses due to restrain by ring girders or

stiffener rings at the supports
6.1.7.1

The secondary bending stress due to restrain shall be

calculated by the formula:

f4 =

1.82(Ar -bt)
Ar +1.56 t rt

Pr
t

Note : This stress is local and the effect shall be taken

1.285
for a distance of 3/q where q =
on either
rt
side of the supporting ring and pipe thickness
shall be increased, if required, in this zone.

7.

EQUIVALENT STRESSES

7.1

The cirecumferential and longitudinal stresses obtained as specified in

6.1.1 to 6.1.7, shall be combined to obtain equivalent stresses, given by
the formula:
Se =

Sx 2 +Sy 2 Sx Sy +3 2

where:
Se

combined stress

Sx

circumferential stress (tension is considered positive)

Sy

longitudinal stress (tension is considered positive)

shearing stress acting perpendicular to the pipe axial.

2S cos
A

shearing force on the pipe shell (kg)

sectional area of shell plate (cm2)

angle between pipe axial and the level line.

The equivalent stresses may be readily obtained from Fig. 9.1

8.

LINER THICKNESS

8.1

The liner thickness of an exposed penstock shall withstand the equivalent

stress as specified in 7.

8.2

Notwithstanding the thickness obtained as specified in 8.1 and regardless

of pressure, a minimum thickness of liner shall be provided to resist the
distortion during fabrication and erection. A minimum thickness of
D +50
400

cm. is recommended where D is the diameter of shell in cm.

8.3

9.

No corrosion allowance is recommended. Instead, it is suggested to paint

the inside and the outside surface of pipe with a paint conforming to the
relevant Indian Standard.

WORKING STRESSES AND FACTOR OF SAFETY

9.1

Normal operating condition

9.1.1

9.2

It is recommended that under normal operating condition as

specified in 4.2.1 , the working stresses with a factor of safety of
3 based on the minimum ultimate tensile strength shall be
adopted for design but in no case the maximum stresses obtained
in 7.1 shall exceed 0.5 times the specified minimum yield
strength of material.

Intermittent loading condition

9.2.1

It is recommended that under intermittent loading condition as

specified in 4.2.2, the working stresses with a factor of safety of
2.5 based on minimum ultimate tensile strength shall be adopted
for designs but in no case the maximum stresses obtained in 7.1
shall exceed 2/3 the specified minimum yield strength of
material.

10

Figure 9.1 Equivalent Stress Diagram

9.3

Exception Condition

9.3.1

Under exceptional loading condition as specified in 4.2.3, it is

recommended that the working stresses with a factor of safety 2.0
based on minimum ultimate strength shall be adopted for design
but in no case the maximum stresses obtained in 7.1 shall exceed
0.8 times the specified minimum yield strength of material.

11

10.

ANCHOR BLOCKS
10.1 Anchor Block Position

Freely supported penstocks must be anchored at bends, and sometimes at

intermediate points, to prevent shifts in the pipeline during installation and
to resist the forces which tend to cause displacement in a bent pipe under
pressure.

10.2 Configuration of Anchor Blocks

Anchors may be of the type which encased the entire circumference of the
penstock or they may be of the type which is in contact with only a lower
segment of the circumference as shown in Figure 10.1.
This latter type of anchor may be constructed before the penstock is
installed, in which case recesses are provided in the concrete for grouting
the pipe and stiffener rings in place after installation. The stiffener rings
will assist to transfer the longitudinal forces from the pipe to the anchor.

10.3 Anchor Block Foundation

Anchor blocks should be positioned on a rock base with a sufficient

bearing capacity. In the event this cannot be made, foundation should be
constructed to have a sufficient bearing capacity.
The base of anchor blocks should have a sufficient bearing capacity, not
susceptible to any removal. Should it be impossible due to geographical
reasons to position anchor blocks on rock base, foundation with a
sufficient bearing capacity should be constructed. In case of constructing
foundation, the allowable bearing capacity of the foundation should be
obtained by tests, and when testing cannot be made the values shown in
Table 10.1 are generally adopted.

12

Figure 10.1 : Typical concrete anchor

Table 10.1: Allowable Bearing Capacity of Foundation

Allowable Bearing
Foundation

Capacity (ton/m2)

Sand or rough soil

10

Clay or loam

15

Mixture of gravel and sand

20

Gravel

30

Soft rock, shale,

100

Slate, schist, sedimentary rocks

250

Hard rock, granite, diorite, gneiss andesite, and other

400

Igneous rocks and hard conglomerates.

13

10.4 Stability of anchor Blocks

Anchor blocks should be safe against overture, sliding and crushing.

10.4.1 The resultant of all forces acting on anchor blocks is tend to
overturn or slide anchor blocks off the position. In order that the
anchor block is safe against overturn, it is necessary to consider
all the forces working on anchor blocks including the reaction
and their self-weight, and combine them together under the most
unfavorable conditions; and the resultant of these forces should
intersect the base of the anchor block within its middle third.
10.4.2 In order to make the anchor block safe against sliding, the vertical
component of the resultant of all forces should not be less then
the horizontal component of the resultant of all forces divided by
the coefficient of sliding friction at the base of the anchor block.
According to the Bureau of Reclamation, the coefficient of
sliding friction between the anchor block and the foundation is as
follows:
when the foundation is good solid rock :

0.75

when the foundation is rough soil :

0.30

10.4.3 In order to make the anchor block safe against crushing, the
compressive stress on the anchor block should not exceed the
bearing capacity of the foundation and the allowable stress of
concrete.

10.5 External Forces to be Considered

10.5.1 The external forces to be considered for the stability calculation

of the anchor blocks are as follows:
a) anchor block dead-weight;
b) dead weights for pipe and water contained therein, both to
be supported by the anchor block;
c) longitudinal thrust force;
d) dynamic force acting against outside of bends;
e) hydrostatic unbalance force acting against bends;
f)

seismic force.

14

When the pipe axis on the upstream does not fall on the same
perpendicular plane with that on the downstream, the anchor
blocks should receive consideration with respect to stability on
traverse direction.
10.5.2 Resolution of forces acting on an anchor

(See para. 10.5.4)

(See para. 10.5.3)

Figure 10.2: Resolution of forces acting on pipe anchors

10.5.3 Definitions of symbols used in the equation for calculation forces

on anchors
f

coefficient of friction of pipe on piers

friction of expansion joint per linear meter of

circumference = approx 700 kg.

weight of water per cu. m. = 1000 kg.

cross sectional area of pipe in sq. cm. at anchor

A =

cross sectional area of pipe above upper reducer, in sq. cm.

A =

cross sectional area of pipe below lower reducer, in sq. cm.

maximum head at any point, including water hammer,

in meters.

15

thickness of pipe shell, in cm.

flow in cubic meter per second

velocity in meter per second

acceleration due to gravity in m. per second = 9.81

dead weight of pipe from anchor uphill to expansion

joint, in kg.

W =

weight of water in pipe P., in kg.

P =

dead weight of pipe downhill from anchor to expansion

joint, in kg.

W =

weight of water in pipe P, in kg.

slope angle above anchor

slope angle below anchor

weight of pipe and contained water, from anchor to

adjacent uphill pier, in kg.

weight of pipe and contained water, from anchor to

adjacent downhill pier, in kg.

inside diameter of pipe in cm.

cross sectional area of pipe shell at uphill expansion joint,

in square cm.

cross sectional area of pipe shell at downhill expansion

joint, in square cm.

weight of anchor, in kg.

10.5.4 Forces on anchors

1) Hydrostatic force acting along axis of pipe on each side of bend
=

wAH

2) Dynamic force acting against outside of bend

=

q wv
g

3) Force due to dead weight of pipe from anchor uphill to

expansion joint, tending to slide downhill over piers
=

P sin x

16

4) Force due to dead weight of pipe from anchor downhill to

expansion joint, tending to slide downhill over piers
=

P sin y

5) Sliding friction of pipe on piers due to expansion or

contraction uphill from anchor
=

f cos x (P + W

p
)
2

6) Sliding friction of pipe on piers due to expansion or

contraction downhill from anchor
=

f cos y (P + W

p,
)
2

7) Sliding friction of uphill expansion joint

=

f' ( d +2t )
12

8) Sliding friction of downhill expansion joint

=

f' ( d +2t )
12

9) Hydrostatic pressure on exposed end of pipe in uphill

expansion joint
=

w H t ( d +t )
144

wa H

10) Hydrostatic pressure on exposed end of pipe in downhill

expansion joint
=

w a H

11) Longitudinal force due to reducer above anchor

=

w H (A - A)

12) Longitudinal force due to reducer below anchor

=

w H (A - A)

17

11.

DESIGN OF PIERS
11.1 General

Penstocks above ground are usually supported on piers spaced at 6.0 to 35

meters apart. At bends, anchors are used to resist the forces which tend to
cause displacement of the pipe.

11.2 Stability of Piers

Piers should be designed for safety against overturning, sidings just similar
to the design of anchors.

11.3 Pier Foundation

The base of the piers should have a sufficient bearing capacity not
susceptible to any displacement or settlement. Foundation for piers will
be designed similar to that of anchors.

11.4 Design Forces for Piers

Piers are design to support the dead load of pipe and contained water and
resist longitudinal forces resulting from temperature change. Earthquake
forces may be considered in the design in areas subject to seismic
disturbance.
The magnitude of longitudinal forces provided with expansion joints is
dependent on the methods of support between pipe and piers. Piers which
carry the pipe directly on concrete are subject to longitudinal forces when
axial movement of pipe occurs. These longitudinal forces may be reduced
by placing lubricated plates or other low friction factor material between
pipe and pier or by use of rocker and roller support.

18

12.

EXPANSION JOINTS

12.1 Expansion joints will be provided at parts where considerable stress or

deformation would occur on the longitudinal direction, due to temperature
variation and other external forces.
12.2 Expansion joints should be placed at mid span where deflections of the
two cantilevered portions of pipe are equal, thus preventing a twisting
action of the joint.
12.3 Expansion joint should have a sufficient strength and water tightness, and
should be so constructed as to satisfactorily perform their function against
the longitudinal expansion and contraction.
12.4 The range of temperature variations to be used for the calculation of the
expanded or contracted length of penstocks should be determined in
consideration of the maximum and the minimum temperature of the
erection site
L

0.0000117 T L

L
T

=
=

expanded or contracted length, m.

difference between maximum and minimum
temperatures during erection

length between expansion joint and anchor

where:

12.5 Among the several types of expansion joints in use, the sleeve types is the
most popular for large steel pipe. Longitudinal movement is permitted by
two closely fitting sleeves, one slide in the other, with a shuffling box and
packing to prevent leakage. A bolted packing gland is used to compress
the packing which consists of long-fibre braided flax impregnated with a
suitable lubricant.
A typical expansion joint of this type is shown in Figure 12.1. Another
design shows the exterior surface of the inner sleeve is clad with
chromium to prevent corrosion and insure free sliding in the joint. This
type of joint may also designed with two stuffing boxes, as shown in
Figure 12.2
12.6 The sliding length of sleeve type expansion joints should have an
allowance in excess of 50 mm. for the design value.

19

Figure 12.1 : Typical sleeve-type expansion joint

Figure 12.2 : Flexible sleeve-type expansion joint with two stuffing boxes used to
permit longitudinal temperature movement and transverse deflection

20

13.

BENDS AND WYES

13.1 Pipe Bends
a) Changes in direction of flow are accomplished by curved sections
commonly called bends. Plate steel bends are made up of short
segment of pipe with mitered ends

b) To conserve as much of the available head as possible, bends for

penstocks should be made with large radii and small deflections
between successive segments
Bend radii of three to five time the pipe diameter and deflection
angles of 5 to 10 between segments are recommended.
c) Bends may be designed with a constant diameter different diameter at
each end. Figure 13-1 shows a typical constant diameter bend with a
total line deflection angle of about 38 designed for a 2.70 meter
penstock. The bend radius is 13.70 meters, while the mitered
segments have deflection angles of 5 1/2 each
Figure 13.1 shows a reducing bend with a reduction in diameter from
2.70 m. to 2.40 m.

Figure 13.1 : Constant diameter bend with the radius of the bend five times the
diameter

21

Figure 13.2 : Bend reducing in diameter from 9 feet to 8 feet, the radius equal to
four times the smaller diameter

13.2 Branch Outlets and Wyes

a) On some large penstocks, specially fabricated branch outlets and
wyes are use for diverting water from the headers.

b) The main considerations in the design of branch outlets and wyes are
structural strength to with stand the internal pressure, and proper
streamlining to reduce hydraulic loss.
c) since outlet openings reduce the strength of the pipe at the opening,
reinforcement must be provided to compensate for the removed
material.
As a general rule the reinforcement should be adequate to make the
connection equal in strength to that of the pipe without the opening.
d) Several branch outlets and wyes are illustrated in Figure 13.3 and
13.4, respectively.
These two figures show some of the fittings commonly used and
the different methods of providing necessary reinforcement.
The unsupported pressure areas in the pipe shells are shown by
shading, and the distribution of load in the reinforcing members
is indicated graphically.
The right angle tee shown in Figure 13.3 a and 13.3 b are
hydraulically inefficient and should be avoided whenever
possible .

22

The use of frustum cone with a convergence of 6 to 8, shown in

Figure 13.3 b, reduces the branch loss to approximately one-third
that of cylindrical branch or outlet.
Branch losses may also be reduced by joining the branch pipe to
the main pipe at an angle less that 90 as shown in Figure 13.3 c

23

Figure 13.3 : Loading diagrams for the development of reinforcement of

branch outlets

24

Figure 13.4 : Loading diagrams for the development of reinforcement of

wye branches in penstocks

25

Deflection angle of branch outlet and wye should not be less than
45, because difficulties will be encountered in reinforcing
branch outlets and wyes.
Branch outlets as shown in figure 13.3 a, 13.3 b, and 13.3 c may
be reinforced by a simple curve plated designed to meet the
requirements of the ASME rode.

e) Stress analysis of branch outlets and wyes.

Stress analysis of branch outlets and wyes is approximate only. Exact
mathematical analysis based on the theory of elasticity becomes too
involved to be of much practical value. In the approximated method,
simplifying assumptions are made which give results considered
sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. The reinforcement of a
fitting should be proportioned to carry the unsupported loads, the
areas of which are shown shaded in figures 27 and 28. The total load
to be carried by the reinforcement is equal to the product of the
internal pressure and the unsupported area projected to the plane of
the fitting. A portion of the pipe shell is considered as acting
monolithically with the girders as in the case of stiffener rings.
In the analysis of ring girder reinforcement of the type shown in
figures 27f and 27g it is assumed that the curved girder acts as if it lay
in one plane, that the loads in both directions are uniformly
distributed, and that the ring is circular. The first of these
assumptions is believed to be reasonably accurate because the ring
girder is supported along its entire perimeter by the pipe shell and
cannot be appreciably twisted or deflected laterally. The assumption
of uniform load distribution is on the side of safety. In regard to the
circularity.

26

REFERENCES

1.

Indian Standards Institution, IS 11639 Part 1, Criteria for Structural Design

of Penstocks, Part 1 Surface Penstock, (1986)

2.

United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Engineering

Monograph No.3, Welded steel Penstock, (1986)

3.

Water Gate and Penstock Association (Japan), Technical Standards for Gates
and Penstocks. (1971)