SPE

SPE 10037

Society of Petroleum Engineel's

Open Hole Well Logging

by Aytekin Timur, * Chevron Oil Field Research Company

'Member SPE-AIME

Copyright 1982, Society of Petroleum Engineers

Thi~ paper was presented at the International Petroleum Exhibition and Technical Symposium of the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in
Bejlng, China, 1826 March, 1982. The material is subject to correction by the author. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not
more than 300 words. Write SPE, 6200 North Central Expressway, Dallas, Texas, 75206 USA. Telex 730989

Digital recording of the acoustic full waveforms

ABSTRACT

has facilitated the extraction of both shear and comBorehole measurements of geophysical parameters

pressional wave data.

Compressional and shear wave

involve downhole sensors, means for transmitting data

velocities are used for porosity and lithology inter-

to the surface, and recording and processing systems.

pretation as well as identification of gas zones; and

As demand for accurate formation evaluation increases,

their amplitudes for fracture evaluation.

With the

not only the number of well logging sensors but also

recent development of image enhancement technology,

the

borehole televiewers are finding greater use in evalua-

amount

of

data acquired by each has been in-

creasing at an accelerating rate.

lenge

of

data

explosion,

logging

To meet this chaltools

have

tion of fractured reservoirs.

been

equipped with downhole computers for digital transwhere other com-

In radioactivity logging, natural gamma-ray spec-

puters are used for recording and real time process-

troscopy measures the contributions of the uranium ser-

mission

of

data

to

the

surface,

ies, the thorium series, and potassium nuclei.

ing.
Open-hole

evaluations

of porosity,

hydrocarbon

provide

information

exchange

capacity

These

regarding clay type and cation

(CEC) ,

and

fracture

evaluation.

saturations, and permeability are conducted through a

Borehole compensated density logs and the dual-detector

broad spectrum of borehole geophysical measurements,

thermal and epithermal neutron logs provide information

including electromagnetic and elastic wave propagation,

on porosity, lithology, and gas saturation.

and nuclear radiation.

The recent

Modern suites of electric logs

density-lithology log, in addition to electron density,

such as focused resistivity and conductivity, and mi-

also measures photoelectric absorption cross-section,

croresistivity allow accurate determination of resis-

which provides information on rock mineralogy.

tivities of the invaded zone and of the formation for

borehole environments varying from fresh-water to salt-

Pulsed neutron capture logs provide hydrocarbon

water muds and high- to low-resistivity formations.

saturations in both open and cased holes.

Measurements of the properties of electromagnetic wave

and capture spectroscopy provide various elemental de-

Inelastic

propagation yield the dielectric constant of the forma-

terminations, including C/O and Si/Ca logs.

These are

tion, which in turn allows determination of hydrocarbon especially useful in determining hydrocarbon saturasaturation independent of the water salinity.

tions in reservoirs containing waters with unknown or

very low salinities.
Another highly useful measurement in open holes

References and illustrations at end of paper.

is the nuclear magnetic resonance (NML) which yields

639

SPE 10037

OPEN HOLE WELL LOGGING

free-fluid index and permeability information in sand-

to obtain the derived formation parameter log, which

shale sequences and porosity in carbonates.

may be a log of fundamental properties such as porosity, permeability, saturation as well as any other subsurface information needed in geological, reservoir,

Downhole and wellsite computers have made possible

and economic analyses.

the combining of many of these measurements into a sin-

gle tool, which, in one run, provides a complete suite

of logs for formation evaluation.

Wellsite computers

provide quick-look processing of these log data for

The advent of exploration for hydrocarbons in

high-cost areas and enhanced recovery operations with

immediate completion decisions.

long, uncertain lead times have increased the demand

They also allow trans-

mission via satellites or phone lines to central compu-

for more accurate evaluation of new formations and re-

ter facilities, for more complete analyses.

evaluation of some of the old ones.

As this demand

for accurate formation evaluation increases, not only

Core

analysis

provides

open-hole evaluation.

significant

input

into

the number of well logging sensors but also the amount

Petrophysical parameters such

of data acquired by each has been increasing at a rapid

as porosity, permeability, formation factor, and resis-

rate.

tivity index are determined by measurements on core

tion dipmeter tool to be two orders of magnitude higher

2
than that for a conventional induction-sonic tool.
Commercial acoustic full waveform log on the other

samples under simulated subsurface conditions.

Rock

Table 1 shows the data rate for a high resolu-

samples are studied by scanning electron microscopy

(SEN), X-ray analysis, gamma-ray spectroscopy, neutron

hand, has data rate transmission requirements of about

activation analysis, and cation exchange capacity (CEC)

three times that of the high resolution dipmeter.

measurements.

repeat formation tester provides

meet the challenges of data explosion, logging tools

essential data on reservoir pressures and fluid samples

have been equipped with downhole computers for digital

for laboratory analyses.

transmission of data to the surface.

The

There,

To

other

computers are used for recording and real time procNone of the above techniques alone is sufficient
to provide the basis for costly decisions.

essing.

They can

The indicated data transmission rates, for

the future acoustic and induced gamma ray spectroscopy

most effectively be made through an integrated evalua-

tools, however, must wait the development of new tech-

tion of well log, rock and fluid analyses, and reser-

nology to replace the present multi-conductor logging

voir data.

cable.

It should be emphasized that the introduction of

INTRODUCTION

minicomputers

to the wellsite logging operations in

the mid-1970's has provided the impetus for advances

3 4

Well logging is the technology of conducting bore-

in well logging technology.'

Since then, most
aspects of the logging operations have been under

hole measurements and the science and the art, in that

order, of their interpretation for evaluation of natural resources. Additionally, well logging provides

computerized control, resulting in:

information to aid drilling, completion, and operation

of wells; to geological and geophysical exploration;

1.

Faster logging operations.

2.

Improved log quality.

3.

Real time log display.

4.

Wellsite computer processing.

5.

Fast transmission or reception of log data.

and to development of reservoir models for efficient

production.
Borehole measurements of geophysical parameters
involve downhole sensors (sonde), means for transmitting data to the surface, and recording and processing
systems

(Fig. 1).

Physical properties are measured

and recorded as functions of depth to obtain well logs.

The measured physical parameter log is then interpreted

640

SPE 10037

(TURK) TIMUR

Advances in well logging technology also have R

is greater than R in the water sands, which is
xo
t
been accompanied by those in petrophysics, thus resul- also confirmed by the observed
ting in much improved interpretation. Physical parameters measured in situ, supplemented by critical measurements on core samples, are used in quantitative petrophysical relationships to model subsurface forma- As explained in detail by Misk, et al 7 ., in the lower
tions.
water-bearing sands, the Deep Laterolog is adversely
affected by invasion and reads too high; whereas the
induction log reads close to R . On the other hand,
t
encompassing methods far too numerous to describe in in the hydrocarbon bearing top zone, the reverse is
a review paper. A broad classification of some of observed
Well

logging

is

rapidly

developing

science

the more commonly used well logging methods are given

in Tables 2-5, together with their main applications.
Detailed descriptions of these methods are available
in literature published by the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE) and the Society of Professional Well

In this zone Rxo < Rt, hence it is the Induction Log

Extensive lists of references which is adversely affected by invasion. In fact, R
t
1 5 In this paper,
are given in the review papers.'
is larger than R
.
LLD
some of the more recent developments in open hole well

Log Analysts (SPWLA).

logging will be highlighted to provide an appreciation

The important point to be emphasized is that the

for the significant contributions to this very colorful

selection of a deep resistivity device for determining

branch of physics.

Rt depends on formation conditions such as connate

water resistivity, porosity, and R as well as the
t
borehole conditions such as mud salinity and hole size.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE METHODS

The optimum environments of applications of induction

Properties of electromagnetic waves are measured

and

laterologs

given in Reference 7.

are

In most

in boreholes in a broad frequency range varying from

instances, however, especially in wildcat areas, both

D. C. to Gigahertz.

measurements may be needed to obtain a true resistivity

profile.

Since the first commercial elec-

trical log ran in 1928, numerous tools and techniques

(Table 2) have been developed to measure the electrical resistivities of the formation both within the
invaded zone (R ) and beyond (true formation resisxo

more comprehensive fashion, a recent computer program

Resistivity Logs

tivity logs to determine R as well as R and the dia8 t

. xo.
meter of invasion (d.).
The evaluat~on ~s based on a

To determine the true resistivity profile in a

(RTGLOB) was developed to utilize all available resis-

step-resistivity profile and the uncertainties in log

An

example

of utilization of various borehole

electrical resistivity measurement techniques is illus-

readings are accounted for in the analysis.

At each

level, first a set of (R ,R ,d.) are assumed and

t
xo
~
the corresponding log readings are calculated by using

trated in Fig. 2 with the logs from Illizi Basin in

6
Algeria.
In addition to the spontaneous potential

the known tool response characteristics.

(SP)

log, also recorded are the Dual Laterolog-MSFL

ted log readings agree with the actual measurements,

(viz., focused resistivity and microresistivity logs)

then the assumed set of (R , R ' d ) are accepted to

t
xo
i
be the actual values. If not, the initial set of val-

and the Induction Log (6FF40), i.e., focused conductivity log.

The two lower sands at around 192 m and

If the compu-

ues are revised and the tool responses are

201 m are water bearing and the upper zone above 134 m This iteration process is continued until
is hydrocarbon bearing. In this well, the ratio of for the three unknown parameters (R , R '
t
xo
the resistivity of mud filtrate to the resistivity of timized at each level to a predetermined
formation water (Rmf/Rw) is quite large; therefore, signi ficance.
641

recomputed.
the values
d ) are opi
statistical

SPE 10037

OPEN HOLE WELL LOGGING

The logs in Fig. 2 were processed with this pro-

described later in Nuclear Radiation Methods.

Evalua-

gram to obtain the true resistivity profile shown.

tion of the electromagnetic propagation time is conduc-

Primary characteristics are an improved R in the upper

ted to obtain porosity

(~EPT)

from

hydrocarbon zone and an improved vertical resolution

in the lower water sands. 6

(1)

and the water saturation (Sxo) from

Dielectric Logs

The resistivity and conductivity methods listed

po

in Table 2 depend on the salinity of the water in the

+ (l-T)t pm

formation to evaluate water saturation and, hence, hydrocarbon saturation.

(2)

As the salinity is reduced, it

becomes more and more difficult to differentiate hydrocarbons from water, therefore, the accuracy of saturation determination becomes highly unreliable in formations containing fresher waters or waters of unknown

where t is the loss-free propagation time and the subscripts po, pwo, ph, and pm refer to formation, water,
hydrocarbon, and rock matrix, respectively.IO

salinity, as is usually the case after waterflooding.

Since the lithology is changing in this section,

Most of the electrical tools operate within the frequency range from 35 Hz (focused resistivity) to 20 KHz

the porosity cannot be calculated from Eq. (2) by using

(focused conductivity).

a constant value for t

A recent tool,

the Electromagnetic Propagation

Tool (EPT) , was developed to operate at frequencies in

Using the density, neutron,

pm
and P values, however, composition of the three minere
als (sand-lime-shale) in the matrix are determined and
the t

pm

is calculated from

the Gigahertz range to measure the phase shift and the

attenuation rate of an electromagnetic wave traveling
in formations. 9 The phase shift is converted to propa-

t pm = f ss t pms + fL tpmL + f s h t pms h

(3)

gation time, which is related to the dielectric permitivity.

The propagation time for water is significantly

higher than gas, oil, and matrix materials and is almost independent of the salinity of the water (Table
6).

Propagation time can be used to determine poros-

ity, if the lithology is known.

In hydrocarbon zones

where fss,

fL,

and fsh are fractions of sandstone,

limestone, and shale in the matrix; t pms , tpmL' t pms h

This composite

are the respective propagation times.

tpm is then used to calculate the porosity (~EPT)'

plotted ln track 3 of Fig. 4.

The results of S
are
xo
Also

it yields flushed zone saturation, provided porosity

calculated from Eq. 2 and plotted in track 2.

is available from another measurement.

It is also used

plotted in this figure for comparison is the total por-

in conjunction with the other porosity tools to evalu-

osity (T) obtained from density and neutron log combi-

ate lithology.

nation.

In zone B, EPT is lower than

~T'

thereby in-

dicating the presence of hydrocarbons.

An example

of propagation time measurement is

shown in Fig. 3, which presents the results obtained

with a combination of Gamma Ray/Electromagnetic Propa-

ELASTIC WAVE METHODS

gation Log/ Compensated Neutron I.og/Lithodensity Log

Elastic wave propagation methods have become an

run over a section of a well with rapidly changing

lithology. 10

The primary zone of interest is the sand

integral part of Formation Evaluation ever since the

in zone B, which is indicated to contain gas by the

first

density and neutron logs.

ducted in 1927 to obtain time-depth data for seismic

Zones A and C are indicated

downhole

measurement of velocities were con-

to contain minerals other than sandstone by the photo-

interpretation.

electric

compressional and shear wave velocities (V , V ) and

p
s

absorption

cross

section

curve

(P)
e

as

642

Commonly used elastic properties are

SPE 10037

A.

(TURK) TIMOR

attenuation (a p ' as)' If one assumes an infinite,

isotropic, homogeneous, and elastic medium, the velocities are related to elastic moduli by the expressions:

osity.

More recently, however, acoustic logging has

entered a new era through the digital recording of

acoustic waveforms. 13 In addition to the compressional
wave velocity, this technology has facilitated the ex-

vpP = P

K + ~G

traction of shear wave velocity and attenuation data

(4)

as ..well.
2

vsP = G

14

The example in Fig. 6 shows the compres-

sional and shear wave interval-trans it-time logs made

(5 )

in a cased borehole.
(J

Digital signal processing tech-

niques were used to extract both the compressional

O.s(v /v ) 2 -1
E s
(v /v ) 2 -1
p s

and shear wave transit-times (inverse velocities) from

(6)

waveforms digitally recorded by four receivers.

For

comparison, also shown in this figure, is the compreswhere P, K, and G are the P-wave, bulk and shear moduli
respective 1y;
ity.

(J

is Poisson ' s ratio; an d p is t h e d ens-

sional interval-transit-time obtained with a conven.

1 sonLC
. l
tLona
og'Ln an open hI
0 e. 13

Coefficients of attenuation (a , a ) are related

p

to the respective quality factors (Q , Q ) and the logp

In general, acoustic log measurements yield con-

arithmic decrements (6 , 6 ) by

sistently reliable estimates of porosity in well com-

pacted, clean sandstones and carbonates, provided the

lithology is known.

(7)

For this purpose, the linear rela-

tionship of the form

1

where f is the frequency.

(B)

Acoustic wave propagation in rocks is known to

depend on porosity, rock matrix, composition, stress
(overburden and pore fluid pressures),

temperature,

fluid composition, and texture (the structural framework of grains and pore spaces), as illustrated in Fig.

5.

is used for estimating porosity () from the compressional wave travel time (l/v ) by using empirical conp

stants c

and c to be determined by measurements on

l
2
core samples.

A complete review of theoretical and experimental

investigations of these properties are given in Reference 11 together with description of applications in
the petroleum industry.

As in other conventional porosity logs, however,

variations in lithology make the porosity estimates
from compressional wave transit times alone unreliable.
In

these

instances,

conventional acoustic logs are

used in conjunction with density and/or neutron logs,

Methods of elastic wave propagation utilized in
boreholes can be broadly classified into two groups:
(1) Transmission and (2) Reflection.

The properties

or with additional measurements of shear wave transit

The latter method 1l is based on the relation-

times.

measured in each method and its general applicaitons

ships shown in Fig. 7. In this figure, laboratory S

6
and field data are plotted to indicate the lithologic

are listed in Table 3. Detailed descriptions of these

. a recent reprLnt
.
me th 0 d s are compL'1 e d Ln
vo 1ume. 12

dependence

of

compressional to shear wave velocity

ratios.

Some of the highlights will be presented below, along

with the descriptions of more recent technology.

The use of borehole measurements of compressional16

and shear-wave transit times is described by Nations
for determining porosity and lithology in mixed-litho-

Transmission Method

logy rocks.

He assumes that the velocity ratio 1.s a

constant for a pure rock type: 1.6 for sandstones, 1.B

Primary application of the borehole measurements

for dolomites, and 1.9 for limestones.

He further as-

of elastic wave properties, so far, has been the use

sumes that mixed lithology rocks will exhibit a ratio

of compressional wave velocities for evaluation of por-

directly proportional to the contents of the two miner-

,643

SPE 10037

OPEN HOLE WELL LOGGING

als, and that porosity is equally distributed between

the two.

NUCLEAR RADIATION METHODS

From the velocity ratio, he first determines

the mineralogical composition, then based on this in-

First borehole measurements of nuclear properties

formation, assigns the appropriate matrix transit time

of earth formations were conducted in 1939 to obtain

for calculating porosity.

of

this

technique

is

logs in cased holes by measuring natural radioactivity.

An example of the results

illustrated

in

Fig. 8,

Since then the technology has evolved to include a

for

broad spectrum of measurements for use in both open

20 21
.
and cased holes (Table 4). Two repnnt volumes '

dolomite-sandstone and dolomite-limestone lithologies.

present more detailed descriptions of these methods.

Other applications of the transmission method of

More recent technology will be described below.

elastic wave propagation in a borehole include seismic

and geological interpretation; determinations of porosity,

lithology,

and hydrocarbon content;

predicting
Natural Gamma Ray Logs

overpressure zones; evaluating cement bond quality and

porosity in cased holes; determination of dynamic elas-

Natural gamma radiation is present in all sedi-

tic constants; predicting sand control problems; evaluating fractures and fracturing prospects; and estimat-

mentary rocks to different degrees.

ing permeability.

seem to contain a relatively higher concentration of

These application are described in

radioactive

Reference 11 with specific examples.

elements.

Shales, however,

Clay minerals

have

large

affinity to absorb these elements released from the

decay of radioactive series as well as to hold onto
those present in their original source rocks.

Reflection Method

sands and carbonates,

lower concentrations of radioactive elements.

The reflection method of elastic wave propagation
logging is basically similar to sonar.

A single trans-

Clean

on the other hand, have much

These

elements decay by emitting gamma rays and measurements

of the differences in radioactivity level can usually

ducer rotates at constant speed, emitting acoustic pul-

be used to differentiate between shales and nonshales.

ses in the megahertz range and receiving their echoes

from the borehole wall.

The azimuth of the beam is

also recorded.

As in the transmission method, both

travel times and amplitudes are used. One such tool,
Borehole Televiewer 17 produces a continuous acoustic

Since the initial experiments, in fact, the borehole measurement of the total natural radioactivity
has evolved to become a very useful tool for obtaining
lithology information and for identifying porous zones

picture of a borehole wall as if it were split verti-

in open and cased holes, in fresh water, in salt water,

cally along the north and laid flat (Fig. 9).

in oil-base muds, or in empty holes.

It is

used in an open hole to delineate fracture location

and orientation, bedding planes, and vuggy porosity;

There

are

three

major

sources of natural ra-

and in a cased hole, to determine the size and distri-

dioactivity in earth formations:

bution of perforations and to inspect casing failures.

the thorium series, and the radioactive isotope potassium 40.

In fractured reservoirs, borehole televiewer is

an essential formation evaluation tool providing data
that no other combination of logs can produce.

Useful-

ness of this technology has been further increased with

the recent improvements in data recording techniques

the uranium series,

The uranium series starts with 92U238 and,

through a series of disintegrations becomes the element

Pb 206
Similarly, the thorium series starts
82 232
with
Th
and disintegrates to an isotope of
90
208
lead
82Pb
The
radioactive
isotope
potas40
sium, 19K , which is much more prevalent in nature
lead

which allow generation of multiple logs from a single

than

run, displaying data on a high resolution fiber optic

calcium through a single beta decay.

recorder, and image enhancement techniques using homomorphic principles and fast Fourier transforms to improve delineation of fractures. 19

either

uranium

or

thorium,

disintegrates

to

The gamma-ray spectroscopy tool, which is available from service companies, was developed for record-

644

SPE 10037

A.

(TURK) TIMUR

ing the individual contributions of the uranium - and

of gamma radiation through matter can be used for meas-

thorium-series and potassium isotope to the natural

22
gamma spectra.
Energy levels are well known for

uring its density.

potassium,
ies.

the uranium series, and the thorium ser-

For downhole gamma-gamma measurements,

a gamma

By computer processing of the energy spectra,

ray source and two detectors are mounted on a sidewall

the concentration of these constituents are determined

skid which is applied to the wall of the borehole. 25

and presented on a log as parts per million for "ura-

The radioactive source emits gamma rays continuously

nium" and "thorium" and as percent for "potassium"

which interact with the formation. In conventional den-

23
logs, in addition to the total gamma ray.

sity logging, gamma rays are counted within the energy

band where the Compton scattering is dominant.

A detailed summary of applications of natural gamma ray spectral data is given in Reference 24.

For

qualitative analyses, natural gamma ray spectroscopy

has been useful for detailed stratigraphic correlation,

Hence,

the density log responds to the electron density, which

is related to the formation bulk density (P ). If the
b
matrix density (Pm) and the fluid density (p ) are
f
known, porosity can be calculated from

recognition of rock types of different facies, high

(8)

permeability and fracture identification, and location

of watered-out intervals.

For quantitative analyses,

it has provided data for determining reservoir shali-

Modern density logs provide bulk density measure-

ness, source rock potential, and evaluation of coal,

uranium, potash, and other minerals.

ments corrected for borehole effects such as mud cake

and small hole irregularities.

An example of density

derived porosity compared with core analysis porosity,

The example in Fig. 10 illustrates the response
in an organic rich (source-rock) shale in contrast to
a typical shale.

Relatively clean and tight Buda lime-

stone (4122-4218 ft) is characterized by low potassium,

uranium, and thorium.

for a poorly consolidated California sand, is shown in

Fig. 11.

It can be seen that porosities from density

logs are significantly (10 more porosity units) less

than those from routine core analysis.

However, when

In the Del Rio shale below the

the core porosities are measured under simulated sub-

limestone, the typical shale response is illustrated

surface pressure conditions, core and log porosities

26
were found to be in much closer agreement.

by the high potassium and thorium concentrations and

a moderate uranium presence.

In contrast, above the

limestone, the organic-rich (source-rock) partly calcareous,

Eagle Ford shales

is characterized by the

low potassium and thorium and high uranium components.

A recent development in the gamma-gamma method is

the measurement of photoelectric absorption cross sec27
tion.
In the energy spectrum observed by the detector of a density tool, the gamma ray energy distribution, above a certain energy level, is governed by the
Compton scattering, which reflects only the electron

Gamma-Gamma Logs

density.
In addition to the natural gamma radioactivity,

The lower energy part of the spectrum on the

other hand is governed by both the electron density

artificial sources of gamma rays are used in a variety

and the photoelectric absorption effect.

of borehole measurements.

When gamma radiation passes

photoelectric effect is strongly dependent on the atom-

through matter, it interacts by photoelectric absorp-

ic number, the low energy spectrum reflects the lith-

tion, Compton scattering and pair production.

ology much more strongly.

Within

Since the

In the lithodensity log, by

the energy range of 0.6 to 1.3 MeV, Compton scattering

taking the ratio of the count rates in the low and high

is predominant,

energy windows, the electron density effect is elimina-

i.e.,

the gamma

rays are scattered

mainly by the orbital electrons of the atoms.

The pro-

bability that a gamma ray will collide with an electron

ted and the resulting ratio is used to obtain the photoelectric absorption cross section (P ).
e

is proportional to the electron density which is, in

turn, proportional to the density of the matter.

Hen-

ce, measurement of the decrease in intensity of a beam

645

Typical values of P (barns/electron) are listed

e
in Table 7 for various rocks and fluids. 28 Figs. 12

SPE 10037

OPEN HOLE WELL LOGGING

and 13 illustrate the response of this measurement in

and/or

different lithologies.

borehole effects.

As shown in these figures, the

Pe curve is a good lithology indicator.

neutrons

and

compensate

for

the

Also, it is
An example of a simultaneous recording of density

affected very little by the type of fluids in the

pores.

epithermal

and compensated thermal neutron porosity is given in

In combination with density and neutron logs,

it is used to analyze more complex lithologies includ-

Fig. 14 for a well in Nigeria.

This combination has

ing three-miner31 matrices and porosity.29

been used to determine porosity and lithology and for

'
~'d ent~' f
y~ng
gas zones. 30 I n water zones, b ot h measurements of porosity are in agreement if the formation is clay free; otherwise, the measurements can be

Neutron Logs

used to determine clay content.

Even though the dual detector thermal neutron log

In neutron logging, a steady-state neutron source

has proven useful for providing porosity and lithology

is used to determine formation porosity through measurements of hydrogen content.

greater than 100 eV)

A fast neutron (energy

Among

elements commonly found in sedimentary rocks, hydrogen

thus, neutron has the highest probability of colliding
Furthermore, since

hydrogen has about the same mass as a neutron, the

average

neutron energy

highest

for

loss

hydrogen.

For

per collision is also

both

these

it is somewhat sensitive

ments

in the formation.

To avoid this dependence,

tools have been developed to count epithermal neutrons

with energies from 0.1 to 100 eV.

has the highest scattering cross section (20 barns);

wi th hydrogen in the formation.

effect~,

to variations in capture cross section (S) of the ele-

traveling through matter loses

its energy by elastic collisions or scattering.

compensated borehole

Unfortunately, the

intensity of the epithermal neutrons is rather low,

thus resulting in reduced count rates and poor statistics.

To circumvent this, a new neutron logging

tool

introduced with two thermal and two epi-

was

thermal detectors in order to combine the advantages

reasons,

of the better measurement statistics of thermal neu-

hydrogen is the most efficient element (or moderator)

tron detectors with the insensitivity of epithermal

in slowing down neutrons.

detectors to the presence of elements with large S.31

The slowing down of high energy neutrons, therefore,

depends

on

the

amount

of

hydrogen present.

This new neutron logging tool provides two separate measurements of porosity, one from each pair of

Since the concentration of hydrogen in oil and water

detectors.

is about the same (and as long as the water is in the

mation about the clay content of the formation.

pore spaces), the measurements reflect porosity.

tionally, the epithermal measurements provide better

If,

on the other hand, gas is present, causing a lower

Comparison of the two can provide inforAddi-

gas detection in shaly sands.

hydrogen density, then lower porosities are estimated.

For the same reason, the hydrogen of bound water in

Fig. 15 illustrates the improved gas detection

clays and other minerals causes higher estimates of

with this new density-neutron porosity combination.

porosity.

In

this

well

sand

is

deposited

above a dolomite,

Matrix density of 2.70 gm/cc for this sand is calcuAfter a neutron has been moderated to thermal en-

lated from density-thermal neutron combination whereas

ergy levels, it is most likely to be absorbed by a

density-epithermal neutron combination yields the cor-

nucleus in the matter.

The excess energy is emitted

as capture gamma radiation, at a wavelength that is

characteristic of the element involved.

rect value of 2.65 gm/cc, thus providing a better in0 f gas, 31

' t'~on
d ~ca

Capture cross

sections of the common elements vary from 0.0002 barns

for oxygen to 0.3 barns for hydrogen and 31.6 barns
for chlorine.
count
utilize

the

Early neutron logs were designed to

capture

dual

Pulsed Neutron Logs

gamma

detectors

rays.
for

More

counting

tools

Pulsed neutron logs use a source emitting high

thermal

energy neutrons (14 MeV) in a cyclical sequence and

recent
both

646

SPE 10037

A.

(TURK) TIMUR

gamma-ray detectors to measure a variety of formation

Fig. 16 illustrates the use of PNC logging for moni-

properties.

to ring water flood in a barefoot observation well in a

When a burse of neutrons from this high

energy source is injected in the formation, they lose

clean carbonate reservoir in the Middle East. 32

The

most

three logs (TDT) were run in 1977, 1978, and 1979.

An

of

their

energy

through

inelastic

scattering

during the first few microseconds to become epithermal.

increase of S (shaded area between curves) indicates a

Then through elastic collisions with nuclei in the

saline water influx and a decrease (unshaded area) in-

matter, they slow down to thermal energy, and finally

dicates fresh water.

are captured, emitting a capture gamma ray.

Another pulsed neutron logging technique uses the
The more common pulsed neutron logging technique,

induced gamma ray spectra resulting from both fast neu-

Pulsed Neutron Capture Logging, involves measuring the

tron interactions and thermal neutron capture.

rate of decay of the capture gamma-ray flux.

a pulsed neutron source is used to generate 14 MeV

Since

Again,

the rate of decay of capture events, which is propor-

neutrons.

tiona 1 to the number of neutrons present in a medium,

ing in the emission of characteristic gamma-rays of

the log is a measure of the thermal neutron absorption

well

cross

section.

They interact with formation nuclei, result-

defined

energies

for

each

neutron

reaction.

Present logging technology utilizes

Therefore, elements in a formation can be identified

two detectors and various gates to measure formation

by the specific gamma rays they emit and their concen-

capture cross section (Lb ). It includes the contributions from the rock, its interstitial water, and hy-

of the specific gamma-rays.

drocarbons.

trations can be determined from the relative intensity

This may be expressed as

These principles

Lb = Lm(l-) +LwSw + Lh c (l-S w)

(10)

carbon/oxygen ratio log for determining hydrocarbon

dent 0 f f
t 'Lon wa t er sa 1"LnL t y. 33
.
. d
sa t ura t Lon
Ln
epen
orma

where Lm, Lw and Lhc are neutron capture cross sections for rock matrix, water, and hydrocarbon respectively, and Sw is the water saturation as fraction of
pore volume.

A recently

(GST) ,

introduced tool, Gamma Spectrometer Tool

records both the inelastic and capture gamma

ray spectra.

32

These spectra are analyzed by a well-

site computer to determine the elemental composition

of the formation.

The neutron capture cross section reflects the

amount of chlorine in the formation.

In this respect

pulsed neutron logs have a response similar to resistivity logs; however, they can be run in both cased and
uncased holes.

were used for developing the

The elements C, Ca, Fe, 0, Sand Si

are determined from the fast neutron interactions and

the elements Ca, Cl, Fe, H, S, and Si from thermal neutron capture spectra.

The results are presented as

ratios which are defined in Table 8.

Primary application of pulsed neutron

capture logs has been in cased holes.

They have been

useful in locating hydrocarbon-bearing formations; mon-

The Gamma Spectrometer Tool was also run in the

itoring changes in gas/oil, gas/water, and oil/water

well shown in Fig. 16 together with the last TDT log

contacts; and determining water saturation when poros-

run

ity, salinity, and rock matrices are known.

ratio

One of

the more useful applications of pulsed neutron logs is

in determining residual oil saturation before instituting an enhanced recovery project.
log technique,

in

1979.
(COR)

Interpretation of

the

carbon/oxygen

indicates depletion below 4887 ft with

remaining oil saturation increasing slightly toward

the bottom. 33

The log-inject-

developed for this purpose , involves

The water saturations calculated from the TDT (run

logging with a pulsed neutron capture log, changing

1979) by assuming original saline formation water are

the capture cross section of the formation fluid by

lower than those from GST, indicating fresh water mix-

injection and then relogging.

ing with the original connate water.

The salinity in-

dex derived from SIR indicate fresh water in the formaMany of these applications are described in papers
compiled in the reprint volume. 21 A recent example in

tion above 4960 ft.

This is confirmed by the corres-

ponding change between the TDT's of 1978 and 1979. 33

647

SPE 10037

OPEN HOLE WELL LOGGING

10

sedimentary studies.

OTHER WELL LOGGING METHODS

Resistivities

for

correlation

are recorded by electrodes on four pads riding the wall

Some of the well logging technology which could

of the borehole.

The pads are held in the same plane,

not be classified in the previous three groups are lis-

perpendicular to the axis of the hole.

ted as the Other Well Logging Methods in Table 5.

measurements of hole diameter, orientation of the tool,

Only

Two independent

three of these will be briefly described below to illu-

and hole deviation are recorded also.

strate the broad scope of well logging technology.

the high resolution, four-arm dipmeter are processed

These data from

to derive large numbers of dip calculations for geolo. l '1nterpretat10ns.

.
34
g1ca

Borehole Geometry Logs

A knowledge of borehole geometry is essential for

Application of the dipmeter for exploration and

correcting and interpreting the borehole geophysical

measurements.
by

four

different

caliper logs:

three-arm, and four-arm devices.

one-arm,

cribed here.

two-arm,

respond differently in the same noncylindrical hole.

Therefore, sometimes in a combination of these caliper
measurements are used to describe the borehole crossIn addition to defining hole corrections for

other logs, the caliper logs are used for calculating

Dipmeter data, however, must be processed by a technique suitable for the specific geologic application.
A recent computing technique, GEODIP, uses pattern recognition to correlate four dipmeter resistivity cur36 This results in much higher density of dip data
ves.
which is useful in stratigraphic interpretation.

18 compares the results

hole volume to determine cement requirements, and for

measuring

mud

cake

thickness

indicating

Reference 35 describes a broad range of

applications for both structural and stratigraphic use.

These tools, usually

having dual functions as part of another measurement,

section.

development geology are numerous and will not be des-

Cross-section of the hole is measured

obtaine~

Fig.

with this processing

technique with those from the core description.

permeable

zones.
In some applications, such as directional dril-

Nuclear Magnetism Log

ling, a knowledge of the complete geometry of the well

required in addition to the local cross-section.

Downhole nuclear magnetism measurements in the

For instance, during the drilling of a relief well, it

earth's magnetic field are found to yield log responses

is essential to know precisely the borehole geometry,

related to the formation fluids and not to the rock

including the azimuth and deviation of the hole in

matrix.

three dimensional space.

For this purpose, deviation

the Free Fluid Index (FFI) and the spin-lattice relaxa-

logs are used to determine the angle and drift of di-

tion time (T ), were found to reflect pore size distri-

rectional wells.

but ion in sandstones.

is

An example is the Borehole Geometry

The measurements conducted by this technique,

Laboratory measurements on many

Tool which provides two independent caliper curves, a

core samples from sandstone reservoirs allover the

continuous measurement of the hole deviation, and of

world indicated

the orientation of the calipers with respect to magnetic north.

FFI = (1 - S )
wr

The data recorded with this tool and the

results of computations are shown in Fig. 17, which

describes the geometry of a well in Algeria.

and

and north west-south

FFI/~)2

(12)

are in percent of bulk volume, Swr is

the irreducible water saturation in fraction of pore

Dipmeter Logs

volume, and K is permeability in millidarcies. 37

Dipmeters are used to obtain a continuous record

formation dips

'P

(1 -

where FFI and

of

",4.4/ 10 4

K = 0.125

on a horizontal plane and on three vertical planes orinorth-south,

(11)

The devi-

ation plots show the projections of the well profile

ented east-west,
east. 6

Per-

meabilities calculated from a Nuclear Magnetism Log in

for structural; stratigraphic, and

648

a Texas Gulf Coast well are compared in Fig. 19 with

SPE 10037

A.

those from sidewall core measurements. 38

11

(TURK) TIMUR

Also plotted

in which Pm is the matrix density and

in track 3 of this figure are the Free Fluid Index

(fraction of bulk volume).

(FFI) , and the porosity ( ) obtained from density and

the

neutron logs.

useful

in determining porosity in carbonate

In Eq. 13, B representing

equivalent conductance of the clay counterions

2
(mho/cm /meq), is determined empirically as a function
42
of Rw and temperature.

In other applications, Nuclear Magnetism logs have

proven

is the porosity

Empirical observations have indicated a power law

dependence of F;" on porosity:

. 1 saturat10n
' ( most accurate wh en
roc k s, 39 reS1, d ua 1 01.

used in a log-inject-Iog method), water saturation in

(15 )

heavy oil zones, (especially useful in distinguishing

heavy-oil zones from fresh-water sands), and for iden'
'
t1'fylng
gas- b
earlng
zones. 40

where A and m'" (commonly referred to as the cementation

exponent) are to be determined empirically by measurements on core samples.

When core data is not avail-

able,

statistical correlations are used to estimate

these parameters.
In one such study, 43 laboratory

WELL LOG INTERPRETATION

Interpretation of well logs is conducted for eval-

measurements of F'; and were correlated for more than

1,800 sand samples collected from 15 oil fields

uation of exploration and development wells before com-

throughout the world.

pletion and in making abandonment and workover deci sions for older wells. Additionally, data from well

yielded values of 1.13 for A and 1.73 for m;".

logs are used to supplement seismic and other explora-

I n t h e same dispersed-clay model, electrical prop.

ert1es
0 f hydrocarbon containing sands are given by

tion methods as well as engineering applications such

The results of this analysis

as drilling, identifying formation pressures, fracturing, stabilizing boreholes, consolidating sands, and
others.

For most formation evaluation applications,

however, primary petrophysical parameters of interest,

are

porosity,

permeability,

-n;"
w

(1 + R BQ /S )

t
w v w 1
Ro [ (l+RBQ)
w v

(16)

hydrocarbon saturation,

and lithology.

where Sw is the water saturation in fraction of pore

Interpretation of the physical properties measured

volume, R is the resistivity of the hydrocarbon beart

ing rock, and n* (referred as Archie exponent) is an

in the borehole requires a knowledge of petrophysical

empirical constant to be determined by measurements on

relationships to obtain these fundamental properties

core samples.

of interest,

tration of the brine is high, then equation 15 reduces

For example, a physical model developed

' 41 d escr1'b es the e 1 ectrica 1 properb y Waxman an d Sm1ts

If the rock is shale free or the concen-

in the limit to the simple Archie's law:

ties of water saturated sands by

(17)

~(l+RBQ)
Rw
w v

(13)

An example of the importance of taking shaliness

where F;" is the formation factor (electrical shape fac-

into account in interpretation is illustrated in Fig.

tor); Rand
Rw are the resistivities of sand and satuo

20 for a Cretaceous age shaly sandstone at an approxi-

rant brine, respectively; and Q is the effective conv

centration of clay exchange cations (meq/ml).

Qv can

mate depth of 1050 m in the Manyberries Field of southeastern Alberta, Canada. 44 X-ray analysis of core sam-

be determined from a measurement of cation exchange

ples from this sand indicated the matrix to be mainly

capacity (CEC) by a chemical method through

quartz with dispersed clays predominantly kaolinite

and some illite.

Qv = CEC

(1 - )p /
m

(14)

Upper zone of this section after stimulation produced oil at a rate of 4 m3 /day with no

649

SPE 10037

OPEN HOLE WELL LOGGING

12
water.

As shmyn in this figure, Archie's law (Eq. 17)

estimates water saturations for this zone between 0.94

and 1.05, which are clearly inaccurate.

of data to the surface.

There, other computers are

used for recording and real time processing.

Waxman and
Combination logging tools have been developed to

Smits' model corrects for the clay conductivities, hence predicting more reasonable values of water satura-

reduce rig time during logging.

tion ranging from 0.35 to 0.62.

able of recording six or more petrophysical parameters

concurrently.

As search for hydrocarbons becomes costlier, today's economics requires not only accurate hydrocarbon
saturations

but also the uncertainty in estimating

these values.

For instance, in the previous example,

determination of water saturation with the Waxman and

Smits method required six parameters:

porosity ()

connate water resistivity (R ), cementation exponent

Some of these are cap-

For instance, the "triple-combo" consis-

ting of gamma-ray, dual induction, compensated neutron

and compensated formation density logs provides, in a
single run, a complete suite of logs for formation evaluation. 2 Wellsite computers provide quick-look processing of these log data for immediate completion decisions.

They also allow transmission via satellites

or phone lines to central computer facilities.

(m>';-) , mobility of the clay counterions (B), cation exMore sophisticated interpretations are done with

change capacity per unit pore volume (Q ), and the satv

uration exponent (n*).

An error analysis for deter-

mination of water saturation can be made by using the

large-capacity computers at the computer centers.

In

addition to the log data, formation evaluation requires

partial derivatives and the uncertainties for each par-

integrated analysis of core, fluid, production, and

ameter.

geological data.

The results of this analysis are shown in Fig.

21 where the error in S is in the order of 15 satura45

tion percent.
Also s:own in this figure are the rel-

Core and fluid samples are properly preserved at

ative contributions of each parameter to the uncertain-

the wellsite and then analyzed in the laboratories to

ty indicated.

provide the necessary input.

Petrophysical parameters

such as porosity, permeability, formation factor, and

As demonstrated, clays play an important role in

resistivity index are determined by measurements on

interpretation.

not

core samples under simulated subsurface conditions.

only the amount of clay, but also the kinds of clay

Rock samples are studied by scanning electron microsco-

make a significant difference.

Specific surface areas

py (SEM) , X-ray analysis, gamma ray spectroscopy, neut-

of clays, shown in Fig. 22, vary by two orders of mag-

ron activation analysis, and cation exchange capacity

the

More importantly,

however,

nitude as do their cation exchange capacities. 45

In

(CEC) measurements.

The repeat formation tester pro-

other words, the same amount of montmorillonite would

vides essential data on reservoir pressures and fluid

be almost two orders of magnitude more effective in

samples for laboratory analyses.

contributing to the electrical conductivity than the

same amount of kaolonite.

Numerous interpretation methods have been develop-

Additionally, clay's affect

different petrophysical properties differently.

For

ed for computer processing of large suites of logs.

instance, as described, effect of kaolinite on electri-

Many in-house or commerical log processing systems are

cal properties is rather small when compared to that

available for either batch or interactive processing

of montmorillonite.

On the other hand, kaolinite has

of well logs to obtain tabular and analog presentations

a much higher effect on the neutron log where the ef-

of porosity, permeability, hydrocarbon saturation, and

Ii tho logy . An example output is shown in Fig. 23 to

fect of montmorillonite is only moderate.

describe a recent computer-processed log interpretaAs demand for accurate formation evaluation in-

tion technology, GLOBAL. 8

In this technique, an error

creases, not only the number of well logging sensors

model is defined to relate tool measurements to petro-

but also the amount of data acquired by each has been

physical parameters such as porosity, lithology, and

increasing at an accelerating rate.

fluid saturations.

To meet this chal-

Then, using a minimization routine,

lenge of data explosion, logging tools have been equip-

the model searches for the solution with the minimum

ped with downhole computers for digital transmission

error at each depth level.

650,

To indicate how well the

SPE 10037

A.

13

(TURK) TIMUR

answers fit the chosen interpretation model, the "re-

time during logging.

duced coherence" curve (Fig. 23) is presented as a qua-

six or more petrophysical parameters in a single trip,

lity curve.

providing enough data for a complete evaluation of the

The lithology shown in Fig. 23 consists

of sand, silt, and clay.

Shallow and deep investigat-

Some are capable of recording

reservoir for porosity and fluid saturations.

Wellsite

ing resistivity gamma ray, density, neutron, litho-den-

computers provide quick-look analysis of these data

sity, and dielectric logs were used in this analysis.

for immediate decision making.

The model is simultaneously fitted to each of these

terpretations are conducted at computer centers by in-

More sophisticated in-

logs and control displays are presented to indicate

tegrated analysis of log, core fluid, production, and

the goodness of fit for each case.

geological data.

Good as they are, many of the commerical log processing techniques are designed to solve complicated

Open hole well logging is an important part of

formation evaluation.

Some selected topics were high-

problems in a general way, and usually become black-

lighted to describe its broad scope.

boxes for most users.

alone,

As mentioned earlier, log inter-

however,

None of these

is sufficient to provide the basis

pretation utilizes all of the available science and

for costly decisions.

then becomes an art.

tively through an integrated evaluation of well log,

No matter how sophisticated a

computer processing scheme, without an intelligent user

These can be made most effec-

rock and fluid analyses, and reservoir data.

it can only serve as a machine rather than as an artist.

With recent advances in both computer hardware

and software, the direction is one of providing the

interpreter with an interactive processing capability.46

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author expresses his appreciation to Messrs. A. A.
Brown, F. L. Campbell, and G. N. Salaita of Chevron

An example of an integrated formation evaluation

program is shown diagramatically in Fig. 24.

Extensive

Oil Field Research Company for reviewing the manuscript.

core and fluid analyses indicated are very much an essential part of the program as are the open and cased
hole logging data with built in redundancies.

Also

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B. and Gouilloud, M.:

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Eaton,

F. M., Elliott, J.

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Olsen,

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651

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Vanderschel,

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Seismograph Service Corporation, Birdwell Divi-

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ing of SPE, April 12-14, 1978.

Vincent,

Ph.,

Gartner,

J.

E.,

and Attali, G.:

"GEODIP, an Approach to Detailed Dip Determination

using Correlation by Pattern Recognition,"
27.

Felder, B., and Boyeldieu, C.:

"The Lithodensity

Paper 6823, presented at the 52nd Annual meeting

Log," Trans. Sixth European Formation Evaluation

Symposium, Paper 0,

SPE

of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME,

the Society of Professional

Denver, CO, Oct. 9-12, 1977.

Well Log Analysts, London, March 26-27,1979.

37.
28.

29.

Edmondson, H.,

and Raymer, 1. L.:

"Radioactive

Timur,

A.:

"Pulsed Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Studies of Porosity, Movable Fluid and Permeabil-

Logging Parameters for Common Minerals," The Log

i ty of Sandstones," J.

Analyst, vol. 20, No.5, pp. 38-47,1979.

775-786; Trans., AIME, vol. 246,1969.

Gardner, J. S., and Dumanoir, J. L.:

"Litho-Dens-

38.

Herrick,

R.

C. ,

Pet.

Coutourie,

Tech.

(June 1969)

S. H. ,

and

Best,

ity Log Interpretation," Trans. of the Society of

D. 1.:

Professional Well Log Analysts, 21st Logging Sym-

System and its Application to Formation Evalua-

posium, Lafayette, July 8-11, 1980.

tion," SPE Paper 8361, presented at the 54th An-

"An

Improved

Nuclear

Magnetism

Logging

nual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum En30.

Ancel,

C., Couve de Murville, E., Dadrian, C.,

gineers of AIME, Las Vegas, Nevada, Sept. 23-26,

1979.

Deines, D., Goetz, J., Misk, A., Moore, J. Parker,

D.,

Trassard, J., and Weiss, K.:

"Schlumberger

Well Evaluation, Nigeria," Second Edition, 1974.

39.

Timur, A.:

"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of

Carbonate Rocks," Paper, Trans of the Society of

31.

Davis, R. R., Hall, J. E., and Boutemy, Y. L.:

Professional Well Log Analysts vol. 13, May 1972.

"A Dual Porosity CNL Logging System," SPE Paper

10296, presented 56th Annual Fall Meeting of the

40.

Neuman, C. H. and Brown, R. J. S.:

"Applications

Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, San Anto-

of Nuclear Magnetism Logging to Formation Evalua-

nio, Oct. 5-7, 1981.

tion" SPE Paper 10108, presented at the 56th An653

OPEN HOLE WELL LOGGING

16
nual

Meeting

of the

SPE

San Antonio,

Texas,

Oct. 5-7, 1981.

41.

Waxman, M. W. and Smits, 1. J. M.:

"Electrical

Conductivities in Oil-Bearing Shaly Sands," Soc.

Pet. Eng. J.
vol. 243.
42.

Waxman,

M. W.

(June 1968) 107-122; Trans., AIME,

and Thomas, E.

C.:

"Electrical

Conductivities in Shaly Sands: I. The Relation

Between Hydrocarbon Saturation and Resistivity
Index.

II. The Temperature Coefficient of Elec-

trical Conductivity," paper SPE 4094 presented

at SPE-AIME 47th Annual Fall Meeting,

San An-

tonio, Texas, Oct. 8-11,'1972.

43.

Timur, A., Hempkins, W. B., and Worthington, A.

E. :

"Porosity and Pressure Dependence of Forma-

tion Resistivity Factor for Sandstones," paper D,

presented at 'the 4th Formation Evaluation Symposium of the Canadian Well Logging Society in
Calgary, Alberta, May 9-10, 1972.
44.

Davis, B. W.:

"Petrophysical Evaluation Methods:

Basal Quartz Formation, Manyberries Area, Alberta," Paper j, presented at 7th Formation Evaluation Symposium of the Canadian Well Logging
Society, Oct. 21-24, 1979.
45.

Patchett, J. G.:

"An Investigation of Shale Con-

ducti vi ty," The Log Analyst, vol. XVI, no. 6, pp.

3-20, 1975.
46.

Moens, C.: "Interactive Petrophysical Evaluation

System - IPES," Paper N, presented at the TwentySecond Annual Logging Symposium Trans. vol. 1,
June 23-26, 1981.

654

SPE 10037

Table 1
Well Logging Data Rates
Method

Data Rate

ISF Induction - Sonic (Ref. 2)

200 Bits/Borehole Ft

High Resolution Dipmeter (Ref. 2)

25,000 Bits/Borehole Ft

Acoustic Waveform
Commercial (Ref. 2)
Research

60,000 Bits/Borehole Ft
4 Megabits/Borehole Ft

Induced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy

Commercial (Ref. 2)
Research

20,000 Bits/Second
10 Megabits/Seconds

Table 2
Electromagnetic Wave Methods
Method

Property

Application

Spontaneous Potential
(SP)

Electrochemical and
Electrokinetic Potentials

Formation Water Resistivity (R w )

Shales and Nonshales
Bed Thickness
Shaliness

Nonfocused Electric Log

Resistivity

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

Focused Conductivity Log

Resistivity

A,B,C,D,
Very Good for Estimating Rt in
Either Fresh Water or Oil Base Mud

Focused Resistivity Logs

Resistivity

A,B,C,D,
Especially Good for Determining Rt
of Thin Beds
Depth of Invasion

Focused and Nonfocused

Microresistivity Logs

Resistivity

Resistivity of the Flushed Zone (Rxo)

for Calculating Water Saturation without
Porosity and Bed Thickness

Dielectric Logs

Dielectric Permitivity

Water and Gas/Oil Saturations

Independent of Salinity

655

Water and Gas/Oil Saturation

Porosity of Water Zones
Rw in Zones of Known Porosity
True Resistivity of Formation (R t )
Resistivity of Invaded Zone

Table 3
Elastic Wave Methods
Method
T ransm ission

Reflection

Property

Application

Compressional and
Shear Wave Velocities

Porosity
Lithology
Elastic Properties, Bulk and Pore
Compressibilities

Compressional and
Shear Wave Attenuations

Location of Fractures
Cement Bond Quality

Amplitude of Reflected
Waves

Location of Vugs, Fractures

Orientation of Fractures and Bed
Boundaries
Casing Inspection

Table 4
Nuclear Radiation Methods
Method

Property

Application

Gamma Ray

Natural Radioactivity
Shaliness

Shales and Nonshales

Shaliness

Spectral Gamma Ray

Natural Radioactivity

Lithologic Identification

Gamma-Gamma (Compton)

Bulk Density

Porosity, Lithology

Gamma-Gamma (Photoelectric)

Photoelectric Absorption
Cross Section

Lithology

Neutron-Gamma

Hydrogen Content

Porosity

Neutron-Thermal Neutron

Hydrogen Content

Porosity - Gas from Liquid

Neutron-Epithermal Neutron

Hydrogen Content

Porosity - Gas from Liquid

Pulsed Neutron Capture

Decay Rate of Thermal

Neutrons

Water and Gas/Oil

Saturations
Reevaluation of Old Wells

I nduced Gamma Ray

Gamma Ray Spectra Induced

by Neutron Interactions

Elemental Composition
of the Formation Rock
and Fluids

656

Table 5
Other Well Logging Methods

Method

Application

Property

Caliper

Borehole Diameter

Calculation of Cement Volume

Location of Mud Cake

Deviation Log

Azimuth and Inclination

of Borehole

Borehole Position

Dipmeter

Azimuth and Inclination

of Bedding Planes

Dip and Strike of Beds

Gravity Meter

Density

Formation Density

Ultra-Long Spaced
Electric Log

Resistivity

Salt Flank Location

Nuclear Magnetism

Amount of Free Hydrogen

Relaxation Rate of Hydrogen

Effective Porosity and

Permeability of Sands Porosity
for Carbonates

Formation Testing

Pressure; Water, Oil,

and Gas Sampling

Reservoir Pressure and

Indication of Permeability
Water, Oil, and Gas Samples

Production Log

Temperature, Flow Rate,

Fluid Specific Gravity,
Pressure

Downhole Production or
Injection

Mud Logging

Mud, Drill Cuttings, Drilling

Variables

Real Time Formation

Evaluation, Drilling Control

Table 6
Relative Dielectric Constants and Propagation Time for Various Minerals (Ref 9)
Mineral

E'r =

E'/EO

tpl (Nanosec/m)

Sandstone

4.65

7.2

Dolomite

6.8

8.7

Limestone

7.5 - 9.2

9.1-10.2

Anhydrite

6.35

8.4

Dry Colloids*

5.76

8.0

Halite*

5.6 - 6.35

7.9 - 8.4

Gypsum*

4.16

6.8

Petroleum

2.0 - 2.4

4.7 - 5.2

Shale

5 - 25

7.45 - 16.6

Fresh Water at 25 0 C

78.3

*Values Estimated From Published Literature

657

29.5

Table 7
Photoelectric Absorption Cross-Sections (Ref. 28)
Pe
(Barns/Atom)

Specific
Gravity

Quartz

1.81

2.65

Calcite

5.08

2.71

Dolomite

3.14

2.87

Anhydrite

5.05

2.96

Halite

4.65

2.17

Material

Siderite

14.7

3.94

Pyrite

17.0

5.00

Barite

267

4.48

Kaolinite

1.83

2.42

Chlorite

6.30

2.77

Illite

3.45

2.53

Montmorillonite

2.04

2.12

Water (Fresh)

0.358

1.00

Water (100K ppm NaC1)

0.734

1.06

Water (200K ppm NaC1)

1.12

1.12

Oil (n(CH 2 ))

0.119

Poil

Gas (CH 4 )

0.095

Pgas

Table 8
Elemental Yield Ratios for Induced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy (Ref. 32)
Yield Ratio

Name

Interaction

Label

C/O

Inelastic

Carbon-Oxygen Ratio

COR

CI/H

Capture

Salinity-Indicator Ratio

SIR

H/(Si + Cal

Capture

Porosity-I ndicator Ratio

PIR

Fe/(Si + Cal

Capture

I ron-I ndicator Ratio

IIR

Si/(Si + Cal

Capture and Inelastic

Lithology-I ndicator Ratio

LlR

658

Spontaneous
Potantiel

Dual Laterolog Micro S F L

c ~____~ln~d~uc~U~'o~n~L~oL-____~

.g
20mV

Deep Latarolog
:;. ................. Shallow Laterolog
[
MicroS F L
Ii
Induction Log (6FF40)
i!.. ._.- Rt from Global Rt
.2

Processed Data

10

1110

1lI0II

Film Units

Converted
')------"1 Data

1----+1.-

Data Tape Transport

Program Tape
Transport

(>

I..9!
o
.s:::.

(\
Video Monitor

<:

'>

Keyboard/Printer

Figure 1
Block Diagrem of a Computer Based Well Logging System (Ref. 4)

(
)

<

2001-----j,.-..;;~-_+---t--l

Figure 2
Determination of True Resistivity Profile,
Illizi Basin, Algeria (Ref. 6)

659

150

25

5 3

F vo

CALIPER
6"

</> 0 LIME

t pi

GAMMA RAY

SA

16"

0.1

</> N LIME

o:1. ____________ 0.1

-Fvu-

ATTN
1000

PE

!!.. _______ ~~5'-----.::j0L------

Figure 3
Combination Gamma Ray/Dielectric/Neutron/
Lithodensity Logs (Ref. 10)

$T

s XO

GAMMA
RAY

0.5

$
100

EPT

QJi_____ _

CAl. (-) BIT SIZE

150

6"

1--

6"

--I

Figure 4
Porosity and Saturation From Dielectric Log (Ref. 10)

660

---!O

Acoustic Properties

Rock
Composition

Stress

Fluid
Composition

Temperature

Porosity

Texture

Figure 5
Factors Affecting Acoustic Properties of Rocks (Ref. 11)

661

INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME

500

160

fL sim

200

fLs 1ft

60

CONVENTIONAL
OPEN HOLE

Ie

Figure 6
Compressional and Shear Wave Interval-Transit-Time
Logs (Ref. 13)

P-Wave Velocity (kft/sec)

16
18

14

12

20

22

2.2

2.1

0.35

..
0

'':;

et:

2.0

>

.'!:::

Limestones

8
0;

>

~Cp)
6
i

1.9

..

0
'':;

0.30 et:

Vs

Q)

1.8

c;;
c:

'(Q

0
.;;;

1.7

c.
E

1.6

IA

~0

0~ .'::.'.: . .

0.33

Sandstones

~
"

'.

4.0

0.28

0..

0.25

0
c>

0.23

(;J:)

0.20

"

4.5
5.0
6.0
5.5
Compressional Wave Velocity (km/sec)

Figure 7
Compressional-to.shear Wave Velocity Ratio
Versus Compressional Wave Velocity (Ref. 11)

662

.'"c:
~

'0

... ':' .. : . .:

.'

1.5
3.5

Dolomites

0.15
6.5

7.0

25
Lithology Set
o Dolomite - Sandstone
Dolomite - Limestone

20

.,~

c..

.;;;

e
...<I

15

c..

~
0

.~
Q.
E 10

u
....

Dolomitic Sandstone
With Part of Pore
Space Not Connected

.,
.r:.

CIl

15

10

FDC - CNL Porosity, Percent

Figure 8
Porosity From Compressional Wave Transit Time Corractad For Lithology
by the Velocity Ratio Versus Porosity From Density - Neutron Crossplot
for Complex Lithologies (Ref. 16)

5560
DIP

5561

Angle

Direction

58"

N 70 E

5562

5563 -.IROe::.-=-

Angle

Direction

74

N 45 W

5564

5565

Figure 9
Borehole Televiewer Indicating Fractures of Different Dips
and Strikes (Ref. 18)

663

20

25

Total Counts Depth

Potassium
0----- 0.24%/CD
Uranium
1.24 ppm/CD
Thorium

0-

CPM

Counts Per Minute

o~pm/CD

30000

1500 . - - - - - - - - - = _ - - - - ,

""'~"
o

460

~~~---~~~~~~~~~---~~~~~~~

...a.

.x;-

~ 1600

Q)

Q)

-==::::

510

-;,J ....

1700

< _ _ _---l
L -_ _ _s::...-._~

50

Porosity. %
- - - - - - Density Log
- -- - - - - Routine Core
o
Overburden Restored

Figure 11
Density Log Comparison with Core Analysis Porosities (Ref. 26)

Figure 10
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log (Ref. 23)

664

p,b
2.0

GR
Caliper
----------

45

2.5

3.0

<f>N
15
...................

!!. ____ p-' ____ 5

Limestone

Dolomite

Anhydrite

,I

GR

Salt

2.0
45

3.0
<f>N

15

.. 1
!!. ____P.l ____ 5

I
I

Figure 12
Lithodensity Log in Limestone, Dolomite
Anhydrite, and Salt (Ref. 27)

Sandstone

Shale

Figure 13
Lithodensity Log in Sandstone and Shale (Ref. 27)

665

COMPENSATED NEUTRON
FORMATION DENSITY

GAMMA RAY
CALIPER
API UNITS

BULK

"<.J~ITV_'":DAMS

RESISTIVITY

Icc

CNL. LIMESTONE POROSITY

INCHES

_________________11.. __________ ~-------.:,:.t"_-__- - -___-----'=:.t

21

BIT SiZE

SANDSTONE POROSITY

- 9
-.1~ ___

2li!__ ,:.15
-.i-

c!

'-

..

r'

...

Gas

~-;..

9200

c:::.

---~4'
c ...

-)---..,.,~,,.

Oil

9300

Oil

Water

Water

9400

Figure 14
Density and Compensated Thermal Neutron Porosity Log Responses in
Water, Oil and Gas Zones in a Well in Nigeria (Ref. 30)

666

2.0

Pma
GR

3.0

30

00

<t>N
-------------

0 0_

rio

t -"'N
(Epi)

Sand

Figure 15
Thermal/Epithermal Neutron Log Comparison in a Gas Zone (Ref. 31)

667

Figure 16
Pulsed Neutron Logs of a Well With Fresh Water Flooding (Ref. 32)

668

NORTH (+)

ORIENTATIOIil

(meters)

4 ARM CAliPER (inchos)

HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
20
16

12

(y>

120" 240"

360"

0"

12o<':M00

380"

~I.AI"M _ _

MEAsLED L p J -

--- I-3OO~

-4

AZIIIIUTH

k\.

/'

I~ 1-t~.8

1500

'"

8..1.....L-'_L-.L..I.....L..J.--'~--"--.L...I.....L....L-'...l--'...P2A CALIPER

HVJ

18

0.1m 3

!t'

1_0m3

'\.1700

ly~400

'-';;~;,;;;;;;-'-1

}_

1_3 CALIPER

214SB

Jwm

"'00/
t.. 1100

-S
-12
-16

met.,.)

SOUTH
(-)

WEST(-)

EAST{+)

-4

_I

121620242832

HORtZONTAl DISTANCE
VERTlCAL PR9JECTION
ON EAST -WEST PlANE

TRUE VERTICAl DEPTH

(meters)

-500
J.8

~~~lEDJPTH
~ r650

1000

<~

1400

1500

r--..

2000

~~~

2148.8

I~

-4

12

16

20

28

2'

i
':

32

(meters)

-500

.0.8 'I'

~';"'ED

f-1500

,-

2500

~ZM1TH

~
?

860

.i

II-2'-:8.8

~2

85<

2000

rr

\
f

DEPTH

I~ ;;.-

"

>
1000

!<

JERT~AL ,J,JEC+.o" J. oo.lTH-kuTHlpLANi

i'
(-)

:-I

0
2
4
6
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

1000

1["

1500

r-

2000

-4

~
-

2'i.B

tI

r---,

;
~
1400

~
;=-

\\

(
;

(meters)

121620242832
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

Figure 17
Borehole Geometry Log and Well Profile Projections (Ref. 6)
669

~~
"

"

.5"

<....

~-:;. "'.;:,~
<~

'i

~f

J
f

~~-}

1-5
... ..
~

<l

...

c:;.

650

"< t--t-

"
~

MEASURED DEPTH

<

<.:::.

(:~'

~'.~

f
?

J.8
500

C~

==

VERT1CAL PROJECTION
ON NORTH WEST-SOUTH EAST PLANE

(mete.s)

-,/

~,"

r
~

TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH

-500

~
~

00tumc

"

~,-\

f
;

me.....)

HORIZONTAL DIS-mNCE

TRUE VERTtCAL DEPTH

J:~

[}.,:~~~,::;
.. ,.

ff;k

:~

;'

"[2

'

DIPS

CORRELATIONS

RESISTIVITY INCRERSES

-t

---------------->

CURVES

10

DEPTHS

STICK PLOT
(APPARENT

(ml

GEODIPl

20

1960

Gray shale

~ Dark org .... ic shale

~Coal

40

liD

1955

1:=--=1

10

Dip on cort'

l:.-.,':1 Medium-size grain sand

Figure 18
Comparison of Dipmeter with Core Description (Ref. 36)

670

10

PERMEABILITY

SP

POROSITY
(SDJ

5Q.._i':! ___ O

"1t12mV

1.0

10

I
I
PERMEABILITY
COMPUTED
-1--+==+';---

__ L_

GAMMA RAY
API UNITS

SO

100

ISO 0

TOTAL
I'CRJSITY (VFI

RILD(A.,'
10

20

20

.10

WATER SATURATION

o0

.20

..10

-6IJ

~oo

.1Kl

120

I
II

1065

L
IWW ~

",ITS>

AR

1070

Hl

PARAMETERS USED TO
CALCl.lATE WATER SATURATIONS
m*= 18

n= 18

m=I.8
"=1.8

Rw= O.AAm

8=S-7S-I-/~
Am
I,tr.

Figure 20
Comparison of Water Saturations in a Shaly Sand as Calculated by
Archie and Waxman-Smits Methods (Ref. 44)

Figure 19
Permeability and Free Fluid Index from Nuclear
Magnetism Log (Ref. 38)

671

% Error Contribution to ::"Sw 2

Water Saturation

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.0

1060

if>
1065

50

25

m"

I,,~

75

n~

Ov

Il I~ L~

1070

Best Estimate of Sw
~;::::::::::::::",::::

Estimate of Error in Sw

Figure 21
Uncertainty in Determining Water Saturation by Waxman-Smits
Method in Figure 20 (Ref. 44)

Specific
Area
m2 /gm

100

Specific CEC, meq/gm

0.Q1

Mont.

III.

Kaol.

0.1

Figure 22
Relation Between Specific Cation Exchange Capacity and Specific
Surface Area for API Standard Clays (Ref. 45)

672'

100

FLUID ANAL.

Pg
2.5

Sw
3.0

o 50

DlFF. CAL
100

Figure 23
Interpretation of Shallow and Deep Resistivity, Gamma Ray, Density,
Neutron, Lithodensity, and Dielectric Logs (Ref. 8)
673

Cores
Conventional
Rubber Sleeve
Pressure
Sidewall

Electrical
(01 L/DLL/
MSFL)
Dielectric

Density
Neutron
Acoustic

PNC

NML

Time-Lapse

Lithodensity

Surface GR
and Density

PNC1

Rock and
Fluid
Compositions

Petrophysical
cp, K, S, F, I,
Pc' CEC

Pore
Structure
SEM, NMR

Low Loss Mud

with Tracers

PNC3

Wireline
Formation
Tester

I ..~"'---- Open Hole ----""1.~1

Figure 24
Integrated Formation Evaluation Program

674-

Cased Hole