X Compt Iab

CompTIA A+ Certification
COMPREHENSIVE, 2009 EDITION
Revised Volume 1
4.9/5.0 rating from ProCert Labs

INCLU DE S:
Powerful CertBlaster pre- and post-
assessment software
Integrated mapping of all exam objectives
Hundreds of activities and review questions
978-1-4260-2178-7_Axzo_cvr_Vol1.indd 1
12/7/10 10:01 AM
CompTIA A+
Certification:
Comprehensive, 2009
Edition, Revised
Student Manual
Volume One
CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive,

2009 Edition, Revised Volume One
President, Axzo Press:
Jon Winder
Vice President, Product Development:
Charles G. Blum
Vice President, Operations:
Josh Pincus
Director of Publishing Systems Development:
Dan Quackenbush
Writers:
Judi Kling, Andy LaPage, Tim Poulsen
Copyeditor:
Ken Maher
Keytester:
Cliff Coryea
COPYRIGHT 2010 Axzo Press. All rights reserved.

No part of this work may be reproduced, transcribed, or used in any form or by any meansgraphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval
systemswithout the prior written permission of the publisher.
For more information, go to www.axzopress.com.
Trademarks
ILT Series is a trademark of Axzo Press.
Some of the product names and company names used in this book have been used for identification purposes only and
may be trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective manufacturers and sellers.
Disclaimers
We reserve the right to revise this publication and make changes from time to time in its content without notice.
The logo of the CompTIA Approved Quality Content (CAQC) program and the status of this or other training
material as Authorized under the CompTIA Approved Quality Content program signifies that, in CompTIAs
opinion, such training material covers the content of CompTIAs related certification exam.
The contents of this training material were created for the CompTIA A+ Essentials exam, 2009 Edition (220-701),
and the CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam, 2009 Edition (220-702), covering CompTIA certification
objectives that were current as of September 2010.
ISBN 10: 1-4260-2178-X
ISBN 13: 978-1-4260-2178-7
Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 GL 06 05 04 03
Contents
Introduction
Topic A: About the manual............................................................................... vi

Topic B: Setting your expectations................................................................... ix
Topic C: Re-keying the course ........................................................................ xvi
Troubleshooting methodology
1-1
Topic A: Troubleshooting stages ..................................................................... 1-2

Topic B: Professionalism................................................................................. 1-9
Unit summary: Troubleshooting methodology ............................................... 1-22
Operating systems
2-1
Topic A: Operating system fundamentals........................................................ 2-2

Topic B: Directory management..................................................................... 2-40
Topic C: File management.............................................................................. 2-58
Topic D: File and folder permissions.............................................................. 2-69
Unit summary: Operating systems .................................................................. 2-82
Electricity and power supplies
3-1
Topic A: Electrical safety ................................................................................ 3-2

Topic B: Power supplies ................................................................................. 3-14
Topic C: Power supply troubleshooting ......................................................... 3-22
Unit summary: Electricity and power supplies ............................................... 3-36
CPUs and motherboards
4-1
Topic A: Central processing units.................................................................... 4-2

Topic B: Cooling techniques .......................................................................... 4-22
Topic C: Motherboards................................................................................... 4-28
Topic D: Motherboard and CPU troubleshooting........................................... 4-37
Unit summary: CPUs and motherboards......................................................... 4-40
The Basic Input/Output System
5-1
Topic A: The BIOS and CMOS....................................................................... 5-2

Topic B: The POST and boot processes ......................................................... 5-12
Unit summary: The Basic Input/Output System ............................................. 5-20
Memory systems
6-1
Topic A: Memory ............................................................................................ 6-2

Topic B: Memory packaging .......................................................................... 6-10
Topic C: Memory installation......................................................................... 6-16
Topic D: Memory monitoring......................................................................... 6-22
Topic E: Memory troubleshooting ................................................................. 6-31
Unit summary: Memory systems .................................................................... 6-35
Bus structures
7-1
Topic A: Buses................................................................................................. 7-2

Topic B: The PCI bus ..................................................................................... 7-13
Unit summary: Bus structures ......................................................................... 7-19
ii
CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One
Expansion cards
8-1
Topic A: Video cards....................................................................................... 8-2

Topic B: Sound cards ..................................................................................... 8-14
Topic C: Internal modems.............................................................................. 8-19
Topic D: Expansion card troubleshooting ...................................................... 8-24
Unit summary: Expansion cards ..................................................................... 8-30
Peripheral connection types
9-1
Topic A: Serial and parallel connections......................................................... 9-2

Topic B: PS/2 connections ............................................................................. 9-11
Topic C: USB connections ............................................................................. 9-24
Topic D: FireWire connections ...................................................................... 9-31
Topic E: Multimedia connections .................................................................. 9-35
Topic F: Port, cable, and connector troubleshooting ..................................... 9-45
Unit summary: Peripheral connection types ................................................... 9-50
Data storage devices
10-1
Topic A: Drive adapters ................................................................................. 10-2

Topic B: Hard drives ..................................................................................... 10-14
Topic C: Optical drives ................................................................................. 10-41
Topic D: Removable storage devices ............................................................ 10-53
Topic E: Drive maintenance.......................................................................... 10-67
Topic F: Storage device troubleshooting ...................................................... 10-82
Unit summary: Data storage devices ............................................................. 10-88
Video output and image input devices
11-1
Topic A: Monitors .......................................................................................... 11-2

Topic B: Cameras.......................................................................................... 11-22
Unit summary: Video output and image input devices.................................. 11-31
Printers
12-1
Topic A: Printing technologies....................................................................... 12-2

Topic B: Printer installation .......................................................................... 12-16
Topic C: Printer optimization and maintenance............................................ 12-26
Topic D: Printer troubleshooting................................................................... 12-40
Unit summary: Printers .................................................................................. 12-52
Connecting computers
13-1
Topic A: Networking concepts....................................................................... 13-2

Topic B: Wired network connections............................................................ 13-43
Topic C: Basic internetworking devices ....................................................... 13-60
Unit summary: Connecting computers .......................................................... 13-76
Networking computers
14-1
Topic A: Addressing....................................................................................... 14-2

Topic B: Client configuration........................................................................ 14-32
Unit summary: Networking computers.......................................................... 14-64
Network troubleshooting
15-1
Topic A: Troubleshooting basics.................................................................... 15-2

Topic B: Troubleshooting the network .......................................................... 15-6
Unit summary: Network troubleshooting ...................................................... 15-39
iii
Portable computers
16-1
Topic A: Notebook computers........................................................................ 16-2

Topic B: Configuration.................................................................................. 16-19
Topic C: Component replacement ................................................................. 16-25
Topic D: Notebook issues .............................................................................. 16-43
Unit summary: Portable computers................................................................ 16-55
Windows management
17-1
Topic A: System management ........................................................................ 17-2

Topic B: Task Scheduler ............................................................................... 17-29
Topic C: Resource management .................................................................... 17-37
Topic D: Remote management ...................................................................... 17-55
Unit summary: Windows management .......................................................... 17-62
Windows monitoring
18-1
Topic A: System monitoring........................................................................... 18-2

Topic B: System performance ....................................................................... 18-32
Topic C: Backup and restore ......................................................................... 18-47
Unit summary: Windows monitoring............................................................. 18-63
Operating system troubleshooting
19-1
Topic A: Windows startup .............................................................................. 19-2

Topic B: System troubleshooting ................................................................... 19-6
Unit summary: Operating system troubleshooting......................................... 19-29
Security
20-1
Topic A: Operating system security................................................................ 20-2

Topic B: Windows Encrypting File System .................................................. 20-39
Topic C: Security hardware ........................................................................... 20-49
Topic D: Common security threats ................................................................ 20-57
Topic E: The human aspects of security........................................................ 20-72
Unit summary: Security ................................................................................. 20-98
Windows installation and upgrades
21-1
Topic A: Windows installation ....................................................................... 21-2

Topic B: Upgrades......................................................................................... 21-32
Unit summary: Windows installation and upgrades....................................... 21-46
Safety and maintenance
22-1
Topic A: Safety and hazards ........................................................................... 22-2

Topic B: Computer maintenance ................................................................... 22-13
Topic C: Safe work practices......................................................................... 22-20
Topic D: Disposing of computer equipment.................................................. 22-22
Unit summary: Safety and maintenance......................................................... 22-25
The Open Systems Interconnection model
A-1
Topic A: The OSI model..................................................................................A-2
System cases
B-1
Topic A: System cases .....................................................................................B-2
Binary and hexadecimal numbering
C-1
Topic A: Count like a computer.......................................................................C-2
iv
CompTIA A+ acronyms
D-1
Topic A: List of abbreviations......................................................................... D-2
Certification exam objectives map
E-1
Topic A: Essentials (2009) comprehensive exam objectives .......................... E-2

Topic B: Practical Application (2009) comprehensive exam objectives ....... E-20
Course summary
S-1
Topic A: Course summary............................................................................... S-2

Topic B: Continued learning after class .......................................................... S-5
Glossary
G-1
Index
I-1
Introduction
After reading this introduction, you will know

how to:
A Use ILT Series manuals in general.
B Use prerequisites, a target student
description, course objectives, and a skills

inventory to properly set your expectations
for the course.
C Re-key this course after class.
vi
Topic A: About the manual

ILT Series philosophy
Our manuals facilitate your learning by providing structured interaction with the
software itself. While we provide text to explain difficult concepts, the hands-on
activities are the focus of our courses. By paying close attention as your instructor leads
you through these activities, you will learn the skills and concepts effectively.
We believe strongly in the instructor-led class. During class, focus on your instructor.
Our manuals are designed and written to facilitate your interaction with your instructor,
and not to call attention to manuals themselves.
We believe in the basic approach of setting expectations, delivering instruction, and
providing summary and review afterwards. For this reason, lessons begin with
objectives and end with summaries. We also provide overall course objectives and a
course summary to provide both an introduction to and closure on the entire course.
Manual components
The manuals contain these major components:
Table of contents
Introduction
Units
Appendices
Course summary
Glossary
Index
Each element is described below.
Table of contents
The table of contents acts as a learning roadmap.
Introduction
The introduction contains information about our training philosophy and our manual
components, features, and conventions. It contains target student, prerequisite,
objective, and setup information for the specific course.
Units
Units are the largest structural component of the course content. A unit begins with a
title page that lists objectives for each major subdivision, or topic, within the unit.
Within each topic, conceptual and explanatory information alternates with hands-on
activities. Units conclude with a summary comprising one paragraph for each topic, and
an independent practice activity that gives you an opportunity to practice the skills
youve learned.
The conceptual information takes the form of text paragraphs, exhibits, lists, and tables.
The activities are structured in two columns, one telling you what to do, the other
providing explanations, descriptions, and graphics.
Introduction
vii
Appendices
An appendix is similar to a unit in that it contains objectives and conceptual
explanations. However, an appendix does not include a summary or review questions.
In CompTIA courses, there are two additional appendicesone contains a list of
CompTIA acronyms, and the other contains a certification exam objective map.
Course summary
This section provides a text summary of the entire course. It is useful for providing
closure at the end of the course. The course summary also indicates the next course in
this series, if there is one, and lists additional resources you might find useful as you
continue to learn about the software.
Glossary
The glossary provides definitions for all of the key terms used in this course.
Index
The index at the end of this manual makes it easy for you to find information about a
particular software component, feature, or concept.
Manual conventions
Weve tried to keep the number of elements and the types of formatting to a minimum
in the manuals. This aids in clarity and makes the manuals more classically elegant
looking. But there are some conventions and icons you should know about.
Item
Description
Italic text
In conceptual text, indicates a new term or feature.
Bold text
In unit summaries, indicates a key term or concept. In

an independent practice activity, indicates an explicit
item that you select, choose, or type.
Code font
Indicates code or syntax.
Longer strings of
code will look
like this.
In the hands-on activities, any code thats too long to fit

on a single line is divided into segments by one or more
continuation characters (). This code should be
entered as a continuous string of text.
Select bold item
In the left column of hands-on activities, bold sans-serif

text indicates an explicit item that you select, choose,
or type.
Keycaps like e
Indicate a key on the keyboard you must press.
viii
Hands-on activities
The hands-on activities are the most important parts of our manuals. They are divided
into two primary columns. The Heres how column gives short instructions to you
about what to do. The Heres why column provides explanations, graphics, and
clarifications. Heres a sample:
Do it!
A-1:
Creating a commission formula
Heres how
1 Open Sales
Heres why
This is an oversimplified sales compensation
worksheet. It shows sales totals, commissions,
and incentives for five sales reps.
2 Observe the contents of cell F4

The commission rate formulas use the name
C_Rate instead of a value for the commission
rate.
For these activities, we have provided a collection of data files designed to help you
learn each skill in a real-world business context. As you work through the activities, you
will modify and update these files. Of course, you might make a mistake and therefore
want to re-key the activity starting from scratch. To make it easy to start over, you will
rename each data file at the end of the first activity in which the file is modified. Our
convention for renaming files is to add the word My to the beginning of the file name.
In the above activity, for example, a file called Sales is being used for the first time.
At the end of this activity, you would save the file as My sales, thus leaving the
Sales file unchanged. If you make a mistake, you can start over using the original
Sales file.
In some activities, however, it might not be practical to rename the data file. If you want
to retry one of these activities, ask your instructor for a fresh copy of the original data
file.
Introduction
ix
Topic B: Setting your expectations

Properly setting your expectations is essential to your success. This topic will help you
do that by providing:
Prerequisites for this course
A description of the target student
A list of the objectives for the course
A skills assessment for the course
Course prerequisites
This is a fast-paced, comprehensive course designed to present the knowledge and skills
needed for both CompTIA A+ (2009 Edition) certification exams. Before taking this
course, you should be highly proficient with personal computers. Furthermore, this
course assumes that you have advanced user-level skills in Windows 7, Windows Vista,
Windows XP, or Windows 2000 Professional. These skills and knowledge can be
obtained by completing the following courses:
Windows 7: Basic and Windows 7: Advanced
Windows Vista: Basic and Windows Vista: Advanced
Windows XP SP2: Basic and Windows XP SP2: Advanced
Target student
This course will prepare you for the CompTIA A+ Essentials certification exam (2009
objectives, version 2.0) and the CompTIA A+ Practical Application certification exam
(2009 objectives, version 2.0). It is designed for students seeking to become entry-level
IT professionals. You will gain the skills and knowledge necessary to perform the
following tasks on personal computer hardware and operating systems:
Identify PC components
Configure PC network connections
Provide IT support for portable computers
Monitor and manage Windows operating systems
Diagnose basic hardware problems by using a troubleshooting methodology
Install and upgrade Windows operating systems
Complete preventative maintenance tasks
Install, maintain, troubleshoot, and replace computer hardware and peripherals
Maintain and troubleshoot the Windows operating system
Install a small-office/home-office network, and troubleshoot network
connections
Secure personal computers
Course objectives
These overall course objectives will give you an idea about what to expect from the
course. It is also possible that they will help you see that this course is not the right one
for you. If you think you either lack the prerequisite knowledge or already know most of
the subject matter to be covered, you should let your instructor know that you think you
are misplaced in the class.
After completing this course, you will know how to:
Describe the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting methodology.
Provide professional customer service when providing IT support.
Use basic Windows interface tools.
Examine power supplies and connectors, install and troubleshoot power supplies
while following procedures for working safely with electrical components.
Identify, install and troubleshoot various motherboards and CPUs.
Configure the PCs BIOS and boot the computer.
Identify, install and troubleshoot various types of memory, and monitor memory
usage in Windows.
Examine the settings for buses.
Identify, install and troubleshoot various types of expansion cards.
Attach peripheral devices.
Install, use and troubleshoot data storage devices.
Connect video output and image input devices.
Install, configure, maintain and troubleshoot printers.
Identify various network connection types, and implement a SOHO network.
Configure a TCP/IP client.
Troubleshoot client-side connectivity.
Provide IT support for portable computers.
Manage the Windows operating system.
Monitor the Windows operating system.
Troubleshoot system startup problems and the Windows operating system.
Apply various measures to keep computer systems secure and prevent
unauthorized access.
Install and upgrade Windows operating systems.
Maintain a safe computing environment.
Introduction
xi
How to become CompTIA certified

To achieve CompTIA A+ certification, a student must register for and pass the
CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam and the CompTIA A+ Practical
Application (2009 Edition) exam.
In order to become CompTIA certified, students must:
1 Select a certification exam provider. For more information, students should visit
http://www.comptia.org/certifications/testprep.aspx.
2 Register for and schedule a time to take the CompTIA certification exam(s) at a
convenient location.
3 Read and sign the Candidate Agreement, which will be presented at the time of
the exam. The complete text of the Candidate Agreement can be found at
http://www.comptia.org/certifications/policies/agreement.aspx.
4 Take and pass the CompTIA certification exam(s).
For more information about CompTIAs certifications, such as its industry acceptance,
benefits, or program news, students should visit
http://www.comptia.org/certifications.aspx.
CompTIA is a not-for-profit information technology (IT) trade association. CompTIAs
certifications are designed by subject matter experts from across the IT industry. Each
CompTIA certification is vendor-neutral, covers multiple technologies, and requires
demonstration of skills and knowledge widely sought after by the IT industry.
To contact CompTIA with any questions or comments, please call (630) 678-8300 or
e-mail questions@comptia.org.
xii
Skills inventory
Use the following form to gauge your skill level entering the class. For each skill listed,
rate your familiarity from 1 to 5, with five being the most familiar. This is not a test.
Rather, it is intended to provide you with an idea of where youre starting from at the
beginning of class. If youre wholly unfamiliar with all the skills, you might not be
ready for the class. If you think you already understand all of the skills, you might need
to move on to the next course in the series. In either case, you should let your instructor
know as soon as possible.
Skill
Describing the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model
Interacting professionally with users and achieving customer
satisfaction
Identifying operating system fundamentals
Managing directories and files on a Microsoft Windows computer
Controlling access to files and folders on a Windows computer
Identifying electrostatic discharge and following ESD safe
practices while working with computer components
Describing the purpose and features of PC power supplies
Installing power supplies
Troubleshooting power supplies
Describing the function and features of CPUs, identifying a CPU,
and classifying CPUs according to their specifications
Describing CPU packaging options and related slot and socket
technologies, and describing the techniques used to cool CPUs and
other components in a PC
Installing a CPU
Replacing a cooling fan
Describing motherboards, their components, and their form factors
Installing a motherboard
Accessing the BIOS setup utility, modifying hardware
configuration values, and researching BIOS updates
Explaining the POST and boot processes
Describing the function of memory and differentiating among
various types of memory chips
xiii
Introduction
Skill
Differentiating among the various memory packages
Installing memory
Monitoring memory usage
Troubleshooting memory
Describing the primary types of buses and defining the terms
interrupt, IRQ, I/O address, DMA, and base memory address
Describing the features and functions of the PCI bus
Describing the features and functions of the various graphic
connections
Describing video adapters and standards
Installing an expansion card
Defining sound cards and identifying the components of a sound
card
Describing modem standards and identifying the components of a
modem
Troubleshooting expansion cards
Identifying and connecting serial and parallel ports, cables, and
connectors
Identifying and connecting USB ports, cables, and connectors
Identifying and connecting FireWire (IEEE 1394) ports, cables,
and connectors
Identifying and connecting multimedia ports
Troubleshooting ports, cables, and connectors
Defining the common drive interfaces
Describing hard drives, partitions, and file systems
Installing a hard drive
Describing optical data storage
Installing an optical drive and using optical drives and discs
Installing removable media drives
Using removable drives
xiv

Skill
Maintaining and troubleshooting hard drives, optical drives, and
removable media drives
Explaining how CRT and LCD monitors produce images
Installing and configuring cameras
Comparing and contrasting printing technologies
Installing, configuring, and managing printers
Performing routine printer maintenance tasks
Troubleshooting printers
Describing the basic components of a network
Comparing wired network connections
Differentiating between basic internetworking devices
Describing how various types of addresses are used to identify
devices on a network
Installing and configuring a SOHO network
Creating client network connections through wired, wireless, and
dial-up methods
Troubleshooting client-side connectivity issues
Identifying and installing notebook components
Troubleshooting and maintaining notebook components
Managing the operating system
Scheduling tasks
Participating in a Remote Assistance session
Connecting to another computer via Remote Desktop
Monitoring the operating system
Monitoring system performance
Backing up and restoring your computer
Identifying the stages of the Windows startup process
xv
Introduction
Skill
Identifying operating system problems
Configuring basic Windows user authentication
Using Windows file encryption
Discussing biometric and other security devices
Recognizing and mitigating common security threats
Managing the human aspects of computer security
Installing a Windows operating system
Upgrading from one version of Windows to another
Examining safety issues and hazards in the computing environment
Identifying preventative maintenance tasks for personal computers
Identifying ways to avoid injury and strain when working with
computers
Examining proper methods for disposing of computer equipment
xvi
Topic C: Re-keying the course

If you have the proper hardware and software, you can re-key this course after class.
This section explains what youll need in order to do so, and how to do it.
Hardware requirements
Your personal desktop computer should have:
A keyboard and a pointing device such as a mouse
1 GHz or higher 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor
1 GB or higher RAM on 32-bit processor computers or 2 GB or higher RAM on
64-bit processor computers
At least 40 GB of free hard disk space on 32-bit processor computers or at least
50 GB of free hard disk space on 64-bit processor computers
DVD-R ROM drive
Monitor with DirectX 9 graphics support; Windows Display Driver Model
(WDDM) 1.0 or higher
Wired NIC
Modem
A video card with two monitor ports for the independent practice activity in the
Video output ad image input devices unit. If the video adapter cards in your
computers have only one monitor port, students can do all other activities in the
course, but will not be able to complete this independent practice activity.
Activity hardware requirements
In addition to the hardware requirements for your personal desktop computer, you will
need the following hardware to complete various course activities.
Unit 3 (Electricity and power supplies):
Multimeter
Variety of batteries for testing
Extra power supply (If you dont have an extra power supply for students
to install in their computers, you can have them remove and the reinstall
the existing power supply)
Unit 4 (CPUs and motherboards):
Extra CPU (This is for an optional activity. If you dont have an extra CPU
for each computer, you can either skip the activity or have students remove
and reinstall the existing CPU.)
Chip puller
Extra system fan (If you dont have an extra system fan for students to
install in their computers, you can have them remove and the reinstall the
existing system fan)
Extra motherboard (This is for an optional activity. If you dont have an
extra motherboard for each computer, you can either skip the activity or
have students remove and reinstall the existing motherboard.)
Introduction
xvii
Unit 5 (The Basic Input/Output System):

Extra CMOS battery
Floppy drive for the unit IPA
Bootable floppy or bootable CD/DVD for the unit IPA
Unit 6 (Memory systems):
A variety memory chips or photos of memory chips
Extra memory chip for each desktop computer
A notebook computer with extra memory chip
Handheld device, such as a PDA, with extra memory chip
Unit 7 (Bus structures):
A variety of adapter cards or photos of adapter cards for the unit IPA
A variety of motherboards or photos of motherboards for the unit IPA
Unit 8 (Expansion cards):
A variety of video cards or photos of video cards
Extra video adapter
Sound card and external speakers
RJ-11 connector
Network interface card, TV or video capture card, or media reader for the
unit IPA
Unit 9 (Peripheral connection types):
Serial cable and device
Parallel cable and device
PS/2 keyboard and mouse
KVM switch
USB 1.1 and 2.0 Type A and B cable, hub, and device
IEEE 1394 a and b (FireWire) cable and device
External speakers (same as Unit 8)
Microphone
Multimedia device (coax, composite, component, S/PDIF)
Various types of connectors or photos of connectors
xviii

Unit 10 (Data storage devices):
A variety ATA and SATA drives or photos
Extra internal hard drive (If you dont have an extra internal hard drive for
each computer, you can have students remove and reinstall the existing
hard drive.)
Extra optical drive (If you dont have an extra internal optical drive for
each computer, you can have students remove and reinstall the existing
optical drive.)
Audio CD
Blank CD-R or CD-RW disc
USB flash drive
3.5 floppy disk
Floppy disk drive
DVD-R or DVD-RW disc for the unit IPA
DVD codex for the unit IPA
Unit 11 (Video output and image input devices):
CRT monitor
LCD monitor
Digital camera
Web camera
Second monitor for the unit IPA
Unit 12 (Printers):
Local Windows 7-compatible printer
Printer paper
Printer add-on
Printer cleaning supplies
Unit 13 (Connecting computers):
Twisted-pair cable with a clear RJ-45 connector on the end
RG-6 or RG-59 cable and RG-58 coax cable with attached connector
Unit 14 (Networking computers):
Wireless access point for instructor demonstration activity
Wireless client for instructor demonstration activity
Unit 15 (Network troubleshooting)
Basic cable tester
Network analyzer
Introduction
xix
Unit 16: (Portable computers):

Notebook computer
Hot-swappable device, such as a USB device
Internal component
Peripheral device
Docking station
Cleaning products for notebook
Packaging materials for the notebook
External monitor for the unit IPA
Unit 18 (Windows monitoring):
A backup location: CD/DVD-R, network share, or space on the second
partition
Unit 22 (Safety and maintenance):
Cleaning supplies for desktop computer and peripherals
Software requirements
You will need the following software:
Windows 7 Professional installation files and product keys for both classroom
setup and an activity in Unit 21, Windows installation and upgrades.
Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor, which can be downloaded from Microsofts
Downloads Web site.
Windows 7 Ultimate installation files and product keys for an activity in
Unit 21.
Windows Vista Business installation files and product keys for the independent
practice activity in Unit 21.
Any Windows 7 and Windows Vista drivers needed for the independent practice
activity in Unit 21.
Any Windows XP application software for an activity in Unit 21.
Note: Because you will need to conduct multiple operating system installations in the
Windows installation and upgrades unit, operating system discs should be
slipstreamed with the latest service packs, if at all possible.
In addition, you will need to install the following software:
Latest service pack for Windows
Sound card drivers
A copy of the avast! antivirus software. An evaluation copy is suitable and is
available at www.avast.com.
Optional software:
DVD decoder software
xx
Network requirements
The following network components and connectivity are also required for rekeying this
course:
Internet access, for the following purposes:
Downloading the latest critical updates and service packs from
www.windowsupdate.com
Completing activities within the units.
Downloading the Student Data files from www.axzopress.com (if
necessary)
Your computer needs to be connected to the network through TCP/IP and
receiving IP addressing information from a DHCP server.
You will need a valid IP address and additional TCP/IP addressing information
so that you can switch to manual configuration in an activity in Unit 14,
Networking computers.
Setup instructions to re-key the course

Before you re-key the course, you will need to perform the following steps.
1 Use a third-party disk management utility or the Windows 7 Professional
installation program to configure the hard disk as follows:
A 30 GB NTFS partition for the installation of Windows 7 Professional 32bit or 40 GB NTFS partition for the installation of Windows 7 Professional
64-bit, with drive letter C:
A 6 GB NTFS partition, with drive letter D:
Leave the remaining as free space
If you use the Windows 7 Professional installation program to configure the hard
disk, you will be prompted to select your country or region, time and currency,
and keyboard layout as indicated in step 2, prior to the hard disk configuration
screen.
2 Install Windows 7 Professional on the C: drive on an NTFS partition according
to the software manufacturers instructions.
Select your country or region, time and currency, and keyboard layout.
Enter a user account: COMPADMIN## (where ## is a unique number.)
Enter a computer name of COMPWin7-## (use the same number you
chose for your username).
Enter a password of !pass1234. Enter Refer to setup as the password hint.
Enter your product key.
Select Ask me later when prompted for Automatic Updates.
Set the appropriate time zone, and time and date for your location.
Select the Work network.
3 Using Control Panel, User Accounts and Family Safety, User Accounts, create a
standard user account: COMPUSER## (where ## is the same unique number
that was assigned to each students COMPADMIN## account), with a password
of !pass1234.
Introduction
xxi
4 In Network and Sharing Center, Advanced Sharing Options, turn on Network

discovery and File and printer sharing.
5 Use Device Manager to verify that all devices are functional. If you need to
download Windows 7compatible drivers for any devices from the
manufacturers Web sites, keep a copy of the drivers for use during class.
6 Verify that you have Internet access. If necessary, install drivers for the network
adapter and verify that the computer is receiving IP addressing information from
the institutions DHCP server. The computer must be able to connect to the
Internet.
7 Create a folder named Student Data at the root of the hard drive. For a standard
hard drive setup, this will be C:\Student Data.
8 Copy the data files to the Student Data folder. If you dont have the data CD that
came with this manual, download the Student Data files for the course. You can
download the data directly to student machines, to a central location on your
own network, or to a disk.
a Connect to www.axzopress.com.
b Under Downloads, click Instructor-Led Training.
c Browse the subject categories to locate your course. Then click the course
title to display a list of available downloads. (You can also access these
downloads through our Catalog listings.)
d Click the link(s) for downloading the Student Data files, and follow the
instructions that appear on your screen.
Keep a copy of the files where students can access them after reinstallation
in Unit 19, Windows installation and upgrades.
Setting up troubleshooting activities

Some of the units contain a troubleshooting activity. In these activities, you are asked to
solve problems related to the material of that unit. This section presents ideas for
problems that can be implemented.
You will need to ask someone to implement one of these problems for you so that you
can troubleshoot.
Unit 3: Electricity and power supplies
For the Topic C activity entitled Troubleshooting power supply problems, you can
implement one or more of these problems:
Unplug the computer from the wall outlet.
Plug the computer into a non-functioning UPS device or surge protector.
Disconnect the power supply from the motherboard.
Disconnect the hard disk from the power supply.
Replace the power supply with a non-functioning power supply.
xxii

Unit 5: The Basic Input/Output System
For the Topic B activity entitled Troubleshooting BIOS and POST problems, you can
Switch the keyboard and mouse cables so that each one is plugged into the
others port.
Substitute a keyboard with a stuck key or some other defect that would cause the
POST to fail.
Replace the CMOS battery with a dead battery, or simply remove the battery
from the motherboard.
Reset one or more BIOS setup values that would leave the computer unbootable
or unusable. For example, change the boot drive order, disable the hard drive
controller (if its the boot device), or configure the on-board video controller to
an extremely low-resolution display.
Install a defective memory module so that the POST fails when it tests memory.
(Advanced) Flash the BIOS with an incorrect or outdated version.
Unit 6: Memory systems
For the Topic E activity entitled Troubleshooting memory, you can implement one or
more of these problems:
Replace one or more memory modules with a defective memory module.
Loosen a module in its socket so that its pins dont make proper connections.
Reconfigure the BIOS with an incorrect quantity of memory.
Install the incorrect type of module for the computerinstall modules that are
too slow, implement parity when the motherboard doesnt, or dont implement
parity when the motherboard does, and so forth.
Install modules of different size or speed within a single bank.
Remove one of the modules from a bank.
Unit 8: Expansion cards
For the Topic D activity entitled Troubleshooting expansion card problems, you can
Set the video mode to a mode that the monitor cannot support.
Set the video refresh rate to a value that the monitor cannot support.
Install a failing monitor that is blurry or displays an unsteady image.
Install an out-of-date and buggy version of the video driver.
Install the wrong video driver for the video adapter.
Mute the sound.
Disconnect the speakers power cord.
Loosen the adapter card in its slot so that its connectors do not make full contact.
Disconnect the CD-to-sound-card audio cable.
Turn off all Windows sounds in the Control Panel.
Disconnect the phone cable from the modem.
Use a bad phone cable to connect the modem to the jack.
Introduction
xxiii
Configure the modem to use incorrect connection parameters (stop bits, parity,
etc.).
After the modem is installed, change COM port configurations so that the
modem cant access the ports.
Change the COM port configurations in the BIOS to values that the modem card
doesnt support.
Give students a voice or fax number to dial into instead of another modem line.
Install damaged or nonfunctioning adapter cards, such as video cards, modem
cards, and sound cards.
(Advanced) Put tape over the adapters edge connector or paint some of the
connectors pins with nail polish so that they cannot make contact.
Unit 9: Peripheral connection types
For the Topic F activity entitled Troubleshooting problems with peripheral
connections, you can implement one or more of these problems:
Connect the keyboard to the mouse port and vice versa.
Disable the serial port in the BIOS.
Disable the parallel port in the BIOS.
Within the BIOS, assign nonstandard system resources that are likely to conflict
with other devices in the system.
Cut one of the wires in the serial, parallel, USB, or FireWire cable.
Substitute a null modem cable for a straight-through cable.
Provide students with a USB device that requires external power, but dont give
them the power adapter.
Install too many unpowered devices on the USB bus.
Provide students with a USB 2.0only device to go with their USB 1.1 systems.
Disable the infrared port in the BIOS.
Provide students with a nonfunctioning external modem.
Bend one of the pins in the male serial or parallel connector so that it cannot
make contact.
Provide students with a defective or nonfunctioning mouse or keyboard (for
example, one that has been dropped or had liquid spilled on it).
Configure the external modem to use nonstandard connection parameters, such
as a very slow port speed, mark or space parity, hardware flow control, and so
forth.
Provide students with a printer that supports just one parallel port mode (bidirectional, EPP, and so forth), but configure the BIOS to implement a different
port mode.
Provide students with a nonfunctioning printer.
Tell students to connect to a remote PC with their modems, but give them a
voice number to dial into (such as an automated weather line or some other line
not likely to be answered by a person, who would get annoyed by the data calls).
Cover the infrared window on the PC or device with tape, dirt, or something like
nail polish that will attenuate the infrared signal without being too obviously
present.
xxiv

Disconnect or remove the antenna from the radio wireless device.
(Advanced) Provide students with an 802.11a hub and 802.11g wireless
networking cards.
(Advanced) Within the system case, disconnect the ribbon cable that runs from
the serial, parallel, or USB port connector to the motherboard.
Unit 10: Data storage devices
For the Topic F activity entitled Troubleshooting data storage devices, you can
Provide students with a damaged floppy disk. (You could scratch the disk
surface, poke a pinhole in it, wrinkle it, or jam the spindle so that the disk wont
turn.)
Remove the twist from the floppy drive cable.
Configure the BIOS so that floppy drive A: is addressed as B: and vice versa.
Disable the floppy drive in the BIOS.
Disconnect the power cable from the floppy drive.
Install the floppy drive cables connector backward (force the connector
backward into the socket).
Configure the BIOS so that the system will not boot from the floppy drive.
Install a damaged, failing, or dead hard drive.
Install the hard drive cables connector backward (force the connector backward
into the socket).
Install the hard drives cable backward (connect the motherboard connector to
the drive, and connect the master drive connector to the motherboard).
Install a bad hard drive cable.
Bend one of the pins in the hard drives connector so that the cable cannot make
full contact with all of the conductors.
Warning: Doing this may permanently damage the drive. Bent pins can break,
leaving the drive unusable.
Configure the IDE drive identification incorrectly (for example, configure the
drive as a slave when its actually the only drive in the system).
Configure SCSI IDs incorrectly so that theres a conflict on the bus.
Remove termination from one or both ends of the bus, or install extra
terminators within the chain.
Disconnect the power cable from the hard drive.
In the BIOS, configure the boot order so that it does not include the primary hard
drive.
Delete all partitions on the hard drive to leave the system unbootable.
Warning: Doing this will destroy all information on the hard drive.
Remove the active designation from the primary hard drive so that the system
wont boot.
Install a new drive that is partitioned, but not formatted, so that the system
cannot boot from that drive.
Install, or provide students with, an extremely large hard drive (160 GB or
larger) in a system that cannot support it.
Introduction
xxv
With an older, slower drive, configure the BIOS to speed the boot process to the
point where the drive cannot spin up and be ready by the time the startup process
accesses it.
Use a scratched CD for the CD or DVD.
Use a burned DVD or CD.
Provide a DVD in place of a CD for use with a CD drive.
Plug the speakers into the MIC jack.
Disconnect or loosely connect the cable from the CD drive to the sound card.
Remove the driver for the CD drive.
Set the SCSI ID on a SCSI CD drive to a duplicate ID used by another SCSI
device.
Remove (or add) termination to the SCSI CD drive.
Change the CD drive to the master drive (or as slave if its already a master) on
an IDE channel.
Disconnect or loosely connect the power or data cable from the CD drive.
For an external CD drive, disconnect or loosely connect the power or data cable.
Use an audio DVD for the audio CD (if it is a CD drive rather than a DVD
drive).
Change or remove the driver for the CD player.
Install a damaged CD drive that no longer works.
If youre using an external CD drive, plug the drive into a power strip, but turn
the power strip off.
Install the CD drive cables connector backward (force the connector backward
into the socket).
Install the CD drive cable backward (connect the motherboard connector to the
drive, and connect the master drive connector to the motherboard).
Install a bad CD drive cable.
Bend one of the pins in the CD drives connector so that the cable cannot make
full contact with all of the conductors.
Warning: Doing this may permanently damage the drive. Bent pins can break,
leaving the drive unusable.
Disable the use of flash drives on the system.
Use a drive that has been damaged.
Password-protect the flash drive, but dont tell students the password (until they
ask later when they figure out that this is the problem).
Use a damaged drive that no longer works.
Use a damaged tape.
Provide the wrong drivers for the drive.
Use a controller card that is incompatible with the tape drive.
Use a damaged power and/or data cable.
Plug the drive into a power strip, but turn the power strip off.
xxvi

Unit 12: Printers
For the Topic D activity, entitled Troubleshooting printer problems, you can
Replace the ink cartridges with empty ones or ones that produce poor output.
Install a printer that prints stray marks on output.
Disconnect or loosely connect the interface cable.
Disconnect or loosely connect the power cord.
Leave the cover or door open, off, or slightly ajar.
Plug the printer into the power strip, but turn off the strip.
Create a paper jam.
Remove the printer driver.
Install the wrong printer driver.
Remove the ink cartridge(s).
Turn the printer off midway through a cleaning cycle or while printing.
Provide the wrong interface cable, power cord, and/or drivers.
In the BIOS, disable the port to which the printer connects.
Add paper that is either very static-laden or humid (to produce poor images and
possibly printer jams).
Replace the toner cartridge with an empty one or one that produces poor output.
Remove the toner cartridge.
If the printer requires setup on the printer, change the settings to use a different
interface, or other settings. (For example, on a LaserJet printer, use the menu on
the printer to specify that its connected via the serial port, while it is actually
connected via parallel port.)
Unit 16, Portable computers
For the Topic D activity titled Troubleshooting notebook problems, you could
implement one or problems by doing any of the following:
Connect the notebook to an external keyboard and boot it. Then disconnect the
external keyboard without pressing the Fn key combination to switch back to the
notebook keyboard (this often results in the keyboard having the numeric
keypad enabled on the letter keys).
Connect the notebook to an external monitor, switch to the external monitor, and
then disconnect the monitor.
Remove the hard drive.
Remove any PC cards.
Install a non-working PC card.
Remove a memory module.
Install additional memory, but dont configure the system to recognize it.
Dont fully seat a memory module.
Remove the drivers for any PC cards that are installed.
Plug in an external monitor and/or keyboard, leave the notebook open, and place
the external components behind the notebook and facing the other direction so
that its not obvious that they are connected to the notebook.
Introduction
xxvii
Loosely connect peripheral cables.

Disconnect the network cable.
Remove the battery, power cable, and hard drive. Provide the wrong power
cable, battery, and hard drive to each student.
For the Topic D activity titled Identifying power problems, you could implement one
or problems by doing any of the following:
Set the power options so that the monitor and hard drive are turned off after 1
minute of inactivity.
Install an uncharged battery.
Install a battery that wont keep a charge.
Disconnect or loosely connect the power cord.
Plug the power cord into a power strip, but turn off the power strip.
If the power cord comes apart in the middle where the transformer is, disconnect
or loosely connect this connection.
Plug the notebook into a power strip that is turned off, and remove the battery or
install a dead battery.
CertBlaster software
CertBlaster pre- and post-assessment software is available for this course. To download
and install this free software, students should complete the following steps:
1 Go to www.axzopress.com.
2 Under Downloads, click CertBlaster.
3 Click one of the following links:
4
5
6
7
8
CompTIA A+ Essentials 2009

CompTIA A+ Practical Application
Save the .EXE file to a folder on your hard drive. (Note: If you skip this step,
the CertBlaster software will not install correctly.)
Click Start and choose Run.
Click Browse and then navigate to the folder that contains the .EXE file.
Select the .EXE file and click Open.
Click OK and follow the on-screen instructions. When prompted for the
password, enter c_a+ess09 (for Essentials) or c_a+pracapp (for Practical
Application).
xxviii
11
Unit 1
Unit time: 30 Minutes
Complete this unit, and youll know how to:
A Describe the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting
model.
B Interact professionally with users and
achieve customer satisfaction.
12
Topic A: Troubleshooting stages

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0
exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.1
Given a scenario, explain the troubleshooting theory

Identify the problem
Question user and identify user changes to computer, and perform backups before making
changes
Establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious)
Test the theory to determine cause
Once theory is confirmed, determine next steps to resolve problem
If theory is not confirmed, re-establish new theory or escalate
Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution
Verify full system functionality and if applicable implement preventative measures
Document findings, actions, and outcomes
2.2
Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms
and their causes
Use documentation and resources
User/installation manuals
Internet/Web based
Training materials
The troubleshooting process

Explanation
Troubleshooting is the process of determining the cause of, and ultimately the solution
to, a problem. By applying a logical, consistent method to the troubleshooting process,
you make your job easier and shorten the time it takes to discover the root of a problem.
When troubleshooting PC hardware problems, you can follow any of several popular
models. This course focuses on the stages of the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model.
CompTIAs A+ troubleshooting model
The CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model has you work through stages to apply basic
diagnostic procedures and troubleshooting techniques. CompTIA recommends working
through the stages described in the following table.
13
Stage
Description
Identify the problem by questioning the user and determining any changes
the user has made to the computer. Perform a backup before making any
changes on the system.
Establish a theory of
probable cause
Analyze the problem, including potential causes, so you can establish a

theory of probably cause. Remember to question the obvious. You can then
make an initial determination of whether the problem is software- and/or
hardware-related.
Test the theory to

determine actual cause
Test the theory to determine the actual cause. Test components related to the
problem. This process includes inspecting components for obvious things,
such as connections and power being connected and turned on, proper
hardware and/or software configurations, and indications of conflicts or
problems in Device Manager. Also, consult vendor documentation for
descriptions of status lights and other indicators.
Once youve confirmed your theory, create a plan of action.
If your theory is incorrect, re-establish a new theory or escalate to a higher
level technician.
Establish a plan of action

to resolve the problem and
implement the solution
Create a plan to resolve the problem and then implement the solution in your
plan. You might need to include other professionals, such as your
companys network technician, to get assistance in implementing the
resolution.
Verify full system

functionality and, if
necessary, implement
preventative measures
Verify the results, and if necessary, take additional steps to correct the
problem. Additional steps might include consulting with other professionals
or the vendor, using alternative resources, and reviewing equipment
manuals. Once youve established full system functionality, you need to
implement applicable preventive measures to prevent the problem from
reoccurring.
Document findings,
actions, and outcomes
Document the actions you took to correct the problem, as well as the
outcomes of those actions.
14
Do it!
A-1:
Discussing the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model
Heres how
Heres why
1 Hector reports that his computer doesnt work. Using the CompTIA A+
troubleshooting model, describe the first step you would take to fix his problem.
2 What documentation should you record after youve found the solution to
Hectors problem?
3 A user calls the Help desk because her Windows 7 Business computer has
unexpectedly shut down and is now displaying a blue screen with a white STOP
error. After youve identified the problem, what should you do next?
15
Information resources
Explanation
When youre troubleshooting, you can use several kinds of resources to research
problems and solutions. Lets take a look at some of the resources you should consider
when resolving issues.
Documentation
Documentation is the key to successful troubleshooting. Such documentation takes two
forms: that which is provided by others and that which you create.
Youll find product user and installation manuals, training materials, manufacturer Web
sites, and technology-related knowledge bases to be invaluable sources of information.
You should consult these references early in the troubleshooting process to determine if
youre dealing with a known problem that has a previously published solution.
Problems that you must solve are often specific to your customers combination of
hardware and software, as well as to how the person uses his system. Your notes are the
best reference for future problems because they apply specifically to your customers
environment
Forums
Forums are online discussion groups. These enable various people to gather at a central
location online to discuss common interests in an open format. Members of the forum
can exchange information and ideas.
A generic forum might be created to discuss general network issues. A forum most
often contains information on problems and solutions. This makes it useful when you
have a problem because you can visit the forum and see if anyone else had a similar
problem and found a resolution. These postings are not usually verified by a vendor or
manufacturer as providing the best solution to a problem; they are just what worked for
a particular person. An example is the Web site at msfn.org; its a site dedicated to
Windows operating systems and desktop applications, but its not a Microsoft-affiliated
site.
Vendor-sponsored forums do have experts on staff to review the postings. They can also
help members by gathering information about the problem and guiding them through
the troubleshooting process. Most vendors then post a summary of the problem and
step-by-step instructions for resolving the problem. An example is
www.microsoft.com/communities/forums, which is a Web site dedicated to
Microsoft products and technologies.
Other sources
Other resources that you should consult include trade magazines and Web sites, fellow
employees, newsgroups, trade shows, vendor group meetings, and independent
consultants. Being open to using a variety of sources to resolve your problem gives you
more flexibility in finding a solution as quickly as possible.
Keeping up-to-date on your knowledge through reading trade magazines and attending
trade shows and vendor group meetings can help you keep abreast of potential
problems. Even if you havent yet encountered a problem being described in the article
or meeting, if it should arise, you will know what to do about it.
16

Your fellow employees can be a great source of information, especially if you are new
to the group. You might have worked for several years in a support capacity at one
company, but a new company might have a whole different set of common problems
that could be easily resolved if only you knew where to look and what to do. Even on an
established team of support technicians, multiple people looking at the problem can
bring their own experience to the table, and what one person might not see, another
member of the team might see.
If you have been unable to find the solution in a timely manner, you should contact the
vendor for specific help. A vendor can usually guide you through the steps to resolve
the problem. Another option to consider is hiring an independent consultant whos an
expert in the area in which you are experiencing the problem. Consultants often have
vast experience in their areas of expertise and can help you find the solution quickly.
Microsoft Help and Support
When youre having a problem with software or hardware on a computer running a
Microsoft operating system, an excellent troubleshooting reference is Microsofts Help
and Support Web site. This site contains problem and solution references for the
Microsoft client operating systems youll be supporting, such as Windows Vista
versions, as well as many other Microsoft applications and server and client operating
systems. Sometimes, the Web site provides a hyperlink to an FTP site, where you can
download patches and new releases.
A component of the Help and Support Center is the Microsoft Knowledge Base, which
explains many Microsoft error messages. You can enter the specific message in the
Search box and retrieve a description of the errors cause and a solution for resolving
the problem.
To search the Microsoft Knowledge Base for a specific error:
1 Using Internet Explorer or another Web browser, go to
support.microsoft.com/search.
2 Begin typing the error code or words for the search.
3 Select the desired error from the list of search results.
4 Click an article to read it. Exhibit 1-1 shows an example of the components of a
Microsoft Knowledge Base article. Expand each section to read its contents.
You can print articles or save them on your hard disk for later reference.
Exhibit 1-1: Components of a Microsoft Knowledge Base article
17
18
Do it!
A-2:
Identifying documentation and information resources
Questions and answers

1 If the users you are supporting have a recurrent problem, which is the best source
to use in resolving the problem?
2 Discuss the potential drawbacks of using a generic forum for answers to your
problems.
3 Using a variety of sources, find the best solution to the problem assigned by your
instructor.
4 A user tells you that she was attempting to take her laptop running Windows 7
Professional out of sleep mode when the computer shut down. The error recorded
is KERNEL_DATA_INPAGE_ERROR. Where would you go to research the
cause of this problem?
5 If necessary, turn on the power to

your computer
6 Log in as COMPADMIN##
with a password of !pass1234
This is an administrative user account that was

created during class setup.
7 Open Internet Explorer

8 If prompted, follow the wizard to
set up Windows Internet Explorer
Turn on Suggested Sites and use Express

Settings.
9 Research and determine the cause and resolution of this problem. (You can use
the Advanced Search feature to narrow your results to Windows 7.)
Topic B: Professionalism
exam objective.
#
Objective
6.2
Given a scenario, demonstrate the appropriate use of communication skills and

professionalism in the workplace
Use proper languageavoid jargon, acronyms, slang
Maintain a positive attitude
Listen and do not interrupt a customer
Be culturally sensitive
Be on time
If late, contact the customer
Avoid distractions
Personal calls
Talking to co-workers while interacting with customers
Personal interruptions
Dealing with a difficult customer or situation
Avoid arguing with customers and/or being defensive
Do not minimize customers problems
Avoid being judgmental
Clarify customer statements
Ask open-ended questions to narrow the scope of the problem
Restate the issue or question to verify understanding
Set and meet expectations/timeline and communicate status with the customer
Offer different repair/replacement options if applicable
Provide documentation on the services provided
Follow up with customers/users later to verify satisfaction
Deal appropriately with customers confidential materials
Located on computer, desktop, printer, etc.
19
110
Providing professional services

Explanation
To be effective as a hardware support technician, you must be professional and

courteous at all times. You must deliver accurate and complete information, and make
sure that the customer fully understands your communications. You must do all this
even when emotions run high, such as when a user has lost critical data or has expensive
equipment that isnt working.
To be a professional communicator, you must:
Consider the total message youre sending.
Stay focused.
Consider the customers competence.
Speak professionally.
Respect the customer.
Be culturally sensitive.
Match the delivery channel to the customer.
Consider the total message
The message you deliver when communicating is more than just your words. The total
message you deliver is the sum of your words, your tone of voice, facial expressions,
body posture, attire, and more. The message is often more truly communicated through
the nonverbal channels than through the words you use. For example, if your words
express sympathy over the loss of a critical document, yet your facial expression and
mannerisms convey condescension or mockery, the customer will ignore your words
and take the message from your nonverbal cues.
You must be aware of all parts of the message, or your words will be lost. Match your
expressions, tone of voice, eye contact, and body posture with the message you intend
to deliver.
Stay focused
Many times, customers pay for your time on a per-minute or per-hour basis. Some are
quick to take offense if you "waste time with idle chit-chat. They perceive you to be
wasting their money. Stick to the task at hand, fix the problem, and move on. Of course,
if youre just watching files copy during the support call, and the user is interested in
talking about last nights game or the new restaurant that just opened, that would be a
fine time to engage in some pleasantries. You should be friendly and engaging, but not
too talkative.
Avoid sensitive topics. Politics, religion, parenting, and relationships are all topics that
you should avoid discussing with customers. When all else fails, you can always fall
back on the old standby, the weather.
Consider the customers competence
You must match your communication level with your customers abilities. You need to
judge the customers competence level and deliver the message appropriately. Consider
how you might give a different answer to a three-year old and a high school student
when he or she asks why the sky is blue. The same must be true with customers, though
you should certainly never provide inaccurate or incorrect information just because a
customer lacks a technical background.
111
Keep in mind that most people overstate their understanding or imply they have a higher
level of understanding than they actually possess. Ask clarifying questions to judge
comprehension, and explain your message in various ways to ensure that the customer
understands what youre saying.
Avoid using jargon where plain language suffices. You arent out to impress the user
with all the "techno babble you picked up at the latest conference you attended. You
need to speak clearly about the issue and implement the appropriate solutions. Explain
any acronyms and abbreviations you use.
Many users like to think of themselves as computer-savvy and find it difficult to admit
that there are some situations that they just cant resolve on their own. Other users
refuse to admit that they understand anything about computers and just throw up their
hands when the least little problem occurs. Its up to you as the hardware support
technician to determine at what level the user can understand what the problem is and
give you the information you need about it. Dont talk down to the user, and dont talk
over the head of the user, either.
Speak professionally
Ask clarifying questions until youre sure that both you and the customer agree that you
understand the problem. Often users dont know exactly what the problem is. They
know only that when they try to do X, Y happens. In their descriptions, they might not
accurately explain the problems. A caller also might not directly ask the question; he or
she might dance around it, leaving you to figure it out from the various clues given.
If the user tried to fix the problem on his own and covered up the original problem with
his attempted fixes or made the problem worse, he isnt likely to want to admit this to
you. If he tells you that he already tried a particular fix when you try to perform a step
in your troubleshooting, calmly tell the user that in order to fix the problem, you
yourself need to go through all of the most likely possibilities in an orderly manner. If
you do something that was already tried, then its possible that some step in between
altered the outcome of trying that fix again.
If you discover that the user has created a problem through a misunderstanding of how
things work, be sure to explain how to perform the task, so the problem doesnt recur.
You might recommend an online course or a classroom course that the user should
consider enrolling in to learn more about using the computer.
Respect the customer
Its critical that you respect the customer and her property. One of the easiest things you
can do to show the customer respect is to show up on time. It tells the customers that
you value them and their time.
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Other guidelines you should follow to show the customer respect include:
Dont minimize the customers problem. Although this troubleshooting might
not be the most important task you have to complete, it is important to the
customer.
Avoid distractions. Dont make personal phone calls or engage in text messaging
unless you do so with a fellow technician as part of the troubleshooting task.
Dont surf the Web or engage in other non-work activities in the customers
office.
Dont eat or drink in the customers space.
Dont use the customers printer, fax machine, or other devices unless needed as
part of your troubleshooting.
Dont adjust the customers chair, monitor, keyboard and mouse location, and so
forth unless the current configuration makes your troubleshooting tasks
impossible.
Respect the customers privacy and confidentiality.
Dont look through papers, drawers, or other private spaces.
Dont eavesdrop on calls or meetings. Leave the area if necessary.
Dont talk about what you overhear at a customers location.
Never interrupt the customer while he or she is speaking. Listen attentively, showing
interest and involvement in the conversation. Make sure to look at the customer while
listeningavoiding eye contact suggests that you dont care about what the customer is
saying.
Dont argue with the customer. Even if the customer did something blatantly foolish,
never be judgmental or insulting. Dont belittle customers or minimize the importance
of their computer problems. Obviously, you should never insult customers, call them
names, or swear at them!
You show respect for customers when you honor their privacy and confidentiality. If a
customer receives a call or visitor while you are there, excuse yourself or make it clear
that you wont eavesdrop or interrupt. Never discuss or distribute information that you
learn while at a customers premises.
The growing global economy has resulted in people from different nations, cultures,
languages, and backgrounds communicating, meeting, and doing business with one
another. As an information technology support person, you might be interacting with a
diverse clientele. To do this successfully, you need to be culturally sensitive.
Cultural sensitivity begins with knowledge. You must first be familiar with different
culturestheir characteristics, history, values, belief systems, and behaviors. You
exhibit culturally sensitive behavior when you can identify these differences without
assigning a value to or passing judgment on them, such as better/worse or right/wrong.
If youre going to be working with people whose culture is different from your own,
you can request training in the etiquette, protocol, communication styles, and
negotiation approaches of those cultures. Many Human Resources departments offer
such training.
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Match your delivery to the customer

Technology, when abused, can prevent or hinder communication. The pitfalls that
organizations should avoid when they use technology to communicate include:
Using technology for technologys sake
Over-reliance on or unrealistic expectations of technology
Mismatching a technical solution to users needs or expectations
You must match the communications channel to the customer. Many customers prefer
phone calls to e-mail. Others want an instant message solution, prefer e-mail, or want to
see you in person for face-to-face communication. Make sure you use the channel that
your customer prefers, not the one that youre most comfortable with.
Guidelines for effective communication
In summary, there are several basic guidelines that help you communicate effectively:
Speak clearly It helps your receiver understand the message.
Avoid jargon Define jargon whenever necessary to ensure that your message
is accurately interpreted.
Keep messages concise Avoid using unnecessary words, stories, and
irrelevant topics.
Be specific Keep your message specific, rather than broad and general.
Make sure the message is understood Question your receiver to ensure that
your message has been understood as intended.
Listen actively Maintain eye contact, focus on the message, and use
nonverbal cues to indicate interest. Good nonverbal cues include nodding your
head in agreement and leaning slightly toward the source. Other cues such as
affirmative comments, noises, and uncrossed arms also indicate openness to the
source. Its important to remember that communication is an exchange.
Paraphrase messages Paraphrasing helps you understand a senders
message and indicates your understanding to the sender.
Pitfalls to avoid in communication
When communicating, youll want to avoid these pitfalls:
Jumping to conclusions Listen to someones entire message before planning
your response. If you jump to conclusions, you might miss information that
would change your response.
Becoming distracted Its important to remain focused on the sender so that
you dont miss important parts of the message.
Exaggerating Although exaggeration can function as a tool for humor, it
might send incorrect information.
Using negative words Negative messages can be sent without belittling or
offending the receiver. Also, when appropriate for the circumstances, replace "I
cant statements with "I can statementsfocus on what you can do.
Sending conflicting messages When the symbols and language of your
message dont match, you weaken your credibility. Avoid telling someone
youre listening when youre watching people out the window. Active listening
incorporates eye contact, appropriate body language, and verbal assurances. By
listening actively, you can avoid sending conflicting messages and focus on
receiving information accurately.
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Do it!
B-1:
Maintaining professionalism

1 You receive a call from a customer named Joe and visit his cubicle to provide
assistance. Joe believes himself to be computer-savvy and tells you all the steps
hes taken to solve his printing problem. In fact, he becomes irate when you try to
send a test print job to the queue before doing any further troubleshooting. Whats
the best way to respond to Joe?
A
Tell him that youre the expert and you will solve the problem.
Tell him that you want to make sure that a problem really exists.
Tell him that youre following a methodical troubleshooting plan, and the
first step is to try printing.
Tell him that before arriving you degaussed the fuser and primed the
piezoelectric elements so that the print device should be operational.
2 List at least three activities that you shouldnt engage in while in a customers
cubicle or office.
3 While troubleshooting Jills computer, you find that she spilled coffee into the
keyboard, causing it to fail. How might you inform Jill of the problem?
A
Sternly tell her that its against corporate policy to consume food or
beverages near company computers and equipment.
Tell her the source of the problem and suggest that she keep food and drinks
more than an arms reach from her computer.
Replace the keyboard without telling her why it failed.
Tell her boss what she did.
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Effective communication
Explanation
Effective communication involves both verbal and nonverbal techniques. How you use
your voice says a great deal about you. Listeners take note of your vocal characteristics
and form opinions about your sincerity, enthusiasm, and even your knowledge of the
topic being discussed. Your body language also clues listeners into your state of mind.
Your posture, the firmness of your handshake, and your willingness to make eye contact
all tell listeners something about your personality and character. You need to make sure
you're communicating the same message with both your voice and your body language.
Verbal communication
Your voice often indicates whether you are nervous, which might affect how a listener
perceives your credibility. Controlling your voice and communicating in a pleasing way
can help you attract and maintain listeners attention. To become a more effective
speaker, you can work on controlling three vocal characteristics: volume, rate, and pitch.
Volume is a vocal characteristic you need to tailor to the environment. Room
size, number of listeners, and external noise all influence the volume of your
voice. Make sure your listeners can hear everything you say.
Rate is the speed at which you speak. Every person has a different natural rate,
so its important to adapt your rate to the topic and listener. Nervous speakers
tend to speak rapidly. If you feel anxious about the message you are delivering,
you should try to maintain a slow, even rate of speech so that the listener hears
the actual message, instead of being distracted by your nervousness. Conversely,
you shouldnt let your speaking rate drop much below 120 words per minute, or
you risk losing the listeners attention. Stay enthusiastic about your message to
maintain an appropriate rate.
Pitch is the highness or lowness of your voice. When your vocal muscles are
taut, your voice has a high pitch; when your vocal muscles are relaxed, your
voice has a low pitch. If youre nervous, your vocal muscles tighten and your
voice rises above its natural pitch.
Rate and volume also affect your pitch. When you speak rapidly, your muscles are
tense, which causes your pitch to rise. Speaking loudly also causes your pitch to rise.
Although pitch variations might be useful in emphasizing certain points, generally its
best to maintain an even and natural pitch in most situations.
What you say also affects how others see you. Use the following guidelines to make the
best verbal impression with clients.
Use positive language
Negative language can be expressed in a variety of ways, but the main concern with
negative language is the word "no. The word "no delivers a blunt, end-of-conversation
attitude, regardless of the rest of the message. If at all possible, avoid using the word
"no and any other negative language, such as "cant, "wont, and "dont.
Use non-inflammatory language
Inflammatory language is meant to stir intense negative emotions in the listener. Its
often prejudicial against someone because of gender, ethnicity, or physical attributes.
Inflammatory language is always inappropriate in the workplace.
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Use powerful language
Powerful language involves the use of clear, direct statements of fact and feeling rather
than dancing around an issue. A powerful speaker lets you know exactly what the
situation is and how to handle it efficiently and effectively.
A powerless speaker uses "hedge phrases, such as, "I guessand "Maybe we
should. Often, powerless speakers form their ideas as questions, such as, "Shouldnt
we start the meeting? instead of stating, "We should start the meeting. Powerless
speakers tend to be disappointed with the results of their ambiguity.
Keep in mind that speaking powerfully doesnt mean being blunt, abrupt, or rude. An
effective powerful speaker combines politeness with directness so as to be clear and
concise.
Remember names
According to Dale Carnegie, "the sweetest sound in any language is the sound of ones
own name. People feel that you respect them and believe in their importance when you
use their name. The common recommendation is "name times three which means you
should use the persons name at least three times in any conversation.
Take care to use the other persons name properly. In most business settings, you should
start with Mr. ('mist-r), Ms. (miz), or Mrs. ('mis-z). If the other person shows less
formality or directly requests that you use her first name, then do so.
Do it!
B-2:
Using effective verbal communication

1 Identify the characteristics of negative language.
A
Dull, discourages conversation
Bold, encourages conversation
Blunt, ends conversation
Timid, ends conversation
2 Which of the following phrases defines inflammatory language?

A
Inflammatory language is appropriate and insignificant.
Inflammatory language stirs negative emotions and is prejudicial.
Inflammatory language is angry and prejudicial.
Inflammatory language is intense and always appropriate.
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Nonverbal communication
Explanation
You are constantly communicating with those around you. You express fear, anger,
happiness, sadness, enthusiasm, and many other emotions without even saying a word.
Its important to be aware of the signals you are communicating to those around you.
Its also important to be able to recognize the nonverbal signals that others are
communicating to you.
When two people meet, nonverbal communication gives each of them clues about the
others personality, attitudes, and feelings. Six types of nonverbal communication have
the most impact on your conversations:
Handshakes
Expression and eye contact
Proximity
Touch
Gestures and posture
Physical appearance
Handshakes
A firm handshake is the foundation of any business interaction. Some people carry
firmness to the extreme, but youre not trying to crush the other persons hand. Of
course, you dont want to give a "limp rag handshake, either.
A good, firm handshake starts with a dry palm; carry a handkerchief if you need to wipe
damp palms before entering a meeting where you expect to shake someones hand.
Grasp the other persons palm, not just the fingers. Give a positive squeeze, but not too
firm to cause discomfort. Use one hand; dont clasp both hands around the other
persons hand.
Your handshake should last a couple of seconds, no longer. People are sensitive to being
touched and restrained. A handshake that lasts too long can make the other person feel
caught in a trap. Of course, the handshake should last long enough to appear deliberate
and sincere.
Look the other person in the eye. Introduce yourself with a greeting like "Hi, Im (say
your first and last name). Its nice to meet you. Let go of the persons hand and then
listen intently as he greets you back. Remember the persons name; repeat it to yourself
a couple times if you need to. Then use the "name times three guideline to help
yourself remember the name.
Expression and eye contact
A friendly expression and direct eye contact convey that youre open, honest, and
enthusiastic. When coming into a meeting or interaction, smile and look into the eyes of
the other person as youre introduced. You can show interest in the other person by
maintaining eye contact as she speaks. When you tilt your head toward the speaker, you
give the impression that you are an interested listener. These cues encourage the other
person to relax and help open the lines of communication.
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Proximity
Personal space is an important element to keep in mind when communicating.
Typically, people of a higher status tend to keep more than the normal four to six feet
between themselves and their subordinates. Close friends and romantic partners usually
keep approximately 18 inches of distance. While you dont want to give the appearance
of invading an acquaintances personal space, too great a distance sends a message that
you arent totally involved in the conversation. Three to five feet of distance typically
evokes feelings of closeness, trust, and parallel status between acquaintances.
Touch
Touch in the workplace must be dealt with carefully. Touching in the workplace is more
common between women than men. Appropriate touching can convey openness,
trustworthiness, and interest. It can also result in self-disclosure and compliance.
Appropriate touching includes a good handshake or sometimes a light touch on the
shoulder or arm of an acquaintance.
Inappropriate touching conveys disrespect to the recipient of the touch. It might also
demonstrate hostility. Inappropriate touching includes lingering contact and caresses or
contact with inappropriate areas of the body. When determining the appropriateness of a
touch, you should also consider the pressure that was used in the touch, the body part
that did the touching, what body part received the touch, and if anyone else was present
when contact was made. Many people are easily bothered by touching. Such folks can
be offended by a hand on the shoulder or touch to the arm. When in doubt, dont touch!
Gestures and posture
Although most people are aware of the hand gestures that flow naturally throughout the
course of communication, many people are less aware of the messages that hand, leg,
and foot activity sends. Restless hands or legs can suggest nervousness, which might
make people question your honesty or integrity. Fidgeting might also indicate
impatience and concealed anger. To ease nervousness, take deep, calming breaths and
practice keeping your hands, feet, and legs still.
Keep in mind regional differences in hand gestures. A thumbs-up sign can deliver an
affirmation of a job well done or can be a vulgar insult, depending on where you are in
the world. Avoid pointing at peoplethey can feel they are being accused or
reprimanded.
Similarly, your posture can affect the impression you make on someone. Standing and
sitting straight signals that you are ready for open communication. Sitting or standing
hunched over gives the impression that you are uninterested in conversation or contact.
Appearance
How you dress and look sends a message. Compare your first reaction to these two
fictitious technicians:
Technician A wears dress slacks, a white button-down shirt, and shoes, not
sneakers. He keeps his hair short and neatly combed.
Technician B wears faded blue jeans and a T-shirt advertising a hard rock band.
His hair is shaved short on the sides and spiked in the middle. He wears dirty
sneakers.
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Without judging one look to be better than the other, these two technicians send
different signals with their appearance. Which is appropriate for you depends on your
industry, company dress code, region, and the expectations of your customers.
Technicians working at an insurance company in the Northeast U.S. would probably be
expected to dress like technician A. But a technician who dressed that way at a software
startup in California would probably seem out of place.
Do it!
B-3:
Using nonverbal communication effectively
Heres how
Heres why
1 With another student, practice

your handshake and greeting.
Provide constructive and friendly
feedback to your fellow student,
and accept his or her advice
graciously.
2 With another student, determine
your personal space.
3 With another student, try different
postures. Have one person pose
while the other guesses at mood
and intention. Reverse roles.
4 Compare your appearance with
the expectations of your business,
company dress code, region, and
customers. Do you look and dress
appropriately for those
expectations? If not, what should
you change?
Some people are comfortable communicating

within a couple feet of another person. Others
need more space.
120
Customer satisfaction
Explanation
A problem isnt resolved until both the technician and the user agree that the problem is
resolved. Keeping a customer satisfied during a long troubleshooting process can be a
difficult task, especially for a technician whos better at dealing with hardware than with
people. Such a technician needs to work on people skills to be successful in the support
role.
Service-level agreements
Many companies develop a service-level agreement (SLA) that specifies how clients and
support personnel are to interact, what to expect from each other, and timeframes for the
resolution of issues. The following table describes some of the important concerns that
an SLA should cover.
Concern
Description
How to contact tech support
Customers will contact tech support by phone, Web-based application, email, or some other method. The SLA might also specify contact methods
that should not be used. For example, some companies might not accept email requests for assistance or stopping techs in the hallways to ask for
support.
How soon the user can

expect a response
Tech support will usually send an e-mail message to let the user know that
the request has been received and queued up for resolution.
How soon the user can

expect a tech to attempt to
fix the problem
The tech might need to do something behind the scenes to resolve the
problem, might be able to walk the user through the problem over the
phone, or might need to meet with the user in person.
In some companies, the response time is in minutes or hours. In others,
its in days.
What happens if the tech

cant initially fix the
problem
This parameter often specifies how much time the tech is allowed to
spend trying to resolve the problem before escalating it.
The SLA might also specify whether the user gets a loaner system (to use
if his or her system is completely down) or whether other workarounds to
the problem are available.
What were the services

provided
This portion of the SLA describes what type of documentation will be

supplied to the customer pertaining to the services the tech provided
(regardless of whether or not the tech resolved the problem). This
documentation keeps the customer informed and aware of actions taken to
resolve their problem. It also provides the support department with a
written record of the work already done if the problem needs to be
escalated.
Escalation of the problem
Usually there are three tiers of support. The process often starts with a
help-desk contact (via phone or e-mail), then a desk-side hardware
technician, and finally a backroom technician who works at a bench
making repairs.
The staff for each successive tier of support usually has more experience,
as well as access to additional resources to help resolve the problem.
The course "A Guide to Customer Service Skills for the Help Desk Professional, 2nd
edition is available if youd like more in-depth coverage of this topic.
Do it!
B-4:
121
Ensuring customer satisfaction
Heres how
1 Working in groups, determine what youd include in your SLA for a small
workgroup that needs support for basic hardware and commercial software.
2 Compare your SLA with those of the other groups.

3 Create an SLA for a department that uses specialized hardware and custom
applications, in addition to needing support for basic hardware and commercial
software.
4 Compare your SLA with those of the other groups.
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Unit summary: Troubleshooting methodology

Topic A
In this topic, you examined the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model. You also
learned about the various types of documents and resources available to use for
troubleshooting computer problems, such as user and installation manuals, Internet
and Web-based resources, and training materials.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that being professional, courteous, and respectful is critical
to success as a support technician. You learned that you must stay focused, speak
professionally, respect the customer, and stay up to date. You learned how to
communicate professionally, using both verbal and nonverbal means. You learned
that a problem isnt resolved until both the technician and the user agree that the
problem has been resolved. You also learned about service level agreements, which
specify how clients and support personnel are to interact.
Review questions
1 Match each stage of the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model on the left with its
correct order on the right.
Stage
Order
Test the theory to determine actual cause
A. First stage
B. Second stage
Establish a theory of probable cause
C. Third stage
Verify full system functionality and, if necessary, implement

preventative measures
D. Fourth stage
E. Fifth stage
Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and

F. Sixth stage
Answers: 1-C, 2-F, 3-B, 4-E, 5-A, 6-D
2 In which troubleshooting stage do you consult vendor documentation for

descriptions of status lights and other indicators?
A Identify the problem
B Establish a theory of
probable cause
C Test the theory to determine actual

cause
D Establish a plan of action to resolve
the problem and implement the
solution
3 A paper-based problem-tracking system would be appropriate for what size

organization?
A Very small
C Medium
B Small
D Large
123
4 What is the name of the Web site containing problem and solution references for the
Microsoft client operating systems, such as Windows 2000 Professional, Windows
XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, as well as many other Microsoft applications?
A Microsoft Answers
C Microsoft Help and Support
B Microsoft Frequently Asked

Questions
D Microsoft Windows Support

Center
5 You should ________ the customer and his or her property.

respect
6 True or false? Using jargon is part of professional communication, so you can

impress the customer.
False. You arent out to impress the user with all the "techno babble you picked up at the latest
conference you attended. You need to speak clearly about the issue and implement the
appropriate solutions. Explain any acronyms and abbreviations you use.
7 Never ______ the customer while he or she is speaking.

interrupt
8 A problem is resolved when which of the following occurs?

A The symptoms no longer appear on
the users computer.
C The technician and the user agree

that the problem has been resolved.
B You fix the problem either on the

users computer or on the network.
D The user thanks you for helping her

out.
9 When you match your communication level with your customers abilities, what
guidelines for professional communication are you following?
A Considering the total message
D Respecting the customer
B Considering the customers

competence
E Matching the delivery channel to

the customer
C Speaking professionally
10 You and a colleague respond to a user who is having a problem. As the user is
describing the problem to your colleague, you roll your eyes. Which guidelines for
professional communication are you not following? [Choose all that apply.]
A Considering the total message
D Respecting the customer
B Considering the customers

competence
E Matching the delivery channel to

the customer
C Speaking professionally
11 Effective communication involves both verbal and __________ techniques.
nonverbal
124

12 Which vocal characteristic describes the highness or lowness of your voice?
A Frequency
B Pitch
C Rate
D Volume
13 The statement "We should start the meeting is an example of _________ language.
powerful
14 Whats the name of the document that many companies develop to specify how
clients and support personnel are to interact, what to expect from each other, and
what are acceptable timeframes for the resolution of issues.
A Help desk agreement
C Service-level agreement
B Help desk report
D Service report
Independent practice activity

In this activity, youll identify appropriate troubleshooting steps. Youll also use
Microsofts Knowledge Base to investigate a problem.
1 Bob calls. He cant see anything on his monitor. If you are following the CompTIA
A+ troubleshooting model, what should your first step be to solve his problem?
First, you should identify the problem by questioning the user and determining any changes the
user has made to the computer. Perform a backup before making any changes on the system.
2 John is unable to access the network from his workstation. What questions might
you ask to narrow the scope of this problem?
Answers will vary and might include:
Is the cable plugged in?

Is the NIC light green?
Are other users reporting the same problem?
Is the access problem occurring with all network resources or just one?
Can John access local network resources, but not remote ones such as the Internet, or vice
versa?
When was the last time John was able to access the network? Did anything change in that
time?
3 Use Microsofts Web site to investigate the solution to printer error 0x00000006.
Uninstall and reinstall the printer to fix corrupt drivers.
4 Shut down your computer.
21
Unit 2
Operating systems
A Identify operating system fundamentals.
B Manage directories on a Microsoft
Windows computer.
C Manage files on a Microsoft Windows
computer.
D Control access to files and folders on a
Microsoft Windows computer.
22
Topic A: Operating system fundamentals

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.4
Explain the purpose and characteristics of CPUs and their features

32 bit vs. 64 bit
3.1
Compare and contrast the different Windows operating systems and their features
Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit,
Windows 7 32-bit vs. 64-bit
Side bar, Aero
Terminology (32bit vs. 64bit x86 vs. x64)
User interface, start bar layout
3.2
Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces

Windows Explorer
Libraries in Windows 7
My Computer
Control Panel
Command prompt utilities
Run line utilities
Cmd
My Network Places
Location of basic network settings between OS versions
Task bar/systray
Administrative tools
Computer Management
MMC
Task Manager
Start Menu
Operating systems
Explanation
An operating system is a set of software instructions that control the computer and run
other programs on the computer. The operating system makes a computer able to
function, accepting input from devicessuch as the keyboard, mouse, scanner, and
smart card readerand creating output on other devices, such as a monitor, printer, or
speakers. Applications are installed on top of the operating system, and work with the
operating system and the computers hardware.
Microsoft Windows is currently the most popular client operating system in the world,
followed by Macintosh, Linux, and UNIX operating systems.
Operating systems
23
Microsoft Windows
In January of 2010, it was reported that Microsoft Windows was installed on just over
92% of the worlds personal computers (PCs), compared to Macintosh a bit over 5%
and Linux slightly over 1%. Windows can run on just about any PC from any PC
manufacturer, now including an Apple Intel-based computer, if you have the appropriate
utilities.
Windows 3.1 was Microsofts first graphical operating system. A graphical user
interface (GUI) has icons or menus that you can click or select to perform a function or
run a program. Along with a keyboard, a mouse or other pointing device, such as a
touchpad, is used to interact with the screen elements when youre working in a GUI.
In 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, which introduced the Windows interface
youre familiar with today. As of the time of this writing, Windows 7 is Microsofts
most current client version of Windows. Most applications are written to run under the
Windows operating system.
Exhibit 2-1: Microsoft Windows 7 Professional Edition

Macintosh (Mac)
Macintosh (Mac) is Apples client operating system. It runs only on Apple computers;
you cant currently install the Mac OS on a PC. Like Windows, Mac OS has a graphical
user interface, and many users would have no trouble switching between the two
operating systems. At the time of this writing, the current version of Mac is Mac OS X
(v10.6), also known as Snow Leopard.
24

Generally, the Mac OS is revised more frequently than Windows is, and Apple provides
constant improvements and upgrades for its users. Many of the most popular
applications are available for Macs, so most users wouldnt have any trouble finding
their favorite word processing, spreadsheet, graphics, and communications applications
available for the Mac. Exhibit 2-2 shows the desktop in Snow Leopard.
Exhibit 2-2: Mac OS X Snow Leopard

Linux
Linux is a free client operating system based on the UNIX operating system. The
current full-featured version is 2.6 (released in December 2003), and development
continues. At the time of this writing, the latest Kernel version available for download
was 2.6.32, which was published on December 3, 2009. Patches for this version have
been released. You can download Linux for free, or you can buy a distribution version
from a vendor such as Red Hat (Fedora), Novell (SuSE), Canonical Ltd. (Ubuntu), and
Mandriva (Mandriva Linux). A popular desktop Linux version at the time of this writing
was Ubuntu. Its a free, open-source version sponsored by the U.K.-based company
Canonical Ltd. Ubuntu Linux is shown in Exhibit 2-3.
Linux provides a graphical Windows-like interface, which most experienced Windows
users wouldnt have trouble using. Linux runs on most PCs from popular PC
manufacturers.
Although Linux does have a graphical interface, many system administration tasks are
still performed at the command line, which requires experience with using commandline tools.
Operating systems
25
Exhibit 2-3: Ubuntu Linux

UNIX
UNIX was developed in 1969 by AT&T. The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark.
Systems that are compliant with the Single UNIX Specification may use the UNIX
trademark. The standards for UNIX are UNIX 93, UNIX 95, and UNIX 98, and the
most current is UNIX03. UNIX is used on both servers and clients. For additional
information on the UNIX operating system, go to www.unix.org.
Windows client operating systems

Microsoft has several versions of its Windows client operating systems currently in use
on computers around the world, including Windows NT Workstation, Windows 95,
Windows 98, Windows Me, three Windows XP versions, Windows 2000 Professional,
six Windows Vista versions, and six Windows 7 versions. The latter two operating
systems are the newest, and currently the most widely used, Windows client operating
systems.
The six Windows 7 editions include Windows 7 Home Basic and Windows 7 Home
Premium, both of which are geared toward the home user, and Windows 7 Professional
and Windows 7 Enterprise, which are geared toward the business user. The Home Basic
version is only available in emerging markets. The Enterprise edition is designed for
large, global organizations with complex IT infrastructures and is available only through
Microsofts volume licensing programs. Windows 7 Ultimate includes the same features
as Enterprise but is available to smaller businesses and home users on an individual
license basis. The final Windows 7 edition is Windows 7 Starter. It is a stripped-down
version of Windows 7, available preinstalled on computers, especially netbooks,
through system integrators and computer manufacturers.
26

The six Windows Vista editions include Windows Vista Home Basic and Windows Vista
Home Premium, both of which are geared toward the home user, and Windows Vista
Business and Windows Vista Ultimate, which are geared toward the business user. Vista
Home Premium includes many of the same media features available in Vista Ultimate,
such as all-in-one media-center functionality. The two other Vista products are Windows
Vista Starter, which is a stripped-down version of the product for use in emerging
technology markets, and Windows Vista Enterprise, which is designed for large, global
organizations with complex IT infrastructures. The Enterprise edition is available only
through Microsofts volume licensing programs.
The three Windows XP editions are Windows XP Professional, which is geared toward
the business user, and Windows XP Home Edition and Windows XP Media Center
Edition, both of which are geared toward the home user. Microsoft Windows XP Media
Center Edition includes digital entertainment features that the other Windows XP
versions dont have.
Windows 2000 has more server versions than client. The single client in the line is
Windows 2000 Professional.
We wont cover Windows Starter editions in this course. If youre interested in
additional information about this product, refer to Microsofts Web site at:
http://www.microsoft.com/windows/windows-vista/compareeditions/starter.aspx
During your IT support career, you might come across all versions of Windows 7, Vista,
and XP, and perhaps even Windows 2000 Professional, as youre supporting users in
both the home and the office.
Windows 7 editions
Microsofts most recent client operating system is Windows 7. Most features are
included in all Windows 7 editions, but some features are unique to particular editions.
The following features arent available in Windows 7 Home Basic edition:
Aero Glass and advanced window navigation
Easy networking and network sharing
Windows Media Center and improved media format support
Multi-touch
The following features arent available in the two Windows 7 Home editions:
Windows XP mode
Domain Join
Network backup
Encrypting File System (EFS)
Location-aware printing
Remote Desktop Host
Operating systems
27
The following features are available only in Windows 7 Enterprise and Ultimate:
BitLocker Drive Encryption
Multi-Language User Interface (MUI)
Direct Access links to corporate resources without a VPN
AppLocker
Virtual Hard Disk (VHD) disk image booting
BranchCache
Windows Vista editions
Like Windows 7, most Windows Vista features are included in all editions, but some
features are unique to particular editions.
The following features are not available in Windows Vista Home Basic:
Aero desktop GUI with Flip 3D
Windows Mobility Center and Tablet PC support
Scheduled and network-based backup (however, all editions contain SafeDocs
backup and restore)
Windows Meeting Space
PC-to-PC Sync
The following features are not available in either of the Windows Vista Home editions:
Multiprocessor support
Complete PC Backup and Restore
Networking Center
Remote Desktop
Domain Join
Group Policy support
Windows Fax and Scan
Shadow Copy
P2P Meeting Place
Corporate Roaming
Offline Files and Folders
The following features are available only in Windows Vista Home Premium Edition and
Windows Vista Ultimate Edition:
Windows Media Center and Media Center Extenders
Windows DVD Maker
Windows HD Movie Maker
Windows premium games
The following features are available only in Windows Vista Ultimate Edition:
28

The following features are available only in Windows Vista Ultimate Edition and
Windows Vista Enterprise Edition:
Multi-Language User Interface (MUI)
Subsystem for UNIX-based Applications (SUA)
Single Session Virtual PC
Windows XP editions
Windows XP is the Microsoft operating system that preceded Windows Vista. It is
remains in use in many businesses and homes. The Home and Media Center Editions
have feature sets designed for the home user, and the Professional version is designed
for the business user. The feature sets of these editions vary significantly because
business organizations need to control and secure their client computers more than the
typical home user does.
The following features are included in Windows XP Professional, but are not included
in Windows XP Home Edition or Windows XP Media Center Edition:
Remote desktop
Multiprocessor support
Automated System Recovery (ASR)
Dynamic disk support
Fax service
Internet Information Services (IIS)/Personal Web server
File-level access control (Windows XP Professional computers that arent
domain members, and Windows XP Home Edition and Media Center Edition
computers, use Simple File Sharing.)
C2 certification
Domain membership
Group policies
IntelliMirror
Remote Installation Services (RIS)
Roaming profiles
Multilingual support
64-bit version
IPSec user interface
SNMP
Simple TCP/IP services
SAP agent
Client services for NetWare
Network monitor
Client-side caching
Administrative tools (the Home and Media Center Editions have only a subset of
the tools)
Operating systems
29
Windows 2000 Professional

Windows 2000 Professional doesnt include many of the features that the Windows XP
or Windows Vista versions do. Some of the dependability features that Windows 2000
Professional does include are:
Device driver verification
Scalable memory and processor support
Side-by-side DLLs
Windows File Protection
Windows 2000 Professional has some, but not all, of the security features included with
the later Windows operating systems:
Encrypting File System (EFS), with single-user support
IPSec
Kerberos
Windows 2000 Professional does include the following management and deployment
features:
User State Migration, a Resource Kit tool
Hardware standards support (Some, but not all, of the standards are supported)
System Preparation Tool
Remote OS Installation (partially supported)
Multilingual support
Group Policy support
Microsoft Management Console
Recovery console
Safe Mode startup options
Internet Connection Sharing
Troubleshooters (some features supported)
Windows 2000 Professional does support many mobile computing features that are
similar to those in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP:
Offline file and folder support
Offline viewing
Laptop power management features
Hot docking
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI)
This makes it a less suitable operating system choice for notebook computers.
210

Processors: 32-bit vs. 64-bit
In order for a computer to be a 64-bit system, all of the hardware drivers must be 64-bit
compatible and the operating system must be written as 64-bit. Microsoft offers 64-bit
versions of Windows XP Professional and all Windows Vista versions.
The 64-bit versions of Windows can utilize more RAM than 32-bit versions of
Windows, minimizing memory swapping and thus increasing performance.
Youll sometimes hear Microsofts 32-bit versions referred to as x86, which is the
generic name for the series of Intel microprocessors that began with the 80286
microprocessor, as well as compatible processors from other vendors. Although the
80286 processor was 16-bit, the other x86 processorsfrom the 80386 in 1985 until the
introduction of the Athlon 64 processor in 2003were 32-bit. Microsoft refers to its 64bit versions as x64.
Operating systems
Do it!
A-1:
211
Selecting an appropriate Windows operating system

5 You work for a small company with approximately 100 users. In addition to you,
the IT staff has one other person to support the companys network infrastructure,
servers, and client computers. Of the 100 users, over 70% of them are field sales
reps using laptop computers. Many of these users must provide their own support
in the field, with only phone support available from the companys IT department.
You need to standardize all clients on one operating system. Which operating
system would you recommend? Why?
6 You and your spouse own a small landscaping business. You currently have three
networked Windows Me computers in a home office. The three computers share
one Internet connection using Internet Connection Sharing. Microsoft ended
support for Windows Me and you need to upgrade. You have researched
Windows Vista Business and Windows Vista Home Premium Edition. What
would some benefits be of using Windows Vista Home Premium Edition on your
three computers?
212

7 Similar to the previous question, you and your spouse own a small catering
business. You currently have three networked Windows XP Home Edition
computers in a small office. The three computers share one Internet connection
using Internet Connection Sharing. Microsoft ended all but self-support for
Windows XP and you need to upgrade. You have researched Windows 7 Business
and Windows 7 Home Premium Edition. What would some benefits be of using
Windows 7 Home Premium Edition on your three computers?
8 Your company has contracted with independent vendors in several countries

where English is not the primary language. You have 16 employees who need to
review documents created by the contractors. Which operating system(s) would
allow users to read, edit, and create documents in different languages from within
the English version?
Operating systems
213
Operating system interfaces

All Windows 7 and Vista editions, with the exception of the Starter and Home Basic
editions, sport the new Aero desktop. The Windows 7 and Vista Starter and Home Basic
interfaces are similar to the Windows XP Professional interface. As youll see in this
section, there are differences between Windows XP Professional and the versions of
Windows 7 and Vista that use Aero, but most experienced Windows users can switch
between them with little effort.
The desktop
All Windows GUIs use a desktop as the main work area and starting point for beginning
all other tasks. The desktop is loaded at startup by explorer.exe.
Regardless of whether youre using a version of Windows 7, Windows Vista or
Windows XP, the desktop contains the following items, as shown in Exhibit 2-5 and
Exhibit 2-6:
Taskbar A bar that contains buttons and icons that can be used to monitor,
control, and switch among running programs. The taskbar contains:
Start menu A cascading menu from which the user can launch
programs.
Quick Launch bar Contains shortcuts to applications. The Quick
Launch bar was introduced with Internet Explorer 4.
Notification area Displays icons for system and program applications
that are running but have no desktop presence. The time and the volume
icon are displayed in the notification area. Sometimes you will hear this
area referred to as the "system tray; Microsoft says this is incorrect.
Recycle Bin An icon that points to a directory where deleted files are stored
temporarily until the user permanently removes them from the computer.
Desktop gadgets are only available in Windows 7 and Windows Vista and are found in
the Windows Sidebar. In 7 they can be placed anywhere on the desktop, and in Vista
they are found in the Windows Sidebar.
214
Pinned
applications
Taskbar
Notification
area
Desktop
shortcuts
Start
menu
Exhibit 2-4: The Windows 7 desktop
Sidebar with
gadgets
Desktop
Taskbar
Recycle
Bin
Start
menu
Exhibit 2-5: The Windows Vista desktop
Notification
area
Desktop
gadgets
Operating systems
Desktop
Taskbar
215
Notification
area
Recycle
Bin
Start
menu
Exhibit 2-6: The Windows XP Professional desktop

In Windows 2000 Professional, you can also find the following items on the desktop:
My Computer An icon used to display the contents of your computers hard
disks.
My Network Places An icon used to display other computers and resources
on your network.
In Windows 7, Vista, and XP, you can place these items on the desktop. To place a
shortcut to one of these items on the desktop, right-click an items icon on the Start
menu; then choose Show on Desktop, in Windows 7 and Windows XP, or Send To,
Desktop (create shortcut) in Windows Vista. To place a full version of the item on the
desktop, access the Desktop tab of the Display Properties dialog box. Check the icons
you want placed on the desktop and click OK.
216
Taskbar
System tray
My Computer
My Network
Places
Recycle
Bin
Start menu
Exhibit 2-7: The Windows 2000 Professional desktop

In all Windows versions, other programs can place icons on the desktop when theyre
installed. These icons are used to start the specified programs executable files. Users
can create their own desktop shortcuts to additional items, such as printers, files, and
folders. Shortcuts arent the only items that can be placed on the desktop; for example,
in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the sidebar containing gadgets can be placed on the
desktop. In Windows 7, you can also pin items to the taskbar or to the Start menu.
Right-click the item and chose either Pin to Taskbar or Pin to Start Menu.
Windows Aero
Windows Aero is the name of the new user interface (UI) that Microsoft introduced with
Windows Vista. Its available in Windows 7 and Vista Home Premium, Windows Vista
Business, Windows 7 Professional, Windows 7 and Vista Enterprise, and Windows 7
and Vista Ultimate. The Windows UI had remained much the same from the
introduction of Windows 95 up through Windows XP in 2001. This new UI includes the
following features:
The Windows Sidebar (shown in Exhibit 2-5), which contains "gadgets or mini
programs that give you information at a glance and provide easy access to
frequently used tools
Translucent windows, taskbar, and Start menu, examples of which are shown in
Exhibit 2-8.
Taskbar thumbnails, which provide a preview of the window they represent.
Three-dimensional Windows Flip (shown in Exhibit 2-9), which allows you to
flip between open windows while seeing whats in each window.
Operating systems
Exhibit 2-8: An example of Windows Aero in Windows Vista
Exhibit 2-9: 3D Windows Flip in Windows Vista
217
218

In Windows 7, Microsoft added several features to the desktop of the Aero interface.
Theyre described in the following table.
Desktop feature
Description
Aero Peek
Aero Peek works in two different ways:
When you place your mouse over an open applications Taskbar

icon, Windows displays a thumbnail of the window. Place your mouse
pointer on that thumbnail, and Windows 7 makes all open windows
transparent except the one youre pointing to.
By placing your mouse pointer over the small translucent rectangle
at the right-edge of your task bar (shown in Exhibit 2-10), it makes all
open windows transparent, allowing you to view your desktop. If you
click the rectangle, youre able to access items on the desktop with your
mouse. This is similar to the Show Desktop feature in previous versions
of Windows. Click the rectangle again, and the transparent windows are
restored.
Aero Shake
When you have multiple windows open on your desktop, you can press and hold
your mouse pointer on the title bar of a single window, then shake the mouse
back and forth. This minimizes all other open windows, leaving just the one you
shook on the desktop.
Aero Snap
Drag the title bar of a window to the top of the screen, and the window
automatically maximizes. Drag the title bar back down, and the window goes
back to its original size and position. Drag the title bar to the left or right of your
screen, and it snaps to one side and takes up half the desktop.
Jump lists
When you right-click a taskbar icon (either an open application or a pinned

application), Windows 7 displays a pop-up menu that you can use to select
common tasks quickly for the application. Jump lists are coded by the
application developers and, if available, vary from application to application. An
example of the jump list for Internet Explorer is shown in Exhibit 2-11.
Exhibit 2-10: Showing the desktop with Aero Peek
Operating systems
219
Exhibit 2-11: Internet Explorer jump list

The Windows Aero UI has several system requirements:
1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor
1 gigabyte of system memory
128 MB graphics card
DirectX 9compatible graphics processor that supports a Windows Display
Driver Model (WDDM) driver, Pixel Shader 2.0 in hardware, and 32 bits per
pixel
Although you can install and use Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a computer with a
slower processor, less memory, and a non-compatible graphics card and processor, you
wont be able to enable the Windows Aero interface.
Windows Explorer
Windows Explorer is the GUI tool used to manage files. Its available from the cascading
Start menu in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000
Professional. Its exact location on the menu varies by operating system version, but most
often youll find it under the Accessories menu. There are other methods for opening
Windows Explorer. In all versions of Windows, you can choose Start menu items such as
Computer (or My Computer), your user name, Documents (or My Documents), Pictures
(or My Pictures), and Music (or My Music)all of which open a Windows Explorer
window. The difference between each choice is what gets displayed in the details pane.
For example, if you choose Computer (or My Computer), the details pane lists the drives
attached to your computer; if you choose Documents (or My Documents), the details
pane shows the files and folders in your personal Documents folder. In Windows 7, you
can also click the Windows Explorer icon pinned to the taskbar to open Windows
Explorer. Exhibit 2-12 and Exhibit 2-13 show the components of Windows Explorer in
Windows Vista and in Windows XP, respectively. The Menu bar is not displayed by
default in Windows Vista. To access the Menu bar in Vista, press the Alt key.
220
Date created or modified

Menu bar
Toolbar
Files
File type
File size
Drive
Folders/
directories
Exhibit 2-12: The Details view of Windows Explorer in Windows Vista Professional
Menu bar
Toolbar Files
Date created or modified

File size File type
Drive
Folders/
directories
Drive
Exhibit 2-13: The Details view of Windows Explorer in Windows XP Professional

While youll find the exact components vary slightly from operating system to operating
system. They are very similar and if you are familiar with the interface of one, you
should be able to navigate with relative ease in the others.
Operating systems
221
Windows 7 Libraries
Explanation
A Windows library is a collection of related locations that you can see in one contents
pane. Your libraries are listed in the navigation pane of Windows Explorer. The built-in
libraries include Documents, Music, Pictures, and Videos, and you can add new
libraries.
Previous versions of Windows had special-purpose folders for different types of
content, and these folders were all subfolders of a personal folder that was automatically
created for each user. Some of these folders still exist in Windows 7, but they are now
included in the appropriate library.
Exhibit 2-14: This Documents library contains three locations

The Documents library, for instance, is not an individual folder, but rather a listing of
the files found in the Public Documents folder and in your personal Documents folder.
You can add other folders to libraries, too. If, for instance, you store all your Word
documents in a folder on an external hard drive, you can add that folder to your
Documents library. In the example shown in Exhibit 2-14, the folder D:\Reports has
been added to the Documents library.
To see which folders are actually in a given library, select the library in the navigation
pane of Windows Explorer. The included locations will be shown in the contents pane,
as shown in Exhibit 2-14. Also, you can expand the libraries in the navigation pane and
select an individual folder to see only that folders contents.
222

Creating and deleting libraries
To create a library, do either of the following:
In the navigation pane of Windows Explorer, select Libraries; then, on the
Command bar, click New library. Enter a name for the library. You can then add
locations to your new library.
Right-click a folder and choose Include in library, Create new library. This
action automatically creates a library with the name of the selected folder and
includes that folder in the library. You can then add more locations.
To delete a library, select it in Windows Explorer and press Delete, or right-click the
library and choose Delete. Note: Deleting a library does not remove any of the files or
folders that were included in the library.
Adding folders to a library
To add a location to a library, follow these steps:
1 In the navigation pane of Windows Explorer, select the library to which you
want to add a location.
2 In the contents pane, under the librarys title, click the link stating the number of
locations (such as 3 locations). This opens the Library Locations dialog box
for that library. See Exhibit 2-15.
3 Click Add. Navigate to and select the desired folder, and click the Include folder
button. You are returned to the Library Locations dialog box with the new folder
shown.
4 Click OK to return to Windows Explorer.
You can also right-click a folder in Windows Explorer and choose Include in library,
and then select the desired library.
Exhibit 2-15: The Library Locations dialog box for the Documents library
Operating systems
223
A folder can be included in more than one library. For instance, an online auctioneer
might have a library for current items for sale; this library might include a folder for
item descriptions and a folder for item pictures. These same folders might also be
included in the Documents and Pictures libraries.
If you include one library in another library, all of the folders in the first one will be
included in the second, as though you had added them individually. However, the first
library name wont appear in the second library.
Removing folders from a library
Reverse the methods above to remove folders from a library:
In the navigation pane, right-click the folder under the expanded library and
choose Remove location from library.
With the library displayed in the contents pane, click the number-of-locations
link under the library title. Then use the Library Locations dialog box to remove
the folder.
Default saving locations and content order
Every library has a default saving locationthe actual folder where it will save
something that is saved in the library. For instance, if you drag a file to the Documents
library, the file will be saved in the My Documents folder by default. You can change
the default save location from the Library Locations dialog box. Just right-click a folder
and choose Set as default save location.
You can also use the Library Locations dialog box to change the order in which the
locations appear in the librarys contents pane. By default, the folders appear in the
order in which they were added to the library. To change that order from within the
Library Locations dialog box, right-click a folder and choose Move up or Move
down.
224
Do it!
A-2:
Locating Windows 7 interface components
Heres how
9 If necessary, log on to Windows 7
as COMPADMIN##
Heres why
The password is !pass1234.
10 Observe the Windows 7 desktop

Locate the Recycle Bin icon
By default, its located in the upper-left corner

of the screen. However, you can drag it around
on the desktop.
The Recycle Bin icon points to a directory
where deleted files are stored until you
permanently remove them from the computer.
Double-click Recycle Bin

When the Recycle Bin has items in it, two
Recycle Bin buttons are available. You can
permanently delete all items in the Recycle Bin
by clicking Empty the Recycle Bin. You can
also retrieve items from the Recycle Bin by
clicking Restore all items.
If the Recycle Bin is empty, these buttons are
not displayed.
Close the Recycle Bin

11 Locate the system tray
On the far right, it displays the system clock and
Show Desktop button. Other icons depend on
what your system is currently running. In the
graphic above, there is:
A volume icon, because a sound card is
installed and functioning
A network icon, because there is a NIC
installed and configured
An Action Center Alerts icon, because there is
at least one security information message for
the user
Point to the system clock
It displays todays date.
12 Click
(The Start button.) To display the Start menu.
Operating systems
13 Click Computer and then
maximize the window
225
In this window, you can do the following:

See the disks installed on your computer.
Begin common system tasks, such as viewing
system properties, uninstalling or changing a
program, mapping a network drive, or opening
the Control Panel.
Navigate by using links to other places,
including Documents, Pictures, and Music
libraries.
Double-click
To view the folders on your C: drive.
Click
To leave Local Disk (C:) running, but minimize

it to a button on the taskbar.
Local Disk (C:)
14 Point to the Windows Explorer

icon pinned to the Taskbar
Click the thumbnail for
A thumbnail for Local Disk (C:) appears. When

applications are running, you can switch from
one to another by clicking its thumbnail on the
taskbar.
To switch to the running application.
Local Disk (C:)
Click
15 Click Start and choose
All Programs, Accessories,
To close the Local Disk (C:) window.

To open Windows Explorer.
Windows Explorer
Expand Computer
(Click the arrow

next to Computer in the
lower-left pane.) The lower-left pane is called
the Folders pane.
Expand Local Disk (C:)

Select WINDOWS
16 Scroll the Details pane down to
view files
The files are listed in the Details pane in

alphabetical orderfolders first, then files.
Details view is the default. It displays each
folder and file, with its type, the date it was
created or last modified, and the file size.
17 Click
To close Windows Explorer.
226
System tools
All Windows interfaces contain graphical tools you can use to control the computer and
operating system:
Control Panel
Computer Management console
Network and My Network Places
Command-line utility
Task Manager
The Control Panel
The Control Panel, shown in Exhibit 2-16, is a group of utilities, called applets, that you
can use to control your computers system settings. In Windows 7, Windows Vista,
Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, you can open the Control Panel from
the Start menu. You can also customize the Start menu so that the Control Panel is a
cascading submenu.
You use the Control Panel applets to:
Function
Windows
7/Vista
Windows 2000
Professional
Windows XP
Perform system
configuration and
maintenance tasks
Administrative Tools
Configure computer
security
Action Center
(Windows 7)
Security Center
Windows Firewall
Security Center
(Vista)
Windows Defender
Windows Firewall
Configure network settings
Network and Sharing

Center
Network and Dial-up

Connection
Phone and Modem
Options
Install, configure, and

uninstall hardware
Add a device
(Windows 7)
Network Connections
Network Setup
Wizard
Phone and Modem
Options
Add/Remove Hardware
Add Hardware
Add/Remove Programs
Add or Remove
Programs
Users and Passwords
User Accounts
Add Hardware
(Vista)
Install, configure, and

uninstall software
Programs
(Windows 7)
Programs and
Features (Vista)
Add, configure, and

remove user accounts
User Accounts
Operating systems
227
Function
Windows
7/Vista
Windows 2000
Professional
Windows XP
Customize the appearance

of Windows
Personalization
(Windows 7)
Display
Display
Taskbar and Start
Menu
Personalize (Vista)
Taskbar and Start
Menu
Change the clock, your
language, or your region
Date and Time
Date and Time
Date and Time
Region and Language

(Windows 7)
Regional Options
Regional and
Language Options
Keyboard
Keyboard
Mouse
Mouse
Regional and
Language Options
(Vista)
Change or configure
keyboard or other input
methods
Devices and Printers

(Windows 7)
Keyboard (Windows
Vista)
Game Controllers
Mouse (Windows
Vista)
Pen and Input
Devices (Windows
Vista)
Game Controllers
(Windows Vista)
Set accessibility options
Ease of Access
Center
Accessibility
Accessibility Options
228

There are two views to Control PanelClassic View, shown in Exhibit 2-16, and
Category View, shown in Exhibit 2-17. To switch between the two views, click the
appropriate choice in the left pane.
Exhibit 2-16: Control Panel shown in Classic View in Windows Vista
Operating systems
Exhibit 2-17: Control Panel shown in Category View in Windows Vista
229
230

Microsoft incorporated a Search feature in Windows 7 and Windows Vista to make it
easier to find Control Panel applets. To search for a specific applet in the Control Panel,
you type a portion of its name in the Search box. (The Search box is in the upper-right
corner of the Control Panel.) The Search displays a list of links to matching applets for
the term you typed. For example, if you type "network, Search returns links to the
applets shown in Exhibit 2-18. Note: Shown is just a sample of the applets returned. The
results list is longer than what is displayed in the Exhibit.
Exhibit 2-18: A sampling of the results returned searching for a Control Panel applet in
Windows 7
Operating systems
231
The Computer Management console

The Computer Management console is a group of tools you can use to manage the local
computer or a remote computer. Exhibit 2-19 shows the Computer Management console
in Windows Vista. To open the Computer Management console, click Start, right-click
Computer or My Computer, and choose Manage.
You can use the Computer Management console to:
Function
Console item
Schedule tasks
Task Scheduler (in Windows 7 and Windows Vista)
Monitor system events
Event Viewer
Create and manage shared resources
Shared Folders
View a list of users connected to the computer

Create and manage local users and groups
Local Users and Groups
Monitor system performance
Performance (in Windows 7)

Reliability and Performance (in Windows Vista)
Performance Logs and Alerts (in Windows 2000 and XP)
View the configuration of devices and add

device drivers
Device Manager
Set storage-device properties
Disk Management (in all Windows versions)

Logical Drives (in Windows 2000)
Removable Storage (in Windows 2000 and XP)
Manage applications and services
Services and Applications
Start and stop system services
Exhibit 2-19: The Computer Management console in Windows Vista
232

Network and My Network Places
Network is an auto-discovery utility that uses the Link-Layer Topology Discovery
(LLTD) protocol to identify and display the computers, routers, and switches on your
network. To access the Network utility, choose Network from the Start menu. In
Windows 7, choose Computer and then select Network in the navigation pane. You
might also hear this utility referred to as "the Network map. Exhibit 2-20 shows
Network in Windows Vista.
Exhibit 2-20: The Network utility in Windows Vista

My Network Places is a utility in Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional for
browsing network resources, such as shared file folders on other computers, networked
local printers, and Web links (URLs). To open the My Network utility, choose My
Network from the Start menu.
The command-line utility
The command-line utility enables a user to interact with the operating system in a nongraphical user interface. Using this utility, you enter character-based commands to run
applications and other utilities.
To open the Windows command interpreter, do any of the following:
Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Command Prompt.
In Windows Vista, click Start, type cmd in the Search box, and press Enter.
In Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition, and Windows 2000
Professional, click Start and choose Run. In the Open box, enter command or
cmd, and then click OK.
Operating systems
233
The Run utility is also available in Windows 7 and Windows Vista. Youll find it on the
Start, All Programs, Accessories menu. You can also add it directly off the Start menu,
by using Start Menu Properties. Note: Windows adds frequently used programs to the
Start menu. Once youve used a program several times, you might find that you dont
need to "dig for it in the All Programs menu; instead, it will be displayed on the Start
menu.
A Command Prompt window is shown in Exhibit 2-21. The default color scheme for the
command-line utility in Windows is white text on a black background. To increase
readability in print, we have customized the color scheme to black text on a white
background for the graphics in this course.
Exhibit 2-21: The Command Prompt window in Windows 7

Task Manager
Task Manager is a program that provides information on processes and applications that
are running on your computer. A version of Task Manager has been available in all
Windows operating systems since Windows 95. In Windows 2000 Professional and all
Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 editions, you can open Task Manager
by:
Right-clicking an empty space on the taskbar and choosing Task Manager
Pressing Ctrl+Shift+Esc
Pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del and, in Windows Vista, choosing Start Task Manager
from the list
The Task Manager window is shown in Exhibit 2-22.
234
Exhibit 2-22: Task Manager in Windows Vista

The Microsoft Management Console
The Microsoft Management Console (MMC) is a graphical user interface that is used in
a variety of administrative utilities, such as Computer Management. The Microsoft
Management Console was introduced with Windows 2000. An MMC contains the
following panes:
The console pane, where the tools or utilities (called snap-ins) are added.
The details pane, where you work with the components of a snap-in.
The Actions pane (in Windows 7 and Windows Vista), where you can choose
additional actions to take based on the snap-in and the component selected in the
MMC.
Operating systems
235
There are two types of MMCspreconfigured MMCs, like Computer Management, and
custom MMCs that you create yourself and save. A custom MMC containing the Device
Manager and Local Users and Groups utilities for the local computer is shown in
Exhibit 2-23.
Exhibit 2-23: A custom MMC in Windows Vista
236
Do it!
A-3:
Observing Windows 7 system tools
Heres how
Control Panel
Heres why
The Control Panel contains a group of tools you
can use to control your computers system
settings.
Observe the Control Panel

categories
2 From the View by list, select
Large icons
To view all Control Panel applets. This view is

similar to the interface used in Windows 2000
Professional.
Observe the Control Panel

categories
3 From the View by list, select
Category
4 In the Search box, type power
To view all Control Panel applets. This view is

similar to the native view for the Control Panel
in Windows XP and Windows Vista.
To search for the applet to configure power
options for your computer.
5 Observe the results
Click Choose when to turn

off display
To change the view to the Power Options applet,

to edit the power plan settings.
6 Close the Control Panel

7 Click Start and right-click
Computer
Choose Manage
8 Observe the categories listed in
the console pane
Utilities are grouped by System Tools, Storage,

and Services and Applications.
Operating systems
237
9 In the console pane, under System

Tools, select each item and observe
the information in the details pane
Select Device Manager
You can use Device Manager to view a list of

hardware devices and their status.
In the details pane, expand Mice

and other pointing devices
Click the plus sign next to it.
10 Right-click your installed mouse
You can update the driver, uninstall the device,

scan for hardware changes for the device, and
view the properties of the device.
Choose Properties
This dialog box shows you the current status of

the device.
Click Cancel
11 In the console pane, under
Storage, select Disk
Management, and observe the
information in the details pane
12 In the console pane, expand
Select each item and observe the
information in the details pane
13 Close Computer Management
14 Click Start and choose Computer
In the navigation pane, click
Network
15 Observe the toolbar
To start the Network utility. It auto-detects the

other computers, routers, and switches on your
network.
You can use these buttons to complete common
network tasks or to go to the Network and
Sharing Center.
238

16 Close Network
To open the command-line utility.
Command Prompt
Type help |more and

press e
To view, one screen at a time, a list of the

internal commands you can use at the command
prompt, along with a brief description of the
commands function.
Press q
To advance the list of commands by a screen.
Continue pressing q
until you have viewed the entire
list of commands
Type exit and press e
18 Right-click an empty part of the
taskbar and choose Start
To close the Command Prompt window.

To open Task Manager.
Task Manager
Select the Processes tab

19 Observe the processes running on
your computer
You can use Task Manager to see if a process is

using too much of the processors time. You can
end a process if you need to.
Observe the summary information

at the bottom of the window
Close Task Manager
20 Click Start
21 In the Start Search box, type
MMC and press e
Click Yes
22 Choose File,
Add/Remove Snap-in
To open a blank MMC console.
Operating systems
239
23 Observe the list of available

snap-ins
24 Select Device Manager

Click Add
Click Finish
To accept the default of Device Manager for the

local computer.
25 Select Event Viewer

Click Add
Click OK
26 Click OK
To accept the default of Event Viewer for the

local computer.
To create your custom MMC, containing Device
Manager and Event Viewer.
27 Choose File, Save As

28 In the File Name box, type
My Console
From the Save in list, navigate to

select COMPADMIN##,
To save your custom MMC to the desktop.
Desktop
Click Save
29 Close your custom MMC
30 On the desktop, double-click
My Console
Click Yes
31 Close My Console
Dont save settings.
240
Topic B: Directory management

exam objectives.
#
Objective
3.2
Given a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces

3.3
Explain the process and steps to install and configure Windows OS

Directory structures
Create folders
Navigate directory structures
This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam
objectives.
#
Objective
2.1
Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems
DIR
COPY (/a /v /y)
XCOPY
MD / CD / RD
[command name] /?
2.2
Differentiate between Windows operating system directory structures

(Windows 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7)
User file locations
User profile and program files
System file locations
Fonts
Temporary files
Program files
Offline files and folders
Operating systems
241
Directory structure
Explanation
Hard disks are divided into usable storage spaces through partitions. Depending on the
operating system used and the maximum hard disk size it supports, a hard disk can be
configured as a single large partition or as multiple smaller partitions. In Microsoft
operating systems, each partition is assigned a drive letter. The root of the directory
structure (the top of the folder hierarchy) for that partition is denoted by a backslash, for
example C:\.
Underneath the root directory, information is organized through the use of directories
(also called folders). You can use directories to divide your files into logical categories,
as shown in Exhibit 2-24, making information easier to find and use.
Exhibit 2-24: Sample directory structure on a hard disk
242

When you install Windows, it creates a default directly structure that includes locations
for user files, system files, and other files used by applications and the operating system.
The following table lists the default file locations for three versions of Windows. A
typical installation will put these folders on the computers C: drive.
File type
Windows 2000
Windows XP
Windows 7/Vista
User files
Documents and Settings
Documents and
Settings
Users
System files
Winnt
Windows
Windows
32-bit system files*
Winnt\System32
Windows\System32
Windows\System32
Windows\SysWOW64
for 32-bit on 64-bit
Windows
Windows\SysWOW64
for 32-bit on 64-bit
Windows
64-bit system files
N/A
Windows\System32
Windows\System32
Fonts
Winnt\Fonts
Windows\Fonts
Windows\Fonts
Temporary files
Winnt\Temp
Windows\Temp
Windows\Temp
Program files**
Program Files
Program Files
Program Files
Offline files and

folders
Winnt\CSC
Windows\CSC
Windows\CSC
* The following system subdirectories are shared by both 32-bit and 64-bit applications:
System32\catroot
System32\catroot2
System32\drivers\etc
System32\logfiles
System32\spool
In Windows Vista, the CSC folder is hidden and protected by default, and it doesnt
contain any editable or readable files. To see the files in the offline-files cache, open the
cache by using Offline Files and Sync Center in the Control Panel.
** 64-bit systems create a Program Files (x86) folder to hold 32-bit application files.
Operating systems
243
To work with files and folders on your hard disk, you can issue commands in the
Windows command interpreter or use the GUI utility, Windows Explorer, in any version
of Windows. Navigating in the Windows GUI
To navigate the directory structure by using Windows Explorer:
1 Open Windows Explorer. As discussed previously, there are many methods for
opening Windows Explorer. In all versions of Windows, you can click Start and
choose All Programs, Accessories, Windows Explorer. In Windows 7, click the
Windows Explorer icon pinned to the taskbar.
The left pane in Windows Explorer is the navigation or folders pane; the right
pane is the details pane. In Windows 7, the navigation pane is divided into
sectionsFavorites, Libraries, Computer, and Network. In Windows Vista, the
navigation pane is divided into two sectionsFavorite Links and Folders.
2 In Windows 7 or Windows Vista, in the Folders pane, click the arrow ( ) next
to a drive or folder to expand the tree and view the subfolders in that drive or
folder.
In Windows XP and Windows 2000, in the navigation pane, click the plus sign
(+) next to a drive or folder to expand the tree and view the subfolders.
3 Select a drive or subfolder in the Folders pane or the navigation pane to view its
contents (subfolders and files) in the details pane.
244
Do it!
B-1:
Navigating a directory tree using the Windows GUI
Heres how
1 From the taskbar click
Heres why
To open Windows Explorer.
Observe the navigation pane
You can use this pane to move around in the

directory structure on your computer.
2 Under Computer, expand Local

Disk (C:)
Expand WINDOWS
Select Temp
3 Click Continue
Youre prompted to edit the folders security

settings to allow access.
The contents of the Temp folder are displayed in
the details pane.
Operating systems
245
Navigating using the command prompt

Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition,
and Windows 2000 Professional all include the Command-prompt utility that enables
the user to interact with the operating system in a non-graphical user interface by
entering character-based commands to run applications and other utilities.
Navigation commands include:
cmd or command Starts an instance of the Windows command interpreter
from the %systemroot%\System32 folder. Command.com is a legacy 16-bit
application. Cmd.exe is an updated 32-bit version.
dir Displays a list of the current or specified directorys files and
subdirectories.
chdir or cd Changes the current directory to the specified directory.
Cmd (Command)
To use the 32-bit version of the Windows command interpreter, you enter:
cmd
To use the 16-bit version of the Windows command interpreter, you enter:
command
For the Windows command interpreter included with Windows Vista, optional
parameters and switches include those shown in Exhibit 2-25.
In syntax statements such as this, switches, which provide options for controlling the
execution of a command, are preceded by the "/ symbol.
Exhibit 2-25: Optional parameters and switches for the Windows command interpreter,
cmd
246

Dir
The syntax of dir is:
dir
Optional parameters and switches include those shown in Exhibit 2-26:
Exhibit 2-26: Optional parameters and switches for the dir command
You can use the wildcard characters ? and * to display a subset of directories and files.
For example, dir *.txt displays all files with the .txt extension; dir 200?.txt
displays all files whose names contain "200 with any final character and the .txt
extension, such as 2000.txt, 2001.txt, 2002.txt, and so on.
Chdir (cd)
To use this command, you can enter it in either of two ways:
chdir
cd
Each command displays the name of the current drive and directory. Optional
parameters are shown in Exhibit 2-27.
Operating systems
247
Exhibit 2-27: Optional parameters and switches for the cd command
Help
You can get general information about command-line commands by entering the
following at the command line:
help
You can get command-specific help by entering either of the following at the command
line:
cmd /?
help cmd
Substitute the cmd with the name of the command for which you want to get help.
The help utility displays a commands syntax in uppercase and lowercase letters.
Uppercase letters designate required characters. Lowercase letters are used for variable
strings.
248
Do it!
B-2:
Using the command prompt
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start, type cmd, and press

e
To open a Command Prompt window. You

could also choose Command Prompt from the
Start menu, but for this activity, youll run the
MS-DOS cmd command.
2 Type help and press e
The operating system returns a list of available

commands and a brief description of each.
3 Type dir /? and press e
Use the help information displayed to determine

the answer to the following question.
4 What would be the result of the

following command?
dir c:\windows\system32\*.exe /p /o:-n
Type the preceding command and press e

5 Press q
Continue to press q
Do it!
B-3:
To display the next screen of files.

Until you reach the end of the directory listing.
Navigating a directory tree at the command-line
Heres how
1 What command would you use to
change from the current directory
to the root of drive C:?
Enter the command
change from the root of C: to
C:\Windows\Temp?
Enter the command
navigate to the parent directory?
Enter the command
4 Change the directory to
C:\Users\COMPDMIN##
Heres why
Operating systems
249
Creating directories in the Windows GUI

You can create directories in Windows Explorer. Heres how:
1 In the Folders or navigation pane, select the drive or folder where you want to
create the new folder.
2 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, choose New, Folder.
In Windows XP and Windows 2000, choose File, New, Folder.
3 Type the name of the new folder.
4 Press Enter.
When you create a directory in Windows Explorer, the maximum depth of the folder
structure is limited by the maximum number of allowable characters in a file path,
which is 255. This total number of characters includes the characters representing the
drive, plus any file extensions.
Do it!
B-4:
Creating directories using the Windows GUI
Heres how
Heres why
1 In the Folders pane, under

Libraries, expand Documents
Right-click My Documents and

choose New, Folder
Type Business
Correspondence
Press e
2 Under Local Disk (C:), create a
folder named Marketing
To replace the words New Folder, which are

selected.
250
Creating directories using the command prompt

As with navigating the directory structure, you can create directories at the command
prompt or through Windows Explorer.
To create a directory at the command prompt, you use the mkdir (or md) command.
The syntax is:
mkdir drive:path
md drive:path
Parameter
Description
drive
Specifies the drive on which you want to create the directory.
path
Specifies the name and location of the new directory. The maximum length
of any single path from the root directory is 63 characters, including
backslashes (\).
Spaces in commands
The Windows operating systems use two different command interpreters to process
commands at a command prompt. When youre entering commands that include
parameters with space characters, theyre processed differently, depending on the
version of the command interpreter youre using:
The 16-bit version, command.com, doesnt allow spaces.
The 32-bit version, cmd.exe, treats the spaces as delimiters and processes the
command by treating each word after the command as a separate parameter.
To force the command interpreter to recognize the spaces, you should enclose in
quotation marks any file or folder names that include spaces.
For example, the command:
md c:\my business files
is invalid in command.com. In cmd.exe, that command would create three directories:

c:\my, and then a business, and files folder in the current directory.
To create a single directory called "my business files, you need to enter:
md "c:\my business files"
Operating systems
Do it!
B-5:
251
Creating directories at the command-line
Heres how
Heres why

create a directory called marketing
at the root of the C: drive?
Enter the command
view only directories at the root of
the C: drive?
Enter the command
To verify that the marketing directory was created

successfully. Your screen should look similar to
the one shown here. Your directories might vary
from those listed in the graphic.
252
Copying directories using the Windows GUI

You can use Windows Explorer to copy directories and their contents. To copy a
directory and its contents in Windows Explorer:
1 In the Folders or navigation pane, select the directory you want to copy. To
select multiple directories, hold down the Ctrl key and select each directory in
the details pane.
2 Right-click the selection and choose Copy.
3 In the Folders or navigation pane, right-click the location that you want the
directory and its contents to be copied to.
4 Choose Paste.
Do it!
B-6:
Copying a directory using the Windows GUI
Heres how
Heres why
1 In the Folders pane, right-click

Business Correspondence
Choose Copy
2 In the Folders pane, under Computer\Local Disk (C:), right-click Marketing
Choose Paste
The original folder remains in My Documents.

A copy of the folder has been created as a
subfolder of Marketing.
Operating systems
253
Copying directories using the command prompt

You can also use the copy and xcopy commands to copy directories and their contents.
The copy command copies one or more files to another location. The xcopy command
copies files (not including hidden and system files), directories, and subdirectories.
Copy
The syntax for the copy command is:
copy source destination
Parameter
Description
source
Specifies the location and name of the file you want to copy. The source
can consist of a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a file name, or
any combination of these items.
destination
Specifies the location and name of the file you want to copy to. The
destination can consist of a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a file
name, or any combination of these items.
Optional parameters and switches for the copy command include those shown in
Exhibit 2-28:
Exhibit 2-28: Optional parameters and switches for the copy command
254

Xcopy
The syntax for the xcopy command is:
xcopy source destination
Parameter
Description
source
Specifies the location and names of the files you want to copy. The source
must include either a drive or a path.
destination
Specifies the destination of the files you want to copy. The destination can
consist of a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a file name, or any
combination of these items.
Optional parameters and switches for the xcopy command include those shown in
Exhibit 2-29:
Exhibit 2-29: Optional parameters and switches for the xcopy command
Operating systems
Do it!
B-7:
255
Copying a directory at the command-line
Heres how
Heres why
1 Change the directory to

C:\Windows\System32\Drivers
(Enter cd \Windows\System32\Drivers.) This
directory contains a folder named etc.
What command would you use to

copy the etc folder and its
contents to the root of C: and
verify that the files were copied
correctly?
Enter the command
2 Verify that the etc directory and
its files were copied to C:\
3 If the folder
C:\Windows\System32\Drivers\etc
contained subfolders that you
wanted to copy with the files,
even if the subfolders were empty,
what command would you use?
Use the dir command.
256
Removing directories using the Windows GUI

To remove a directory and its contents by using Windows Explorer:
1 Right-click the folder you want to remove. (You can right-click the folder in
either pane of Windows Explorer.)
2 Choose Delete.
3 Click Yes to confirm moving the folder and all its contents to the Recycle Bin.
Do it!
B-8:
Removing a directory using the Windows GUI
Heres how
1 In the Folders pane, under
C:\Marketing, right-click
Heres why
You can also use the details pane.
Business Correspondence
2 Choose Delete
3 Click Yes
4 Minimize Windows Explorer
To confirm that you want to move the folder and

all its contents to the Recycle Bin.
Operating systems
257
Removing directories using the command prompt

You can also remove a directory by using the rmdir (rd) command.
Rmdir (rd)
Before you can delete a directory by using rmdir (rd) in the command interpreter, you
must delete any files and subdirectories in that directory. The directory must be empty
except for the ". and ".. symbols and must not contain any hidden or system files. If
the directory contains hidden or system files, you must first use the attrib command
to remove the hidden and system attributes from the files.
The syntax for the rmdir (rd) command is:
rmdir drive:path
rd drive:path
The drive:path parameter specifies the location and name of the directory you want
to delete.
You cant use rmdir (rd) to delete the current directory. You must change to another
directory.
Do it!
B-9:
Removing a directory at the command-line
Heres how
Heres why
1 Using the remove directory

command, attempt to delete the
C:\etc folder
2 Were you successful? Why or
why not?
3 Using the delete command, delete
the contents of the etc folder
4 Using the remove directory

command, delete the etc folder
5 Verify that the etc folder has been
deleted but the Marketing folder is
still there
Confirm that you want to delete the files.
258
Topic C: File management

exam objectives.
#
Objective
3.2

3.3

Files
Creation
Extensions
Attributes
objective.
#
Objective
2.1
EDIT
Binary and text files

Explanation
Computer files come in two types: binary and text. Binary files can be read by the
computer, but not by humans. Text files, typically in ASCII format, can be read by
humans using a text editor, such as Notepad. Program files are binary files; data files are
text files.
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII is a code
that represents English characters as numbers, with each letter assigned a number from 0
to 127.
Operating systems
259
File-name extensions
Typically, file names have three-letter extensions. The extension indicates the file type
and is used by the operating system to open the file in the appropriate application.
Windows can hide the file extensions of files shown in Windows Explorer. As a result,
you might not see file extensions when you are working in Windows Explorer.
Some common file extensions are listed in the following table. Additional common file
extensions can be found at www.fileinfo.com/common.php.
Extension
File type
.bat
Batch file
.bin
Binary file
.bmp, .gif, .jpeg,

.jpg, .png, .tif
Image file
.com
Command file
.exe
Executable file for programs and applications
.hlp, .chm
Help file
.htm, .html
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) file for documents on the Web
.inf
Configuration settings file used during setup or installation
.ini
Configuration settings file
.msi
Windows Installer package file
.rtf
Rich text file; allows formatting
.sys
System file
.txt
Plain text file
.vbs
Visual Basic script file
In MS-DOS, file names have an eight-character limit. Youll sometimes hear this
referred to as "8.3 (eight characters for the name and three characters for the extension,
separated by a period). Windows has a 255-character limit. This limit is based on the
file system used. Under FAT16, file names can have extensions of 03 characters.
Under FAT32 and NTFS, file names can have extensions of 0255 characters, with the
caveat that the overall name + extension must be 255 characters or less.
260
Text files
You can create a text file by using the edit command or a Windows GUI text-editing
application such as Notepad.
To create a text file in the edit utility:
1 At the command prompt, type edit and press Enter.
2 Enter the desired text.
3 You can use the mouse to choose File, Save As, or press Alt, F, A.
4 To change the current directory, press Alt+D. Use the arrow keys and Enter to
navigate to the desired directory.
5 To move the insertion point to the File Name box, press Alt+N.
6 In the File Name box, type a file name, including the extension.
7 Press Tab several times to highlight the OK button, and then press Enter.
8 Press Alt, F, X to exit the edit utility.
To create a text file by using the Windows GUI text editor, Notepad:
1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Notepad.
2 Enter the desired text.
3 Choose File, Save As.
4 From the Save in list, select the desired directory.
5 In the File name box, type a name for your file.
6 Verify that Text Documents (*.txt) is selected in the Save as type box.
7 Click Save.
8 Choose File, Exit.
Operating systems
Do it!
C-1:
261
Creating a text file using the MS-DOS text editor
Heres how
1 Enter edit
Heres why
To start the MS-DOS text editor. Because you
ran the edit command from within a
Command Prompt window, your mouse driver is
loaded and available. However, youll use
keyboard shortcuts to choose menu items in this
activity.
2 Type This is my first text

file created with the
MS-DOS text editor.
3 Press a
The menu bar is highlighted. The commands are

shown with their keyboard shortcuts in white.
Press F
To display the File menu. The keyboard

shortcuts for File menu items are also displayed
in white.
Press A
To open the Save As dialog box.
4 Press a + D
(While holding down Alt, press D.) To move the

insertion point to the Directories box.
Press y several times to

highlight C
C: is added to the File Name box.
Press a + N
To move the insertion point back to the File

Name box.
Press n
To move to the end of the File Name box,

leaving C: entered in the box.
5 Type \Users\COMPADMIN##\My Text File.txt

Observe the buttons at the bottom
of the Save As box
OK is highlighted.
Press e
To activate the OK button and save the file as

My Text File on the C drive.
6 Press a, F, X
(In sequence, not simultaneously.) To close the

text editor window.
262
Editing text files

You can edit a text file by using the edit command or a Windows GUI text editing
application, such as Notepad.
To edit a text file with the edit command:
1 At the command prompt, type edit drive:\path\filename and press
Enter.
2 Modify the text as needed.
3 You can use the mouse to choose File, Save, or press Alt, F, S.
4 Press Alt, F, X to exit the edit program.
To edit a text file in Notepad:
2 Choose File, Open.
3 In the Look in list, navigate to the folder containing the text file.
4 In the file list, select the desired file.
5 Click Open.
6 Modify the text.
7 Save the file and then exit the program.
Do it!
C-2:
Editing a text file using the MS-DOS text editor
Heres how
1 Enter the following command:
Heres why
The text file opens in the MS-DOS text editor.
edit "C:\Users\COMPDMIN##\My Text File.txt"
2 Press n
To move the insertion point to the end of the

sentence.
3 Press q
Type I have edited this file
by using edit.
The text continues on one line. The MS-DOS

text editor doesnt have the word-wrap feature
thats included in GUI text editors, such as
Notepad.
4 Press a, F, S
To save the changes in your file.
5 Press a, F, X
To exit the text editor.
6 Close the Command Prompt

window
Operating systems
263
Batch files
Batch files are files that contain multiple commands. When you run a batch file, the
operating system runs all of the commands listed in the batch file in the order theyre
listed in. Batch files are extremely useful for administrators (and users) who need to
complete repetitive tasks.
Creating a batch file
You can create a batch file by using a Windows GUI text-editing application such as
Notepad and saving the file with the .bat extension. To create a batch file in Notepad:
2 Enter the desired commands youd like to run.
3 Choose File, Save As.
4 In Windows 7, you can select the desired directory from the Folders pane. In
Windows 7 and in Windows Vista, in the Address bar, you can type or select the
desired directory. You can also click Browse Folders to browse for and select
the desired directory.
In Windows XP or Windows 2000, select the desired directory from the Save in
list.
5 From the Save as type list, select All Files.
6 In the File name box, type a name for your file. Use the extension .bat.
7 Click Save.
8 Choose File, Exit.
The batch program typically displays (echoes) commands on your screen. Using the
echo command, you can enable or disable this display. The syntax for the echo
command is:
Echo on|off
You can view the current echo status by entering echo in a command prompt window.
The Windows command interpreter is also a helpful tool to use when youre performing
management tasks. You can combine multiple commands into one batch or script file,
which runs all of the commands at once. You can run the commands locally or
remotely.
264
Do it!
C-3:
Creating a batch file using Notepad
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start and in the Search

box, type notepad and press
e
You can also choose All Programs, Accessories,

Notepad from the Start menu.
2 Type @echo off
By default, a batch file displays the commands it

contains as it runs. This first command will turn
off this display.
Youll use the Windows GUI text editor,

Notepad, to create a simple batch file.
3 Press e
4 Type dir "C:\Program Files" > C:\Program_File_List.txt
This command will take the directory listing
from C:\Program Files and export it to a text file.
5 Choose File, Save As

From the Save as type list, select
All Files
In the File name box, type

My Batch File.bat
Click Save
6 Choose File, Exit
To exit Notepad.
7 Open Windows Explorer
If necessary.
8 Navigate to Documents
You are going to set this batch file to always run

as an administrator so that it runs with the
appropriate permissions to complete the task.
9 Right-click My Batch File and

choose Create Shortcut
10 Right-click My Batch File
Shortcut and choose
Properties
11 On the Shortcut tab, click

Advanced
Operating systems
265
12 Check Run as administrator
Click OK twice
13 Double-click My Batch File
To run the batch file.
Shortcut
14 Click Yes
In the User Account Control box. You can

disable UAC for administrator-level accounts if
you want to bypass this confirmation step.
15 In the Folders pane, select
The command in the batch file created the

Program_File_List text file.
Local Disk (C:)
16 Open Program_File_List
17 Choose File, Exit
To exit Notepad.
266
File attributes
Files can have different attributes assigned to them. File attributes tell the operating
system and applications how files should be used. You can assign the attributes
described in the following table:
Do it!
Attribute
Description
Read-only
Prevents inadvertent changes to a file. Commands dont allow you to change

a read-only file. Some Windows applications allow it, although they might
prompt you first, letting you know that youre changing a read-only file.
Hidden
Hides the file from view in the default list display of the dir command and
in Windows Explorer.
System
Indicates that the file is used by the operating system and shouldnt be altered
or removed.
Archive
Indicates whether the file has been modified since a backup.
Index
Available in Windows Vista. Indicates the file is not to be indexed.
C-4:
Modifying file attributes
Heres how
Heres why
1 In Windows Explorer, in the

Folders pane, select
Documents
2 In the details pane, right-click

My Batch File and choose
Properties
3 Observe the Attributes

checkboxes
You can apply Read-only and Hidden attributes

to this file by checking the appropriate boxes.
4 Move the Properties dialog box so

you can observe the details pane
of Windows Explorer
5 Check Hidden and click Apply
Windows Explorer suppresses the display of

hidden files by default.
6 Observe the details pane
My Batch File no longer appears.
7 Click OK
8 Minimize Windows Explorer
Operating systems
267
Attrib.exe
You can use the attrib command to remove or assign file attributes. If a file has a
system or hidden attribute assigned, you must remove that attribute before you can
change any other attribute for the file. The system attribute can be changed only at the
command prompt. You cant change it using the GUI. The attrib command
recognizes wildcards (? and *) in file names.
The syntax for the attrib command is:
attrib
Optional parameters and switches are shown in Exhibit 2-30:
Exhibit 2-30: Optional parameters and switches for the attrib command in Windows
Vista
268
Do it!
C-5:
Modifying file attributes by using attrib.exe
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start
In the Search box, type cmd and
press e
2 Type cd documents
To use the cd command to change the current

directory to your Documents folder.
3 Type attrib and press e
A designates the archive attribute; S, the

system file attribute; H, the hidden attribute;
and R, the read-only attribute.

remove the hidden attribute from
My Batch File?
5 Enter the command you identified
in the previous step
Type exit and press e
6 Switch back to Windows Explorer

7 If necessary, refresh the details
pane view
My Batch File is once again displayed in the list

of files.
Operating systems
269
Topic D: File and folder permissions

exam objective.
#
Objective
3.2

Control Panel
3.3

Files
Permissions
Sharing files with local users

Explanation
In Windows 7, Vista, XP, and 2000, each user has a personal folder. By default, no
one other than you and a computers administrator can access the documents in your
personal folder. In Windows 7 and Vista, your personal folder is the folder you open
when you click Start and choose your user name. By default, your personal folder in
Windows 7 (and Windows Vista) contains your Contacts, Desktop, Downloads,
Favorites, Links, My Documents (Documents), My Music (Music), My Pictures
(Pictures), My Videos (Videos) Saved Games, and Searches folders, as shown in
Exhibit 2-31 and Exhibit 2-32.
In Windows XP and Windows 2000, you access your personal folder by clicking
Start and choosing My Documents. In Windows XP and Windows 2000, by default,
your personal folder contains My Music and My Pictures, as shown in Exhibit 2-33,
Additional folders, such as My Videos or Downloads, might display.
Exhibit 2-31: A users personal folder in Windows 7
270
Exhibit 2-32: A users personal folder in Windows Vista
Exhibit 2-33: The My Documents folder in Windows XP

Public folder sharing in Windows 7 and Windows Vista
Public folder sharing is an easy way for you to share documents with users who log
onto the same computer. Public folder sharing enables you to place files and folders
that you want to share into a Public folder (shown in Exhibit 2-34). Other users on the
computer can access the files in a Public folder, and open them, edit them, and delete
them. Your personal files that arent in a Public folder still remain secure.
Exhibit 2-34: A users Public folders in Windows Vista
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271
Windows XP uses the Shared Documents folder, shown in Exhibit 2-35, in the manner
that Windows Vista uses Public folder sharing. By default, the Shared Documents folder
contains the Shared Music, Shared Pictures, and Shared Video folders.
Exhibit 2-35: The Shared Documents folder in Windows XP Professional

Do it!
D-1:
Sharing files in the Public folder with local users
Heres how
1 Click Start and select your
COMPADMIN## user name
Heres why
To open your personal folder.
2 Under Libraries, expand

Documents and select My
Documents
3 Right-click a blank area of the

details pane and choose New,
To create a text file, in Notepad, in your

personal folder.
Text Document
4 Type COMPPrivate## and

press e
5 Open COMPPrivate## and type
This is my private document.
6 Save the file and exit Notepad

7 Under Libraries, expand
Documents and select Public
Documents
8 Right-click a blank area in the file

list and choose New,
Text Document
Type COMPPublic## and

press e
To name the file, using your administrative user

name.
272

9 Open COMPPublic## and type
This is my public
document.

11 Click Start, click
(Next to Shut down.)
Choose Switch user

Log on as COMPUSER## with
a password of !pass1234
12 Open COMPUSER##s personal
folder
Navigate to select the Public
Documents folder
Observe the content
You can see the COMPPublic## document that

you created with your COMPADMIN## user
account.
13 Open COMPPublic## and add a

few words
You can access and edit COMPADMIN##s

shared file in the Public folder.
15 Switch to Windows Explorer

Navigate to
Computer\Local Disk (C:)\Users
16 Select COMPADMIN##
This is a private user folder. You cant access it.
Click Continue
Click No
You could enter COMPADMIN##s password

and edit the permissions.
Operating systems
273
17 In your private My Documents

folder, create a text document
named
COMPUSER##_Private
Close Windows Explorer

18 Log off and log back on as
COMPADMIN##
19 Attempt to access
COMPUSER##s
COMPUSER##_Private file
20 Open the COMPUSER##_Private
file
21 Add text to the document
22 Save the file

23 Close all open windows
When you click Continue, the Windows login

manager passes your administrative credentials
to the Local Security Authority Service, which
gives you access to the users private folder.
274
HomeGroups in Windows 7
Windows 7 provides a feature called homegroups that allows computers to share
pictures, music, videos, documents, and printers with other computers in the same
homegroup. By default, people can view these files but they cant modify them in any
way unless you give them specific permission to do so.
To create a homegroup, you must be running Windows 7 Home Premium, Professional,
Ultimate, or Enterprise, and you must be on a home network (which you designate
during installation or using Network and Sharing Center at any time after installation).
Homegroups are not available on networks that have been designated Work or Public.
To join a homegroup, you can use any version of Windows 7.
Exhibit 2-36: Creating a homegroup

To create a homegroup:
1 Open Control Panel and click Network and Internet. Click HomeGroup. If
youre not on a home network, you will not have the option to create or join a
homegroup.
2 Click Create a homegroup, and choose which files to share, as shown in
Exhibit 2-36. Click Next. Windows 7 generates a password that you can use on
other computers to join the homegroup you just created.
3 Click Finish.
To join a homegroup, in the Control Panel, click Network and Internet, and then click
HomeGroup. Youll see any existing homegroups listed, and you can click Join to
choose which of your files to share in the homegroup, and enter the password to join the
homegroup.
Operating systems
Do it!
D-2:
Exploring homegroups
Heres how
1 Click Start, and choose Control
Panel
Click Network and Internet,

and then click HomeGroup
2 What message do you see? Why?
3 How could you join a

homegroup?
4 If you were on a Windows 2000
Professional computer, could you
connect to a homegroup? Why or
why not?
5 If you were on a Windows 7
Starter Edition computer could
you create a homegroup? Could
you join a homegroup?
6 Close any open windows
Heres why
275
276
Permissions
Permissions are settings that control what users can or cannot do with a file or folder.
For example, a user might be permitted only to read a file. He or she might not be
permitted to save any changes in the file. In Windows, permissions come in two basic
varieties: share and NTFS permissions.
Share permissions
Share permissions are permissions that you (or an administrator) assign to a specific
shared resource. The standard share permissions in Windows 7 are:
Read
Read/Write
The standard share permissions in Windows Vista are:
Reader
Contributor
Owner
Co-owner
In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, the share permissions are:
Read
Change
Full Control
Although the names of these permissions differ in the different versions of Windows,
their functionality does not. Users with Reader or Read permissions can view files and
subdirectories and execute applications, but they arent allowed to make any changes.
Users with Read/Write, Contributor or Change permissions have the capabilities of the
Read permission, plus they can add, delete, or change files or subdirectories. Users with
Co-owner or Full Control permissions can perform any and all functions on all files and
folders within the share.
You assign these permissions to individual users when you create a share. Alternatively,
you can modify a share to assign a different permission to a user than he or she was
originally assigned.
NTFS permissions
MS-DOS wasnt intended to be a multi-user, networked operating system and thus
doesnt include file security features. For Windows clients, only those operating systems
that support NTFSWindows NT Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, all
Windows XP editions, and all Windows 7 and Vista editionsprovide file security.
NTFS (Windows NT File System) permissions are permissions associated with the files
and folders themselves. NTFS permissions are more specific and varied than share
permissions, and they affect users who log onto the computer and access the folder, and
users who access the folder from across the network.
Using the classic file sharing and security interface, you can apply permissions to
folders or individual files in an NTFS partition. The permissions allow users with the
proper credentialsa valid user account and passwordto complete the allowed tasks.
The NTFS file and folder permissions are described in the following two tables.
Operating systems
277
NTFS file permissions are as follows:

File permission
Allows user to
Full control
Change file permissions.

Take ownership of the file.
Complete tasks allowed by all other file permissions.
Modify
Modify the file.

Delete the file.
Complete tasks allowed by the Read & Execute and Write file permissions.
Read & execute
Run applications.
Complete tasks allowed by the Read file permission.
Read
Read the contents of the file.

View attributes assigned to the file.
View the files owner.
View permissions assigned to the file.
Write
Overwrite the file.

Change attributes assigned to the file.
View the files owner.
View permissions assigned to the file.
278

NTFS folder permissions are as follows:
Folder permission
Allows user to
Full control
Change permissions for the folder, its subfolders, and files.

Take ownership of the folder.
Delete the folder, its subfolders, and files.
Complete tasks allowed by all other folder permissions.
Modify
Delete the folder.

Complete tasks allowed by the Read & Execute and Write folder
permissions.
Read & execute
Navigate through the folder structure, even if the user doesnt have the
permissions to do other tasks in some of the subfolders.
Complete tasks allowed by the List folder contents and Read folder
permissions.
List folder contents
Navigate through the folder structure, even if the user doesnt have the
permissions to do other tasks in some of the subfolders. View the names of
files and subfolders within a folder.
The List Folder Contents and the Read & Execute folder permissions are
inherited differently. List Folder Contents is inherited by folders but not
files. Read & Execute is inherited by both files and folders.
Read
View the contents of the folder, its subfolders, and files.

View the folders owner.
View permissions for the folder, its subfolders, and files.
View attributes of the folder, its subfolders, and files.
Write
Create subfolders and files within the folder.

Change the attributes assigned to the folder, its subfolders, and files.
View the folders owner.
View permissions for the folder, its subfolders, and files.
When youre setting file permissions, consider the following:

Each user account can have multiple NTFS file and folder permissions assigned
to it, plus permissions assigned to any groups the user is a member of.
NTFS permissions are cumulative. For example, if a user has the Read
permission and belongs to a group that has the Write permission, the user has
both Read and Write permissions. This feature also means that, in situations
where permissions overlap, such as Full Control and Modify, the least restrictive
permission (Full Control, in this case), takes precedence.
Unless specifically set otherwise, NTFS permissions are inherited from the
parent folder by default.
An explicit denial of access to a file or folder overrides all corresponding
permissions. However, administrators retain permission to take ownership and
change permissions of the object.
Operating systems
279
Assigning NTFS permissions

Windows XP Home and Media Center Editions use an interface called Simple File
Sharing and dont provide the level of file security that the other operating systems
provide. On Windows XP Professional computers that arent part of a domain, Simple
File Sharing is enabled by default. Windows XP Professional computers that are part of
a domain use the classic file sharing and security interface that you find in Windows NT
Workstation and Windows XP Professional.
By default, Windows 7 and Windows Vista dont allow simple file sharing. You must
have a user name and password to access shared folders in Windows7 or Vista,
including the Public folder.
To assign NTFS permissions:
1 If the computer is not a member of a domain and is a Windows XP Professional
computer, you must disable Simple File Sharing. To do so:
a Open My Computer.
b Choose Tools, Folder Options.
c Select the View tab.
d In the Advanced settings list, clear "Use simple file sharing
(Recommended). Click OK.
2 Open Windows Explorer.
3 In the navigation pane, navigate to the desired folder or file.
4 In the details pane, right-click the folder or file.
5 In Windows 7 or Vista, choose Properties.
In Windows XP Professional and Windows 2000, choose Sharing and Security.
6 Select the Security tab.
7 Under "Group or user names, select the user or group that you want to assign
permissions to.
To add a user or group thats not listed:
a In Windows 7 or Vista, click Edit.
b Click Add and then click Locations.
c Select the server that holds the user or group account you want to add, and
click OK.
d In the "Enter the object names to select box, type the user or group name.
e Click Check Names to validate the existence of the user or group. (If the
object name is invalid, verify the location and spelling of the user or group
name.)
f Click OK.
8 In the "Permissions for (selected user or group) box, check Allow or Deny to
set the desired permissions.
9 Repeat steps 7 and 8 for additional users or groups.
10 Click OK. In Windows 7 and Vista, click OK again.
280

Effective permissions
Effective permissions are the sum of share and NTFS permissions. The more restrictive
permission determines what level of access you will have. For example, lets say you
share a folder and permit users to change your files, but you set NTFS permissions that
mark the folder and its contents as read-only for a particular user. When that user
connects to your share, he or she will be able to open and read the files within but not
change them. Other users might have read/write access depending on how you
configured the various NTFS permissions.
Microsoft also uses the term "effective permissions to refer to the resulting abilities of
a user or a group, as seen in the tab of the same name. To access effective permissions,
select the Security tab of the objects Properties dialog box. Click Advanced. The
Effective Permissions tab is the final tab in the Advanced Security Settings dialog box.
Do it!
D-3:
Setting NTFS permissions
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open Windows Explorer and

navigate to Local Disk (C:\)
2 Right-click Marketing and
choose Properties
3 Select the Security tab
4 Click Edit
To open the Permissions for Marketing dialog

box. Youd use this dialog box to change the
NTFS permissions for this folder.
5 Select Users
(Computer##\Users) and
observe the Permissions list
To see which NTFS permissions have been

assigned to normal users. The options are grayed
out because the folder is inheriting permissions
from its parent folder.
6 Click Cancel
7 Click Advanced
The checkbox shows you that inherited

permissions are included from the parent folder.
8 Click Change Permissions
Operating systems
9 Clear Include inheritable
permissions from this
objects parent
10 Click Add
281
You can copy the existing permissions and then

edit them, or you can remove the permissions
and start from scratch.
To add these permissions to the Marketing
folder and then edit them.
11 Click OK twice
12 Click Edit
13 Select Users
(Computer##\Users)
14 Under Permissions for Users,

Allow, check Modify
15 Click OK twice
Close all open windows
All authenticated users can now modify the

contents of this folder.
282
Unit summary: Operating systems

Topic A
In this topic, you learned about some of the differences between the Windows, Mac
OS, Linux, and UNIX client operating systems. Then you learned about the differences
between various versions of Windows. You also learned how to use this information to
select the appropriate client operating system for a given situation. Finally, you
identified the major components that make up the Windows graphical user interface
(GUI).
Topic B
In this topic, you managed directories (folders) in Windows by creating, copying, and
deleting a directory. You used both the directory management tools in the Windows
Graphical User Interface and Windows command interpreter utility.
Topic C
In this topic, you created and edited a text file and changed file attributes. You used
both the file management tools available in the Windows Graphical User Interface and
Windows command interpreter utility.
Topic D
In this topic, you controlled access to files in Windows 7 and Windows Vista by using
private and public folders. You also learned how to control access to files and folders
by assigning NTFS and share permissions to individual users and groups.
Review questions
1 Which of the following types of software is responsible for accepting input from
devices such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner, or smart card reader, and creating
output on devices such as a monitor, printer, or speakers?
A Applet
C Operating system
B Application
D Snap-in
2 What software component has icons or menus that you can select to perform a
function or run a program?
A Desktop
C Linux
B Graphical user interface
D Windows
Operating systems
283
3 The following graphic shows which operating system?
A Linux
C Windows Vista
B Mac
D Windows XP
4 Which Windows Vista edition is intended for large, global organizations with
complex IT infrastructures?
A Windows Vista Business
D Windows Vista Home Premium
B Windows Vista Enterprise
E Windows Vista Starter
C Windows Vista Home Basic
F Windows Vista Ultimate
5 Unless you work in an emerging technology market, which Windows Vista edition
are you least likely to support?
E Windows Vista Starter
6 Which version of Windows XP contains digital entertainment features that the

others dont?
A Windows XP Home
C Windows XP Media Center
B Windows XP Home Premium
D Windows XP Professional
284

7 The Aero desktop GUI with Flip 3D isnt available in which Windows Vista
edition?
E Windows Vista Ultimate

8 Which Windows 7 edition is intended for large, global organizations with complex
IT infrastructures?
A Windows 7 Professional
D Windows 7 Home Premium
B Windows 7 Enterprise
E Windows 7 Starter
C Windows 7 Home Basic
F Windows 7 Ultimate
9 Unless you work in an emerging technology market, which Windows 7 edition are
you least likely to support?
D Windows 7 Home Premium
B Windows 7 Enterprise
E Windows 7 Starter
C Windows 7 Home Basic
F Windows 7 Ultimate
10 Which features arent available in either of the Windows Vista Home editions?
[Choose all that apply.]
A BitLocker Drive Encryption
D Windows HD Movie Maker
B Encrypting File System (EFS)
E Windows premium games
C Windows DVD Maker
F Windows Media Center and Media

Center Extenders
11 Multiprocessor support is a feature of which Windows XP version?

A Windows XP Home
C Windows XP Professional
B Windows XP Media Center

12 Which Windows client operating system is not best suited for use on a laptop?
A Windows Vista Home
D Windows XP Professional
B Windows XP Home
E Windows 2000 Professional
C Windows Vista Business

13 Which Windows interface component is the main work area and starting point for
beginning all other tasks?
A Aero
D Taskbar
B Desktop
E System tray
C GUI
Operating systems
285
14 True or false? All of the components shown in the following graphic are common to
Windows Vista and Windows XP.
Sidebar with gadgets
Desktop
Taskbar
Notification area
Recycle
Bin
Start
menu
False. The sidebar is only in Windows Vista.
15 What components are part of the notification area? [Choose all that apply.]
A Clock
D Taskbar
B Gadgets
E Volume
C Recycle Bin
16 Whats the minimum system memory requirement for the new Aero user interface?
A 1 GB
C 3 GB
B 2 GB
D 4 GB
17 Which system tool contains utilities called applets?

A Command-line utility
D Network utility
B Computer Management console
E Task Manager
C Control Panel
286

18 The following graphic is an example of what utility?
A Control Panel applet
C Custom Microsoft Management Console
B Computer Management
console
D Task Manager
19 Hard disks are divided into usable storage spaces through ____________.
A Files
C Directories
B Folders
D Partitions
20 You organize information under the root of a hard disk partition by using which of
the following?
A Files
C Partitions
B Folders or directories
21 When youre creating a directory in Windows Explorer, whats the maximum depth
of the folder structure?
A 63 characters
C 255 characters
B 254 characters
D Unlimited
22 What dir command would you use to view all hidden files in
C:\Windows\System32 in alphabetical order, by extension, across multiple
columns?
dir c:\windows\system32 /w /a:h /o:e
23 Whats the difference between the commands copy and xcopy?

The copy command copies one or more files to another location. The xcopy command copies
files (not including hidden and system files), directories, and subdirectories.
Operating systems
287
24 Which operating system uses Public folders, as shown in the following graphic, to
share files with other users?
B Windows XP Home
D Windows Vista
25 Which operating systems use the Shared Documents folder, as shown in the
following graphic, to share files with other users? [Choose all that apply.]
B Windows XP Home
D Windows Vista
26 If you want a colleague to be able to change a file, but not delete it, which NTFS
file permission should you assign?
A Full Control
C Read & execute
B Modify
D Write
288

In this practice activity, youll identify the components that make up Microsoft
operating systems, and youll create a file and assign permissions.
1 Label the Windows 2000 interface components.
Use The Windows 2000 Professional desktop, to check your work.
2 Label the Windows XP interface components.
Use The Windows XP Professional desktop, to check your work.
Operating systems
289
3 Label the Windows Vista interface components.
Use The Windows Vista desktop, to check your work.
4 Label the Windows 7 interface components.
Use The Windows 7 Desktop to check your work.
5 At the root of C:, create a folder called HR Files.

6 Create a text file called My Lab Text File and save it in your HR Files folder.
7 Change permissions on only the file to allow access to only your user account and
the Administrator. Both should have Full Control.
8 Using a Command Prompt window, create two folders on your C: drive. Give them
any names you choose.
290

9 Using the edit utility, create two text files in one of the folders.
10 Use the Command Prompt window to copy the two files to the other folder.
11 When you have finished the lab, close all open windows, shut down Windows and
turn off the power to the computer.
31
Unit 3
A Identify electrostatic discharge, and follow
ESD safe practices while working with

computer components.
B Install a new power supply in a PC.
C Troubleshoot faulty power supplies.
32
Topic A: Electrical safety

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.3
Classify power supplies, types and characteristics

Voltage, wattage, and capacity
6.1
Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a
scenario, apply them
ESD
Electrical safety
Power supply
objective.
#
Objective
1.4
Given a scenario, select and use the following tools

Antistatic pad and wrist strap
Characteristics of electricity
Explanation
Electricity is the flow of electrons, which are one of the fundamental building blocks of
all matter. In some materials, electrons flow easily, while in others, electrons are tightly
bound to their atoms and hardly flow at all.
A conductor is a material that permits the flow of electricity. An insulator is a material
that inhibits the flow of electricity. Most metals, some plastics, and some liquids are
conductors. Most ceramics, plastics, and gases are insulators.
Voltage
Voltage is the force of electricity caused by a difference in charge, or electrical
potential, at two locations. This value, measured in volts, is also called the potential or
potential difference. The abbreviation for volts is officially an uppercase V, though a
lowercase v is commonly used.
Electricity flows to equalize potential. More electricity flows when theres a greater
difference in potential than when theres a smaller difference in potential. Thus, more
energy can be drawn from a high-voltage system than from a low-voltage system.
Current
Current is a measure of the flow of electrons past a given pointessentially measuring
the speed of the electrons through the conductor. It is measured in amps, or amperes.
For current to flow, there must be a complete circuit, or path, from the source, through
any intervening devices, and back to ground. A complete circuit is called closed; an
incomplete circuit is called open.
33
Any interruption in the circuit causes the current to stop. This is the principle behind a
switch, which is simply a device with which you can open a circuit to stop the flow of
current.
Alternating and direct current
Current that flows in a single direction at a constant voltage through a circuit is called
direct current (DC). Batteries provide this sort of current, and its the type required by
most electronic components. (Especially in non-technical usage, component is
sometimes used to mean a whole device, such as an MP3 player, monitor, and so forth.
However, in this context, components are circuit boards, chips, and other internal
devices.)
Current that flows repeatedly back and forth through the circuit at a constantly varying
voltage level is called alternating current (AC). A buildings electrical service is an AC
system, and most household devices require AC to operate.
AC systems complete a full cyclevoltage change from zero, through maximum
voltage, back to zero, to minimum voltage, and back to zeromany times a second. In
North America and Japan, AC operates at 60 cycles per second (60 hertz, or Hz).
Europe and other countries use 50 Hz AC electricity.
AC electrical systems in the Americas and Japan operate at 110 volts (actually, within a
range of 90135 V). Europe and most other countries in the world use a voltage twice
that amountbetween 220 and 240 volts. Household devices, such as light bulbs, are
designed to work at the countrys power level. Sensitive electronics inside computers,
televisions, and other devices use a much lower voltage. Computer components use DC
at either 5 V or 12 V.
Resistance and impedance
Resistance is a force that opposes the flow of DC through a conductor. Impedance is
like resistance, but applies to AC instead. When resistance (or impedance) is present,
electrical energy is converted to heat or some other form of energy. All conductors
possess some resistance (or impedance), though considerably less than that possessed by
insulators.
Resistance and impedance are measured in ohms. This quantity is written using the
Greek letter omega (). One ohm (1) is defined as the resistance of a system in which
1 volt maintains a current of 1 amp.
Electrical power and energy
Electrical power, measured in watts (W), is a derived quantity that you can calculate by
multiplying the voltage by the current. Its a measure of the energy delivered by the
flow of electricity. When calculating electrical power, always use absolute values
(change any negative values to positive for your calculation).
Power supplies are rated according to the watts of electrical power they can supply. A
power supply rated at 450 W promises to deliver 450 watts of power (though, in
practice, it might deliver a bit more or less than that value).
Electrical energy is electrical power delivered over time. For example, one kilowatthour (kWh) is the flow of one kilowatt (1000 W) delivered for a one-hour period. The
average home in the U.S. consumes about 800 kWh of electrical energy per month.
34
Do it!
A-1:
Examining the characteristics of electricity

1 Which delivers more power: a 500 W power supply or a 1 kilowatt power supply?
2 Why might you be concerned about the output power rating of a power supply?
3 Of the various properties of electricity, which will you be concerned with as a PC

technician?
4 Given what youve learned about electricity (particularly voltage and current),
speculate on the purpose of a PCs power supply.
35
Electricity
Explanation
Electricity is the source of energy for electronic equipment, including personal

computers. Electricity can be dangerous. If you dont follow proper safety precautions,
electricity could kill you.
Current can kill
Current, not voltage, is what causes the danger. Even a small amount of current passing
through your heart can be sufficient to cause ventricular fibrillation or stop your heart
entirely. A dangerous level of current is possible, even with low voltage sources, such as
a 9 V battery.
The 1-10-100 rule
The 1-10-100 rule states that you can feel 1 mA (1 milliamp, or 1/1000 amp) of current
through your body, 10 mA is sufficient to make your muscles contract to the point
where you cant let go of a power source, and 100 mA is sufficient to stop your heart.
This is a rule you should learn and respect.
Calculating current
Voltage, current, and resistance are related through the following formula:
V = i * r
In this formula, V is voltage in volts, i is the current in amps, and r is the resistance in
ohms (). At a given voltage, current increases as resistance drops. A dangerous level
of current can be reached if resistance is reduced sufficiently.
Resistance of the human body
The human body has a resistance of about 500 K (500,000 ). This value is a
somewhat ideal figure for contact with a small area of dry skin. Moisture and sweat on
your skin lower the resistance to a value nearer 5000 . Contact with a greater area of
skinfor example, gripping a wire between your fingers or grasping a pipefurther
reduces resistance. If you were to immerse your hand or foot, or puncture the skin so the
electrical connection were made with your more-conductive blood and tissue, the
resistance could be as low as 100 .
Death isnt likely if electricity passes from finger to finger through your body, along
your arm, and so forth. However, your heart and brain are considerably more sensitive.
Current that passes from hand to hand or through your head is much more likely to
cause death. Electricity passing elsewhere through your body could cause an electrical
burn.
Visit www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/4.html for more detailed
information about the resistance of the human body and dangers from electricity.
36

Safety precautions
You should always follow common-sense safety precautions to avoid electric shock.
These precautions include the following:
Dont touch exposed electrical contacts with any part of your skin.
Touch only insulated handles and parts of tools, probes, cords, etc.
Leave covers on equipment, unless you need to access their internal
components.
Work one-handed. If you use only one hand, electricity is less likely to flow
through your body (specifically, your heart or head) and cause injury or death.
Never insert anything into a wall outlet other than a power cord.
Rings, watches, and jewelry can cause unintended contact with electrified
components. Furthermore, these metallic items can increase the surface area
thats in contact with an electrical source and thus lower your bodys resistance.
Remove jewelry and watches when working around electricity.
Keep your hands clean and dry.
Dont work with electricity in wet surroundings, especially on wet floors.
Do it!
A-2:
Considering electrical safety

1 Which is more dangerous: exposed leads in a 500 W power supply or a 12 V
automotive battery?
2 Could you feel the current generated if you were to wet your fingers and touch
both leads of a 9 V battery?
3 Is a shock from an electrical outlet sufficient to cause pain, contract your muscles,
or kill you?
37
Electrostatic discharge
Explanation
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a phenomenon that occurs when the charges on

separated objects are unequal. One object has an excess positive or negative charge,
compared to the other. Typically, the objects are made of an insulating material (one
that doesnt transmit electricity easily) or a conductive material thats insulated from
ground. The charge imbalance creates an electric field that can cause objects to attract or
repel each othersuch as when a static field makes your hair stand on end.
From the perspective of a PC technician, the most interesting (and dangerous) aspect of
ESD happens when statically charged objects are brought near each other. When that
happens, a current can flow between them to balance their charges. This current flow is
characterized by a high voltage, but low amperage.
Static dangers
Electrostatic discharges (the current flow) arent dangerous to humans, even though the
voltage in the system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such
discharges are potentially harmful to electronics.
The microscopic wires and components that make up chips and other devices are very
sensitive to even small amounts of current. A static spark can melt such components,
rendering them useless. Smaller discharges can alter the data stored in chips or
otherwise upset their operation, without causing physical damage.
Discharge voltages
To feel a static shock, you must experience a discharge of approximately 3,000 volts or
more. Discharges of more than roughly 8,000 volts might generate a visible spark.
Walking across a carpet on a dry day can generate a charge of up to 35,000 volts. Yet
electronics can be damaged by a 30-volt discharge or lessmuch less than the
minimum discharge you can feel.
Preventing problems with static electricity

There are two ways to prevent problems from static electricity:
Prevent the buildup of static charges.
Prevent discharges, or discharge the charge safely.
38

Preventing static buildup
To reduce the buildup of static charges, follow these tips:
Dont shuffle your feet as you walk.
Increase the humidity in the room or building to 50 to 60%static charges can
dissipate before growing large if the humidity level is sufficiently high.
Keep yourself grounded as you work and move around. Use the tools found in a
typical ESD kit, such as wrist straps (shown in Exhibit 3-1) and mats. You and
the components youre servicing can remain connected to ground so that charges
cant build up.
Wear cotton clothing, which is less likely to generate static charges than are
many synthetic materials.
Remove carpeting from rooms where you service computers and from computer
rooms.
Use an air ionization system to build up an opposite, and thus neutralizing,
charge in the air.
Preventing static discharge
If a charge differential does build up, you can follow these tips to prevent or reduce the
likelihood of damage from static discharges:
Equalize the charge safely. Unplug the equipment, and then touch a metal
portion of its chassis.
If you must move around as you work, keep yourself grounded (with an
antistatic wrist strap) so that charges cant build up.
To prevent damaging discharge from occurring, you need to be at equal charge potential
with the device youre servicing (not at equal charge with ground). Do not leave the
computer plugged in while servicing it. Always service computers on a properly
grounded bench.
If theres a fault in the buildings wiring system, full wall current could be flowing
through the ground wire. You could be injured or killed if you came into contact with
the ground.
ESD toolkits
An ESD toolkit includes tools that you can use to prevent the buildup of charge
differentials and to equalize them safely. You should purchase and use a good ESD
toolkit. An antistatic wrist strap is a common component of such a kit. Two antistatic
wrist straps, one wired and one wireless, are pictured in Exhibit 3-1,
39
Exhibit 3-1: Antistatic (ESD) wrist straps
Inside the case

Electrostatic discharge isnt typically a problem when the computer case is closed. The
static current is dissipated through the computers metal case to ground or is otherwise
dampened before reaching sensitive components. (Of course, you should still avoid
discharging static through the case!) The biggest problems with static arise when you
have the computers case open and are working with its internal components.
Typical internal components
The typical components that you find inside a computer case include:
System board (the motherboard)
Hard drive
Removable drives, such as floppy, DVD, and CD-ROM
Power supply
Cooling fan
Adapter cards
Wires, cables, and connectors
310

Such components are shown in Exhibit 3-2.
Power supply
CD-ROM drive
Floppy drive
CPU with fan
Hard drive
Adapter
Motherboard
Exhibit 3-2: Internal components of a typical computer

Opening the case
Computer cases come in a variety of styles, all of which provide some means to access
the internal components. For a typical tower (upright) case, the sides slide backward
after you remove some sort of restraining mechanism.
Older cases are held closed with screws, typically three per side. Newer cases use slide
latches or push-button clips that require no tools and make opening the case much
easier. These clips are shown in Exhibit 3-3.
Slide latch
Exhibit 3-3: Typical slide latch used to secure a case
311
Which side to open

When removed, one side exposes the internal components, while the other side reveals
the underside of the main circuit board. Although you occasionally need to open both
sides of the case, most often you open the side that gives you access to the components.
You can usually tell which side to open by looking at the connectors extending through
the back of the computer. Those connectors are attached directly to the main circuit
board. Thus, their location tells you to which side of the case the board is nearest. You
typically open the side opposite the rows of connectors, as shown in Exhibit 3-4.
Sometimes the component-side panel is released with convenient slides or buttons,
while the other side is held fast with screws.
Open this side
Ports are on this side
Exhibit 3-4: Typically, you open the side opposite the port connectors
312

Front cover
Most modern computer cases include a removable front cover. You might remove this
panel to install a new disk drive into the system or replace a failed unit.
Typically, the front cover is held in place with snap-clips and one or more alignment
posts. The alignment posts help you line up the cover correctly so that the clips engage
and secure the cover. These posts and clips are shown in Exhibit 3-5.
Alignment holes
Alignment posts
Alignment
holes
Spring catche
Alignment
posts
Exhibit 3-5: Front-cover alignment and catch mechanisms

Do it!
A-3:
313
Opening the computer case while following proper

ESD precautions
Heres how
1 Follow safety precautions to avoid
electrical shock and use the tools
in your ESD toolkit
Heres why
Place your antistatic mat under the area you are
working in and wear your antistatic wrist strap.
2 If necessary, shut down your

computer
3 Disconnect the power cord from
the computer
4 Disconnect any other external
cables
For example, network cables.
5 Release the restraining

mechanismsscrews, slides, or
push-buttonsthat secure the side
that exposes the internal
components
If you opened the side covering
the underside of the main circuit
board, open the other side
6 Touch the metal frame of the
computer and count slowly to
three
To discharge any static charges present on your

body or on the computer.
7 Remove the front cover

8 Using Exhibit 3-2 as a guide,
identify the major internal
components of your PC
9 Leave the case open
Youll examine the internal components more

in upcoming topics.
314
Topic B: Power supplies

exam objective.
#
Objective
1.3

ATX proprietary
Voltage selector switch
Pins (20, 24)
objective.
#
Objective
1.1
Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components

Power supplies
Wattages and capacity
Connector types and quantity
Output voltage
PC power supplies
Explanation
A PC power supply, shown in Exhibit 3-6, is the internal component that converts AC
wall voltage (110 VAC or 220 VAC) to the various DC voltages used by the computers
other components. Power supplies have a fan to cool their components and to help cool
the other components inside the PC. Typically, a power supply provides some
conditioning functions and can maintain DC supplies during very brief drops in and
outages of supply voltage.
Exhibit 3-6: A PC power supply
315
Power supply specifications

Power supplies are rated according to the number of watts of DC power they can put
out. Modern power supplies typically offer at least 300 watts to power the PC and its
internal components. Older power supplies typically offered 200 watts or less.
The power supplys rating isnt necessarily an indicator of the amount of power that the
unit draws from the outlet: a 350 W power supply doesnt necessarily use more
electricity than a 200 W model. Power supplies draw only as much power as is needed
to supply the internal components. If your system needs less than the power supplys
full capability, the power supply draws enough electricity to power the PC and no more.
The following table lists typical power requirements for common PC components. You
can usually find out an exact power requirement from technical specification documents
posted on manufacturers Web sites. Its often not possible, however, to separate
memory and CPU power requirements from the motherboards.
Component
Typical power requirement
Motherboard
30 W, not including the power for the CPU chip and memory. This is for
full power mode. Sleeping states use less.
Memory
10 W per 2 GB module.*
CPU chip
AMD Phenom processors use 65140 W; AMD Athlon 64 processors use

45125 W; single-core and dual-core Itanium processors use approximately
100 W; Pentium 4 and Athlon-class processors use 65 or more watts; older
CPUs use 50 W or less. The voltage can vary based on the processors
workload. Voltage spikes as the processor swings between light and heavy
workloads.
Hard drive
515 W. Some manufacturers will print the power requirement right on the
drive.
Optical drive
Newer CD or DVD drives can use as little as 5 W. Older optical drives may
require 1020 W.
Floppy drive
510 W.
Adapter card
530 W. For example, the high-end graphics cards used by professional

graphics software developers and computer-aided designers will require
more power than a normal graphics card.
* BEHARDWARE.COM determined power consumption in a test system. They measured

power consumption at 2 GB and then at 4 GB, because they state that it really isnt possible to
load the memory independently of the processor; the difference is an estimate of memory
power consumption.
Standard outputs
Most power supplies provide three output voltage levels at various amperage ratings to
supply power to the internal components: +/-5 V, +/- 12 V, and 3.3 V. More devices
draw power at the +12 V level than at any of the other ranges.
316
Power connectors
Standard connectors are used to connect the power supplys output to the various
devices. Separate standards exist for the following connectors:
Drive power connectors
Motherboard power connectors
Standards for drive power connectors
Hard drives, CD and DVD drives, and floppy drives use power connectors that are
standardized in size and shape, as well as in the placement and voltage carried by the
wires connected through them. There are three common power connectors: the
peripheral, floppy, and serial ATA (SATA) power connectors.
The peripheral connector is sometimes called a Molex connector, after one of the
manufacturers of this style of connector. Peripheral connectors are typically used
to connect hard drives and CD or DVD drives to the power supply.
The floppy connector is a 4-pin Berg connector. The 4-pin Berg connector is
smaller than a Molex connector and is used to connect the floppy drive to the
computers power supply unit.
New serial ATA drives use the third type of power connector.
Peripheral, floppy, and serial ATA connectors are shown in Exhibit 3-7 and Exhibit 3-8.
Exhibit 3-7: A peripheral power (Molex) connector, left; and a floppy power (Berg)
connector, right
Exhibit 3-8: A serial ATA power connector
317
Due to their shapes, these connectors can be inserted into drives in only one orientation.
They are said to be keyed, which ensures that you connect the appropriate power
input wires to the correct point on the device.
Wire color
Molex pin
numbers
Berg pin
numbers
SATA pin
numbers
Voltage
Yellow
13, 14, 15
+12 V
Red
1 (optional)
7, 8, 9
+5 V
Black
2 and 3
2 (optional) and 3
4, 5, 6
10, 11, 12
Ground
1, 2, 3
+3.3 V
Orange
Standards for motherboard power connectors

The motherboard and its components must get power from the power supply. The
motherboard is connected to the power supply with either one or two connectors.
Newer, single motherboard connectors are keyed; you cant insert these connectors
incorrectly (unless you force-fit them backwards).
The older standard for motherboard power connectors is the two-connector system.
These older connectors werent keyed, so they could be inserted in either direction. Not
only could you connect one of the pair to the wrong motherboard connector, but you
could also connect the plugs backwards. Such a misconnection sometimes resulted in
damage to the motherboard. Exceptions to this were the P8 and P9 connectors, which
were keyed and could not be inserted incorrectly. However, the P8 and P9 connectors
looked identical, so you could mistakenly attempt to put a P8 connector into a P9 port or
vice versa. Although difficult to achieve, such a mistake causes damage the
motherboard.
A single motherboard power connector is shown in Exhibit 3-9, and dual power
connectors are shown in Exhibit 3-10.
Power
connector
Exhibit 3-9: Single motherboard power connector
318
Dual power
connectors (P8/P9)
Exhibit 3-10: Dual power connectors on an older motherboard
Form factors
The form factor of a power supply refers to its size and shape. The two most common
form factors for desktop computers is AT and ATX. The form factor you use must not
only fit into the case you use; it must also fit in relation to the motherboard and other
components. The names of power-supply form factors match those given to system
cases, because together these components form a matched set.
Do it!
B-1:
Identifying your computers power supply
Heres how
Heres why
1 Identify the power supply in your

computer
If your computers case is not open, follow

proper ESD procedures to open the case,
exposing the internal components.
2 Identify your power supplys

rating and output voltages
This information is normally listed on a label on

the power supply.
3 Locate a peripherals power

connector and examine its shape
4 Locate a floppy drive power
connector and examine its shape
5 Determine if your computer has a
SATA power connector
6 Locate the motherboards power
connector
Do you have a single or paired
power connector?
The power supplies in newer computers provide

these connectors. You can purchase adapters for
older power supplies.
319
Power supply installation and replacement

Explanation
You might need to replace or install a power supply if:

The power supply in your system doesnt provide sufficient power for the
components that are installed.
An older power supply has failed.
Youre building a new computer from components.
To install or replace a power supply, follow these general steps:
1 Shut down the computer.
2 Unplug the computer.
3 Remove the cover from the computer.
4 Disconnect all of the power wires from the various components, including the
motherboard.
5 Remove any retaining screws that secure the power supply to the case. The
power supply is typically held into place by four retaining screws accessible
from the rear of the case.
6 Remove the power supply.
7 Install the new power supply and screw it into place.
8 Connect power wires to the various components as needed, including the
motherboard. Take care to attach the connectors in the proper orientation.
9 Replace the cover or covers.
10 Plug the computer into the outlet and boot the system to test your work.
Warning: Dont open the cover of the power supply itself. Components within the
power supply retain a high-voltage charge even after the unit has been unplugged for a
long period of time. Shock or death could result if you were to touch these components.
Voltage selection
When installing a power supply unit, you can often adjust the power supply to run on
110-120 VAC or 220-240 VAC wall voltage. To make this adjustment, with the
computer off, you slide a small switch to the appropriate voltage. This switch is
normally next to the electrical cord port on the back of the PC, as shown in Exhibit 311.
320

The desktop voltage switch shown in Exhibit 3-11 allows you to select an operating
voltage of 115 or 230. As you learned previously, the Americas and Japan provide
electrical power within a range of 90135 V. Europe and most other countries in the
world use a voltage twice that amountbetween 220 and 240 volts. When your
computer is operating in the Americas or Japan always have the switch set to 115. If
your computer is operating in a country that supplies power at the higher range, set the
power supply toggle switch to 230.
Exhibit 3-11: Voltage selection switch near the electrical cord port
If the voltage selection switch is not set properly for your country, it can prevent your
computer from turning on, keep it from operating properly, or cause serious damage to
the computer. Some power supplies have an auto-switching feature that senses the
incoming voltage and switches itself accordingly. Most laptop power supplies are autoswitching. A directory of foreign electrical information can be found at:
www.voltagevalet.com/elec_guide.html.

Do it!
B-2:
321
Installing a new power supply
Heres how
1 Carefully disconnect all of the
power wires from the various
components
Heres why
Your computer is already shut down and
unplugged, and the case is open. Youre using
your ESD tools and following safety precautions
to avoid electrical shock.
2 Remove any retaining screws that

secure the power supply to the
case
3 Remove the power supply and set
it aside
4 Install the power supply provided
by your instructor
5 Connect the power cables to the
motherboard and other internal
components
Make sure to attach connectors in the

appropriate orientation.
6 Replace the cover or covers

7 Plug the computer into the outlet
and reconnect all of the
peripherals
8 Boot the computer
To verify that you have installed the power

supply correctly.
322
Topic C: Power supply troubleshooting

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.2
Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system
symptoms and their causes
Hardware-related symptoms
Noise
Status light indicators
2.5
Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques

Power devices
Appropriate source, such as power strip, surge protector, or UPS
6.1
Electrical safety
Inverter
Matching power requirements of equipment with power distribution and UPS
objectives.
#
Objective
1.2
Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer

components
Power supplies
Output voltage
1.4

Multimeter
Power supply tester
Specialty hardware / tools
Why power conditioning is needed

Explanation
In an ideal situation, an AC electric signal would be steady and consistent, and the
power would never go out. In reality, AC electricity is a noisy signal with many
variations. Some of these variations can interrupt service long enough to shut down your
computer. Other signal problems can damage your equipment.
323
AC signal problems
An ideal AC signal is a sine wave in which the voltage varies smoothly and steadily
from a consistent positive voltage level to a negative voltage level. Such a wave is
illustrated in Exhibit 3-12.
Exhibit 3-12: An ideal AC signal

The AC signal rarely matches the ideal. The following table lists some typical power
problems and their causes.
Problem
Description
Cause
Blackout
A total loss of power
Accidents that knock down or cut wires, blown circuit

breakers (or fuses), and transformer damage can cause
localized blackouts. Natural disasters can cause widespread
blackouts.
Brownout
A brief decrease in
voltage level; also
called a sag
Motors, compressors, and other devices can use so much

power when starting that they can decrease the voltage
available to other devices on the circuit. Demand thats
greater than supply, such as when too many people run air
conditioners on extra-hot days, can cause longer-term
brownout conditions.
Noise
A disruption of the
smoothly varying
AC signal
Lighting, industrial equipment, arc-welding equipment,

generators, and radio transmitters can all introduce noise
into the line.
Spike
A very brief increase in

voltage
Lightning strikes are the major cause. Spikes also occur

when power is first returned after a blackout.
Surge
A brief increase in
voltage (longer duration
than spikes)
Extra voltage is dissipated through the circuit after motors,

compressors, and other high-use devices are switched off.
According to the APC Web site, brownouts (also called sags) account for 87% of all
power problems. For details, see www.apc.com/power/power_event.cfm.
324
Power conditioning
Power conditioning is the process of restoring a problematic AC signal to a high-quality
smooth signal thats safe for your computer and other electronic devices. Power
conditioning equipment includes:
Surge protectors
Battery backup devices
Generators
Surge protection
You can add a surge protector to a circuit to filter out spikes and surges. Typically, plug
strips include surge protection circuitry. The primary purpose of a plug strip (also
known as a power strip) is to provide additional AC outlets to power multiple devices
located in close proximity to one another. For this reason, not all power strips include
surge protectors. If you are relying on the surge protection of a power strip, you should
verify that it has such capability. You can also wire in surge protection by using surgeprotecting circuit breakers or other devices.
Surge protectors dont protect against noise, brownouts, or blackouts.
Battery backup
You can use a battery backup unit, often called an uninterruptible power supply (UPS),
to condition the power signal. (See Exhibit 3-13.) During normal power conditions, a
small portion of electricity is used to charge a battery in the UPS. During a blackout,
battery power is converted from DC to AC by an inverter and is supplied to the
computer or other devices. An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current
to alternating current.
Exhibit 3-13: A UPS that provides battery-protected and surge-protected outlets

Some UPSs also protect against brownout conditions. When voltage levels drop below a
preset range, battery power is used to supplement the voltage from the electrical service.
UPSs are either standby or continuous. A standby UPS does not use power from the
battery during normal operations. During a power problem, such as a sag, the UPS
quickly supplements the power. The UPS switches between wall voltage and battery
voltage so quickly that power to your computer appears to be continuous, even though it
isnt.
Continuous UPSs constantly draw some or all power from the battery. Wall voltage is
used to charge the batteries. Voltage to power devices is drawn from the battery even
when the electrical service is operating normally. Theres no need to switch between
sources during a power incident.
325
Thus, continuous UPSs are better suited to very sensitive electronics that cant tolerate
the switching time associated with a standby UPS.
Most UPSs include a voltage regulator that keeps voltage output levels within a
predefined range. With a voltage regulator and the surge protection features also
commonly provided, a UPS can provide a continuous and clean AC electric signal thats
well suited to powering computers and other sensitive electronics.
UPS software
If a power failure occurs, the battery in a UPS can provide power for only a short time.
Once its battery is exhausted, the UPS wont be able to supply power to your computer
anymore. In essence, the UPS simply delays a blackout.
Many UPSs include software and a method to send battery-level information to your
computer. Together, these components enable the UPS to signal your computer that the
battery is nearing empty and that the computer should shut down.
Exhibit 3-14: APCs PowerChute software, indicating the UPSs remaining battery life
Some versions of Windows, as well as other operating systems, include built-in UPS
monitoring software. If the UPS vendor provides software, you should use it instead. It
provides more features and is designed specifically to work with the UPS hardware.
326
Exhibit 3-15: PowerChute software when running off of the UPSs batteries
UPS and other power inverter safety precautions
One might assume that, because a UPS operates from a 12V battery, it doesnt provide
as much electrical output as a power outlet. This assumption is incorrect. A low power
inverter rated at 60 watts has a potentially fatal electrical output, typically delivering up
to about 360mA at 230V. This output is more than ten times the current level that can
stop your heart. In comparison, a small home UPS is rated at 200 watts, while a rackmounted UPS for your data center is rated at 12 kW. Adhere to the following safety
guidelines when using a UPS or other type of power inverter:
Place the UPS on a reasonably flat surface, either horizontally or vertically.
Keep the UPS dry.
Avoid placing the UPS on or near heating vents, radiators, or other sources of
heat.
Dont place the UPS in direct sunlight.
Keep the UPS in a well ventilated area to avoid overheating.
Maintain the UPS operating environment with an ideal air temperature between
50 and 80 F.
Dont use the UPS in an environment where flammable materials, fumes, or
gases are present.
Selecting a UPS
1 Determine whether you need a standby or online UPS.
A standby UPS switches to battery power when power goes out.
An online UPS provides unlimited backup power but is more expensive.
2 Determine the total power needs, in both watts and volt-amperes, of all the
equipment that will be connected to the UPS. You need a UPS that equals or
exceeds the total power requirements.
327
3 Evaluate the following features for your needs:

Maximum surge currentexpressed in amps. A higher number is better.
Surge suppressionexpressed in joules. A higher number is better.
Suppression response time. A faster response time is better.
Battery recharge time. A faster recharge time is better.
Number of AC outlets.
Replaceable battery, and if so, whether the battery is replaceable by the
user.
Battery operating times. How long will the UPS keep equipment running
after power failure?
Modem surge protection.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI)
noise reduction.
Alarms or LEDs that indicate wiring problems, when the equipment is
running on UPS battery, and if the battery is low.
Software that you can configure to save documents automatically, close
applications, and turn off equipment when power goes out.
Generators
The battery in even the best UPS eventually runs out. You can use a generator to
provide power for extended periods of time or when utility service is simply not
available. Generators use motors, powered by gasoline, diesel fuel, natural gas, or other
fuels, to produce electric power. As long as you have fuel, you can produce electricity.
Home generatorsthe type designed to provide power in the event of a winter storm or
other disastergenerally produce noisy and inconsistent AC signals. Power from these
generators can damage computers, televisions, and other electronic devices.
Computer-grade generators produce clean and consistent AC signals by including
features often provided by UPSs, including voltage regulators and battery backup
components. Large companies often install computer-grade generators to keep their
computer centers operating during power outages and brownouts.
Verifying UPSs and surge suppressors
You install a UPS so you can have time to save your work and properly shut down your
system if theres a power failure. What if your UPS isnt working? Chances are, unless
you test it regularly, you wont know whether it will work when you need it.
To test the UPS with the devices its supporting plugged into it, unplug the UPS from
the wall outlet. It should sound the alarm (if its equipped with one), and the equipment
should keep running. Most UPSs come with monitoring software and indicate how long
the battery backup will keep your equipment running.
Check that this time is what you expect it to be, and if necessary, replace the UPS if it
no longer holds the charge to keep your equipment up as long as needed.
Surge suppressors arent designed to keep equipment running, so theres little you can
do besides making sure that the indicator light is on and the circuit in the strip hasnt
been tripped.
328
Do it!
C-1:
Discussing power conditioning equipment
Heres how
Heres why
1 How much protection does a

surge protector offer?
2 What types of systems should be
protected by a UPS?
3 Shut down your computer and

install the power conditioning
equipment provided by your
instructor
Your instructor might provide surge protectors

and UPSs for you to install.
4 If you installed a UPS, boot your

computer
Log on as COMPDMIN## with
Unplug the UPS from the wall
5 Plug the UPS back into the outlet
To simulate a blackout condition. Your

computer should continue running.
329
Electrical measurements
Explanation
When troubleshooting, you might be called upon to measure some aspect of electricity,
such as the voltage level output from a power supply or other computer component,
such as a printer or scanner. You measure these values with a multimeter. Multimeters
are available in digital and analog models.
Digital multimeters output discrete numeric values on an LED or LCD display.
Analog multimeters, the older type, display their output with a needle and dial.
Exhibit 3-16: A digital multimeter
Exhibit 3-17: An analog multimeter
Using a multimeter
Before taking a measurement with a multimeter, you must set options with a dial,
button, or other means to indicate what youre about to measure. For example, if you
were using a digital meter, as shown in Exhibit 3-16, youd press the appropriate
buttons to indicate which electrical property you were going to read.
330

Measuring resistance
To measure resistance:
1 Turn off the device youre measuring and disconnect it from its power source.
You can damage your meter if you leave the device connected to the power
source.
2 You might need to disconnect the device from its circuit. If it remains connected
and multiple paths through the circuit exist, youll get misleading readings.
These readings can be high or low depending on the circuit.
3 Set the multimeter to read resistance. On most meters, you must indicate the
resistance range that you expect to be reading.
4 Touch the two leads of the multimeter together. The meter zeros out and
provides an indication that its functioning properly in the resistance mode.
5 Touch the black and red probes to either side of the circuit to be measured, and
read the resistance from the meters display.
Note: If youre using an analog meter and the needle moves very little or moves all the
way to its maximum, you need to choose another resistance scale. Full scale deflection,
where the meter's pointer moves to the farthest position on the scale, could indicate a
short.
Measuring voltage
You must exercise care when taking voltage readings, because the computer is
powered up.
To measure voltage:
1 The power supply must be on.
2 Set your multimeter to read either DC or AC voltage. On most meters, you must
also indicate the voltage range you expect to be reading.
3 Touch the black probe to the ground, and touch the red probe to the spot where
you want to measure the voltage.
If youre using an analog meter, the needle might attempt to swing backward.
This indicates that you have the red probe on the ground. Reverse your contact
points to take the reading. When the probes are reversed, a digital meter
indicates a negative voltage, for example 55 V.
Note: The device must be connected to its power source and turned on while you
measure voltage.
Measuring current
To measure current, you must break the circuit and insert the meter in the break. The
current in the circuit then flows through the meter, which should offer little disruption
and not change the reading appreciably.
A device specifically made for measuring current is called an ammeter. A special form
of ammeter, called a clamp-on ammeter, clamps around a single wire to measure the
current flow. Such a meter doesnt require you to break the circuit. Clamp ammeters are
often used by electricians to measure current flow in 110 V and higher circuits.
331
Measuring continuity
You can determine whether a fuse is good or a wire is whole by measuring continuity.
You might also use this technique to determine which pins on one end of a cable are
connected to which pins on the other end.
To measure continuity, you can set your multimeter to display resistance (ohms) and
look for circuits with zero resistance, or if your multimeter includes a continuity mode,
you can use that. In this mode, the multimeter sounds a tone whenever it detects a
closed (unbroken) circuit.
Measurements you might need to take
You probably wont be called on to measure current. But you might need to measure
voltage, resistance, or continuity.
You might need to check the output voltage of a power supply at various leads to verify
that a component is getting the power it requires. You might also need to verify that
appropriate input wall voltage is available.
You measure resistance most often when determining if a cable is whole or if a break
exists. You might also need to determine if the appropriate size resistor (the correct
value in ohms) is being used for an application.
You should have your meter calibrated periodically by an approved source to ensure
that it meets proper working and safety conditions.
Power supply tester

As an alternative to testing your power supply unit with a multimeter, you can use a
power supply tester, shown in Exhibit 3-18, to perform an automatic test.
Exhibit 3-18: An example of a power supply tester
332

Testing with a power supply tester takes approximately 30 minutes. You need to read
the instructions for your particular power supply tester, but in general, the steps are
these:
1 Using proper ESD precautions, unplug the computer from the outlet, remove
peripherals, and open your case.
2 Disconnect the power connectors for all internal components.
3 Verify that the computers voltage switch is set to the correct setting for your
country.
4 Plug both the ATX 24-pin and 4-pin motherboard power connectors into your
power supply tester.
5 Plug the computer into a working outlet. If necessary, turn on the switch to the
power supply unit. (Your power supply might or might not have an on/off power
switch.)
6 Turn on your power supply tester.
7 Read the values reported and verify that they are within approved limits. If the
values are outside the approved range or no values are reported, you need to
replace the power supply.
8 Repeat the test, using the 15-pin SATA power connector, then with the 4-pin
Molex power connector, and finally with the 4-pin floppy drive power
connector.
9 When you complete all tests:
a Turn off (if necessary) and unplug the power supply.
b Disconnect any power connectors from the power supply tester.
c Reconnect the power connectors for all internal components.
d Close the case.
e Reconnect the external peripheral devices.
f Reconnect the power cord and plug it into a working outlet.
Advantages of testing with a power supply tester:
Less susceptibility to human error.
More conclusive results.
Do it!
C-2:
Safer performance because of less direct contact with the electrical current.
Measuring electrical values
Heres how
Heres why
1 Using a multimeter, determine the

voltage being output by the
various devices provided by your
instructor
Your instructor will provide you with devices,

such as a battery or power adapter, that you can
use to determine output voltages.
2 Determine the resistance of the

various components provided by
your instructor
Your instructor will provide you with cables and

other components for you to measure.
333
Troubleshooting power supplies

Explanation
Power supply failures and electrical service outages can cause a variety of problems. As
a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable
causes, and suggested first try solutions for power supply problems.
You might encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it provides a few
scenarios to consider when youre troubleshooting.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Computer fails to boot

when powered on, but
boots after you press
Ctrl+Alt+Del
Power_Good signal from the power

supply isnt present, is at the wrong
voltage, or is being sent at the wrong
time.
Replace the power supply with a

better-engineered model.
Computer
intermittently stops
working or reboots
Electrical service supply is causing

problems, such as brownouts or
blackouts.
Add a UPS or contact an electrician

to check your buildings wiring.
Confirm that UPSs, surge protectors,
or generators are working correctly.
There are not enough

power connectors for
all the devices you want
to install in the
computer
Power supply is undersized for your

needs. Less expensive power supplies
sometimes come with just a few
connectors.
Replace the power supply if its

undersized. If its rated to handle your
selection of devices, use a Y-adapter
to split the connectors and make more
available.
Computer fails to boot

at all, with no lights or
beeps; fans dont start
Computer is not plugged in. Hard

power switch is turned off. Power
supply has failed. Outlet or power
cord is bad. No electrical service due
to blackout or other outage. Power
switch has failed. Power connector to
motherboard is not hooked up.
Make sure the computer is plugged

in. Use a multimeter to test the power
source and cords. Make sure the
110/220 V switch on the power
supply is set appropriately.
Computer fails to boot,

but fans start
Power connector to motherboard is

not hooked up. Computer component
other than the power supply has
failed.
Confirm internal power connections.

Troubleshoot to discover other failed
devices.
Noisy power supply
Vibration; loose ground.
Some power supplies are very quiet,

while others are quite noisy. Verify
this is a new noise and not normal
noise from that particular power
supply.
Verify power supply cable wires
arent too close to the fan and
vibrating.
Lack of ground can cause a hum in a
power supply. Verify the power
supply is properly grounded.
334

The Power_Good signal
Insufficient power or a disrupted and noisy electrical connection could damage the
power supply or the PCs internal components. Modern power supplies provide some
monitoring of the quality of the electrical signal. Specifically, they test the voltage
levels of the power and send a signal to the motherboard indicating whether the power is
sufficiently good.
The Power_Good signal (also called the Power Good, PowerGood, Power_OK, or
PWR_OK signal) is a +5 V voltage that is supplied over a specific wire in the connector
that sends power from the power supply to the motherboard. If the signal isnt sent
because the electrical power is insufficient, the computer wont boot.
Sometimes a system doesnt boot when you press its power button, but finishes booting
after you press Ctrl+Alt+Del. This situation indicates a problem with the Power_Good
signal and is a sign of a poorly designed power supply. The Power_Good signal might
not be arriving when the motherboard expects it, or it might not be at the proper voltage.
You can replace the power supply to fix this problem.

Do it!
C-3:
335
Troubleshooting power supply problems

1 The customer reports that pressing the power button does nothing, and the
computer fails to start. You press the button and indeed, nothing happens. Whats
the first thing you should check? What else might you check?
2 Youre working on a computer that beeps and shows drive activity when you
press the power button. The monitors power light comes on, but no image is
displayed. You try a different monitor and it works just fine. Do these conditions
indicate a problem with the PCs power supply?
3 Your computer shuts itself down shortly after you boot it. Youve had powerrelated problems in the past and have even installed a UPS with software
monitoring functions. Because of the past problems, you suspect a power
problem. What should you investigate?
4 One or more power supply problems have been introduced into your lab
computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their causes.
5 Correct the problems you have found in your PC to return it to a working state.
Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another problem. Troubleshoot
and fix all problems that arise.
6 Document the problem(s) you find:
7 Document the steps you take to fix the problem(s):
336
Unit summary: Electricity and power supplies

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that electricity is the source of energy that powers electronics
and appliances. Voltage is the force of electricity. Current is a measure of the flow of
electricity. Resistance is a force that opposes current. You also learned about electrical
safety and the 1-10-100 rule, which states that you can feel 1 mA, 10 mA makes your
muscles contract uncontrollably, and 100 mA can kill you. You learned that static
electricity is a buildup and discharge of an electrical charge. You learned how to avoid
static by preventing charges from building up and by dissipating charges safely if they
do build up. You learned how to open computer cases and follow proper ESD
precautions while working inside a computer.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that power supplies convert wall voltage to the various DC
voltages required by the computers components. To a small extent, the power supplies
condition the power signal and bridge very short power outages. You learned about the
power demands of various computer components, power supply ratings, and the
power connector standards used in modern computers. You also examined power
supply form factors. You also learned how to select, replace, and install a power
supply.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned about some common symptoms related to power supply
failures. You also learned the associated probable causes and suggested solutions to the
problems. You learned how to use a multimeter to measure electricity and a power
supply tester to test a computers power supply unit.
Review questions
1 Which of the following are conductors? [Choose all that apply.]
A Ceramics
B Gases
C Liquids
D Metals
E Plastics
2 Which of the following are insulators? [Choose all that apply.]
A Ceramics
B Gases
C Liquids
D Metals
E Plastics
337
3 Which of the following is a derived quantity that you can calculate by multiplying
the force of electricity caused by a difference in charge at two locations and the
measure of the flow of electrons past a given point?
A Current
B Electrical power
C Impedance
D Resistance
E Voltage
4 Which of the following is a force that opposes the flow of DC through a conductor?
A Current
B Electrical power
C Impedance
D Resistance
E Voltage
5 Which of the following is measured in amps?
A Current
B Electrical power
C Impedance
D Resistance
E Voltage
6 Which of the following are measured in ohms? [Choose all that apply.]
A Current
B Electrical power
C Impedance
D Resistance
E Voltage
7 What is the formula relating voltage, current, and resistance?
A i=V*r
B r=V*i
C V=i*r
D V = i/r
8 True or false? At a given voltage, current increases as resistance drops.
True.
9 True or false? You need to be concerned about electrostatic discharge because it can
be fatal to humans.
False. Electrostatic discharges arent dangerous to humans, even though the voltage in the
system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such discharges are potentially
harmful to electronics.
338

10 The power requirements of a motherboard are estimated to be which of the
following?
A 5W
B 10 W
C 30 W
D 50 W
E 100 W
11 Which of the following components requires the most power?
A Adapter card
B CPU
C Hard drive
D Memory
E Motherboard
12 Which of the following is a serial ATA power connector?
A
13 Which color wire is typically connected to ground?

A Black
B Green
C Red
D Yellow
339
14 How many pins does the ATX v2.0 connector have?

A 16
B 18
C 20
D 24
15 Which are more common: brownouts or blackouts?
Brownouts are the most common power problem.
16 How many ohms does a multimeter read for a closed circuit, such as a good fuse or
good wire?
Zero

In this activity, youll research power supplies and practice calculating current. Youll
also remove and replace a PC power supply unit.
1 Determine the replacement cost for the power supply in your computer.
2 Determine if there is an upgraded power supply you can purchase for your
computer. Whats the cost difference?
3 How much current (in amps) flows through a circuit with a 100 resistance if 100
V of electricity is applied?
V = i * r, so i = V/r = 100/100 = 1 amp
4 Would you feel that voltage, or would it be sufficient to contract your muscles or
kill you?
A 1 amp current would kill you, if it were to pass through your heart or head. It could instead
cause an electrical burn if it passed through an extremity, such as a leg or arm.
5 Open your computer by removing both sides of the case and its front cover while
following proper electrical and ESD safety precautions.
a Remove the power supply.
b Re-install the power supply.
c Test that you installed the power supply correctly.
340
41
Unit 4

A Describe the function and features of
CPUs, identify a CPU, and classify CPUs

according to their specifications. Learn
how to replace a CPU.
B Describe the techniques used to cool CPUs
and other components in a PC.

C Describe motherboards, their components,
and form factors. Learn how to replace a

motherboard.
D Identify the symptoms of, probable causes
of, and potential solutions to problems with

motherboards and CPUs.
42
Topic A: Central processing units

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2
Explain motherboard components, types, and features

Processor sockets
Chipsets
1.4
Explain the purpose and characteristics of CPUs and their features

Identify CPU types
Onchip cache
AMD
L1
Intel
L2
Hyperthreading
Speed (real vs. actual)
Multi core
Dual core
Triple core
Quad core
objective.
#
Objective
1.1

Motherboards
Processors
Bus speeds
Socket types
Chipsets
Speed
Number of cores
Power consumption
Cache
Front side bus
32bit vs. 64bit
43
Processors
Explanation
The central processing unit (CPU), or processor, is the brains of your computer. Its
the chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the interactions of
the other circuits in your computer. A CPU is shown in Exhibit 4-1.
Exhibit 4-1: A CPU

A CPU has these components:
A control unit
One or more execution units
Registers
Older CPUs and processors, in even modern mini-computers and mainframe computers,
were built from multiple chips and components. CPUs contained on a single chip are
called microprocessors. Almost all CPUs in personal computers are microprocessors.
The control unit
The control unit is responsible for managing the flow of a program. Its the component
that retrieves the next instruction to be acted upon or the data to be processed.
Execution units
Execution units are responsible for the processing of instructions and data. Execution
units are built from the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the floating-point unit (FPU).
The ALU calculates and compares numbers. The ALU does most of the work of the
processor, but its best suited to working with operations that act on whole numbers (not
fractions).
The FPU is designed specifically to work with real numbers (numbers with fractional
components, and very large, very small, or very precise numbers). Its faster and more
efficient at performing mathematical manipulations than the ALU is.
44

Older CPUs didnt include an FPU, though one was sometimes offered as a separate
add-on chip called a math coprocessor. The Intel 80386 and some 80486 processors,
which predate the Pentium line of CPUs, didnt include an FPU. In these older CPUs,
the functions of an FPU were performed by the ALU, but at a slower pace.
A processor can have one or more execution units. A single-core processor has one
execution unit. A core is an execution unit. A dual-core processor has two execution
units, a triple-core processor has three, and a quad-core processor has four.
In a single-core processor, the processor orders, executes, and then selectively stores
strings of instructions in its registers. Registers are very small, yet very fast, memory
locations available on the CPU for holding instructions or units of data. Registers
operate at the same speed as the CPU, whereas normal system memory can be many
times slower. The CPU can access the contents of a register more quickly than it can
access other types of storage.
During their operations, CPUs store data and instructions in registers. That information
is then transferred back to main system memory. To speed operations, the control unit
can prefetch instructions and data from system memory and store it in the CPUs
registers. When the processor needs data outside its registers, it must retrieve the data
from RAM through the system bus or from a storage device, such as the hard disk. This
process slows down performance to the maximum speed of the bus, memory, or storage
device. This speed is slower than the actual speed of the processor itself. The situation is
worse when the processor must multitask. When multitasking, the processor switches
back and forth between sets of instructions and programs.
CPUs can have many registers, with groups of registers devoted to a specific purpose
(and thus unavailable for other uses). Some modern processors can use registers as
needed for the task at hand, rather than being limited by a limited quantity of specialpurpose registers.
Multi-core processor
In a multi-core processor, each core handles incoming strings of instructions
simultaneously. When one core is executing instructions, other cores can be accessing
the system bus or executing their own string of instructions. To utilize a multi-core
processor, the operating system must be able to recognize multi-threading, and the
software must have simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT) or Non-Uniform
Memory Access or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture (NUMA) written into its code.
SMT enables parallel multi-threading, meaning that multi-threaded instructions are
delivered to the cores in parallel. NUMA builds upon SMT by providing separate
memory for each processor. Without SMT or NUMA, the software can recognize only
one core.
A multi-core processor is different from a multi-processor system. In a multi-core
processor, system resources are shared and all cores reside on the same chip. In a multiprocessor system, there are two separate processors, each with its own system resources.
All other components being equal, a multi-processor system is faster than a system with
a multi-core processor.
45
CPU performance
An instruction is the low-level, hardware-specific command to be acted upon by a
processor. It might be something like ADD AX, BY to add the contents of the A and B
registers. Before this instruction can be executed, a previous instruction must have
moved the value of the X from a location in memory and stored it in the A register.
Another instruction must have moved the value of the Y from memory to the B register.
One more instruction is required to write the resulting sum back into a register, from
where it is transferred by the control unit to a new memory location.
You can determine the performance of a processor by examining the number of
instructions it can perform in a second. With microprocessors, this amount is usually
rated in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
CPUs are often rated according to their clock speed. In a PC, the clock circuit keeps the
CPU and other chips synchronized so that they can work together.
Older CPUs took more than one clock cycle to perform a single instruction. Modern
processors perform many instructions in a single cycle. In fact, the clock speed is no
longer a good indicator of the performance of a modern CPU. By using the techniques
listed in the following table, a modern CPU can perform more than one instruction per
clock cycle and even perform multiple instructions at the same time.
46

Ultimately, many factors control the actual speed (performance) of a CPU. The
following table describes some of these factors.
Design
Relation to CPU performance
Addressable
RAM
The total amount of memory thats accessible to the processor. The width of the
address bus controls the amount of addressable RAM to which the processor can read
or write.
Bus, address
The bus (pathway) that connects the processor to main memory. The wider the
address bus, the more memory can be accessed. Data isnt transferred over this bus.
Bus, data
The bus that connects the CPU, memory, and peripherals. The data bus is used to
carry data. The width and the clock rate of the data bus determine its data rate.
Bus, internal
The bus that determines how many bits of information the processor can work with at
once. The size of the internal register determines how much data the processor can
handle at one time and how it moves data around internally within the chip. If the
internal bus is smaller than the data bus, data and instructions must be manipulated in
parts. For example, a processor with a 32-bit internal bus and a 64-bit data bus must
deal with data in two halves.
Cache
High-speed temporary storage. Accessing data from cache is considerably faster than
accessing it from main memory. Various computer components use cachessuch as
CPUs and hard disks. Processors use levels 1, 2, and 3 caching, where level 1 is the
fastest and most closely coupled to the processor, level 2 less so, and level 3 even
less (yet still much faster than normal system memory.)
Clock speed
The number of cycles per second of the computers synchronization clock, measured
in hertz (Hz), millions of cycles per second (megahertz or MHz), or billions of cycles
per second (gigahertz or GHz). A modern processor performs more than one
instruction during every clock cycle. Older processors performed one or fewer.
Normally, a clock speed rating refers to the internal or core speed of the processor,
rather than to the actual speed of the computers synchronizing clock chip.
Data bus width
The number of bits of data or instructions that can be transferred in a single

operation. The larger the data bus, the more data that can be moved and thus the
faster the processor can operate.
Dual
Independent
Bus (DIB)
A processor architecture that includes two buses: one, called the frontside bus, to the
main system memory and another, called the backside bus, to the level 2 cache. The
processor can access both buses simultaneously for improved performance.
Front-side bus
speed
The speed at which the processor interacts with the rest of the system. A processors
internal core speed can be many times higher than its front-side bus speed. If the core
speed is too much higher than the front-side bus speed, the processor can sit idle,
waiting for data to be moved in or out and made available for processing.
Hyperthreading
Officially called Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT), this is an Intel technology that

enables each single processor core to execute two streams of instructions at the same
time, sharing the workload between two virtual processors when possible. Other
manufacturers use similar hyperthreading technology in their processors.
47
Design
Relation to CPU performance
Multimedia
extensions
(MMX)
An expanded set of instructions supported by a processor that provides multimediaspecific functions. Without MMX, a programmer might have to implement multiple
low-level commands to perform a multimedia operation. With MMX, the same
function would involve a single instruction.
Multiprocessing
The use of more than one processor within a system to speed program execution.
Operating systems and applications need to be written to support multiprocessing, or
no speed benefits are realized.
Overclocking
Running the CPU at a higher speed than it was rated to run at. Overclocking
increases performance, but also increases the potential for errors. Also, more heat is
generated by an overclocked CPU.
Pipelining
The overlapping of the steps involved in processing instructions. Instructions are

normally fetched, decoded, and executed, and the results are written out to memory.
Modern processors overlap these steps to speed overall execution. While one
instruction is being executed, another is being decoded, and a third is being fetched.
Superscalar
A technique that enables a processor to execute more than one instruction in a single
clock cycle.
Throttling
A technique by which the speed of the processor is scaled back so that it uses less
power and creates less heat. Throttling reduces performance. Its most useful with
portable computers, for which low power consumption and low heat production are
critical design factors.
Multiple processor support

Some computers come with two processors. However, in order to take advantage of the
increased performance gained with two processors, the operating system and
applications you run must include symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) code. Windows
2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional, and Windows Vista Business, Ultimate,
and Enterprise include symmetric multiprocessing code. Windows XP Home and Media
Center Editions and Windows Vista Home and Home Premium dont. You can get the
Linux operating system and all of its compatible applications in symmetric
multiprocessing versions.
The 32-bit versions of Windows 7 support multiprocessors in the same manner as
Windows Vista does. The 64-bit versions of Windows 7 use Non-Uniform Memory
Access or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture (NUMA) to support multiprocessors. In
SMP (the traditional model for multiprocessor support), each processor has equal access
to memory and I/O. As you add more processors, the systems performance becomes
limited by the processor bus. NUMA addresses this problem by providing separate
memory for each processor, avoiding the performance hit when several processors
attempt to address the same memory. In NUMA, the architecture is non-uniform,
because each processor is close to some parts of memory and farther from other parts of
memory. The processor quickly gains access to the memory its close to, and it can take
longer to gain access to memory thats farther away.
Under NUMA, a processor can access its own local memory faster than nonlocal
memoryanother processors local memory or memory shared between processors.
48
Processor specifications
There are several manufacturers of CPUs. Probably the two most recognizable in the
personal computer realm are Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices). These two
have the largest market share. Other manufacturers include, but are not limited to,
Centaur Technology, Elbrus International (a Russian microprocessor manufacturer),
Integrated Device Technology, Inc. (IDT), SIS (Silicon Integrated Systems), and ST
Microelectronics.
CPUs can be compared according to many specifications, including:
Primary specifications Clock speed, front-side bus speed, addressable RAM,
and cache sizes.
Bus width specifications The width, or number of bits, that can pass at one
time over the processors internal bus and data bus, plus the address bus width,
which determines the maximum addressable memory.
Internal specifications The internal and external voltages used by the chips,
the number of transistors that make up the processor, and whether it includes an
integrated FPU.
Refer to manufacturer Web sites for specific information about the following items for
individual processors:
Clock speed
Front-side bus speed
Maximum RAM
L1 cache size
L2 cache size
Internal bus size
Data bus size
Address bus size
These are the appropriate Web sites:
AMD desktop processors: products.amd.com/enus/DesktopCPUResult.aspx
AMD notebook processors: products.amd.com/enus/NotebookCPUResult.aspx
Intel: www.intel.com/products/processor/index.htm
Internal specifications
The internal specifications of processors refer to the way the CPUs circuits are
constructed. The core voltage value describes the voltage level required by the core
processing components of the CPU. The I/O voltage value, sometimes called the
external voltage, is the level required by the CPUs input and output circuitry. In
modern processors, the core and I/O voltage values typically differ.
On modern processors, one or more voltage ID (VID) pins send a signal containing the
exact voltage requirements to the voltage regulator module (VRM) on the motherboard.
The VRM then supplies that specific power to the CPU. Not all motherboards include a
VRM. On many older motherboards, you must set jumpers or switches to match the
voltage supplied to the CPU with what it requires. If you supply the wrong voltage, you
can ruin the CPU.
49
The number of transistors is simply a count of the transistors (microscopic electronic

switches) that make up the CPU. This count provides a rough estimate of the size and
complexity of the chip.
Older processors didnt include an integrated floating-point unit (FPU). Modern CPUs
all include this feature.
Again, for information on the specific core and I/O voltage values, number of
transistors, and inclusion of an integrated FPU on a specific processor, refer to the
technical documentation on the manufacturers Web site.
410
Do it!
A-1:
Identifying CPUs
Heres how
Heres why
1 Disconnect the power cord from

the computer
2 Disconnect any other external
cables
For example, network cables.
3 Release the restraining

mechanismsscrews, slides, or
push-buttonsthat secure the side
that exposes the internal
components
4 Touch the metal frame of the
computer and count slowly to
three
To discharge any static charges present on your

body or on the computer.
5 Remove the cover
So you can view the motherboard and processor.
6 Locate your CPU
Modern CPUs typically have a set of cooling

fins glued to them, covering all markings. This
will prevent you from identifying the CPU or its
specifications.
7 Record the manufacturer and

model of CPU in your computer
Your instructor will provide you with this

information.
Manufacturer: ___________________________
Model: ________________________________
8 Using the preceding tables,

determine the specifications of the
CPU in your PC
CPU type: _________

Clock speed: _________
Level 1 cache: _________
Number of transistors: _________
Internal bus width: _________
9 Close your system case and

assemble your PC
10 Boot your PC
Log on to Windows 7 as
COMPADMIN## with a
password of !pass1234
11 Open your browser and visit
www.digital-daily.com/cpu

12 Compare one of the AMD
processors with one of the Intel
processors; which do you think is
the more powerful CPU and why?
13 Which processors do you or your
company use?
411
412
CPUs inside the case

Hardware designers must include many other functions to create a complete working
computer. CPUs must be connected to the motherboard circuitry in order to function. In
addition, processors generate a lot of heat during their operation and require some
method to keep cool, or their internal wiring can melt. In this topic, youll examine:
Chipsets
CPU packaging
Slots
Cooling techniques
Chipsets
In older PCs, separate microchips were used to provide each individual function. For
example, one chip controlled the processors interaction with memory, another managed
the CPUs interaction with add-on peripherals, and so forth. The cost and complexity of
designing motherboards with many separate chips led designers to integrate the
functions into single chips or sets of chips.
A chipset is one or more chips, packaged into a single unit and sold together, that
perform a set of functions in a computer. The term is used most often to describe the
core features of a computer, which often include:
Memory control
System bus functions
Audio functions
Video display functions
System management functions
The chipset doesnt actually include the CPU. However, each chipset is designed to
support a select few CPUs.
Sometimes the term chipset is used with video adapter cards. In those cases, the
(video) chipset combines what used to be separate video chips into a single chip or unit.
Northbridge and Southbridge chips
Two of the most important components of a PC chipset are the Northbridge and
Southbridge chips. Together with the CPU, these chips define the characteristics and
capabilities of the computer.
The Northbridge chip controls interactions between the CPU, memory and cache, AGP
and PCIe video control circuitry, and the Southbridge. The Southbridge chip controls
interactions between buses and devices not controlled by the Northbridge, including the
standard PCI expansion bus, floppy drive controller, and serial, parallel, and PS/2
keyboard and mouse ports.
CPU packaging
Any type of microchip is made up of microscopic wires, transistors, and other
components. This plain chip is called the die. To be useful, it must be connected to the
rest of the circuitry of your computer. Due to the size differences between the wires on
the die and the circuit boards of your computer, the die cant be connected directly to
the circuit board.
413
Instead, the die is built into a package. A package is a case made from plastic, ceramic,
glass, metal, or other material, plus the wires and connectors that bridge the microscopic
connections on the die with the external circuitry. A package might also include support
function chips, memory, and cooling-related components.
Exhibit 4-2: A PDIP (plastic dual inline package) memory chip

Older package types, such as the PDIP pictured in Exhibit 4-2, used connectors that
were large compared to the die. Newer packages use ever smaller connectors, packing
more connections into a smaller area. The pin grid array (PGA) package, shown in
Exhibit 4-3, includes many more connections into an area not much larger than the die.
Exhibit 4-3: The underside of an 80486DX2 CPU, showing the pins of its Pin Grid
Array package
Even though newer packages use smaller connectors, overall package size has grown as
functionality has grown. Newer packages include support chips, cache memory, and
features that enhance the cooling of the processor. One such larger package is shown in
Exhibit 4-4.
Exhibit 4-4: The Single Edge Contact Cartridge package
414

CPU packages
The following table lists some current and historical CPU packages used with desktop
computers. Manufacturers can vary these with updated lines, so be sure to check the
technical specifications for your particular CPU on the manufacturers Web site.
AMD: www.amd.com/us/products/technologies/packagingtechnology/Pages/packaging-technology.aspx
Intel desktop processors packages:

www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/cs-009863.htm
Intel notebook processor packages:

www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/CS-009864.htm
Package
Full
name
Description
Processors
PDIP
Plastic dual
inline
package
The die is encased in plastic (or another

material). Large, flat, metal pins are inserted
into a socket thats soldered to the
motherboard.
8080, 8086, 8088
PGA
Pin grid
array
Rows of pins extend from the bottom of the

package. A nickel-plated copper slug sits
atop the die to improve thermal conductivity.
The pins are arranged so that the chip can be
inserted in just one way.
80286 (68 pins), 80386

(132 pins), 80486 (168),
and Xeon (603 pins)
CPGA
Ceramic pin
grid array
A package that uses a ceramic substrate with

pins arranged in a pin grid array.
AMD Socket A Athlon

and the Duron
SPGA
Staggered
pin grid
array
Similar to PGA, but pins are staggered to fit

more pins in a given area.
Pentium, Pentium MMX,

Pentium Pro with 387
pins
PPGA
Plastic pin
grid array
An updated version of the SPGA package.
Pentium Pro, early

Celeron processors, and
Pentium III with 370 pins
FC-PGA
Flip chip pin

grid array
Similar to PGA, but the die is exposed on

top. This design enhances heat transfer and
cooling options.
Pentium III and Celeron

with 370 pins; the 423pin version is used with
Pentium 4 processors
FC-PGA2
Flip chip pin

grid array 2
Similar to FC-PGA, but with an integrated

heat sink, which is connected to the die
during manufacturing.
Pentium III and Celeron

with 370 pins; the 478pin version is used with
Pentium 4 processors;
469 version used with
AMD Athlon
Thunderbird processors
OOI
Organic
Land Grid
Array
(OLGA) On
Interposer
In OLGA, a single layer of silicon is placed

between a microprocessors die and
interposer. In multilayer OLGA, the silicon
layers are staggered vertically with metal
strips providing connections between them.
The die is mounted face down, as with the
FC-PGA package, for better cooling, but uses
a different pin arrangement.
423-pin Pentium 4
415
Package
Full
name
Description
Processors
OPGA
Organic pin
grid array
The silicon die is attached to an organic

plastic plate (fiberglass), which is pierced by
an array of pins to make the connections to
the socket. This package is cheaper, thinner,
and lighter than the ceramic package. It also
reduces electrical impedance.
AMD Athlon XP
SECC
Single Edge
Contact
Cartridge
Rather than mounting horizontally, this

package mounts the CPU vertically on the
motherboard. Rather than pins, this package
uses an edge connector similar to that of an
adapter card. The package is covered with a
metal case. A metal thermal plate mounted to
the back of the cartridge acts as a heat sink.
Pentium II processors
with 242 contacts, and
Pentium II Xeon and
Pentium III Xeon
processors with 330
contacts
SECC2
Single Edge
Contact
Cartridge 2
Similar to SECC, but without the thermal

plate.
Later versions of the

Pentium II and Pentium
III processor with 242
contacts; AMD Athlon
K7
SEP
Single Edge
Processor
Similar to SECC without the metal case.
Early Celeron processors

with 242 contacts
FCBGA
Flip chip
ball grid
array
Similar to FC-PGA, but uses balls rather than

pins for contacts. The balls cant be bent as
the pins can.
Xeon, plus many support

chips in current Pentiumclass computers
LGA
Land grid
array
Has small raised contacts instead of pins. The

corresponding socket has pins that meet the
contacts. This is a very high-density package.
Celeron D, Pentium 4,
Pentium 4 D, Pentium
Extreme Edition,
Core2 Duo,
Core2 Extreme
PGA-ZIF
Pin grid
array-Zero
insertion
force
Designed to be set in place with very little or

no force. Typically the weight of the package
is enough to seat it. Held in place by lever or
slider.
Xeon; Mobile Pentium

M; Mobile Celeron and
Celeron M; Mobile Core,
Core Duo, and Core 2
Duo
416
Sockets and slots

The processor packages listed in the preceding table must be inserted into a socket or
slot on the motherboard. The following table lists common desktop computer sockets
and slots. (As with packages, manufacturers can vary sockets and slots with updated
lines, so check the technical specifications for your CPU on the manufacturers Web
site.) A desktop processor and its associated socket are shown in Exhibit 4-5.
Type
Supports these
packages
Processors
Notes
Slot A
AMDs Card Module

package
AMD Athlon
This wasnt a popular design and

didnt last long on the market.
Socket A
(also called
Socket 462)
SPGA with 462 pins
AMD Athlon and Duron
Eleven holes in this socket were

plugged to ensure that packages
were installed correctly.
Socket 5
PGA, SPGA with

320 pins
Pentium
Socket 7
PGA, SPGA with

321 pins, and PGA,
SPGA, and FC-PGA
with 296 pins
AMD K5 and K6,

Cyrix 6x86, Pentium,
and Pentium MMX
First socket to support dual voltage

inputs, which support the various
core and I/O voltages introduced
with the Pentium MMX
processors. Socket 7 has one more
hole than Socket 5 but isnt
electrically connected. It simply
prevents a new CPU from being
plugged into a Socket 5 socket.
Socket 8
387-pin PGA, SPGA,

and FC-PGA
Pentium Pro
A short-lived socket design used

primarily with the Pentium Pro.
Socket 423
423-pin SPGA and

FC-PGA, OOI
Pentium 4
A short-lived socket design used

for early Pentium 4 processors.
Socket 478
FC-PGA2
Celeron, Pentium 4,
Pentium D, and Pentium
Extreme Edition
The current general-purpose socket

for Pentium-class processors.
Socket 370
SPGA and PPGA

with 370 pins
Celeron, Celeron II,

Pentium III
Similar to the Socket 7 design,

with six staggered rows of pins
rather than five.
Socket 603
PGA-ZIF
Xeon
603 contacts in a grid around the

center of the socket.
Socket 604
PGA-ZIF
Xeon
604 pins (one dummy) with 603

contacts. Designed to support a
heatsink.
Slot 1
SECC, SECC2, SEP

with 242 contacts
Pentium II, early

Celeron, and Pentium III
Edge connector slot developed

specifically for the SECC, SECC2,
and SEP packages.
417
Type
Supports these
packages
Processors
Notes
Slot 2
SECC, SECC2, SEP

with 330 contacts
Pentium II and Xeon
Similar to Slot 1, but the CPU can

communicate with the Level II
cache at full CPU speed, rather
than at the half-speed supported
through Slot 1.
LGA775
(also called
Socket T)
LGA
Celeron D, Pentium 4,
Pentium D, Pentium
Extreme Edition, Core2
Duo, and Core2 Duo
Extreme
Designed to work specifically with

the new high-density LGA
package.
LGA 1156
(also called
Socket H)
LGA
Pentium, Core i3, Core

i5, Core i7 (800 series),
Xeon
Allows connections to PCIe 2.0

x16 graphics card. PCIe 2.0 x4
connection for DMI
communication to platform
controller hug. Two memory
channels for DDR3 SDRAM.
LGA 1366
(also called
Socket B)
LGA
Core i7 (900 series),

Xeon (5500 series)
Replaces LGA 775. Access up to

three channels of DDR3 memory.
Socket 479
PGA-ZIF
Mobile Pentium M and

Celeron M
Physically similar to Socket 478

but with a different electrical pin
arrangement.
Socket 495
PGA-ZIF
Mobile Celeron
Designed to support a heatsink.
Socket M
PGA-ZIF
Mobile Core Solo, Core

Duo, Core 2 Duo,
Celeron M
Replaces Socket 479. However,

one pin is changed, making Socket
M electrically incompatible with
Socket 479, even though Socket
479 and Socket M are physically
compatible.
Socket P
PGA
Mobile Core 2 Duo, Core

2 Quad, Celeron M,
Pentium Dual-Core
478 pins, but not compatible with

Socket M or Socket 478.
Exhibit 4-5: A Pentium MMX CPU atop its associated Socket 7 socket
418
Do it!
A-2:
Identifying your CPUs socket and package type
Heres how
Heres why
1 Shut down and unplug your PC
If necessary.
2 If necessary, open your system

case
Make sure to follow proper electrical safety and

ESD precautions.
3 Examine your CPU and record the

socket and package type
Package: ________________
4 Identify the chipset chip on your

motherboard
Its typically a very large chip placed near the

CPU socket.
Socket: _________________
Leave your computer off and open for the next

activity.
419
CPU installation
CPUs themselves rarely fail. Furthermore, you typically wont upgrade a PC by
replacing the CPU. Instead, youll probably either replace the whole motherboard
(including the CPU) or replace the whole computer.
You might have the opportunity to install a CPU if you purchase all of your computer
components separately to build a computer from parts. Some motherboards support
multiple processors. In such a situation, you might need to install an additional CPU in a
computer.
Regardless of why you might install a CPU, you must match the CPU to the
motherboard. The CPUs packaging must match the slots or sockets available on the
motherboard. Furthermore, the motherboard must supply sufficient power and be rated
for the speed of CPU you plan to install. If you purchase components as a set, your
vendor will have selected a matching CPU. If you purchase components separately,
make sure to match your CPU and motherboard.
CPU packages are held in their sockets by retaining clips or other mechanisms. Older
PGA packages are held in place by a locking lever. Other older slot and socket designs
use retaining clips to keep the processor package in place. Current CPU packages
employ a zero insertion force (ZIF) design. The purpose of the ZIF design is to avoid
problems caused by the forces you apply when inserting and extracting CPU packages
onto the motherboard. With the ZIF design, you move a lever or slider that pushes the
contacts apart. You can then insert the CPU package with very little force. You then
move the lever or slider back to its original position to close the contacts and grip the
pins of the CPU package. For the socket shown in Exhibit 4-6, you pull the locking arm
out from the socket to unsnap it, and then rotate it up, so its perpendicular to the socket.
Locking socket arm
Exhibit 4-6: Zero insertion force socket
420

To install a CPU:
1 Unplug the computer and open the case while observing general electrical and
ESD safety precautions.
2 If necessary, remove the old CPU by releasing its retaining mechanisms and
lifting the package from its socket.
3 Store the old CPU in an appropriate, static-safe bag or box.
4 Insert the new CPU package into its socket and secure it with the retaining
mechanism.
5 Close the case, reconnect cables, and boot the PC.
If youre installing a new motherboard and CPU at the same time, install the CPU on
the motherboard before you install the motherboard in the case.

Do it!
A-3:
421
Replacing a CPU (optional)
Heres how
1 Using the PC provided by your
instructor, unplug the PC and then
open the case while following
electrical and ESD safety
precautions
2 If necessary, remove the old CPU
3 Place the old CPU in a static-safe
bag or box
4 Install the new CPU
5 Close the case and reconnect
cables
6 Boot the PC to confirm that
youve installed the CPU
correctly
Log on to Windows as:
User name: COMPADMIN##
Password: !pass1234
Heres why
Your instructor might have a different computer
into which you can install a new or additional
CPU.
422
Topic B: Cooling techniques

exam objective.
#
Objective
1.5
Explain cooling methods and devices

Heat sinks
CPU and case fans
Liquid cooling systems
Thermal compound
objectives.
#
Objective
1.1

Cooling systems
Heat sinks
Thermal compound
CPU fans
Case fans
1.2

components
Cooling systems
Heat sinks
Thermal compound
CPU fans
Case fans
Cooling techniques
Explanation
CPUs and the other components in a computer are designed to operate within a range of
temperatures. Temperatures outside that range can damage components. In particular,
too much heat can cause logic errors, in which data within the chips and wires are
altered, or circuit damage, which can melt components!
The current crop of desktop CPUs (excluding the processor classes defined as energyefficient or low-power) can draw over 100 watts of power. The CPUs must dissipate the
heat from all that power.
423
For example, Intel specifies that for its Core2 Duo Desktop Processor E4300 processors,
the internal temperature of your computer case should not exceed 61.4C. To maintain
that temperature range, PC designers must include one or more of the following features
to cool the case and the processor itself:
Fans
Heat sinks and cooling fins
Heat pipes
Water pumps
Peltier coolers
Phase-change cooling
Undervolting
Fans and air openings
To maintain allowable temperatures, hardware designers must devise a way to move
heat away from the components that generate it. In most situations, this means forcing
hot air out of the case to allow cool air to enter.
Older CPUs generated so little heat that a simple fan (typically part of the power
supply) and a few openings in the case were all it took to maintain permitted operating
temperatures. Modern CPUs (and other components) generate too much heat for such
simple thermal management designs.
Modern cases include multiple openings through which air can flow. Some cases
include multiple fans, in addition to the power supply fan, to move air. Exhibit 4-7
shows a system case with both power supply and auxiliary fans.
Power supply fan
Auxiliary fan
Exhibit 4-7: A system case with power supply and auxiliary fans to improve air flow
Heat sinks and cooling fins
Fans arent sufficient to dissipate the heat from Pentium-class processors. These
processors require more high-tech thermal management methods.
The amount of heat that can leave a component is directly proportional to its surface
area. Big, hot things cool faster than small, hot things do. Additionally, some materials
transfer heat better than others.
424

A heat sink is something that absorbs and transfers heat better than its surroundings. The
most common type of heat sink used with CPUs is cooling fins. Fins increase the surface
area that can transfer heat away from the CPU. Hardware designers began adding
cooling fins to CPUs before the Pentium eraan example is shown in Exhibit 4-8.
Exhibit 4-8: Cooling fins on an older 80486DX2 CPU

The fins are normally connected directly to the die or to an integrated metal plate on the
CPU, depending on its packaging design. A thermal compounda fluid with similar
properties to grease and that transmits heat wellis used between the parts to improve
heat flow. You might also hear thermal compound referred to as thermal grease.
A heat sink (such as a set of cooling fins) relies on convectionwarm air rises away
from the fins while cooler air flows in from below. At some point, heat cant dissipate
quickly enough on its own. Thermal engineers can add fans to the cooling fins to
forcibly improve convection, as shown in Exhibit 4-9. A heat sink without a fan is
called passive heat sink cooling; a heat sink with a fan is called active heat sink cooling.
Exhibit 4-9: Cooling fins and a fan on a Pentium processor

Heat sinks can get only so large before they no longer fit in the case or are too heavy for
the components to which theyre attached. If more heat must be dissipated, designers
can turn to other techniques, such as heat pipes.
Heat pipes
Heat pipes are small tubes, typically built into cooling fins, filled with a small amount
of fluid. Heat vaporizes the fluid, which expands and rises to another area of the piping.
There, heat is transferred away, and the fluid condenses, flowing back toward the CPU
and heat source.
425
Even though no pump is involved, heat pipes provide an effective way of moving heat
away from the CPU. Additionally, the heat can be moved further away so that
convection can be more effective. Heat pipes also permit smaller and lighter fins.
Water pumps
For systems that generate too much heat for fins and heat pipes to cool, designers can
turn to more exotic cooling systems. One such system is a pumped water system. Like
heat pipes, tubes carry water or other liquid past the CPU to pick up heat. The heated
liquid is transported away from the CPU, often outside the computers case, where it
passes through cooling fins to transfer its heat away.
Some computer-game aficionados and others who work their PCs hard go even further.
They run the water cooling pipes through an ice-water bath or put the cooling fins
outside their windows during the winter. Typical office computer use rarely requires
such extreme cooling methods.
Peltier coolers
All of the preceding cooling methods rely on some form of convection. Heat moves
from the hot CPU to the cooler surroundings. What if the surroundings arent cooler
than inside the PCs case? Factory floors and some other environments can be very hot.
Convective cooling devices cant work in those situations.
A Peltier (pronounced PELT-ee-y) device is an electronic component that gets
colder when a voltage is applied. Peltier coolers for CPUs provide cooling when
convective methods wont work.
A Peltier device is connected directly to the CPU. Devices that can drop the temperature
of a CPU by 70 C are available. If more cooling is needed, Peltier devices can be
combined with water coolers.
Phase-change cooling
Phase-change cooling utilizes a vapor compression unit, much like a window A/C unit,
to cool the processor. The computer sits on the compression unit, and a tube runs from
the compressor to the processor. The compressor compresses a gas or gases into liquid,
and then that liquid runs through the tube to the processor. There it passes through an
expansion device. As the liquid absorbs the heat from the processor, it evaporates and
returns to the compressor in gas form to begin the process again. Phase-changing
cooling systems are more efficient than a single-phase water cooling systemup to 10
times more efficientbut they generate significantly more noise.
Undervolting
Undervolting is the practice of running a CPU or other computer component with
voltages below the devices specifications, so that the component draws less power and
produces less heat. However, if you run a processor at too low a voltage, it can produce
system errors, freezes, or crashes. You might also be unable to power on the system at
all. Be sure to check the specifications for your particular processor before you attempt
to use undervolting as a cooling technique in your system. Youll find that your ability
to cool by undervolting varies by manufacturer, by product line, and sometimes even by
different production runs of the same processor.
426
Do it!
B-1:
Examining the cooling systems in your PC
Heres how
Heres why
1 Examine the system case. How

many fans does your PC have?
2 Does your PC have a cooling
grille or holes on the side or top?
If so, how does the presence of
these cooling mechanisms affect
how you locate a PC in your work
area?
3 Youre servicing a computer for a
customer who has been
complaining of weird system
crashes and data loss. The
customers computer is piled high
with books and shoved in a
cramped space under a desk. It
also sits on a thick carpet. What
would you suggest?
4 If necessary, open your PCs case
Make sure to follow proper electrical and ESD

safety precautions.
5 Does your CPU have cooling

fins? A cooling fan? An exotic
cooling device, such as a water
cooler?
6 If your instructor has one
available, examine a CPU with its
cooling fins removed
To view the thermal compound that connects the

two components.
Leave your computer off and open for the next
activity.

Do it!
B-2:
427
Replacing a system fan
Heres how
Heres why
1 Locate the system fan

Disconnect the system fan cable
from the motherboard
2 If your system fan is covered by
an air baffle, remove the air baffle
3 Remove the system fan from the
system case by releasing its
retaining mechanism
4 Insert the new system fan and
secure it to the system case
If necessary, replace the air baffle
5 Reconnect the system fan cable to
the motherboard
reconnect the power cable
7 Boot the PC to confirm that the
fan is functional
Log on to Windows 7 as:
Password: !pass1234
Some fans are held in place by clips; others

might be held in with screws.
428
Topic C: Motherboards
exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

Form factor
ATX/BTX
micro ATX
NLX
I/O intefaces
Riser card / daughterboard
objective.
#
Objective
1.1

Motherboards
Jumper settings
Firmware updates
Socket types
Expansion slots
Memory slots
Front panel connectors
I/O ports
Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE 1394 / FireWire, parallel,
NIC, modem, PS/2
429
Motherboards
Explanation
The motherboard is the main circuit board in a personal computer. Its made up of
various components, including the CPU and other electronic devices, wires, and adapter
sockets into which additional circuit boards and devices can be attached. Exhibit 4-10
shows a motherboard with some of its primary components labeled.
Socket 478
connector
3 DIMM banks
ATX power
supply
Back panel
connectors
2 IDE ports
Chipset
AGP slot
Chipset
Floppy drive
port
4 PCI slots
CMOS battery
BIOS
CD-in connector
(white line)
Exhibit 4-10: A motherboard

The following table describes the functions of various motherboard components.
Component
Function
CPU
The chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the
interactions of the other components in your computer.
Expansion slots
Slots into which you can plug additional circuit boards to expand the capabilities
of your computer.
AGP graphics adapter

slot
A slot into which you can plug an AGP graphics adapter card, which produces
the output displayed on your monitor.
Hard drive interface

connectors
A header into which you can plug cables to connect hard drives, CD drives, and
DVD drives to the system.
Floppy drive interface

connector
A header into which you can plug the cable to connect a floppy drive to the
system.
Optical drive interface

connector
IDE or SCSI connector to connect and CD or DVD drive to the system.
430

Component
Function
Power connector
Connector to which you connect the output of the power supply to provide
electrical power to the motherboard. Older systems have a pair of connectors
rather than a single connector.
Memory slots
Slots into which you insert memory modules to add system memory to your PC.
PS/2 mouse and

keyboard ports
Ports into which you can plug PS/2-style keyboard and mouse connectors.
USB port
One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect USB devices to
your PC.
IEEE 1394/FireWire
port
One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect FireWire devices
to your PC.
Serial port
One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect serial devices, such
as modems or mice, to your PC.
Parallel port
One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect parallel devices,
such as printers, to your PC.
Battery
A battery to provide power for maintaining system configuration information,

date, and time, while your PC is turned off or disconnected from the outlet.
Network interface
Network interface circuitry built into the motherboard to enable connections to a

network without using an add-on adapter card.
Video connector
Video circuitry built into the motherboard, which provides a video connector on
the back of the system case.
The motherboard is sometimes called the system board or main board. However, the
latter term is typically used to describe the main circuit board in non-PC devices, such
as alarm systems, televisions, and so forth.
Exhibit 4-11: Front panel connectors
431
In addition to the back panel connections shown in Exhibit 4-10, most computers
provide front panel connections, including USB and IEEE 1394/FireWire connections,
as shown in Exhibit 4-11.
Daughter boards
A daughter board is a circuit board that connects to a circuit board (sometimes, though
not normally, a motherboard) to provide or assist with its functions. Daughter boards are
often used with video cards to add more video-processing capabilities.
Riser cards
As shown in Exhibit 4-12, a riser card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard.
Unlike a daughter board, the purpose of a riser card is to provide additional expansion
slots or sockets. Riser cards are most often used with special, small motherboards
designed for small cases.
Exhibit 4-12: An example of a riser card
Form factor
The form factor of a motherboard is its size and shape. In addition, the form factor
describes the power supply and case that can be used with a motherboard. It also
describes the general physical layout of the components on the motherboard.
Of course, motherboards must fit into cases, which means that screw holes or retainingclip locations must match between motherboards and cases. Standardized dimensions
and mounting layouts help make sure that components work together.
The following table lists the common PC motherboard form factors. Other form factors
are available. Be sure to check the manufacturers specification documents for your PC
when choosing a replacement motherboard.
432

Form
factor
Dimensions
(inches)
Notes
XT
8.5 by 11
Obsolete, used with IBM XT-class computers.
AT
12 by 1113
Obsolete, used with IBM AT-class computers.
Baby-AT
8.5 by 1013
A smaller version of the AT form factor.
ATX
9.6 by 12
Standard created by Intel in 1996 and still one of the most popular
form factors.
Mini-ATX
8.2 by 11.2
Micro-ATX
9.6 by 9.6
Released in 1996. Offered fewer slots than the ATX form. A

smaller power supply could be used in PCs with this motherboard
design.
LPX
9 by 1113
Designed for slimline PCs.
Mini-LPX
89 by 1011
Designed for slimline PCs.
NLX
89 by 1013.6
Standard created by Intel in 1999; this form factor requires a riser

card for add-on adapters.
FlexATX
9.6 by 9.6
Mini-ITX
6.7 by 6.7
Standard created by VIA Technologies in 2003.
Nano-ITX
4.7 by 4.7
Standard created by VIA Technologies in 2004.
BTX
10.5 by 12.8
Standard created by Intel in 2004. BTXs ability as a

motherboard/case system handles airflow and cooling better than
other standards do.
MicroBTX
10.4 by 10.5
A variation of the BTX form factor. Its different dimensions

notwithstanding, the MicroBTX shares the electrical and
component design with the BTX form factor.
PicoBTX
8.0 by 10.5
A smaller variation on the BTX standard.

Do it!
C-1:
433
Examining motherboard components and form factor
Heres how
Heres why
1 Examine your motherboard

What form factor is your
motherboard?
2 If your instructor has
motherboards with other form
factors, compare the size and
component layout of those
motherboards with yours
3 Identify each of the following
items on your motherboard:
CPU and its socket

Memory slots
Bus (expansion) slots
I/O ports (serial, parallel, mouse, and keyboard)
Integrated drive controller slots, if applicable
USB and FireWire ports, if applicable
Integrated video port, if applicable

assemble your PC
5 Boot your PC
COMPADMIN## with a
6 Open your browser and visit
www.motherboards.org
7 On the left, under Compare

Prices, click Motherboards
8 Examine the list of motherboards
available for sale
9 Whats the most popular
motherboard form factor for sale?
434
Motherboard installation
Motherboards occasionally fail, often due to manufacturing defects or rough handling. If
failure occurs, you might need to install a new motherboard. You might also need to
install a motherboard when upgrading a PC or building one from scratch.
Motherboards are typically held in the case by screws, but occasionally plastic clips are
used. Most often, you need to open both sides of the system case to access these screws
or clips. Additionally, you need to remove any wires, cables, connectors, and perhaps
even other system components, such as the power supply and drives, to remove the
motherboard. Standoffs are basically pegs that support the motherboard as you install it.
You use standoffs to keep the soldered contacts on the back of the motherboard from
touching the metal case. Without standoffs, if the contacts touch the metal case, it could
cause the motherboard to short out. Standoff pegs or spacers come in a variety of
materials. Some are metal (brass), while others are plastic.
To install a motherboard:
1 Unplug the computer and open the case while observing general electrical and
ESD safety precautions.
2 Disconnect any wires, cables, and connectors from the old motherboard.
3 If necessary, remove the power supply and drives from the system. In some
cases, these items are in the way and prevent you from removing the
motherboard.
4 Remove the old motherboard by unscrewing it from the case or by releasing the
retaining clips that secure it.
5 Store the old motherboard in an appropriate, static-safe bag or box.
6 Orient the motherboard and match its mounting holes to the case mounting
holes.
7 Install metal or plastic standoffs.
a If the motherboard holes line up with the case mounting holes, attach a
metal standoff into the case.
b If the motherboard holes line up with eyelet holes, insert a plastic slider
standoff onto the motherboard.
8 Install the new motherboard and secure it with the retaining mechanism (screws
or clips).
9 If necessary, reinstall the power supply and drives.
10 Connect the necessary wires, cables, and connectors. Configure any jumpers.
11 Close the case, reconnect cables, and boot the PC.
Windows activation requirements
With Windows XP, Microsoft introduced product activation for its Windows operating
system. Product activation is a type of cataloging process by which the software product
(in this case, Windows), its product key, and the hardware signature of your computer
are entered into a Microsoft database. Microsoft assures users that the process of
activation is completely anonymous, yet specific enough to prevent the same product
key from being reused on a different computer.
435
Commercial versions of Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 have a 30-day
grace period, after which activation is mandatory. After the grace period expires,
Windows basically functions only enough to allow you to complete the activation
process, although Windows 7 and Windows Vista provide some additional functionality
above that offered by Windows XP after the activation deadline. Every few days,
Windows uses a pop-up window to remind you about activation until you successfully
complete the process.
You can activate Windows over the Internet or by telephone. The Internet option is
usually completed in seconds. The phone option can take several minutes while you
exchange unique numbers with the customer service representative or automated
attendant.
If you attempt to activate a copy of Windows that uses the same product key as an
already activated system, Internet and automatic activation will fail. You will then be
forced to perform telephone-based activation. This is a security measure to prevent
piracy. If youve simply upgraded your hardware, Microsoft will allow the new system
to be activated, but the activation of the old system will be voided in Microsofts
database.
Activation might be unnecessary for some new computer systems on which Windows is
already installed. Also, some of the volume licenses purchased by large companies use
special product keys for Windows that do not require individual system activation.
Activation has both benefits and drawbacks. One benefit is that it ensures that youve
purchased a fully licensed and valid product and did not inadvertently obtain a pirated
copy. Unfortunately, it can have one large drawback. If you make a significant change
in your hardwaresuch as replacing the motherboard or replacing multiple system
components simultaneouslyyour activation can be invalidated.
436
Do it!
C-2:
Replacing a motherboard (optional)
Heres how
1 Using the PC provided by your
instructor, unplug the PC and then
open the case while following
electrical and ESD safety
precautions
Heres why
Your instructor might have a different computer
into which you can install a new or replacement
motherboard.
2 Disconnect any cables, wires, and

connectors from the motherboard
3 If necessary, remove the power
supply and drives
4 Remove the old motherboard
5 Place the old motherboard in a
static-safe bag or box
6 Install the new motherboard
7 If necessary, reinstall the power
supply and drives
8 Connect any cables, wires, and
connectors from the motherboard
9 Close the case and reconnect
cables
10 Boot the PC to confirm that you
have installed the motherboard
correctly
Log on to Windows as:
Password: !pass1234
To access the motherboard. You might not have

to remove these components.
437
Topic D: Motherboard and CPU troubleshooting

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.2
Excessive heat
Noise
Alerts
Odors
Visible damage (e.g., cable, plastic)
objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

components
Motherboards
Jumper settings
CMOS battery
Advanced BIOS settings
Bus speeds
Chipsets
Firmware updates
Socket types
Expansion slots
Memory slots
I/O ports
Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE 1394 / FireWire, parallel, NIC, modem,
PS/2
Processors
Socket types
Speed
Number of cores
Power consumption
Cache
Front side bus
32bit vs. 64bit
438
Motherboard and CPU failures

Explanation
Motherboards and CPUs can fail for various reasons. One of the most common causes
of failure is a large electric spike, such as that caused by a nearby lightning strike.
Often, a motherboard or CPU failure shows up in one of two ways: a complete system
failure occurs (nothing happens when you turn the computer on); or unusual problems
occur, perhaps sporadically.
As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable
causes, and suggested first try solutions for motherboard- and CPU-related problems.
You might encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it will give you a
few scenarios to consider when troubleshooting motherboard and CPU problems.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
The system fails to boot.
Power problems are the most

likely cause. If those arent the
cause, a motherboard component
could have failed.
Replace the motherboard.
A burning or foul odor or

smoke comes out of the case.
Components, including the CPU,

are overheated or burning.
Unplug the computer immediately

and try to identify the failed
component. If it can be replaced,
do so. Otherwise, try replacing the
motherboard.
Single slow beep alert from the

computer when booting
Bad or failing CPU
Replace the CPU
Noise from the system case.
Faulty cooling fan
Clean cooling fan to remove

accumulated debris; replace
cooling fan.
Fans come on and power lights

indicate that power is present,
but the system fails to boot.
Power-control circuitry on the

motherboard could have failed.
Video display problems occur

on a system with an integrated
display adapter.
Video circuitry has failed.
Replace the motherboard. In some

computers, you can disable the
on-board video circuitry and then
install a separate video adapter.
Intermittent problems occur

that cant be traced to the
failure of another component.
The motherboard might be faulty.
For a motherboard and CPU troubleshooting flow chart, see

www.fonerbooks.com/cpu_ram.htm.

Do it!
D-1:
439
Troubleshooting motherboard and CPU problems

1 You are troubleshooting a computer. When it boots, you hear a slow, single beep,
but nothing appears on screen. The power light on the monitor is amber. The
computer wont begin the POST. What do you suspect is the problem?
2 What should you try first to resolve this issue?
3 You are troubleshooting a computer thats unstable (it hangs, gets BSODs and
memory errors, spontaneously reboots, etc.). The user states that the symptoms
have gotten more frequent. What do you suspect is the problem?
440
Unit summary: CPUs and motherboards

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that CPUs are the chips that process instructions, manipulate
data, and control the interaction of other PC components. You examined the
characteristics of popular CPUs, as well as the CPU features that determine its
performance characteristics. You learned that processors are sold as part of chipsets,
which together control the core functions of the computer. You examined the various
CPU packages and the corresponding slots and sockets into which theyre inserted.
You learned how to install a CPU on a motherboard.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that CPUs generate an enormous amount of heat and require
active and passive cooling mechanisms to prevent overheating.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned that the motherboard is the primary circuit board in a
personal computer. You learned that motherboards come in specific sizes and shapes
that describe their form factor. Additionally, you learned about computer case form
factors and learned that the form factors of your motherboard and case must be
compatible.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned that motherboards and CPUs fail for various reasons,
particularly lightning strikes and electrical spikes. You learned about common
symptoms of such failures, their probable causes, and suggested solutions.
Review questions
1 Which is not a component of a CPU?
A Bus architecture
B Control unit
C Execution unit
D Register
2 The math coprocessor was the predecessor to which CPU component?
A ACL
B Core
C FPU
D Register
3 A single-core processor has one of what component?
A Control unit
B Execution unit
C FPU
D Register
4 ______________ are very small, very fast, memory locations for holding
instructions or units of data.
Registers
441
5 Which type of bus connects the processor to the main memory?

A Address bus
B Data bus
C Internal bus
D Generic bus
6 Which processor caching level is the fastest for accessing data?
A Level 1
B Level 2
C Level 3
D All are equal
7 Which of the following performance features can overheat the processor?
A Multiprocessing
B Overclocking
C Pipelining
D Superpipelining
E Throttling
8 True or false? Most current processors have both L1 and L2 caches.
True
9 The data bus for current CPUs is how many bits?

A 16
B 32
C 64
D 128
10 Which of the following CPUs does not use a 64-bit internal bus?
A AMD Athlon
C Core2 Duo
B Itanium
D Sempron
11 The _____________ chip controls interactions between the CPU, memory, PCIe
and AGP video control circuitry.
Northbridge
12 The plain chip called a die is built into a(n) _____________ so that it can connect
to the rest of the circuitry in your computer.
package
442

13 Which package type is similar to the PGA-style packages, except that the die is
exposed on top, enhancing heat transfer and cooling options?
A FC-PGA
B OPGA
C PPGA
D SPGA
14 Which package type has no pins, but uses small raised contacts instead?
A LGA
B OOI
C PDIP
D SECC
15 Which socket type is similar to the Socket 7 design, but with six staggered rows of
pins instead of five?
A Socket 8
B Socket 370
C Socket 423
D Socket 478
16 True or false? CPUs of the same class are interchangeable. For example, you can
replace any Pentium 4 CPU on a motherboard with any other Pentium 4class CPU.
False. You must match the physical, electronic, and performance characteristics of a CPU to the
motherboard.
17 A(n) ________ card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard to provide

additional expansion slots or sockets.
Riser.
18 True or false? Thermal compound is basically a grease-like fluid used between the
CPU and its heat sink or cooling fins.
True. The compound improves heat flow by closely mating the CPU die to the heat sink or fan.
19 Which cooling system relies on small tubes filled with a small amount of fluid?
A Cooling fins
B Heat pipes
C Heat sinks
D Peltier coolers
20 Which cooling system uses an electronic component that gets colder when voltage
is applied?
A Cooling fins
B Heat pipes
C Heat sinks
D Peltier coolers
443
21 You open your PC and look at the CPU. How can you tell if it uses active or passive
cooling?
If there is just a heat sink on the CPU, it uses passive cooling. If theres a fan attached to the
CPU, it uses active cooling.
22 Before the Pentium CPU was introduced, what was the most common CPU cooling
mechanism?
A simple fan, typically part of the power supply, was all that was used with the 80286 and 80386
CPUs. Some 80386 and most 80486 CPUs also used cooling fins.

In this activity, youll practice identifying appropriate CPU and motherboard
requirements for a PC. You will also practice replacing the CPU and motherboard
components of a PC.
1 Given a budget of $1000, use the www.motherboards.org Web site to plan the
highest-capability PC that you could purchase. Focus on CPU and motherboard
performance and form factor. Make sure your PC could support a sufficient number
of add-on devices, such as hard drives and CD/DVD drives.
Record the specifications of the system youd purchase here:
CPU (type, model, speed): ____________________________
Motherboard (make and model): _____________________
Form factor and drive bay capacity: ____________________
2 If available, examine the motherboard and CPU of a computer in your room, other
than your lab station computer. Record the following information about this
computer:
CPU (type, model, speed): _______________________________________
CPU socket type: ______________________________________________
Cooling mechanism: ____________________________________________
Motherboard (make and model): ___________________________________
Form factor: ___________________________________________________
Ports (serial, parallel, and so forth):_________________________________
Integrated peripherals: ___________________________________________
3 Remove the motherboard from your computer.
4 Remove the CPU from your motherboard.
5 Reinstall the CPU.
6 Reinstall the motherboard.
7 Boot your computer and log on to Windows as COMPADMIN## to confirm that
youve performed all the steps correctly.
444
51
Unit 5

A Access the BIOS setup utility, change
hardware configuration values, and

research BIOS updates.
B Explain the POST and boot processes; and
identify the symptoms of, probable causes

of, and potential solutions to problems with
the BIOS and POST.
52
Topic A: The BIOS and CMOS

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

BIOS / CMOS / Firmware
CMOS battery
2.5

Updates
Firmware
3.4
Explain the basics of boot sequence, methods, and startup utilities

Disk boot order / device priority
objectives.
#
Objective
1.1

Motherboards
CMOS battery
1.2

components
Motherboards
CMOS battery
Firmware updates
4.2
Implement security and troubleshoot common issues

System
BIOS security
Passwords
Intrusion detection
Firmware
Explanation
Firmware straddles a gray area between hardware and software. Firmware is software
written permanently or semi-permanently on a computer chip. Firmware is used to
control electronic devices, such as computers, printers, remote controls, calculators, and
digital cameras. In a computer, firmware is implemented using the BIOS and CMOS.
53
BIOS
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is the computers firmwarea set of software
instructions stored on a chip on the motherboard. The BIOS instructions enable basic
computer functions, such as getting input from the keyboard and mouse, serial ports,
and so on. Without the BIOS, your computer would be a useless collection of wires and
electronic components.
AMI (American Megatrends Inc.), Award, MR BIOS (Microid Research Inc.), and
Phoenix are some common BIOS manufacturers. A motherboard manufacturer selects a
BIOS and integrates it into the design.
Shadowing
At startup, many computers copy the contents of the BIOS into standard memory to
improve performance. This technique is called shadowing because the contents in
memory are like a shadow of those on the BIOS chip.
CMOS
CMOS is memory that stores BIOS configuration information. A battery, typically on
the motherboard as shown in Exhibit 5-1, provides power to the CMOS chip so that its
contents are maintained when the computer is turned off or unplugged.
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) is actually a type of computer chip.
This type of chip can maintain information using power from the CMOS battery when
the systems power is removed. The best known use of CMOS chips is to store BIOS
configuration data.
The term CMOS is frequently used to refer to the storage location of the BIOS
configuration information, rather than to the chip-manufacturing technology.
Battery
Exhibit 5-1: A CMOS battery

CMOS configuration
To configure the values stored in CMOS, you use a system setup utility provided by
your computers manufacturer (or by the BIOS maker). This utility is often built into the
BIOS itself.
54

CMOS utility access
BIOS manufacturers provide various ways to access the system setup utility. For
example, on a Dell computer, you press F2 during the text mode portion of boot.
Consult your systems documentation to determine the exact procedure you need to
follow.
Configuring BIOS settings

Setting BIOS configuration values is normally a set and forget operation. On most
systems, you wont need to configure anything; the settings from the manufacturer have
been configured to meet the needs of the system. However, you might need to configure
the BIOS when you set up the computer for the first time or when you add new
hardware. Other than that, you typically dont need to modify the BIOS configuration.
Configurable settings
Typical BIOS configuration settings include:
Date and time Set the system date and time.
Boot sequence Specify the order of devices that the BIOS searches when
looking for an operating system to load.
CPU options Specify the type of CPU installed in your system, and
configure speed and voltage settings.
Optical drive options Specify which drives (CD and DVD), and in which
order, the system should boot from. You can also typically enable, disable, and
configure optical drive options.
Floppy drive options Specify which floppy drives, and in which order, the
system should attempt to boot from. These include both internal floppy drives
and external floppy drives, such as USB. You can also typically enable, disable,
and configure floppy drive options.
Hard drive options Specify the hard drives type, size, and geometry, and
enable or disable on-board hard drive controllers.
Serial port options Set configuration options, such as device addresses and
communication modes.
Parallel port options Specify whether to enable unidirectional or
bidirectional printing, and configure ECP (Extended Capabilities Parallel port)
and EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) settings.
Integrated devices Enable or disable integrated devices, such as video
adapter, network adapter functionality, and ports, such as USB, LPT, Serial, and
PS/2.
Performance features Configure performance features, such as enabling or
disabling multiple CPU core technology and setting HDD acoustic mode.
Plug and Play Enable or disable hardware support for Plug and Play
features.
Power management options Specify whether to enable hardware-based
power management features. Typically, you must choose a set of supported
power management standards, such as APM (Advanced Power Management) or
ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface), as well as wake up
options, such as whether to wake up the computer when the modem rings.
55
Security Enable or disable hardware-based passwords, set passwords,

configure intrusion alerts, and enable or disable TPM security.
Virus detection Enable or disable hardware-based virus detection.
BIOS configuration procedure
To configure the BIOS:
1 If necessary, shut down your PC.
2 From a powered-off state, boot your PC.
3 At the appropriate time in the boot sequence, press the key combination that
opens the BIOS setup utility on your system.
4 Follow the on-screen prompts or menu system to configure your system.
5 Follow the on-screen prompts or menu system to save the new configuration
data to CMOS memory.
Do it!
A-1:
Updating your PCs BIOS settings
Heres how
1 If necessary, shut down your PC
Heres why
Dont put the computer in hibernation or sleep
mode. You must turn it all the way off.
2 Turn on the computer

3 At the appropriate time in the boot
sequence, press the key
combination that opens the BIOS
setup utility on your system
4 Follow the on-screen instructions
or use the menus to set the date
and time
If theyre already correctly set, set them back an

hour or so and then reset them to the current
time.
5 Explore your computer systems

setup utility
To determine its capabilities. Each BIOS

manufacturer provides similar setup options.
6 Exit and save your configuration

changes
Your system automatically restarts when youre

done.
56
BIOS updates
Explanation
The BIOS is provided in a form of a memory chip that doesnt lose its contents when
the power is turned off. The BIOS can be implemented either in ROM (read-only
memory) or flash memory (a type of electronically reprogrammable memory chip).
ROM-based BIOS is programmed at the factory. This is an older technology.
You cant change this kind of BIOS without replacing the chip itself.
Using a special program provided by the computer (or BIOS) manufacturer, you
can update a flash-memory-based BIOS without changing the BIOS chip. This
action is often called flashing the BIOS.
Usually, the BIOS version that ships with your PC is all you ever need. However, you
might need to upgrade your BIOS in the following situations:
There are device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer identifies as
being caused by BIOS problems.
There are device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than the
BIOS. Additionally, you have exhausted all other troubleshooting avenues in
trying to fix the problems.
You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your system,
arent supported by your BIOS.
Its important to note that, while this course focuses on updating a computers BIOS, the
firmware of other electronic devices, such as printers and routers, needs to be kept
current as well.
BIOS update sources
AMI, Award, and the other BIOS manufacturers dont provide BIOS updates directly to
consumers. Instead, these companies provide the BIOS to computer manufacturers, who
build it into their computers.
The BIOS manufacturers give the BIOS to PC manufacturers in an incomplete state.
The PC manufacturers make final modifications to tailor the BIOS to their exact
hardware. This tailored BIOS is whats shipped to you in your new PC. For this reason,
BIOS updates must come from your PCs manufacturer, not from the original
equipment manufacturer.
Determining the BIOS version
You can find the version of the BIOS installed in your system by using the Windows
System Information tool or running the DirectX Diagnostic Tool (DxDiag.exe.) To
determine the version of BIOS installed in your Windows 7, Windows 2000
Professional, Windows XP, or Windows Vista, system:
1 Click Start and choose All Programs (or Programs), Accessories, System Tools,
System Information.
2 Record the value listed in the BIOS Version/Date field. As shown in Exhibit 5-2,
this field lists BIOS version data, which you can use to determine if a newer
version is available on your PC makers Web site.
3 If its present, record the value listed in the SMBIOS field. The SMBIOS is used
by PC inventorying programs to collect data about your computer. SMBIOS
updates are usually included with BIOS updates. Not all PCs include the
SMBIOS.
57
Exhibit 5-2: The System Information utility displays the BIOS version
Flashing the BIOS

To update the BIOS in your system:
1 Use the System Information tool to determine your current BIOS version.
2 Visit your PC manufacturers Web site and navigate to its support pages to
locate the BIOS update files.
3 Compare the version number and release date with the information reported by
the System Information tool to determine if a new BIOS version is available.
4 Download the installation file for the new BIOS version. Make sure you choose
the version that matches your PC model.
5 If its not part of the BIOS installation file, download the appropriate BIOS
flashing utility from your PC manufacturers Web site. Make sure you choose
the version that matches your PC model and operating system.
6 Close all open applications.
7 Open the flashing utility and follow the instructions it provides to update your
BIOS.
8 Restart your PC when prompted.
Exhibit 5-3: The Phoenix BIOS flash utilitys startup screen
58
BIOS update failures

BIOS updates can fail, and when they do, you can be left with an unbootable and useless
computer. Follow these guidelines to minimize the risks of a failed update:
Dont update your BIOS unless you must. Usually, the BIOS version that
shipped with your PC is sufficient for the entire operating life of your computer.
Never turn off your computer during a BIOS update, and make sure the power
doesnt go off during an update (connect desktop computers to a UPS). Dont
press Ctrl+Alt+Del during the operation.
Make sure you use the correct BIOS flash utility. The utility is specific to your
brand of computer, model, BIOS chip, and operating system. Contact your PCs
manufacturer or visit its Web site to obtain the correct flash utility.
Follow the flash utilitys instructions exactly. Make sure you run the utility
under the correct operating systemflash utilities are typically compatible with
a single version of Windows (or other operating system).
Most flash utilities offer the option of backing up your old BIOS before updating
it. Perform this backup. You might be able to use it to recover if the update fails.
Recovering from a failed BIOS update
You have a few basic options for recovering from a failed BIOS update:
Use the BIOS backup created by the flash utility to try to restore the previous
version.
Many modern BIOSs include a small area thats never overwritten during an
upgrade. This boot block section has sufficient support to boot your PC from a
USB thumb drive or floppy disk. Depending on your system, you need to
provide a USB thumb drive or floppy disk containing the correct BIOS and flash
utility. The contents vary depending on your BIOSs manufacturer. No video is
displayed during this operation. After the PC has booted from the thumb drive or
floppy and copied the correct BIOS over the corrupt version, you reboot your
PC.
Some Intel motherboards have a flash-recovery jumper switch. You set this
jumper switch to the recovery position, insert the system upgrade floppy disk
into the drive, and boot your PC. The system boots from the disk and copies the
original BIOS over the corrupted BIOS. No video is displayed during this
operation. When the drive light on your floppy drive goes off, the procedure is
done. Reset the recovery jumper to its normal position and reboot your PC
again.
If the preceding methods dont work for you, you might need to get a new BIOS
chip from your motherboard or PCs manufacturer. You need to replace the
damaged BIOS chip with the new one.

Do it!
A-2:
Researching BIOS updates for your PC
Heres how
1 Boot your computer
Heres why
If necessary.
2 Log on to Windows 7 as
COMPADMIN## with a
System Tools,
To open the System Information utility.
System Information
4 Determine your current BIOS

(and SMBIOS if present) version,
and record those details here:
Close System Information
5 Visit the support Web site for
your PCs manufacturer
6 Determine the latest version of the
BIOS for your make and model of
PC
Is there a newer BIOS version
available for your PC?
7 Read the manufacturers
information about the BIOS
update
Should you update?
8 Close your Web browser
Manufacturer:
Version:
Date:
59
510
Bad CMOS batteries

Explanation
Configuration data is stored in the CMOS. This chip retains its data when the PC is off,
thanks to a battery connected to your motherboard. In older PCs, the battery was
soldered in place and wasnt easily replaceable. Nowadays, the battery, often a button
cell, is inserted into a socket and held in place with retaining clips.
You might need to replace the CMOS battery if your computer is losing its time or date
settings when you boot or if youre receiving one of the following error messages:
CMOS Read Error
CMOS checksum error
CMOS Battery Failure
A charge generally remains long enough for you to replace the battery without losing
data.
To replace the CMOS battery:
1 If youve customized your BIOS settings and they havent reverted back to the
default due to the battery failure, write the settings down.
2 Following proper ESD precautions, power down, disconnect external cables and
the power cord, and open your computers chassis.
3 If necessary, remove any cables that prevent access to the battery on the
motherboard. Remember where to reconnect each cable you disconnect!
4 Gently slide the battery out of its compartment, taking care not to break the
holding clamps.
5 If necessary, discharge the CMOS memory by moving the motherboard jumpers
near the battery. Typically, you move the jumpers from pins 1 and 3 to pins 2
and 4 to clear the memory. Then you move the jumpers back.
6 Insert the new battery into the holder, again taking care not to snap the holding
clamps.
7 Reconnect any cables you disconnected to gain access to the battery on the
motherboard.
8 Close the PC chassis.
9 Reconnect any cables and the power cord.
10 Reboot and, when prompted, enter the correct date and time.
11 Access the BIOS to reset any custom values.

Do it!
A-3:
511
Replacing the CMOS battery
Heres how
Heres why
1 Shut down your PC and unplug it

from the electrical outlet
2 Following electrical and ESD
safety precautions, open the case
3 Locate the CMOS battery on the
motherboard
4 Remove or release the retaining clip,
and slide the battery out of its holder
5 Install the new battery, securing it
with the retaining clips
6 Close the system case
7 Restart the computer
8 If necessary, use the BIOS setup
utility to set the correct date, time,
and device options
A charge should remain long enough to retain

these values while you change the battery.
512
Topic B: The POST and boot processes

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

POST
3.4
Explain the basics of boot sequence, methods, and startup utilities

Types of boot devices (disk, network, USB, other)
objective.
#
Objective
1.2

components
Motherboards
CMOS battery
Firmware updates
The power-on self test

Explanation
When you turn on your computer, a program contained in the BIOS performs a series of
basic checks to make sure your system components are in proper working order. This
set of checks is called the power-on self test (POST).
The POST isnt a complex or comprehensive test. There are four basic parts, which are
carried out in this order:
1 The BIOS tests the core hardware, including itself, the processor, CMOS, the
input/output system, and so forth. Any errors detected at this stage are reported
as a series of beeps (see the Beep codes section that follows).
2 The BIOS tests the video subsystem. This test includes checking the memory
dedicated to video operations, checking the video processing circuitry, and
checking the video configuration (that its valid and not corrupted).
3 The BIOS identifies itself, including its version, manufacturer, and date.
4 The BIOS tests main system memory. Some BIOS versions display a running
count of how much memory has been tested. Others are silent unless an error
is found.
513
Beep codes
Before the video system is initialized, the BIOS has no way to display errors on your
screen. Thus, errors detected early in the POST test must be reported as one or more
beeps played through the internal PC speaker. Its important to note that, if the systems
speaker is not functioning, you wont hear these beeps.
The exact beep codes vary by BIOS manufacturer. The following table lists a few of the
more common beep tones. For a more complete reference, visit
www.computerhope.com/beep.htm.
Beeps
Description
1 short beep
Typically indicates that no problems were found. Some systems sound

two short beeps to indicate that all is well.
3 long beeps
A keyboard error.
8 short beeps
Video adapter memory problems.
9 short beeps
A BIOS problem.
1 long and 3 short beeps
A memory error.
Numeric codes
When the POST has finished its core hardware tests, the system begins to initialize other
devices, including the video display circuitry. Once the video is initialized, any further
error codes can be displayed on the monitor.
The exact numeric codes and their meanings vary by manufacturer. You should visit
your vendors Web site to get the list of codes for your specific hardware.
The following table lists a few Lenovo-specific numeric error codes you might
encounter. Manufacturers other than Lenovo use similar numbers.
Code
Description
151
Real-time clock failure.
161
Bad CMOS battery.
162
Configuration mismatch: the configuration data stored in the CMOS doesnt

match the actual hardware in your PC.
164
Memory size mismatch: your PC has more or less memory than the amount
the CMOS says your system has.
201 or any 20#
Memory failure.
1762
Hard drive configuration error.
Logo screen
Some BIOS manufacturers hide the display of BIOS and POST messages. Instead, they
display their logo or another graphic. Typically, you can show the POST messages and
hide the logo by pressing the Tab key when the logo is displayed.
514
Do it!
B-1:
Observing the POST process
Heres how
Heres why
Make sure you turn it all the way off.
2 While holding down s, turn

on your PC
Holding down a key like this should simulate a

keyboard failure.
3 Are any beep codes played?
You might hear the normal one or two system

OK beeps, followed by your BIOS
manufacturers code for a keyboard failure.
4 Are any numeric codes displayed?
Your BIOS manufacturers code for a keyboard

failure is likely shown on your monitor.
Depending on your BIOS, perhaps just the beep
code is played.
5 If the option is presented, press

!
To bypass the error and continue booting. Your

PC might continue booting without interaction
or boot after you release the Shift key.
If the option isnt presented, shut

off your PC and turn it on again
To boot normally.
6 If necessary, press t to hide

the logo screen
7 Observe any POST messages as
your system boots
Your PC might display memory test results and

other POST information as it boots.
515
The boot process

Explanation
The POST process covered previously is just one of the steps that your computer
performs when starting up. The following steps detail the hardware portions of the boot
process.
1 You turn on the power.
2 The timer chip begins sending continual reset signals to the CPU to prevent it
from booting the PC.
3 The power supply performs internal checks. When thats done and power output
levels have stabilized, it sends the Power_Good signal to the CPU.
4 With the arrival of the Power_Good signal, the timer stops sending reset signals
to the CPU, thereby permitting it to begin the boot process.
5 The CPU loads the BIOS and then searches for devices that have BIOS
extensions to load. Video adapters are the best example of devices that would
require a BIOS extension.
6 The BIOS checks whether this is a cold or warm boot. Cold boots happen when
you boot the PC from a powered-off state or when you press the hardware reset
button on the front of the system case. Warm boots happen when you click Start,
choose Shutdown, and click Restart. (With older versions of Windows and with
DOS, you could perform a warm boot by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Delete.)
7 If this is a cold boot, the BIOS performs the POST procedure.
8 The BIOS reads the CMOS configuration data and configures devices.
9 Plug and Play devices are detected and configured.
10 The BIOS determines which drive to boot from by checking the CMOS
configuration data.
11 The BIOS reads the master boot record (MBR) from the boot drive. This record
provides the information necessary for the boot process to proceed from this
point onward. If the MBR cant be located, the CMOS displays an error
message, such as Non-system disk or disk error.
12 The MBR contains the code for passing control of the boot process to the
operating system. The OS takes over and completes the boot process.
Boot devices
The boot device is the drive that the computer uses to load an operating system during
the boot process. In current computers, a boot device can be many different types of
drives, such as:
An internal hard disk
An internal optical drive (CD or DVD drive)
A USB drive (flash drive, or external hard disk or optical drive)
A network drive, using a network interface card that supports the Preboot
eXecution Environment (PXE)
Examples of older boot devices include:
Floppy disk drives
SCSI devices
Zip drives
516

You add, remove, and change the order of boot devices in the computers BIOS, as
shown in Exhibit 5-4.
Exhibit 5-4: Boot devices listed in the system BIOS

Do it!
B-2:
Checking the boot order
Heres how
3 At the appropriate time in the boot
sequence, press the key
combination that opens the BIOS
setup utility on your system
4 Identify the boot devices included
in your PCs boot sequence
5 Identify the order of devices in the
boot sequence
6 Exit the BIOS utility
Heres why
Dont put the computer in hibernation or sleep
mode. You must turn it all the way off.
517
BIOS-related problems and causes

Explanation
causes, and suggested first try solutions for BIOS-related problems. You might
encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it provides some scenarios to
consider when youre troubleshooting problems.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Devices misidentified
The BIOS is configured

incorrectly.
Use the BIOS setup utility to reconfigure

device options in the BIOS.
Wrong memory size

reported during POST
or available after
booting
The memory modules arent

properly installed and cant be
recognized by the system.
Remove and reinstall the modules to verify

that theyre seated properly.
Hard drive
inaccessible
The geometry parameters are set

incorrectly in the BIOS (older
hard drives). The hard drive
might be disabled in the BIOS
(newer hard drives).

the hard drive settings.
System wont boot

from hard drive
The boot drive order is incorrect.

Hard drive configuration data in
CMOS doesnt match the hard
drives actual geometry. The
hard drive is disabled in CMOS.

device options in the BIOS.
System boots from the

wrong device
The BIOS boot order is set

incorrectly, or the drive isnt
bootable.
Use the BIOS setup utility to configure the

boot order. If that doesnt solve the
problem, the device isnt bootable; see a
hard-drive troubleshooting reference.
Date and time

incorrect or reset after
the computer is turned
off
Most likely, the CMOS battery

is dead and needs replacing.
However, the BIOS date could
be set wrong.
Try resetting the correct date and time in the

BIOS; then shut down and unplug the
computer. Wait five minutes or so, and then
plug in and start the computer. If the date is
still incorrect, replace the CMOS battery.
518
POST-related problems and causes

The following table lists some common power-on self-test (POST)related symptoms
that you might encounter, along with probable causes and solutions.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Theres no video;
instead, the computer
emits eight short beeps.
The video adapter card isnt

seated properly.
Remove and reinstall the graphics card to

verify that its seated properly.
Potentially due to failed

memory on the video adapter. If
the system uses integrated video
circuitry, this error could also
indicate a failure of main
system memory.
Replace the memory modules on the video

adapter. If thats not possible, swap the
video adapter with a known working
adapter. If you have an integrated video
adapter, try replacing the main system
memory modules.
The system emits three

long beeps.
A keyboard error: a key is

stuck, or the keyboard is
plugged into the mouse port.
Confirm that the keyboard and mouse are

plugged into the correct ports. Attach a
different keyboard and try booting again.
The system emits one

long and three short
beeps.
A memory problem.
Replace the main system memory modules.
POST code 162 is

displayed.
Configuration data stored in

CMOS doesnt match the PCs
actual hardware.
Run the BIOS setup utility to confirm the

proper configuration values.
POST code 164 is

displayed.
PC has more or less memory

than the amount listed in the
CMOS settings.
You can often press a key (your screen tells

you which one) to automatically update the
CMOS with the correct amount of memory
and continue booting. If thats not an
option, run the BIOS setup utility to let it
detect the correct amount of memory, then
exit and save settings.
519
CMOS-related problems and causes

The following table lists some common CMOS-related symptoms you might encounter,
along with probable causes and solutions.
Do it!
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Error message
Non-system disk
or disk error
The BIOS cant find the master boot

record on the boot drive.
You might have specified the wrong drive

as the boot drive in the CMOS settings. Use
the setup utility to confirm and reconfigure,
if necessary. Alternatively, your boot drive
might not be bootable, meaning that it
doesnt have the files needed to boot the
system.
Error message
Display type
mismatch
The video settings in the CMOS

dont match the monitor attached to
the system.
Connect the correct type of monitor.
Error message
Memory size
mismatch
The amount of memory listed in the

CMOS settings is different from the
amount actually installed in the
system.
Run the BIOS setup utility to correct the

information.
Error message
CMOS checksum
failure
The BIOS has detected a memory

problem in the CMOS. This could
be a sign that your CMOS chip has
failed. More likely, it means that the
CMOS battery is dead.
Try replacing the CMOS battery. If that

doesnt correct the problem, the CMOS chip
is probably bad. This isnt typically a
replaceable component. You probably need
a new motherboard to correct the error.
B-3:
Troubleshooting BIOS and POST problems
Heres how
1 One or more BIOS- and POST-related problems have been introduced into your
lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their causes.
2 Correct the problems youve found in your PC to return it to a working state.
Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another problem. Troubleshoot
and fix all problems that arise.
520
Unit summary: The Basic Input/Output System

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that the BIOS is a set of programs that control the most basic
hardware interactions within your PC. The BIOS is stored on a chip that isnt erased
when you turn off the power. Hardware configuration data used by the BIOS is stored in
CMOS. CMOS data is retained when the power is off, thanks to a battery installed on
your motherboard. You learned how to access and use the BIOS setup utility to change
the CMOS configuration data. You learned that, with modern PCs, you can flash the
BIOS to update it. You also learned that a failed BIOS update can render your PC
unusable, and you looked at the ways you could recover from a failed BIOS update
attempt.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that the BIOS tests your computers hardware at boot time by
following the POST process. You learned about various beep and numeric error codes
that might be reported during the POST if the BIOS detects a hardware failure. You
learned how to determine the order of boot devices in your computer. You also learned
how to identify symptoms and causes of BIOS, CMOS, and POST problems and then
how to resolve the issue.
Review questions
1 True or false? The BIOS and CMOS are the same thing.
False. The BIOS is a set of instructions that control the low-level hardware functions of your
computer. CMOS usually refers to memory (backed up by a battery) that stores hardware
configuration data.
2 The battery shown in the following graphic is used to provide power to what
component?
A BIOS
B CMOS
C Firmware
D RAM
521
3 True or false? The same key combination will get you access to the system utility
on all personal computers, except laptops.
False. BIOS manufacturers provide different ways to access the system setup utility.
4 Which is not a reason to update your system BIOS?

A Your system has device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer
identifies as being caused by BIOS problems.
B Your system has device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than
the BIOS.
C Your PC manufacturer has sent out a technical document notifying you of an
update.
D You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your
motherboard, arent supported by your BIOS.
5 True or false? If the system stops responding during a BIOS update, you can use the
Ctrl+Alt+Del key combination to recover.
False. Never turn off your computer during a BIOS update. Make sure power doesnt go off during
an update (connect the PC to a UPS). Do not press Ctrl+Alt+Del during the operation.
6 The clock on your computer reads January 1, 1980. What is the likely cause?
A Your system BIOS needs updating.
B When the operating system was installed, the correct date was never set.
C The CMOS battery needs replacing.
D A BIOS update failed.
7 Which of the following is not a step in the POST process?
A BIOS identification
B Core hardware test
C Main system memory test
D Master boot record being read from the boot drive
E Video subsystem test
8 True or false? The boot processes for a cold boot and a warm boot are exactly the
same.
False. The POST and other initial hardware tests arent performed during a warm boot.
9 True or false? To boot the computer, your boot device must be an internal hard disk,
internal optical drive, internal floppy drive, or USB flash drive.
False. Boot devices can also include an external USB hard disk or optical drive or a network
drive, using a PXE-compliant NIC and older technology such as an external SCSI or zip drive.
10 What is the best source for BIOS updates?

The PC manufacturers Web site
11 A BIOS update failure usually results in:

An unbootable computer
522

12 You receive the CMOS error message CMOS checksum failure. What does that
indicate?
A CMOS memory error has been detected. It could mean that the CMOS chip is bad, but this
error is more likely to occur when the CMOS battery has died.
13 Why does your computer use beep codes to indicate an error, rather than simply
displaying a message on the monitor?
Beep codes are sounded during the portion of the boot process before the video subsystem has
been initialized. Thus, the system cant yet display anything on the screen. The systems only
output option is to emit a beep through the system speaker.
14 True or false? Every BIOS manufacturer uses the same flashing utility.
False. Flashing utilities are proprietary to the BIOS manufacturer, and you should always use the
correct version for your BIOS.

In this activity, youll practice support tasks related to the computer systems BIOS and
CMOS.
1 If your computer has a floppy drive, configure the CMOS data to disable it. Attempt
to boot from a floppy disk. Enable the floppy drive.
2 Change the boot order so that your PC attempts to start from disks in this order: CDROM drive, hard drive, floppy drive (if present).
3 Test your work by inserting a bootable CD in the CD-ROM drive and a bootable
floppy disk in the floppy drive. Your computer should boot from the CD even
though your hard disk is bootable and a bootable floppy is in its drive.
4 Shut down your computer and disconnect the mouse. Boot your PC. Does your
computer report any beep or numeric error codes? If so, which codes? If not, why
not?
The mouse isnt a core device like the keyboard, so you shouldnt receive any error codes.
5 Attach the mouse and shut down your PC. If your computer uses PS/2 keyboard and
mouse devices, disconnect the keyboard and plug it into the mouse port, connecting
the mouse to the keyboard port. Boot your PC. Does your computer report any beep
or numeric error codes? If so, which codes? If not, why not?
You should receive the beep and numeric codes that indicate a keyboard failure. However, some
PCs can automatically correct this sort of misconnection and will boot normally.
6 Shut down your PC and connect the keyboard and mouse to the correct PS/2 ports.
Boot your PC.
61
Unit 6
Memory systems

A Describe the function of memory and
differentiate among various types of

memory chips.
B Differentiate among the various memory
packages.
C Install RAM into a system while handling
it properly and meeting your PCs

installation requirements.
D Monitor memory usage.
E Troubleshoot memory problems.
62
Topic A: Memory
exam objective.
#
Objective
1.6
Compare and contrast memory types, characteristics, and their purposes

Types
DRAM
SRAM
SDRAM
DDR/DDR2/DDR3
RAMBUS
Single channel vs. dual channel
Speed
PC100
PC133
PC2700
PC3200
DDR3-1600
DDR2-667
Computer memory systems

Explanation
Memory, commonly called RAM (random access memory), is the hardware component
that stores instructions and data as the CPU works with it. RAM is implemented as
computer chips attached to a specialized module.
Physical memory, or primary memory, is different from storage devices, or secondary
memory, such as hard drives, floppy drives, and optical discs. Storage refers to the
locations where dataincluding your applicationsis held in the long term. Data in
storage remains there when your computer is turned off.
An analogy for RAM
You can compare RAM and storage with the papers you work with at your desk. You
keep important papers in the file drawer, and you pull them out and put them on your
desktop to work with them. The file drawer is like the hard disk in your computer; its
where you store your data (papers) when youre not working on them. The desktop is
the working area and is analogous to RAM.
When necessary, the computer can "borrow an area of your hard disk to use as if it
were memory. A page file temporarily stores active data that doesnt fit in the RAM
installed on your computer. However, the computer cant work with the data in the page
file. It must first read the data back into real RAM, while writing some other data to the
page file.
Memory systems
63
Additionally, some types of chips dont lose their contents when power is removed. For
example, CompactFlash cardscommonly used with digital camerasare simply
computer chips in a convenient package. Yet a CF card is storage, not memory, because
you use it for the long-term storage of data (most often photos, but you can store other
files on a CF card, too).
Importance of RAM
Having sufficient RAM in your system is critical for the following reasons:
Performance Having more RAM almost always leads to improved computer
performance. When you have insufficient RAM, the CPU must work harder
shuffling data between RAM and the page file.
Software support Many applications require a minimum amount of RAM.
Having less RAM than specified can prevent you from running these
applications. Or, if they do run on your system, they perform so badly as to be
unpleasant to use.
Poor-quality or defective RAM is a major source of system crashes. One bad memory
storage location out of the millions of such locations in your RAM chips can bring your
system down. Your computer tests the RAM during the POST, but that test isnt
exhaustive and problem chips can slip through.
Additionally, the type of RAM your system uses, as well as the maximum amount of
RAM supported by your motherboard, has a direct effect on your systems
upgradeability. Make sure to buy a system that will support your future RAM needs, as
well as those of your current applications.
Measuring memory
The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called cells. Each cell stores a single
bit of data. A bit is a 0 or 1, representing an on/off or yes/no binary state.
The data you work with and the programs you run are made up of millions and billions
of individual bits of data. Describing such large units is confusing and inconvenient.
Instead, computer professionals use various units of memory storage to describe
memory and storage amounts.
Basic memory units
The following table lists the most basic units of memory storage.
Name
Number of bits
Number of values that can be stored

in this much memory
Bit
2 (a zero or one, equivalent to 21)
Nibble
16 (24)
Byte
256 (28)
Word
Depends on the processor.

With a 32-bit CPU, a word is 32 bits.
On a 64-bit CPU, a word is 64 bits.
Varies, but a 32-bit word offers 4,294,967,296

possible values (232)
64

Larger units
Saying a computer has 2,147,483,648 bits of RAM is more confusing and less
convenient than saying it has 2 GB of memory. The common units of memory are listed
in the following table.
Name
Abbreviation
Number of bytes
Byte
1 byte, which equals 8 bits
Kilobyte
KB
1024 bytes, or 210 bytes
Megabyte
MB
1024 KB or 220 bytes
Gigabyte
GB
1024 MB or 230 bytes
Terabyte
TB
1024 GB or 240 bytes
Memory types
Memory can be classified in various ways:
Volatile vs. non-volatile
Static vs. dynamic
Asynchronous vs. synchronous
Volatile and non-volatile memory
Volatile memory loses its contents when power isnt present. Non-volatile memory
doesnt lose its contents when power is removed. The following table lists the various
types of common memory, categorized as volatile or non-volatile.
Type
Volatile or
non-volatile
Description
RAM
Volatile
The working memory for your computer. Because RAM is volatile

memory, its contents are lost when power is removed, even for a very
brief period.
CMOS
Volatile
The storage location for BIOS configuration data. CMOS requires a

battery to retain its information. Without the battery, CMOS loses its
contents. Thus, despite what many sources say, its volatile memory.
ROM
Non-volatile
Read-only memory. ROM is used to store the BIOS and other

programs and data that must be preserved when the computer is
unplugged. ROM must be written at the factory.
PROM
Non-volatile
Programmable read-only memory. PROM must be programmed at the

factory and can be programmed only once using a PROM burner.
EPROM
Non-volatile
Erasable programmable read-only memory. You erase the contents of

an EPROM chip by exposing its glass window to ultraviolet light.
Then you can program the chip by using a PROM burner.
Memory systems
65
Type
Volatile or
non-volatile
Description
EEPROM
Non-volatile
Electronically erasable programmable read-only memory. You can

erase and program the contents of an EEPROM chip by using a burner
or special circuitry within your computer.
Flash
Non-volatile
(Similar to EEPROMs.) Chips that dont lose their memory when

power is removed and can be burned using burners or circuitry within
your computer. Flash memory is written block-by-block.
Dynamic and static memory

Some types of RAM lose their contents quickly, even when power is present. Devices
that use this type of memory must continually refresh the contents of the chips, or data
is lost.
Such memory is called dynamic RAM, or DRAM. DRAM must be refreshed hundreds of
times per second. Circuits using DRAM must include the components necessary to
refresh its contents, adding complexity to the overall system. Due to the design of
DRAM circuitry, simply reading a location in memory results in its being refreshed.
In contrast, static RAM, or SRAM, doesnt need to be refreshed. Due to the way these
chips are built, this memory holds its contents until power is removed. SRAM chips can
be read more quickly than DRAM chips can.
Main system memory is implemented with DRAM. Cache memory and CMOS memory
are most often implemented with SRAM.
DRAM chips are as much as four times smaller than SRAM chips per unit of storage.
DRAM circuitry is simpler, making DRAM considerably cheaper than SRAM to
manufacture. The refresh circuitry is simple and inexpensive to implement, too.
Thus, DRAM is much cheaper to use than SRAM when large amounts of memory are
needed, such as for main system memory. SRAM is considerably faster, which makes it
well suited to the smaller level 2 and level 3 cache memories that typically use it.
Asynchronous and synchronous memory
Asynchronous DRAM (ADRAM) isnt synchronized to the system clock. Regardless of
the clocks speed, asynchronous DRAM takes the same amount of time to access and
return data from a memory cell.
In contrast, synchronous DRAM, or SDRAM, is tied to the system clock. Modern
SDRAM returns data from a memory cell in a single cycle of the system clock. (Older
SDRAMs required multiple clock cycles per access.)
SDRAM is faster than asynchronous DRAM and keeps pace with the rest of your
computer better. For this reason, most modern computers use SDRAM for system
memory. The SDRAM you install must be capable of operating at your systems bus
speed.
66
Memory access
To access the data in a particular memory cell, the CPU must have the address of that
cell. Although memory cells could be arranged in one long line, giving each cell an
individual sequential address, such a design would lead to slow and large chips. Instead,
chip designers arrange cells into rows and columns, much like the cells in a spreadsheet.
To read the data of any cell, the CPU needs both row and column addresses.
The exact way that CPUs address memory, along with many other factors, lead to a
confusing array of abbreviations describing memory types. The following table
compares the types of RAM found in older and current computers. The technologies are
listed in approximate increasing order of performance.
Abbreviation
RAM type
Description
DRAM
Dynamic RAM
Older technology, not used in modern computers. The CPU

sends the row address and then sends the column address to
access a cell. The CPU must repeat this process for every cell.
FPM
Fast Page Mode
The CPU sends a row address, followed by a column address.

If the CPU needs more cells from the same row, it can send
just the column address.
VRAM
Video RAM
A modified version of FPM. VRAM has two ports; one port

can be read to refresh the image on the screen, while the other
can be used to generate the next image to be displayed.
EDO
Extended Data Out
Works essentially like FPM, except that a new cell access

request can begin before a previous request has finished.
BEDO
Burst Extended
Data Out
Adds pipelining technology to EDO to improve performance.

This technology never caught on.
SDR SDRAM
Synchronous
DRAM
Is synchronized with the system clock to improve

performance. Internal interleaving enables overlapped
accesses, as with EDO and BEDO.
DRDRAM
Direct Rambus
DRAM
(Formerly called just RDRAM for Rambus DRAM.) Uses a

16-bit data bus running at up to 800 MHz, transferring data on
both the rise and fall of the clock signal.
DDR SDRAM
Double Data Rate
Doubles the transfer rate by transferring data on both the rise

and fall of the clock signal (compared to SDRAM, which
transfers on just the rise).
DDR2 SDRAM
Double Data
Rate 2
Doubles the transfer rate of DDR SDRAM by placing twice as

much data on the rising edge and twice as much on the falling
edge.
DDR3 SDRAM
Double Data
Rate 3
Doubles the transfer rate of DDR2 SDRAM.
Memory systems
67
Access time
It takes a certain amount of time to access the data in memory, regardless of type or
technology. Of course, some memory types are faster and some are slower.
All memory has an initial latency, the amount of time between when an address (of the
data being requested) arrives on the bus and when the memory is ready to return that
data. After initial latency, a certain time passes before the data is retrieved and put onto
the bus so that the CPU can use it.
Access time is the overall amount of time between when a request is made and when the
data is available on the bus. In modern RAM, this time is very short, sometimes as little
as a few nanoseconds. A nanosecond is a billionth of a second.
Memory speed
Although RAM speeds are often measured in nanoseconds (ns), youre more likely to
see modern RAM rated by megahertz (MHz). A hertz is a cycle per second, so a
megahertz is a million cycles per second. The net result is that the MHz rating of RAM
is simply 1 divided by its speed in nanoseconds; alternatively, you can divide 1 by the
MHz rating to determine the speed in nanoseconds.
Overall speed
While you might see a module rated at 10 ns and another rated at 20 ns, you shouldnt
conclude that the 10 ns module is twice as fast. DRAM ratings dont include the initial
latency required for address decoding. Furthermore, todays DRAM, in the form of
SDRAM, is tied to the system clock. The actual speed at which your memory operates
is controlled by your systems bus speed, which is determined by your motherboards
chipset and clock speed.
In reality, the speed rating of a memory module represents a maximum speed at which it
can operate. You simply need to choose memory thats fast enough to keep up with the
rest of your system. Doing so today is easier, because SDRAM modules are rated to
match the front-side bus speed used with the CPU and motherboard.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth, or maximum theoretical throughput (or just throughput), is the amount of
data that can be transferred to or from memory per second. Its perhaps even more
important than a raw speed rating. Overall bandwidth is determined by the speed of the
RAM itself, plus the chips memory technology design. For example, an SDRAM
module operating at 100 MHz has a lower bandwidth than a 100 MHz DDR module
does.
68

Speed ratings
How can you know whether a memory module will be able to keep up with your
system? Memory and motherboard manufacturers have created a speed notation
standard you can use to choose the correct memory. The following table lists the
common PC memory types, along with their technologies, single-channel-mode
bandwidths, and speed ratings.
Module
Chips
Bandwidth,
or maximum
throughput
(in MBps)
Front-side
bus speed
System clock
speed
PC100
SDRAM
800
100 MHz
100 MHz
PC133
SDRAM
1000
133 MHz
133 MHz
PC1600
DDR-200
1600
200 MHz
100 MHz
PC2100
DDR-266
2100
266 MHz
133 MHz
PC2700
DDR-333
2700
333 MHz
166 MHz
PC3200
DDR-400
3200
400 MHz
200 MHz
PC2-3200
DDR2-400
3200
400 MHz
100 MHz
PC2-4200
DDR2-533
4200
533 MHz
133 MHz
PC2-5300
DDR2-667
5300
667 MHz
166 MHz
PC2-6400
DDR2-800
6400
800 MHz
200 MHz
PC2-8500
DDR2-1066
8500
1066 MHz
266 MHz
PC3-6400
DDR3-800
6400
800 MHz
100 MHz
PC3-8500
DDR3-1066
8500
1066 MHz
133 MHz
PC3-10600
DDR3-1333
10600
1333 MHz
166 MHz
PC3-12800
DDR3-1600
12800
1600 MHz
200 MHz
Consult your PC owners manual to determine which type of memory the PC can
support, or match new modules to existing ones. Then purchase that type of memory.
Often, your system supports faster memory (a type with a higher rating) than its
minimum required type. For example, if your system requires PC2100 memory, you can
probably install PC2700 memory without a problem. However, if the system requires
PC2700, you cant install PC2100 memory. Make sure to consult your owners manual
before installing any type of memory.
Memory systems
Do it!
A-1:
69
Identifying memory characteristics

1 You want to install the fastest memory you can in your system. Should you install
DDR2 or DDR3 memory?
2 What does the number in a PC rating, such as PC2100, tell you about that
memory?
3 Which of these memory types are volatile memory? (Choose all that apply.)
A
RAM
Flash
EEPROM
CMOS
4 Which of these memory types is synchronous memory?

A
SDRAM
SRAM
EEPROM
CMOS
5 One gigabyte is how many bytes?
610
Topic B: Memory packaging

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

Memory slots
RIMM
DIMM
SODIMM
SIMM
1.6
Compare and contrast memory types, characteristics, and their purposes

Parity vs. Non-parity
ECC vs. non-ECC
Single sided vs. double sided
Packaging
Explanation
In the very early days of PC computing, you purchased individual DRAM chips and
installed them into sockets on your motherboard or video card, which is shown in
Exhibit 6-1.
Exhibit 6-1: Individual memory chips installed on an early video card

That era passed with the release of the IBM AT computer. Since that time, DRAM chips
have been factory-installed on small circuit boards, called packages. You install the
package, more commonly called a module, into a slot in your computer.
Memory systems
611
Modules are easier to handle and work with than are individual chips. A memory
module has metal pins, or contacts, along its bottom edge. When inserted into the
appropriate motherboard socket, these pins complete the electrical connections between
the computers circuitry and the memory module circuits.
Single- and double-sided modules
Early memory packages featured DRAM chips on just one side. Manufacturers quickly
learned how to double the amount of memory in a given area by installing DRAM on
both sides of the module.
Number of DRAM chips
Early module types had eight DRAM chips, one to store each bit in a byte of data.
Think back to the addressing schemes described earlier; while each DRAM chip can
store multiple rows of data, it stores just one columns worth of data. Thus, eight chips
were required to store the eight bits of a byte that spanned a single row of data.
Thanks to ever-shrinking fabrication technologies, the number of chips on a module no
longer has a 1:1 chip-to-bit limit. A module might have two, four, or some other number
of chips, yet hold massive quantities of data. For example, 4 x4 chips can be replaced by
just 2 x8 chips.
612
Package types
The following table lists the most common memory package (module) types. The
memory package type you use must match the memory slots on your motherboard. Two
common examples of PC memory modules are shown in Exhibit 6-2 and Exhibit 6-3.
Note that 30-pin SIMMs are 8-bit devices; 72-pin SIMMs are 32-bit devices; and
DIMMs are 64-bit devices. You must install enough devices to satisfy the width of the
system data bus. For example, for a 64-bit Pentium class CPU, you install eight 30-pin
SIMMs, two 72-pin SIMMs, or one DIMM.
Package
Pins
Used in
Description
SIMM
30
386-class desktops,
early Macintosh
computers
Single inline memory module. A notch on one end

ensures that you insert this module in the correct
orientation.
SIMM
72
486 and early

Pentium desktops
One notch in the middle and another notch at one end

ensure that you insert this module in the correct
orientation.
DIMM
100
Printers
Dual inline memory module. Has 50 pins on the front

and 50 pins on the back. Two notches, one centered and
the other off-center, ensure correct installation.
DIMM
168
SDR SDRAM in
desktops
Has 84 pins on the front and 84 pins on the back. Two

notches, one centered and the other off-center, ensure
correct installation.
DIMM
184
DDR SDRAM in
desktops
Has 92 pins in front and 92 pins in back. Single notch.
DIMM
240
DDR2 SDRAM in
desktops
Supports 64-bit memory and processors. Has 120 front

pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.
DIMM
240
DDR3 SDRAM in
desktops
Has 120 front pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.
RIMM
184
Intel Pentium III

Xeon and
Pentium 4 systems
16-bit RIMM. Used with RDRAM chips and

trademarked by Rambus. Has 92 connectors on each
side with 1 mm pad spacing.
RIMM is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym for
"Rambus inline memory module.
Note: 32-bit RIMMs have 232 pins.
MICRODIMM
144
Subnotebook
computers
Micro dual inline memory module. Pins and notches

may vary.
SODIMM
144
Laptop and
notebook
computers
Small outline dual inline memory module. Has 72 front

pins and 72 back pins. A single off-center notch
ensures correct installation.
Note: 32-bit SODIMMs have 72 or 144 pins.
SODIMMs with 144 or more pins are 64-bit devices.
Memory systems
613
Package
Pins
Used in
Description
SODIMM
200
DDR memory for

laptops and
notebooks
Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single offcenter notch ensures correct installation.
SODIMM
200
DDR2 memory for

laptops and
notebooks
Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single offcenter notch ensures correct installation. DDR2
SODIMMs are virtually indistinguishable in
appearance from DDR SODIMMs.
SODIMM
204
DDR3 memory for

laptops and
notebooks
Has 102 front pins and 102 back pins.
Remember, as you saw earlier when examining memory speed ratings:

PC100 and PC133 use SDRAM.
PC1600, PC2100, PC2700, and PC3200 use DDR SDRAM.
PC2-3200, PC2-4200, PC2-5300, PC2-6400, and PC28500 use DDR2 SDRAM.
PC3-6400, PC3-8500, PC3-10600, and PC3-12800 use DDR3 SDRAM.
Exhibit 6-2: A DDR or DDR2 SODIMM package from a laptop (note the notch
location)
Exhibit 6-3: A 168-pin DIMM package from a desktop computer
614
Memory error recovery

Memory errors occur, perhaps more frequently than any of us wants to know. However,
there are technologies that enable computer components to detect and even recover from
a memory error. These technologies are parity and error correcting code (ECC).
Parity
Parity is a method used to detect loss of integrity in bits of data stored in memory.
Consider a memory module that stores eight bits (a byte) of data in eight chips. If the
data in one or more chips goes bad, the entire byte becomes corrupt. To help detect
when an error occurs, a ninth , or parity bit, is added in a ninth chip.
In even parity, the parity bit is set to zero, if the sum of all the other bits is an even
number, while in odd parity the parity bit is set to one, if the sum of the bits is odd. To
detect whether the bit in one chip has gone bad, the computer recalculates parity after
reading the data and comparing the result to the value in the parity bit. When the parity
bit is not used and is always set to one, its called mark parity, and when the parity bit
isnt used but is set to zero, its called space parity.
Unfortunately, with this simple scheme, your computer cant tell which of the eight bits
in the byte was corrupted. It just knows that one of the bits has been changed.
Exhibit 6-4 shows two early SIMMs. One module, from a Macintosh, had just eight
DRAM chips and didnt support parity. The other module, from a PC, had nine chips
and supported parity.
Exhibit 6-4: Two early SIMMs, one with parity support and one without
ECC
Error correcting code (ECC) permits your computer not only to detect that an error has
occurred, but also to correct that error. As with parity, when the computer reads the data
from the module, it recalculates the ECC value and compares it to the value on the
module. If the values match, no errors have occurred. If they dont, then by using other
calculations on the ECC value, the computer can determine what was changed and what
its original value was.
Use of parity and ECC in current computers
Early PCs used parity memory, while early Macintosh computers didnt. PC aficionados
of the day claimed that as a reason for the PCs superiority, but you could say that the
Macintosh was simply ahead of the curve. Modern computers of both platforms rarely
use parity or ECC memory.
Memory systems
615
In a move to save money, hardware designers have eliminated parity and ECC support
from most modern desktop and laptop computers. Designers hope that memory errors
wont occur that frequently. To a lesser extent, memory errors can be detected with
software rather than hardware.
Its cheaper to make a non-parity or non-ECC memory module than one with those
features. The difference is probably close to 11%, because designers can use one fewer
out of nine chips by not storing that parity bit or ECC code.
Server-class computers often do include ECC or parity. Take care when purchasing
memory modules for your computer. You must use modules that either support, or dont
support, parity or ECC, as dictated by your systems design.
Do it!
B-1:
Comparing RAM packaging
Heres how
1 Identify the memory modules
supplied by your instructor. For
each, note its type, the number of
pins, and whether its for a
notebook or desktop computer
2 You want to add more RAM to a
computer you own. Whats the
first step you should take?
3 With the instructor, your lab
partner, or another student in
class, debate the pros and cons of
using ECC memory in your
computer
Heres why
616
Topic C: Memory installation

objectives.
#
Objective
1.1

Memory
1.3
Given a scenario, install, configure, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace

laptop components
Hard drive and memory
Memory modules
Explanation
Today you install memory modules by inserting them into slots on the computers
motherboard. To do so, you must consider these factors:
Banking requirements
Proper handling techniques
Slot insertion techniques
Safe storage
BIOS configuration
Banking requirements
You physically install memory modules into slots on the motherboard, and those slots
are arranged into groups called banks. For example, depending on your computers
design (including the system data bus, the bit-width of the package, and how many
channels in each bank), a bank might include one, two, or four slots, which are usually
color-coded on the motherboard. When you install new memory, you must fill every slot
in a bank. For example, if your computer uses two-slot banks, then you must install
memory modules in pairs. Many modern computers and laptops use single-slot banks.
With this type of bank, you have to install only one module.
Depending on your computers configuration, you must use the same type and speed of
memory in every slot in a bank. In a few situations, you must use the same type and
speed of memory in every memory slot in your computer, even in different banks. In
most computers, you simply leave empty any extra slots. However, in computers that
use DRDRAM (Rambus memory), you must fill extra slots with a continuity module,
which is a small circuit board designed to complete the electrical circuit but not add
RAM to your system.
Dual-channel architecture is a technology that doubles data throughput from the
memory to the memory controller by using two 64-bit data channels, giving you a 128bit data path. Dual-channel architecture requires both a dual-channel-capable
motherboard and two or more DDR, DDR2, or DDR3 memory modules. You install
the memory modules into banks. Each memory module accesses the memory controller
through a separate path, thus increasing bandwidth. Using identical memory modules is
recommended for best compatibility in dual-channel operations. Markings on the
motherboardeither text labels or outlinesidentify the banks and their slot(s), if
present.
Memory systems
617
Proper handling
Memory modules are extremely sensitive to static and you can easily damage them.
Carefully follow static-safe work procedures, including these precautions:
As always, unplug the computer before opening it.
With the computer unplugged, use the proper method to dissipate static
electricity and use an appropriate anti-static workstation.
Once youve discharged any static potential, try to move as little as possible.
The movement of your clothing or shoes on the floor could generate new
charges.
Always handle modules by their edges, without touching the pins, components,
or traces (the wires embedded in the surface of the circuit board).
Inserting and removing the modules
Memory modules include notches or are shaped in such a way that you can insert them
into the slots in only the correct orientation. Dont force a module to fit if you cant
insert it easily.
With most SIMM modules, follow these steps to insert a module into a slot:
1 Gently insert the module into the slot at about a 45-degree angle.
2 Firmly, but gently, push the module into its slot while moving the module to the
fully vertical (or horizontal) position. As you do this, the metal or plastic
retaining clips engage to hold the module.
With most DIMM modules, follow these steps to insert a module into a slot:
1 Ensure the locking clips are open to the sides, and gently insert the module
straight into the slot, perpendicular to the motherboard.
2 Push firmly until the retaining clips snap into place on either side.
To remove a SIMM module:
1 Gently release the retaining clips at both ends of the module.
2 With the clips released, you should be able to move the module easily to a 45degree angle.
3 Remove the module.
To remove a DIMM module:
1 Release the retaining clips on both ends of the module.
2 Remove the module by pulling it straight up from the slot.
You should store memory modules in their original packaging.
CMOS configuration
The BIOS checks the memory in a computer when you boot it. The BIOS compares the
amount of memory in the computer with the amount listed in the CMOS setup data. If
theres a discrepancy, the computer displays an error message.
With most modern computers, you simply press a key to automatically change the value
for the CMOS memory amount without using the BIOS setup program. In some
computers, especially older computers, you must run the BIOS setup utility. Depending
on the utility, you might be able to select the amount of installed memory, you might be
prompted to enter the correct amount, or you might be prompted to save the settings
with the new memory automatically included.
618
Do it!
C-1:
Adding memory to a desktop computer
Heres how
1 Consult your PCs owners manual to determine the PCs memory banking
requirements
2 Determine the type of memory module required by your PC
3 Obtain suitable modules from your instructor
4 Install the modules into your PC, following safe ESD practices
5 Boot the computer, and if necessary, reconfigure the CMOS to support the new
memory
6 Continue the boot process to confirm that youve successfully installed the new
memory
7 Log on as your COMPADMIN## user with a password of !pass1234
8 If directed by your instructor, remove the additional memory from your PC,
following safe ESD practices
Memory systems
619
Notebook memory
The location where you install memory in a notebook or laptop computer varies greatly.
In some notebooks, you unscrew a compartment cover on the underside of the case. In
others, you have to remove the keyboard from the case to access the memory area.
Refer to the documentation for your notebook to determine exactly how to install
memory into it. Memory shouldnt be installed until you shut down the computer,
unplug the power cord, and remove the battery. You dont want to get shocked by
voltage from the battery or wall socket. You also dont want to turn on the computer
accidentally while youre installing or replacing memory.
Shared video memory
In some notebook computers, some of the main system memory is shared with the video
circuitry. Such systems have no dedicated video memory. Reduced cost is the primary
benefit of this design, though there are also some savings in power consumption and
heat generation.
The downside of shared video memory is that some of your computers RAM is
dedicated to video operations and is thus inaccessible to the operating system and
applications. For example, in a notebook computer with 512 MB of memory and
running at 1024768, 16-bit color display resolution, about 12 MB of RAM is used for
normal video options. Thats not all that bad. However, 3D, texture mapping, and
shading operations can use many times that amount of memory. Even without
considering the needs of gaming applications, your system might use as much as 128
MB of memory for video operations, leaving just 384 MB for operating system and
application use.
Another big downside of shared video memory is that system memory is much slower
than dedicated video memory. Notebooks with shared video memory perform more
slowly than those with dedicated video memory.
If your notebook uses shared video memory, adding more system memory can offer
more of a performance boost than youd get from adding memory to a system with
dedicated video memory. Not only does the extra memory provide more space for your
applications, but it also reduces the impact that video operations have on available
memory. Its critical for these systems that you use the highest performing memory
modules that are supported by your notebook.
620
Do it!
C-2:
Adding memory to a notebook computer
Heres how
1 Shut down the computer
Heres why
Youll remove and replace the memory in a
notebook computer.
Unplug the computer
From the electrical outlet.
Remove the battery
From the battery compartment.
2 Remove the cover over the

memory
Refer to the documentation for your notebook

for instructions on accessing the memory.
3 Remove the memory module from

the computer
Follow the directions in the notebooks

documentation.
4 Install the memory module
Again, refer to the documentation for your

notebook.
5 Replace the memory module

cover
6 Start the computer
To verify that it successfully boots.
Log on as your
COMPADMIN## user
7 Click Start, right-click

Computer, and choose
Properties

9 How can you determine if your
system uses shared video
memory?
To verify that the correct amount of memory is

found.
Memory systems
621
Handheld computer memory

Some handheld computers cant be expanded. In those, theres no way to install
additional memory. However, many of the newer handhelds, particularly the more
expensive models, offer ways to add more memory.
Some expandable handhelds use memory modules similar to those in a notebook
computer. However, most expandable handhelds use memory cards like those used in
digital cameras. These handheld computers have a slot into which you can insert the
flash memory card, often without removing the PDAs case. Follow the instructions in
your PDA manual.
Do it!
C-3:
Adding memory to a handheld computer
Heres how
Heres why
1 Determine if your PDA has a

memory expansion slot
Youll add memory to your PDA if it supports

this capability.
2 Locate a memory card thats

compatible with your PDA
Most PDAs expand memory through the use of

flash memory cards.
3 Install the memory card
If necessary, check the PDAs documentation

for information on how to perform this step.
622
Topic D: Memory monitoring

exam objectives.
#
Objective
3.2

Task Manager
3.3
Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS
Virtual memory
objective.
#
Objective
2.3
Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results
Task Manager
Resource usage
Task Manager
Explanation
One of the primary tools for monitoring memory usage on your PC is Task Manager.
Its a Windows GUI utility that provides information on applications, processes, and
services that are running on your computer. A version of Task Manager is available in
all Windows operating systems discussed in this courseWindows 2000 Professional,
all Windows XP versions, and all Windows Vista and Windows 7 versions. The
Windows 7 version is shown in Exhibit 6-5.
There are various ways to open Task Manager:
In all Windows operating systems, press Ctrl+Alt+Delete. Depending on the
operating system, either Task Manager or the Windows Security dialog box will
open. If necessary, click Task Manager in the Security dialog box.
In Windows 2000 Professional, all Windows XP versions, and all Windows
Vista versions, right-click an empty space on the taskbar and choose Task
Manager.
In Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, and Windows Vista, press
Ctrl+Shift+Esc.
Memory systems
Exhibit 6-5: Windows Task Manager in Windows 7 Professional
623
624

The Performance tab
You can use the Performance tab in Task Manager to monitor your computers
performance, using the most common indicators. The Performance tab is shown in
Exhibit 6-6. The indicators are described in the following table.
Indicator
Description
CPU Usage
Shows the percentage of time the processor is working. If certain

processes appear to be running slowly, this graph might display a
higher percentage.
CPU Usage History
Shows how busy the CPU has been over time. The value selected for
Update Speed (on the View menu) determines how often this graph is
updated. You can set updates to occur twice per second (High), once
every two seconds (Normal), once every four seconds (Low), or not at
all (Paused). You can press F5 to update a paused graph.
On multiprocessor or multi-core systems, theres one graph per
processor or core. On Pentiums with a quad-core processor, Task
Manager shows four graphs.
Memory
(Windows 7/Vista)
Shows, in megabytes, how much physical memory is being used at

the current moment.
Physical Memory
Usage History
(Windows 7/Vista)
Shows how much physical memory has been used over the past few
minutes.
PF Usage
(Windows XP/2000)
Shows the amount of the page files capacity being used by the
computer. If this graph shows that your page file is near the
maximum, you should increase the page files size.
Page File Usage

History
(Windows XP/2000)
Shows the percentage of the page files size used over time. The value
selected for Update Speed (on the View menu) determines how often
this graph is updated.
System
(Windows 7/Vista)
or
Totals
(Windows XP/2000)
Shows the dynamic totals for the number of handles, threads,

and processes running. A handle is a unique object identifier used by
a process. A thread is an object or process running within a larger
process or program.
Physical Memory
"Total shows the total amount of physical memory in MB installed

on your computer.
In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, this section also shows up time

(the amount of time that has passed since the computer was started)
and the size of the page file on the hard disk.
"Free in Windows 7 and Windows Vista (or "Available in Windows

XP and Windows 2000) is the amount of memory thats currently
unused or doesn't contain useful information.
Available in Windows 7 is the amount of memory that's
immediately available for use by processes, drivers, or the operating
system.
"Cached in Windows 7 and Windows Vista (or "System Cache in
earlier versions of Windows) shows the amount of current physical
memory being used to map pages of open files.
Memory systems
625
Indicator
Description
Commit Charge
(Windows XP/2000)
Shows the amount of memory allocated to programs and the operating

system. This number includes virtual memory, so the value listed
under Peak might exceed the actual physical memory installed. The
Total value is the same as in the Page File Usage History graph.
Kernel Memory
Shows the amount of memory being used by the operating system

kernel and device drivers. "Paged is memory that can be copied to
the page file to free up physical memory for the operating system to
use. "Nonpaged is memory that wont be paged out.
Summary data
(Along the bottom of the tab.) Shows the current number of processes,
the current CPU usage percentage, and the current amount of physical
or commit-charge memory being used, compared to the maximum
available. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, this value is shown as a
percentage.
Exhibit 6-6: The Performance tab of Task Manager, on a Windows Vista Business
computer with a quad-core processor
626
Do it!
D-1:
Monitoring memory usage
Heres how
Heres why
1 If necessary, boot your computer

COMPADMIN##
2 Open Task Manager
Press Ctrl+Shift+Escape.
3 Select the Performance tab

Observe the CPU Usage History
graph
4 Open Documents
To generate some computing activity on your

computer.
Observe the CPU Usage History

graph
You see a spike in CPU usage as the processor

carries out your request to open Documents.
5 Observe the CPU Usage box
This displays the percentage of time the

processor is working.
6 If the CPU Usage box displays a

high number, what does it mean?
7 Observe the Page File value in the
System box
This shows the amount of the page files

capacity being used by the computer.
8 If Page File displays a number

very close to the page files
maximum size, what should you
do?
Memory systems
627
9 Observe the Physical Memory box
This box shows the amount of RAM installed,

the amount of free memory available, and the
amount of current physical memory being used
to map pages of open files.
10 If the Free memory was very low

and the Cached was very high,
compared to the amount listed
under Total, what would be your
concern?
11 Close Task Manager
Close Documents
628
Virtual memory
Windows operating systems use a memory-management scheme called virtual memory.
Virtual memory is actually hard disk space that allows Windows to load applications
and data as if there were more RAM available than is physically installed in the
computer.
With virtual memory, Windows swaps data and instructions back and forth between
actual RAM and a file on the hard disk called a page file or swap file. If an application
calls for data it thinks is in RAM, but Windows has temporarily placed it in a page file,
a page fault is generated and the Windows Virtual Memory Manager pulls that data
back into RAM for the application to access.
This process, which normally happens invisibly, is illustrated in Exhibit 6-7. If through
a hardware or application error Windows cant find the page file, an invalid page fault
error occurs, causing a blue-screen error. Its important to note that applications cant
actually read data from virtual memory. The data needs to be put back into physically
memory when its needed, thus making reading data stored in virtual memory slower
than reading memory stored in physical memory.
Exhibit 6-7: Virtual memory
Optimizing the page file

By default, Windows places the page file on the boot partition, where the operating
system is installed. The page files size is initially determined by the amount of physical
RAM installed on the computer. To offer the best performance, Windows automatically
increases or decreases the size of the page file based on system memory requirements
and available hard disk space. However, you can manually override these settings and
establish minimum and maximum values in megabytes.
Memory systems
629
To determine the size of the page file, Microsoft recommends a range determined by
multiplying the amount of physical RAM by 1.5 and 3.0. However, this is just a general
guideline. As the amount of RAM in a computer increases, the need for a large page file
decreases. To calculate your page-file size, use your systems peak commit value. By
setting your page file size to your systems peak commit value, you will cover the
unlikely scenario in which all of the committed pages are written to disk-based page
files.
You can also place a page file on a different hard disk from the boot partition to
optimize performance. When the page file is stored on the boot partition, Windows has
to perform disk input/output (I/O) processes on both the system directory and the page
file. Moving the page file to a different disk allows Windows to handle multiple I/O
requests more quickly.
To change the Windows page-file size:
1 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, click Start, right-click Computer, and choose
Properties.
In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, right-click My Computer and choose
Properties.
2 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, click Advanced system settings.
3
4
5
6
In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, select the Advanced tab.

In the Performance section, click Settings, and then select the Advanced tab.
In the Virtual memory section, click Change.
Clear Automatically manage paging file size for all drives.
Select Custom Size, and set the initial and maximum size based on the range
discussed above.
630
Do it!
D-2:
Changing the size of the Windows page file
Heres how
Properties
Heres why
(If youre running Windows 2000 Professional
or running Windows XP in Classic Start Menu
mode, right-click My Computer on the desktop
and choose Properties.) To open the System
window.
Advanced system settings
In Windows XP or Windows 2000, select the

Advanced tab.
3 In the Performance section, click
To open the Performance Options dialog box.
2 In the navigation pane, click
Settings
4 Select the Advanced tab
If necessary.
5 In the Virtual memory section,

click Change
To open the Virtual Memory dialog box.
6 Clear Automatically manage

paging file size for all
drives
7 Select Custom size

8 In the Initial size (MB) box, enter
a value 1000 higher than the
current value
The current value is listed under Total paging

file size for all drives, Currently allocated. To
increase the starting size of the page file.
9 In the Maximum size (MB) box,

enter a value 2000 higher than the
current value
To increase the maximum size of the page file.
10 Click Cancel as needed

11 Close the System window
Youll cancel this operation. If you were to click

the Set button, you would enable these new
values.
To close all of the dialog boxes.
Memory systems
631
Topic E: Memory troubleshooting

objective.
#
Objective
1.2

components
Memory
Diagnosing memory problems

Explanation
The memory-testing actions performed by the BIOS are relatively simple and not very
accurate. Many memory problems arent detected by the BIOS. To test memory fully,
you should use a dedicated memory-testing utility.
Memory-testing utilities
Memory-testing utilities typically perform hundreds, if not thousands, of read and write
operations in every memory location. In addition, the utilities write more than one type
of value to every byte of memory to test various types of possible failures. Complete
testing cycles with these utilities can take many hours, or even days, depending on the
speed of the computer and the amount of RAM installed.
The following are some popular memory-testing utilities.
Utility
License
URL
Memtest86
Free, open source
www.memtest86.com
Microsoft Windows
Memory Diagnostic
Free, unsupported, commercial
oca.microsoft.com/en/windiag.asp
Memtest86
Memtest86 is perhaps the most popular free memory-testing utility available. Its
released under the Gnu Public License (GPL). It can test any Intel x86 computer,
regardless of operating system.
632
Exhibit 6-8: The Memtest86 screen, showing the default test in progress
As with nearly all such utilities, you must create a bootable floppy disk or CD that
contains this utility and support files. Then you boot from that disk rather than running
the utility from within Windows.
Memory systems
633
Troubleshooting
causes, and suggested "first try solutions for memory-related problems. You might
encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it provides a few scenarios to
consider when youre troubleshooting memory-related problems.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
201 BIOS error code at

boot time
Bad memory location.
Test memory with a RAM-testing utility to

determine which portion of memory has failed.
Using the output from that program, determine
which module has failed, and replace it.
Parity error message
Bad memory (in a system

with parity memory).

determine which portion of memory has failed.
Using the output from that program, determine
which module has failed, and replace it.
Computer randomly
freezes (locks up) or
crashes
Bad or failing memory chip;

bad power supply;
inconstant wall voltage;
CPU overheating.

determine if memory is the cause of these
symptoms. Replace modules, if appropriate.
Using memory thats too

slow for the system; mixing
memory of different speeds.
Confirm that the proper type of memory is

installed, according to manufacturers
specifications.
Wrong amount of
memory reported by
the BIOS
Failed memory module; less

memory installed than you
thought; modules not
installed properly according
to PCs banking
requirements.
Test memory. Confirm proper BIOS

configuration settings. Make sure youve
installed as much memory as you think you
have. Make sure youve installed memory
modules according to your PCs banking
requirements, such as installing equally sized
DIMMs in pairs.
Windows reports Page

Fault or Exception
errors
Poorly written applications;

bad memory.
Check the application vendors Web site for

updates or patches. Test memory with a RAMtesting utility.
Random crashes,
corrupted data, strange
application behavior
Virus infection (more

likely); bad memory.
Scan your PC for viruses. If none are found, test

memory with a RAM-testing utility.
634
Do it!
E-1:
Troubleshooting memory
Heres how
1 One or more memory-related problems have been introduced into your lab
computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their cause(s).
Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another one. Troubleshoot and
fix all problems that arise.
Memory systems
635
Unit summary: Memory systems

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that RAM is the hardware component that stores active data
and applications. You learned about the various units, such as MB and GB, which are
used to describe the quantity of RAM installed in your PC. You learned about the
various characteristics of memory, such as whether its volatile or non-volatile and
synchronous or asynchronous, as well as the technology by which its accessed.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that chips are bundled into packages called modules. You
learned about the various memory module types, including SIMMs, DIMMs, and
SODIMMs. You learned that errors in memory can be detected and even corrected
through parity or ECC.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned how to install RAM and handle modules. You also learned
about banking requirements, slot insertion techniques, safe storage methods, and BIOS
configuration requirements.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned how to monitor memory usage by using the Performance tab
in Task Manager. You also learned about the Windows page file and how to adjust its
size.
Topic E
In this topic, you learned that RAM can fail for various reasons. You learned how to
troubleshoot common symptoms of failures, and how to determine probable causes and
implement suggested solutions.
Review questions
1 The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called what?
A Bits
B Cells
C RAM
D Word
2 Which memory units size depends on the processor?
A Bit
B Byte
C Nibble
D Word
3 Which term refers to the type of memory that loses its contents when power isnt
present?
A Asynchronous
B Dynamic
C Non-volatile
D Static
E Synchronous
F Volatile
636

4 Which of the following memory types are non-volatile? [Choose all that apply.]
A CMOS
B EPROM
C EEPROM
D Flash
E PROM
F RAM
G ROM
5 What type of RAM loses its contents quickly, even when power is present?
A DRAM
B Flash
C SRAM
6 Which type of memory is tied to the system clock?
A Asynchronous
B Dynamic
C Non-volatile
D Static
E Synchronous
F Volatile
7 Which of the following is defined as "the amount of data that can be transferred to
or from memory per second?
A Access time
B Bandwidth
C Memory speed
D Overall speed
8 Individual memory chips installed on the motherboard were replaced with memory
______________.
packages or modules
9 Which of the following memory packages are used in laptop or notebook

computers? [Choose all that apply.]
A 144-pin MICRODIMM
B 184-pin RIMM
C 200-pin SODIMM
D 240-pin DIMM
Memory systems
637
10 True or false? Parity permits your computer not only to detect that an error has
occurred in memory, but also to correct that error.
False. ECC permits your computer to detect and correct errors. Parity enables just error
detection.
11 You need to add more memory to your system. You know it has a 133 MHz system
bus. How can you determine what type of memory to install?
Consulting your owners manual is the best way to determine the supported memory types.
12 List at least two options for testing PC memory.

Answers might include: Memtest86, Microsoft Windows Memory Diagnostic, DocMemory
Diagnostic, and the POST are common and free memory testing options.
13 Which tab in Task Manager can you use to monitor the performance of memory in
your computer system?
A Applications
B Networking
C Performance
D Processes
E Services
14 In Task Manager, the CPU Usage History is divided into multiple graphs when you
have more than one _________________.
processor or core
15 When youre speaking of RAM, what is a bank?

A group of one or more memory slots. You must fill an entire bank when installing RAM.
16 Always handle memory modules by:

Their edges, taking care not to touch the pins, components, or traces.
17 As measured in Task Manager, whats kernel memory?

This is the memory used by the operating systems kernel (core) and device drivers.
18 True or false? The POST is sufficient to detect most memory problems.

False. The POST is too fast and simple to catch most memory errors. You will need a dedicated
memory-testing utility to find most memory problems.
19 In a Rambus system, what must you do to meet banking requirements?

You must fill all empty slots with continuity modules.
20 Whats the first step in installing memory in a computer?

Shut down the computer. If its already shut down, then the first step is to unplug it from the
electrical outlet.
21 Where should you store unused memory modules?

In the original packaging or in static-safe bags.
22 A computer randomly freezes up. Could this be an indication of bad memory?

Yes, random lockups can indicate bad memory. Operating system or other commands could be
written to the bad memory and become corrupted. Executing those commands would cause the
lockup.
638

In this activity, youll practice identifying and installing correct memory upgrade
modules for a PC.
1 Open the Control Panel, and then open System and Security, and System.
2 How much RAM is installed on your computer?
Answers will vary.
3 Using your computer manufacturers support Web site or computers user manual,
determine the type of memory modules that your computer supports.
Answers will vary, but will include:
RAM type, such as DDR2 SDRAM
Package type, such as DIMM
Error correcting (ECC or non-ECC)
Memory speed, specified in MHz
Speed rating, specified as PC-#, PC2-#, or PC3-#
4 Using your Web browser, determine the cost to replace 2 GB of RAM for your
computer.
Answers will vary. For example, Dell sells a 2 GB memory module for its XPS 420 desktop for
$35.
5 Close all open windows.

6 Install an additional memory module into your computer and confirm the
installation.
7 Remove a memory module from your computer and confirm that you have done so
correctly.
71
Unit 7
Bus structures

A Describe the primary types of buses, and
define interrupt, IRQ, I/O address, DMA,

and base memory address.
B Describe PCI and PCIe buses, and PCI and
non-PCI video standards.
72
Topic A: Buses
exam objective.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
Modem
Bus architecture
Bus slots
AMR
CNR
Computer buses
Explanation
In computer lingo, a bus is a communication pathway. A PC has multiple buses to

enable communication among the various components of the PC. A bus is defined by
various characteristics, including how many bits it can transmit at one time, which
signaling techniques are used across it, and how fast data can be transferred.
Bus types
A typical PC has the following types of buses:
Address The bus that transmits memory addresses between the CPU and
RAM. The memory controller also plays a crucial role between RAM and CPU.
Data The bus that transfers data between the CPU and RAM. Its known as
the system bus or system data bus.
Expansion The bus to which add-on adapter cards are connected in order to
enhance the functionality of the PC.
In this unit, youll focus primarily on expansion buses.
Address and data buses
Address buses and data buses enable the basic operations of the CPU and its
interactions with memory. You generally dont have to be concerned with these buses,
though their characteristics affect the overall performance of your system.
Expansion bus
An expansion bus is the communications pathway over which non-core components of
your computer interact with the CPU, memory, and other core components. For
example, data sent to and from your computers hard drive travels over an expansion
bus.
By installing new adapter cards into slots that connect to an expansion bus, you can add
new hardware to your PC. For example, your desktop computer might not have come
with a wireless network card for connecting to the network through your wireless router.
You can purchase a wireless network adapter card and plug it into an expansion bus to
add this capability to your computer.
Bus structures
73
Many expansion bus standards have been used over the years, but the PCI (Peripheral
Component Interconnect) bus, shown in Exhibit 7-1, is the predominant one, although
PCIe (PCI Express) is taking over. Others, such as the ISA, EISA, Micro Channel, and
PC bus, are rarely found today, unless youre working on an older computer.
Exhibit 7-1: The slots for the PCI expansion bus

The riser bus
A riser is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard to provide additional expansion
slots or sockets. PC manufacturers use riser buses to bring the basic wiring and control
of a function, such as a LAN connection or audio support, to a motherboard. Using riser
buses decreases the cost of including the function.
There are two main riser types:
Audio/Modem Riser (AMR). Intel developed this riser slot standard to support
modems and audio cards. An AMR slot provides both audio and modem
support. This slot moved analog input/output functions off the motherboard and
onto an external card.
An AMR-compatible motherboard includes no other analog I/O functions. Such
motherboards dont have to be subjected to time-consuming Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) certification tests. Thus, AMR-compatible
motherboards are faster and cheaper to produce.
Communications and Networking Riser (CNR). Intel developed the CNR riser
slot standard as an expansion of the AMR slot idea. The CNR expansion slot
supports specialized modems, audio cards, and network cards. CNR also
provides for extensions that would enable manufacturers to create CNR-based
cards to support new technologies, such as cable modems and DSL modems.
AMR slots are typically located in the middle of the motherboard, but CNR slots are
normally near the edge. Both slots are normally brown. A motherboard has either an
AMR slot or a CNR slot, not both.
All of these riser slots are designed with the goal of simplifying the expansion card, thus
further lowering its price. The tradeoff is that the CPU must perform many of the
functions that a dedicated controller chip would handle on a normal expansion card.
Because the CPU must handle all processing for these cards, they are considerably
cheaper than their PCI- or ISA-based counterparts. Riser card devices might only cost a
few dollars, while PCI- or ISA-based devices typically cost tens of dollars.
74

Most times, a computers manufacturer populates a riser slot with a modem or other
add-on card. Riser slotbased aftermarket add-ons are less popular. Unless one fails,
you might never need to install a riser slotbased modem or expansion device.
Do it!
A-1:
Examining buses
Heres how
1 Shut down your PC and unplug it
from the outlet
2 Following proper ESD and
electrical safety precautions, open
your PC
3 Identify the expansion bus in your
PC
4 Are there connectors for the
address or data buses? Why or
why not?
5 Identify one or more devices that
connect to your computer through
the expansion bus
6 Does your PC have a riser bus?
7 Close your PC, plug it in, and start
it
COMPADMIN## with a
Heres why
Bus structures
75
System interaction
Explanation
Hardware and adapter cards must work together to access memory and CPU resources.
They must do so in an orderly manner so that they dont conflict with each other.
To avoid conflicts, hardware must perform the following functions:
Gain the attention of the CPU.
Access shared memory locations.
Extend the system BIOS.
Transfer data across the bus.
Interrupts
The CPU does the processing (or most of it) in a computer system. Devices must gain
the attention of the CPU in order to get it to do their work. The CPU is often busy doing
other work, so devices get its attention by sending an interrupt.
An interrupt is a signal that a device sends to the CPU to get its attention. For example,
whenever you press a key on your keyboard, the keyboard controller sends an interrupt
to the CPU. The processor stops whatever it was doing, reads which key was pressed,
and passes that keys code to the active application. From there, the CPU might return to
what it was doing before, depending on the priority of the tasks that need its attention.
Without interrupts, a CPU would have to poll each device, round-robin fashion, to see if
attention was needed.
IRQs
Computers rely on interrupts to provide an orderly way of gaining the attention of the
CPU. Not every interruption carries the same priority. Furthermore, the CPU must have
a way to determine which device interrupted it. These needs are met through IRQs, or
interrupt request lines.
Every device that uses interrupts is assigned an IRQ. IRQs are numerical identifiers
that, in most cases, are uniquely assigned to devices. The original IBM PC and XT-class
computers supported IRQ numbers 07. Beginning in 1982, the AT-class and similar
computers supported IRQs 015. Rather than redesigning the interrupt controller to
directly support the expanded IRQs, which would have made it incompatible with
existing operating systems, designers pulled a little trick. The new IRQs, 815, were
cascaded to IRQ 2. When a device sends an interrupt over IRQ 10, for example, that
IRQ is routed through IRQ 2. In this way, an OS that supports only the original IRQ set
still receives the interrupt. Additionally, because modern computers have many more
devices than older computers do, this architecture has seen further extensions in the way
the hardware and operating system address interrupts.
From 2000 forward, x86 systems have used an Advanced Programmable Interrupt
Controller (APIC) architecture to support more than 15 IRQs. An APIC architecture is a
programming interface for up to 255 physical hardware IRQ lines per APIC (the
distributed set of devices that make up an interrupt controller). In Intels model, there
can be as many as eight I/O APICs collecting interrupt signals from hardware devices.
Each I/O APIC has an arbitrary number of IRQs. Most Intel-based personal computers
have support for 24 IRQs per I/O APIC, although some have as many as 64.
76

When multiple devices send their interrupts to the CPU at the same time, the system
interrupt controller processes the device request with the lowest IRQ value first. The
following table lists the default IRQ assignments for standard hardware devices in order
of priority. As you can see, no devices use IRQ 2, so it can be used to cascade the higher
IRQs.
IRQ
Common use
System timer
Keyboard
Cascade of IRQs 815
Real-time clock
Various
10
Various
11
Various
12
PS/2 mouse
13
Floating point unit or math coprocessor
14
Primary IDE (hard drive) channel
15
Secondary IDE (hard drive) channel
COM2
COM1
Sound cards or LPT2
Floppy disk controller
LPT1
Modern operating systems calculate and assign IRQs for you. With Windows, the
technique is called Plug and Play (PnP). Of course, the adapters you use must support
PnP. With such support, every time you start Windows, the BIOS determines which
IRQs are available, which devices need IRQs assigned, and what IRQs each device can
support. Then, the BIOS dynamically assigns IRQs to all devices youve installed, and
relays this information to Windows.
Bus structures
77
Device Manager
As shown in Exhibit 7-2, you can use the Windows Device Manager to determine which
IRQs have been assigned to the various devices in your computer. If you need to do so,
you can even manually assign IRQs, overriding the default assignments made by the
BIOS, which takes into account any IRQs that youve manually assigned when it
determines which IRQs remain available.
Exhibit 7-2: Device Managers IRQ assignments

To open Device Manager:
1 Click Start.
2 Right-click Computer or My Computer, and choose Manage.
3 Under System Tools, select Device Manager.
4 Choose View, Resources by type.
5 In the details pane, expand Interrupt request (IRQ).
78
Do it!
A-2:
Examining IRQ assignments
Heres how
Heres why

Computer
Choose Manage
2 In the navigation pane, select
Device Manager
3 In the Actions pane, click More

Actions and choose View,
To display the list of system resources.
Resources by type
4 In the details pane, collapse all

sections
The available sections are Direct Memory

Access (DMA), Input/output (IO), Interrupt
Request (IRQ), and Memory.
5 Expand Interrupt request

(IRQ)
To display the list of IRQ assignments

determined by PnP when you started your
computer.
6 Collapse Interrupt request

(IRQ)
Bus structures
79
I/O addresses
Explanation
Input/output addresses (I/O addresses) are a number range assigned to each device that
allows the CPU to communicate with it. A number range instead of a single number
allows the CPU to communicate multiple commands. Devices listen on the address bus
for their corresponding numbers and respond to the CPU when called.
As with interrupts, devices must work together to avoid using the addresses of the other
devices. To ensure this security, either you or the BIOS must configure a range of I/O
addresses assigned to each device in your computer. Common devices have preassigned addresses.
As shown in Exhibit 7-3, such I/O addresses are designated with 16-bit hexadecimal
numbers. In general, devices are assigned between 4 and 32 bytes of input-output
memory, though some get more or less than that.
Exhibit 7-3: A sample list of I/O addresses in Device Manager

Do it!
A-3:
Viewing your computers I/O address assignments
Heres how
Heres why
1 In Device Manager, expand
To display the I/O address assignments on your

computer.
2 Examine the assignments
Some items are assigned more than one I/O

address.
Input/output (I/O)
3 Collapse Input/output (I/O)
710
Direct memory access (DMA)

Explanation
In the input/output scheme described so far, the CPU must be involved in every data
transfer with every device. While the CPU is certainly powerful, this involvement with
every data transfer can negatively affect performance. To improve performance,
designers created the direct memory access (DMA) controller, which is essentially
another processor chip to handle data transfers between devices and main memory.
DMA frees the CPU to perform other tasks.
The DMA controller communicates with each device over a dedicated channel. Each
device must have its own channel with the DMA controller. As with the other resources,
you or PnP must configure the DMA channel assigned to every device.
DMA has largely been replaced by newer techniques, such as bus mastering. For this
reason, DMA is generally used by core devices, such as the floppy disk controller,
whose designs havent changed significantly over time.
Do it!
A-4:
Viewing your computers DMA channel assignments
Heres how
1 Expand Direct memory
access (DMA)
2 What types of devices are using

DMA channels on your PC?
3 Collapse Direct memory

access (DMA)
Heres why
To display the DMA channel assignments on
your PC.
Bus structures
711
Memory addresses
Explanation
Some devices extend the system BIOS with new routines, or new versions of existing
routines. Display adapters are the most common type of device to do this, but IDE and
SCSI adapters also use BIOS extensions. These devices include their BIOS extensions
in a chip on their adapter card.
The system BIOS must locate and load these BIOS extensions. This means that the
adapter BIOS must be mapped to memory locations where the system BIOS can find it.
You, or PnP, must configure the memory address range of the devices BIOS. By
configuring this value, you provide a way for the operating system to access the system
routines contained on these devices.
As with the other resources, each device that requires a memory address assignment
needs its own unique assignment. PnP ensures that conflicting address ranges arent
assigned to devices in your computer. Historically these addresses have been in the
upper memory block (UMB) the space between 640KB (0x000A0000) and 1MB.
Exhibit 7-4 shows a list of memory address assignments in Device Manager.
Exhibit 7-4: Device Managers list of typical memory address assignments
712
Do it!
A-5:
Viewing your computers memory address

assignments
Heres how
1 Expand Memory
2 What device seems to be using the
most memory within the base
memory address space?
Heres why
To display the base memory address
assignments on your PC
Bus structures
713
Topic B: The PCI bus

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
Sound
Video
Bus slots
PCI
AGP
PCIe
1.9
Summarize the function and types of adapter cards

Video
PCI
PCIe
AGP
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

Explanation
The PCI standard was developed by Intel Corporation and introduced in 1992. The
current crop of PCI adapters and expansion slots generally implement the PCI 2.0
specification, released in 1993.
The PCI specification supports bus speeds of either 33 MHz or 66 MHz. It also supports
both a 32-bit and 64-bit bus design, though the 32-bit version is much more popular.
With a 32-bit implementation at 33 MHz, the PCI bus supports a peak transfer rate of
133 MBps. In a 64-bit implementation at 66 MHz, the PCI bus supports a peak transfer
rate of 533 MBps.
PCI slots are shorter (in length) and taller than ISA slots. A graphic of PCI slots are
A PCI card is shown in Exhibit 7-5.
Exhibit 7-5: A PCI card
714
PCIe
Theres a newer specification, PCI Express (PCIe), that uses serial communication
instead of the parallel communication PCI uses. A connection between a PCIe device
and the system is known as a link. Each link uses a dedicated, bidirectional, serial,
point-to-point connection called a lane. In PCIe version 1.0, each lane can transfer 2.5
Gbps (0.25 GBps) of data simultaneously in each direction using 8b/10b encoding. A
link can use more than one lane at a time, but all links must support at least a single-lane
connection. This is referred to as an x1 (pronounced by-one) link. PCIe supports x1,
x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, and x32 bus widths.
PCIe cards cant connect to the system through PCI buses, but they are compatible with
software that uses the PCI standard. PCIe cards physically fit into slots designed for
their lane configuration or higher (up-plugging), but not into slots designed for lower
lane configurations (down-plugging).
Multifunction cards and maximum devices
The PCI specification supports multifunction cards, in which a single adapter provides
the functions of more than one expansion device. The specification permits up to eight
functions on a single card. Additionally, it permits up to five slots and cards per system.
So, in theory, through multifunction cards, you could add the equivalent of up to 40
expansion devices to your PC.
Do it!
B-1:
Identifying a PCI bus
Heres how
1 Following all electrical and ESD
safety precautions, shut down
your PC and open the case
2 Locate a PCI slot
How many PCI expansion slots
does your computer contain?
How many of the PCI expansion
slots are in use? How many are
available?
3 Does your computer contain
expansion slots other than PCI?
Identify them
4 Leave the cover removed for the
next activity
Heres why
Bus structures
715
PCI video adapters

Explanation
The video adapter is the component that generates the signals sent to your monitor. This
component can be built into your motherboard or can be an adapter card added to your
system later. Depending on the technology used, a video adapter can communicate over
an expansion bus.
Manipulating video data, such as drawing the dialog boxes and image content of a
typical Windows-based application, uses more system resources than most other
computer operations. Video display circuitry requires faster access and higher
bandwidth access to the CPU and memory than do any other subsystems in your PC.
Some video adapters are built into the motherboard. This arrangement is common on
low-end systems in which the manufacturers main goal is to make the machine as
inexpensive to the customer as possible. On other machines, the video adapter might be
installed in any of three types of slots: PCI, PCIe, or AGP. AGP and PCIe are wellsuited to transmitting video data at high speeds. Video adapters in most modern
computers are connected through one of these buses.
PCI-based video
PCI slotbased adapters are the slowest of the three types. These have to share the PCI
bus with all of the other PCI-based devices in the system. However, they work well for
implementing a two-monitor system if you are using two separate video cards. If there is
not an AGP or PCIe slot on your motherboard, this is your only option for upgrading the
video on your system.
PCIe-based video
PCIe cards are designed to replace AGP video cards in new systems. Motherboards that
support PCIe video cards became available in 2004. A x16 PCIe video card has a 4
GBps bandwidth in each direction. Theoretically, you can achieve 8 GBps capacity with
data moving upstream and downstream at the same time, because this is a dual-lane
technology. The high transfer speeds make this technology an ideal solution for
multimedia applications, such as gaming, photography, and videography. PCIe cards
have 22 control pins; a x16 slot has 186 pins. A x16 PCIe video card is shown in Exhibit
7-6. Youll find a comparison among PCI standards at tinyurl.com/ylpk4lw.
Exhibit 7-6: A PCIe video card
716
AGP video adapters

Intel developed the AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) bus standard in 1997 to improve
video performance. AGPs release coincided with the release of the Pentium II chipsets
from Intel. Since this initial release, newer AGP standards have been released. These
include:
AGP 1.0
AGP 2.0
AGP 3.0
64-bit AGP
Ultra-AGP
AGP Pro
Ultra-AGPII
AGP, which is PnP configurable, is technically not a bus standard; its a port standard,
so its more correct to call it a port rather than a bus. Buses support multiple devices,
but AGP provides a direct connection between the video adapter and the CPU. An AGP
slot is shown in Exhibit 7-8.
Video memory
Before AGP, video cards required, and could use, only memory that was on the adapter
card. Data needed to be transferred from main system memory over the video bus to the
adapter, which would render the data for display on the monitor.
Originally, one of AGPs biggest performance improvements was its ability to access
and use main system memory. During certain rendering operations namely, mapping
a texture to a shapethe AGP adapter could access texture data in main system memory
without first transferring the data to the adapter. Intel called this feature Direct Memory
Execute (DIME), and for some operations, it offered as much as a tenfold performance
improvement, compared to video adapters that couldnt access main memory in this
way.
As the price of memory has dropped, desktop PC AGP cards have gained more
on-board memory. In fact, many modern AGP cards dont use main system memory at
all, relying entirely on on-board memory.
The situation is often reversed with laptop computers. To save money, reduce power
consumption, and reduce heat generation, many laptop AGP cards dont contain
memory. Instead, main system memory is used for video operations. Compared to true
video RAM, shared system memory is much slower. So, while AGP DIME is faster
than memory access techniques used by older video cards, AGP cards having true video
RAM are many times faster yet.
Some AGP cards are available with two connectors to enable you to connect two
monitors to the system. AGP is being phased out for PCIe.
Bus structures
717
Exhibit 7-7: An AGP adapter (note the hook beside the edge connectors)
Characteristics
You will see AGP speeds referred to as #x. Using various techniques, the effective bus
speed of an AGP port is increased, or pumped, to a multiple of the standard speed.
The x in AGP specifications refers to how many times data is transferred during each
clock cycle. For example, an AGP 3.0 8x slot transfers data 8 times per clock cycle,
making it 8 times faster than the bus speed. The maximum speed would be 2.13 GBps,
assuming an effective clock rate of 533 MHz for the PCI bus.
You might encounter some older systems with slower bus speeds. AGP 1.0 was released
with both 1x and 2x speeds. AGP Pro was released for cards that required more power.
The AGP 2.0 4x bandwidth is up to 1.06 GBps on a virtual 266 MHz bus system. The
AGP 2.0 2x slot would have a bandwidth of up to 533 MBps on a virtual 133 MHz bus
system. This and other information about AGP is summarized in the following table. All
bus widths are 32-bit.
AGP
version
Speed
Pumping
Frequency
Max. data
transfer
Voltage
1.0
1x
Single
66 MHz
266 MBps
3.3 or 1.5 V
1.0
2x
Double
66 MHz
533 MBps
3.3 or 1.5 V
2.0
4x
Quad
66 MHz
1066 MBps
3.3 or 1.5 V
3.0
8x
Octuple
66 MHz
2133 MBps (1 GBps)
1.5 or 0.8 V
718

AGP slots
AGP slots are typically brown, though sometimes maroon or another dark color.
Modern video adapters require active cooling (fans) and thus more space than other
adapters. For this reason, an AGP slot is typically well separated from other bus slots. A
graphic of an AGP slot is shown in Exhibit 7-8. Most systems include a single AGP slot.
However, some high-end systems include multiple, independent AGP slots.
AGP slot
Exhibit 7-8: An AGP slot

Do it!
B-2:
Identifying graphics connections
Heres how
1 Identify the standard used by your
current graphics card
2 Identify the options available in
your PC for adding a graphics
card
Heres why
Bus structures
719
Unit summary: Bus structures

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that a bus is a communication pathway. Your PC has three
categories of buses: address, data, and expansion. You then learned that interrupts
are signals sent by a device through a controller chip to the CPU when the device needs
attention. Devices also use I/O addresses, which receive communication from the CPU,
and DMA channels, which help to speed transfers. Some devices also extend the BIOS,
requiring you to configure base memory addresses, each of which defines the
beginning of a memory range that contains the BIOS extension.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that the PCI bus, a 32-bit or 64-bit standard, is currently the
most prolific expansion bus. It supports PnP and shared system resources and is
considerably faster than previous bus technologies. You also learned that the PCIe bus
is quickly replacing the PCI bus as the standard. You then learned that video adapters
can use either the AGP or PCIe. Both offer improved throughput to improve video
display performance.
Review questions
1 Which PC bus is responsible for transmitting memory addresses?
A Address
B Data
C Expansion
2 Which bus is used to enhance PC functionality?
A Address
B Data
C Expansion
3 By convention, PCI slots are typically which color?
A Brown
B Gray
C Tan
D White
4 Typically, the PCI bus is a(n) ____-bit bus.
32
5 The AGP bus is a(n)____-bit bus.

32
6 COM1 and COM2 are assigned to which IRQs?

A 1 and 2
B 2 and 3
C 3 and 4
D 9 and 10
720

7 In Device Manager, I/O addresses are represented as what?
A Bits
B Binary numbers
C Hexadecimal numbers
D Exponents
8 What technology has replaced DMA?
A Bus mastering
B Memory transfers
C Polling
D Riser cards
9 With the PCI specification, a single adapter can provide up to how many functions?
A One
B Two
C Four
D Eight
10 PCIe uses ___________ (serial/parallel) communication.
serial
11 The bus speed of a 2x, 4x, or 8x AGP card is _____ MHz.

66

In this activity, youll practice identifying different types of adapter cards and their
associated bus types, different types of motherboards, and the bus types that are
implemented on the motherboard. If you are working on this activity outside the
classroom, you can do a Web search to find and identify different types of adapter cards
and motherboards.
1 Your instructor will provide you with a selection of adapter cards or images of
adapter cards. Determine which bus each card implements.
2 Your instructor will provide you with one or more motherboards or images of
motherboards. Identify the bus types implemented on the motherboards.
81
Unit 8
Expansion cards

A Describe video adapters and standards, and
install a video adapter.

B Define sound cards, identify the
components of a sound card, and install a

sound card.
C Describe modem standards and identify the
components of a modem.
D Identify the symptoms, probable causes,
and potential solutions for problems related

to expansion cards.
82
Topic A: Video cards

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
Video
1.7
Distinguish between the different display devices and their characteristics

Connector types
VGA
HDMI
DVI pin compatibility
objectives.
#
Objective
1.1

Adapter cards
Graphics cards
Sound cards
Storage controllers
RAID cards (RAID array levels 0, 1, 5)
eSATA cards
I/O cards
FireWire
USB
Parallel
Serial
Wired and wireless network cards
Capture cards (TV, video)
Media reader
Expansion cards
83
Video adapters
Explanation
Video adapters convert computer data to the signals required to produce the images that
you see on your screen. In the early generations of PCs, video adapters created just text
output, and often monochrome output at that. Nowadays, video adapters create the
signals necessary to display full-color and full-motion images and video.
Due to the enormous amount of information that must be manipulated by the adapter to
produce these signals, modern video adapters are almost computers in their own right.
They often feature a specialized processor chip and lots of on-board memory. Perhaps
even more than the CPU type or amount of memory in your system, the video adapter is
the component most responsible for the overall performance of your PC.
Creating an image
Although monitors arent the subject of this unit, a brief look at how they work will help
you understand why video adapters work the way they do. A traditional TV-style
monitor creates an image when a stream of electrons hits a phosphorescent coating on
the inside of the screen. In the earliest monitors, this coating would glow green in the
presence of the electron beam and remain black when it wasnt being hit with electrons,
hence the green and black of early monitors. Later developments in phosphor coatings
permitted the display of red, green, and blue glows that, when combined, produced a full
range of colors.
This electron beam is very narrow, hitting a spot on the screen barely a quarter of a
millimeter across at any particular time. To create a full-screen image, the beam is
moved rapidly back and forth across the screen, from the top to the bottom of the
screen, many times a second. To create a flicker-free image, the beam must paint out the
full screen image at least 60 times every second.
The rate at which the image is painted is called the refresh rate. With some early video
display standards, the full image couldnt be refreshed entirely in a single pass. These
systems used interlacing, in which the odd lines of the image were painted during one
pass of the beam and the even lines were painted during a second pass. Such interlaced
displays often suffered badly from flickering. This occurred because the effective
refresh rate was half the specified rate (30 Hz instead of 60 Hz, or 42 Hz instead of 84
Hz).
Resolution
An image to be displayed, whether its text or a picture, is divided by the display
adapter into a series of dots called pixels (adapted from picture elements). Officially,
a pixel is the smallest addressable unit of a picture. A monitors resolution is the
number of pixels across and down that an adapter can create.
CRT monitors use groupings of three subpixels, one each of red, green, and blue. These
three subpixels are arranged in a triangular pattern or as stripes, either of which is small
enough to appear as a single dot. A separate electron gun illuminates each color of
subpixel. LCD monitors use three colored stripes, though they use a backlight rather
than electron guns to illuminate the subpixels.
84

Color depth
To create the full range of colors you see, the display adapter must create, and your
monitor must be capable of showing, many shades of each color. Such shades are
determined by the intensity that each red, green, or blue subpixel is made to glow. The
number of shades that each component can be set to is determined by the color depth, or
the number of bits per pixel devoted to each shade. Another term for color depth is pixel
depth.
Consider a display adapter that devotes 8 bits to each of the red, green, and blue
components of an image for a total of 24 bits of color depth. Each pixel can be set to
one combination of 256 shades of red (8 bits gives 256 possible values), 256 shades of
green, and 256 shades of blue. The total number of colors equals 256 256 256, or
16,777,216.
Color depth
(bits per pixel)
Maximum number
of colors
Bytes of storage
per pixel
Descriptive name
1/8
Monochrome
16
1/2
VGA
256
SuperVGA
16
65,536
High color
24
16,777,216
True color
Video display standards

In the earliest years of the PC, IBM was the only significant source of personal
computers for business use. Thus, the video adapters and associated standards that IBM
created were adopted as the official standards to be implemented by third-party
manufacturers.
Expansion cards
85
The following table lists the popular video standards developed by IBM.
Standard
Text mode
resolution
Graphics
mode
resolution
Text mode
matrix
(W H)
Maximum
number of
colors
Maximum
refresh
rate
Monochrome
Display Adapter
(MDA)
8025
n/a
914
2 (black and
green/amber/
white)
50 Hz
Hercules
Graphics Card
(HGC)
8025
720348
914
2 (black and
green/amber/
white)
50 Hz
Color Graphics
Adapter (CGA)
8025
640200
(mono) or
160 200
(color)
88
16 in text or
low-resolution
graphics modes,
4 colors in
high-res
graphics
60 Hz
Enhanced
Graphics
Adapter (EGA)
8025
640350
88
16 out of a
palette of 64
60 Hz
Video Graphics
Adapter (VGA)
Emulation of
EGA and
other early
modes, or via
graphics
emulation of
text mode
640480
Emulation of
EGA and
other early
modes
16 at 640480,
or 256 at
320240
resolution, out
of a 262,144color palette
60 Hz
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio defines the relationship between the width and height of a display (or of
a display resolution). A 4:3 monitor, for example, is four units wide for every three units
tall. A resolution of 800x600 is an example of such a ratio4x200 wide by 3x200 high.
Most traditional or historical computer display resolutions use 4:3 aspect ratios.
Modern, widescreen computer displays, such as a 1440x900 widescreen monitor, have
an 8:5 (or 16:10) aspect ratio.
SuperVGA
VGA was the last widely accepted standard created by IBM. Shortly after it was
introduced, VGA was superseded by the capabilities of third-party graphics adapters.
Although the offerings from many of these vendors came to be called SuperVGA,
there was no official standard beyond VGA.
86

eXtended Graphics Array
IBM introduced the eXtended Graphics Array standard in 1990. Abbreviated XGA, this
broad class of display standards defines the most popular resolutions. The following
table lists some of the more common XGA standards, plus two HD television standards
for comparison.
Name
Width x Height (aspect ratio)
XGA eXtended Graphics Array
1024 x 768 (4:3)
WXGA Widescreen XGA
1280 x 768 (5:3)

1280 x 800 (8:5)
SXGA Super XGA
1280 x 960 (4:3)

1280 x 1024 (5:4)
WSXGA Widescreen Super XGA
1440 x 900 (8:5)
UXGA Ultra XGA
1600 x 1200 (4:3)
WUXGA Widescreen Ultra XGA
1920 x 1200 (8:5)
HD TV (basic high definition)
1366 x 768 (16:9)
HD-1080 (full high definition)
1920 x 1080 (16:9)
Connectors
MDA, HGC, CGA, and EGA video adapters produced a digital signal. This signal was
sent to the monitor via a 9-pin DIN connector. Beginning with VGA and continuing to
modern video displays, video-out signals are typically analog. The typical VGA
connector (used also by most of the modern XGA standards) is a 15-pin connector
officially called a DE-15 connector, as shown in Exhibit 8-1.
Exhibit 8-1: A VGA (DE-15) connector
Expansion cards
87
The typical VGA socket is shown in Exhibit 8-2.
Exhibit 8-2: A VGA socket

Flat-panel monitors are connected via either analog or digital lines. Many of these
monitors ship with a 15-pin VGA connection cable, even if theyre equipped to handle
digital video interface (DVI) connections, as shown in Exhibit 8-3. Some monitors come
with cables for both connection types.
If you want to use this interface, you might need to purchase a video card with a DVI
connection. You also need to determine what type of DVI connection the card accepts.
Exhibit 8-3: DVI connection types

DVI-A
DVI-A provides an analog signal. It isnt used very often because the VGA connector,
which also provides an analog signal, is less expensive.
88

DVI-D
DVI-D is a digital-only connection. A dual-link DVI-D connection contains 24 pins in
three rows of eight, plus a grounding slot, as shown in Exhibit 8-4. A single-link DVI-D
connection contains 18 pins.
Exhibit 8-4: A dual-link DVI-D port

DVI-I
DVI-I supports both digital and analog signalsthe I stands for integrated. The DVI-I
connector contains four more pins than the DVI-D connector. These four pins, which
carry analog signals, are located above and below the grounding slot. Exhibit 8-5 shows
a DVI-I connector.
Exhibit 8-5: A DVI-I port

Single vs. dual-link
The DVI family of standards supports single- and dual-link configurations. For
example, a DVI-D single link (with 18 conductors/pins) and a DVI-D dual-link (with 24
pins). The extra six conductors are used to transmit additional pixel data to enable both
higher resolutions and higher refresh rates.
For example, a single link DVI interface can handle a maximum of 60 Hz and 2.75
megapixels. Thats the equivalent of 1,915 1,436 pixels in a 4:3 aspect ratio
arrangement. For higher resolutions, or higher refresh rates, additional bandwidth is
required. The additional link provides 6 extra conductors to transmit the additional
information. A dual-link DVI interface can handle 4 megapixels at 60 Hz.
HDMI
Like DVI-D, HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) delivers video signals in a
digital format without analog conversion, using the TMDS (Transition Minimized
Differential Signaling) protocol. DVI-D and HDMI are similar to one another in terms of
image quality, but HDMI can deliver up to eight channels of digital audio in addition to
video. HDMI also supports higher resolutions than DVI-D does, including some
resolutions not yet available commercially. HDMI uses a different type of connector than
does DVI-D.
As of this writing, there are four types of HDMI connectors: types A, B, C, and D.
Types A, C, and D have 19 pins, though wiring arrangements vary between these types.
The type C connector is smaller than type A, and type D is even smaller. The smaller
connectors are intended for portable devices. Type B connectors have 29 pins and
support the dual-link configuration. Dual-link configuration doubles the maximum
transfer rate and permits much higher resolutions.
Expansion cards
89
HDMI is fully compatible with DVI-D and DVI-I. DVI-D, DVI-I, and HDMI use the
same encoding scheme, so a DVI-D or DVI-I source can be connected to an HDMI
monitor (or vice versa) with a DVI/HDMI converter cable. One end of the cable is
HDMI, and the other DVI-D or DVI-D. HDMI isnt compatible with DVI-A.
Exhibit 8-6: An HDMI Type A port

HDMI includes support for Consumer Electronics Control (CEC). This standard defines
a one-wire serial bus to provide remote control functions for connected devices. With
CEC, users can control multiple HDMI-connected devices with a single remote control.
And, CEC-enabled devices can issue commands to and control other CEC devices
without user intervention. According to the HDMI specification, products and cables
must be wired to support CEC but are not required to support the remote control
functions.
Do it!
A-1:
Identifying video adapter types
Heres how
and open its case
2 Examine the adapter cards in your
computer
Which cards can you use to attach
a monitor?
3 What type of bus is each card
connected to?
For each video card in your
computer, does it support analog,
digital, or both?
4 Examine each of the video adapter
cards provided by your instructor
Identify the type of each card
For each card, does it support
analog, digital, or both?
Heres why
Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.
810
Installing expansion cards

To install an expansion card, you must consider how to handle the cards safely as well
as how to configure the device if PnP doesnt do it for you.
Safe handling
Expansion cards are sensitive to ESD (electrostatic discharge). You should always
follow ESD precautions when working with these cards or any device that must be
installed inside a PCs chassis. When handling expansion cards, follow these guidelines:
Unplug the computer before opening it.
Work at a static-safe workstation, which includes a grounded work surface that
is not prone to a buildup of static charges. Such workstations sometimes provide
built-in antistatic wrist straps or grounded points to which you can connect wrist
straps.
Ground yourself to the chassis before touching internal components.
Keep expansion cards inside static-protective bags or packaging until youre
ready to install them.
Handle cards by their edges or slot cover plates. Dont touch board components,
traces, or edge-connector pins.
Expansion cards
811
Drivers
Drivers are utilities that enable a devices functionality. Every expansion device or
adapter card in your PC requires a driver. Some drivers are supplied with the operating
system. Other devices require drivers supplied by the device manufacturer.
Device vendors often supply their drivers to Microsoft. If Microsofts Windows
Hardware Quality Labs (WHQL) determines that the driver doesnt destabilize
Windows, they digitally sign the driver. At that point, Microsoft either includes the
driver in the operating system files or make the driver available on the Windows Update
Web site. Sometimes, however, you need to use the drivers supplied with your
expansion device, either on a CD that comes with it or on the vendors Web site.
Inserting cards
In general, youll follow these steps to install an expansion card in a PC. Expansion
cards include graphics, sound cards, storage controllers (IDE, SCSI, SATA, eSATA,
RAID), I/O cards (FireWire, USB, parallel, serial), network cards (wired and wireless),
video cards, capture cards, and media readers. Although exact steps might vary for
specific hardware, you will generally follow these steps to install an expansion card:
1 If youre not using a PnP-compatible expansion card or operating system,
determine the available system resources (IRQs, I/O addresses, and so forth).
Configure the DIP switches or jumpers on the card, as necessary, to assign
available system resources to it.
If youre using a PnP-compatible card and operating system, the vendor might
direct you to run an installation utility before installing the device. This
installation program puts the necessary drivers in a location where Windows can
find them when youre done installing the device. If appropriate, run that setup
program.
2 Shut down the PC, unplug it, and open the case. You might want to remove any
peripheral cables before opening the case. You might need to do so simply to
move the PC to a convenient work location. Removing the cables also prevents
static discharges from traveling from the PC to the peripheral. Also, doing so
prevents an electrical fault in the peripheral from conducting to the PC while
youre working on it.
3 Locate an empty and available expansion slot of the correct type.
4 Remove the cover for that slot. These covers are generally either screwed in
place or held by spring-clips.
5 If necessary, move or remove wires or other expansion cards that are in the way,
so that you can access the slot.
6 If you need to connect wire assemblies to the expansion boardnot to its back
slot cover plate, but to the board itselfconnect that end of the wire assembly
before installing the card. That way, you can easily reach the connector and be
sure youre installing the wire assembly in its correct orientation. Connect the
other end after youve installed the card.
7 Begin inserting the end of the edge connector thats farthest from the slot cover.
When the edge connector is level with the slot, gently push the card into place in
the slot. This helps you line up the connector correctly. Inserting the card at an
angle is usually easier than pushing it straight into the slot.
8 Fix the card in place with screws or clips, as appropriate to the cases design.
9 Connect any wiring assemblies, including those you temporarily removed to
install this card.
812

10 Close the case, connect peripherals (if necessary), and start the system.
11 Depending on the operating system, OS version, and adapter card technology,
configure the card. If youre using PnP-compatible components, PnP handles
this for you.
12 If necessary, install required drivers. If you have to install drivers yourself, you
most likely need to configure them to use the same hardware resources you
configured the card to use.
When youre done, some devices and operating system versions will require you to
restart the computer. This step fully loads the drivers and configures the operating
system to support the new device.
Video adapter slots

Some video adapters are built into the motherboard. Such integrated video cards provide
all of the regular video adapter features without taking up an expansion slot. This design
is common on low-end systems in which the manufacturers main goal is to make the
machine as inexpensive to the customer as possible. The BIOS often includes functions
to disable the integrated video adapter. You might do this if you suspect a problem with
it or if you want to use a specialized add-in adapter. For example, gamers often use
very-high-performance aftermarket video adapters to speed up their games.
Other machines most commonly have three types of slots in which the video adapter
might be installed. These are PCI, AGP, and PCIe slots.
Expansion cards
Do it!
A-2:
813
Installing a video adapter card
Heres how
Heres why
1 If specified by the adapters

manufacturer, run the adapters
setup utility
To copy the driver installation files to your hard

disk, where Windows can find them.

and open its case
3 If a video adapter is already in an

expansion slot, remove that
adapter
4 Install the video adapter
5 Close the PC case
6 If your PC has an integrated video
adapter, boot the PC and load the
systems BIOS setup program
Youll need to disable the on-board video

adapter.
Disable the on-board video

adapter and save your changes
7 If your PC doesnt have an
integrated video adapter, or after
youve disabled the on-board
adapter, start your PC
8 Log on to Windows
Log on as your COMPADMIN## user with a

password of !pass1234.
9 If necessary, configure the driver
Youll probably have to choose a resolution and

color depth at which you want the driver to
operate.
10 Remove the video adapter and

reinstall or re-enable the original
adapter
Unless your instructor directs you to do

otherwise.
814
Topic B: Sound cards

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
Sound
1.9

Multimedia
Sound card
objectives.
#
Objective
1.1

Adapter cards
Sound cards
Sound and your PC

Explanation
Before the introduction of the sound card, PCs could produce simple beeps and clicks
through an on-board speaker. Such a speaker is still included in nearly every PC, but on
its own it has never been capable of producing music, computerized voices, and other
tones.
The ProAudio AdLib sound card, and later the Creative Labs SoundBlaster card,
revolutionized PC sound. These cards provided the ability to output music in addition to
the various beeps and other tones. With such cards, you could also input sound by
connecting an audio device, such as a tape player, to the input jack. The card would
digitize the sound for use or storage on your computer.
The SoundBlaster Pro is still considered the base standard with which all other sound
cards typically comply. Most sound cards provide features beyond those available in the
SoundBlaster Pro.
Sound card functions
To produce a signal for your speakers, a sound card must convert digital data into
analog sound waves. To enable you to input, or capture, audio, the sound card must also
convert analog sound signals into digital signals. Older sound cards enabled you to
connect a game device, such as a joystick or game paddle, and many of those also
enabled you to connect MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) instruments.
Nowadays, such functions are most often enabled through USB, FireWire, or even
wireless links.
Expansion cards
815
Components
Exhibit 8-7 shows a sound card. To perform its functions, a typical sound card includes
these components:
Digital signal processor (DSP) Functions like a CPU for sound processing
functions.
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) Converts analog signals (such as sound
waves) to digital signals.
Digital-to-analog converter (DAC) Converts digital signals to analog,
producing the signals needed by speakers or other analog audio devices.
Various jacks Used to connect speakers, microphones, line-input or lineoutput devices, game adapters (joysticks), and sometimes MIDI devices.
Exhibit 8-7: A sound card

Sound card connectors
Sound cards typically feature connectors for speakers, microphones, line-input or lineoutput devices. The function of each connector is typically labeled with a small icon.
Exhibit 8-8 shows some of these connectors and their functions.
Center speaker
Microphone
Rear speakers
Line in
Main (front) speakers

or headphones
Exhibit 8-8: Standard sound card connectors
816

Speakers
Sound cards are designed to work with external speakers (or special built-in speakers in
a laptop computer). Typically, external speakers require an external source of power.
You must connect a cable from the speakers to the speaker-out jack on the sound card
and plug the speakers power adapter into an outlet.
Exhibit 8-9: External speakers

CD audio
You might encounter an older internal CD drive that includes an audio-out cable that
youre supposed to connect to your sound card. This cable allows you to play audio CDs
in your drive and have the sound played through your PC speakers. Modern optical
drives, including CD, DVD, and BlueRay, dont use this sort of cable, yet all are
capable of playing audio content.
Do it!
B-1:
Identifying the components of a sound card
Heres how
1 Examine the sound card provided
by your instructor
What connectors do each of them
include that your computers
sound card doesnt?
2 Identify the connectors included
on your sound card
Heres why
You will install this sound card in your
computer in the next activity.
Expansion cards
817
Installing a sound card

The sound card you use must be compatible with the expansion bus in your computer.
For example, youll need a PCI sound card if your computer has only PCI slots available.
Many motherboards include integrated sound card functionality.
CD audio connection
Older internal CD drives include an audio-out cable that you can connect to your sound
card. When you do so, you can play audio CDs in your CD drive and have the sound
played through your PCs speakers. When you install the sound card or the CD drive, if
you dont connect this cable, you wont be able to play audio CDs (no sound will come
from the speakers).
Drivers
As with any add-on hardware, sound cards require device drivers. Typically, you install
the drivers before installing the hardware. This process puts the driver files where
Windows (specifically, Plug and Play) can find them after you install the card.
818
Do it!
B-2:
Installing a sound card
Heres how
Heres why
1 If specified by the adapters

manufacturer, run the adapters
setup utility
To copy the driver installation files to your hard

disk, where Windows can find them.

and open its case
What type of bus will your sound

card connect to?
3 If a sound card is already in an
expansion slot, remove the card
4 Install the sound card
5 Close the PCs case
6 If your PC has an integrated sound
card, boot the PC and load the
systems BIOS setup program
Youll need to disable the on-board sound card.
Disable the on-board sound card

and save your changes
7 If your PC doesnt have an integrated
sound card, or after youve disabled
the on-board adapter, start the PC
8 Log on to Windows
9 If necessary, configure the driver
10 Connect the external speakers and
plug their power adapter into an outlet
11 In the notification area, click
Drag the volume slider up or

down and release it
12 Remove the sound card and
reinstall or re-enable the original
card
To display the volume control.
The computer should play a ding sound

through your speakers.
Unless your instructor directs you to do
otherwise.
Expansion cards
819
Topic C: Internal modems

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
Modem
Bus slots
AMR
CNR
1.9

Communications
Modem
4.2
Categorize network cables and connectors and their implementations

Connectors
RJ11
Modems
Explanation
Modems are devices that enable you to connect your computer to another computer
through a phone line. The modem in the sending computer must convert the digital
signals within the computer to analog signals that are compatible with the phone system.
The receiving modem must convert analog signals to digital signals.
Modulation and demodulation
Modems convert a digital signal into an analog one through a process called
modulation. The digital signal is layered over a standard analog wave to produce a
composite analog wave. To convert the composite signal back to digital, the receiving
modem demodulates it. Demodulation is the process by which the modem electronically
subtracts the carrier analog wave, revealing the digital signal it carries.
A modem gets its name from this process. It modulates and demodulates; hence its
called a modem.
Forms
A modem can be an external component that you connect to your PC through a serial
port. (In fact, that was the original purpose of serial ports on PCs.) Internal modems are
also common. These modems can be built into the motherboard, implemented on an
adapter card that you insert into your PCs expansion bus, or implemented on a card that
you insert into a riser slot.
820

Riser cards
The early internal modems were implemented as adapter cards that plugged into a
PC/XT or ISA slot. For a period of time, Intel and others attempted to popularize special
expansion buses designed specifically for internal modems. These riser slots included:
The Audio Modem Riser (AMR) slot
The Communications and Networking Riser (CNR) slot
The Advanced Communications Riser (ACR) slot
Holding an AMR card vertically while looking at the faceplate (slot) cover, youll see
that its components are located on the right side of the circuit board. CNR cards have
their components on the left when held the same way.
Riser slots and cards never caught hold in the marketplace. Modern add-on modems are
most typically PCI adapter cards. Or, if not an add-on, the functionality is integrated
into the motherboard.
Expansion cards
Do it!
C-1:
821
Identifying your internal modems interface
Heres how
and open its case
Heres why
2 Locate the modem card in your

computer
3 What type of bus is it connected
to?
Is your modem implemented
through riser card technology? If
so, what type?
Identify your modem
manufacturer and model
Record the identifying information for your

modem here:
4 Close the cover, reconnect

peripherals, and start the system
5 Log on to Windows 7 as
COMPADMIN## with a
6 Click Start
Right-click Computer and
choose Manage
To open Computer Management.
In the navigation pane, select

Device Manager
7 Expand Modems
8 Right-click your modem and
choose Properties
To open the modems Properties dialog box.
Observe the Location
This tells you what bus the modem is installed

on.
9 Leave the dialog box open for the

next activity
822
Modem connections
Modems use phone lines to communicate with other computers. You connect your
modem to a phone line by using a standard phone cord. Such cords feature RJ-11
connectors, which are square connectors with six pins. Analog phones and modems use
just two of those wires. Digital phones use four or more. The wires in a phone cord are
crossed from end to end: pin 1 on one of the RJ-11 connectors goes to pin 6 on the other
RJ-11 connector, pin 2 goes to pin 5, and so forth.
Exhibit 8-10: RJ-11 connectors

Most office telephone systems use digital phone lines. These lines might also connect
via RJ-11 jacks. However, you shouldnt plug a modem into a digital phone line. Doing
so will burn out your modem.
Modems typically feature two RJ-11 jacks. You use one to connect the modem to the
phone line. You can use the other to connect a phone-in line. The phone signals pass
from the wall jack, through your modem, and to the phone.
Exhibit 8-11: Modem jacks, showing the line and phone connection points
Expansion cards
823
Data transmission speed

Data transmission speeds are measured in bits per second. However, you might
encounter the term baud used to represent modem speed. Baud is a measure of signal
changes per second. Because modem signals are analog, the baud rate is comparable to
the frequency of an analog wave.
Early modems transmitted one bit per cycle change. For those modems, the baud rate
and bit-per-second rate were the same. Modern modems transmit many bits per signal
change. Thus, the bits-per-second rate is the product of the baud rate times the number
of bits sent per signal change.
ITU modem standards
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) defines standards for modems and
modem connections. Such standards are given V dot names, such as V.32 or V.90.
Revisions to existing standards are noted with the French terms bis for second revision
or terbo for third revision. ITU modem standards range from V.32 (at 9,600 bits per
second) to V.92 (at 56,000 bps).
Error detection and compression
Microcom, a manufacturer of modems, developed a series of technologies for error
detection and data compression. These technologies were widely adopted and became
de facto standards known as the MNP classes.
Classes 14 simply provided error detection and correction mechanisms, along with
protocol efficiencies. It wasnt until class 5 that Microcom added data compression to
produce even greater gains in throughput.
Do it!
C-2:
Identifying modem connections
Heres how
Heres why
1 Using the modems Properties

dialog box, and an Internet search
if necessary, determine the ITU
modem standard it uses
The ITU standard is often incorporated into the
modem name.
Close your modems Properties

dialog box and Computer
Management
2 Identify the line-in and line-out
ports for your modem
Examine the RJ-11 connector on
the modem cable provided by
your instructor
824
Topic D: Expansion card troubleshooting

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.5
Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance

techniques
Updates
Drivers
objective.
#
Objective
1.2

components
Adapter cards
Graphics cards, memory
Sound cards
Storage controllers
RAID cards
eSATA cards
I/O cards
FireWire
USB
Parallel
Serial
Media reader
Expansion cards
825
Updating drivers
Explanation
Often one of the solutions to hardware problems involves obtaining and installing
updated device drivers. As a device is put in use by users, the manufacturer might find
that the driver needs to be changed due to conflicts or faulty code, or just to make the
device function more efficiently.
Although most devices are packaged with drivers, some of them might not be the most
up-to-date. In addition, Windows might not install the best drivers for your new device
if its installed with PnP. At some point, you might need to find additional drivers on the
Web, most likely from the device manufacturers Web site.
Most manufacturers offer free downloads of drivers and utilities for their devices. Just
find the name of the manufacturer and visit the appropriate Web site. Look for a link
that offers drivers, support, or downloads. Then download the driver (which is
sometimes zipped) to a local hard disk, from where you can install it on the appropriate
computer.
After youve found an updated device driver, you can install it. With self-installing
drivers, simply run the installation program. For other drivers, open Device Manager,
view the properties of the device and click the Update Driver button. Then, point the
wizard to the location of the new driver.
Do it!
D-1:
Searching for and installing updated drivers
Heres how
1 In Device Manager, pick a device you want to update (maybe one of the devices
you installed or maybe a display adapter). Write down the manufacturers name
and the model of the device.
2 Visit the manufacturers Web site. (Use a search engine if you have to.) On the
Web site, find the link for support, downloads, or drivers.
3 Find the drivers for the device you chose. Download them to your computer and
save them on the desktop.
4 In Device Manager, right-click the device and choose Update Driver
Software. Dont search for a driver automatically; choose to browse your
computer for driver software and navigate to the folder on your desktop.
Complete the wizard, clicking Have Disk if prompted. Update the drivers if
theyre the same version or newer.
5 If necessary, restart the computer. Use Device Manager to verify that the device is
working properly.
826
Troubleshooting expansion cards

causes, and suggested first try solutions for problems related to expansion cards. You
might encounter problems not listed in the tables here, but they provide a few scenarios
to consider when youre troubleshooting.
The following tables list problems, probable causes, and suggested solutions for the
following types of expansion cards:
Video adapters
Sound cards
Internal modems
Video cards
The following table lists video adapter problems you might encounter.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
No video at all
Monitor is turned off or

disconnected; video card
failed; cable is bad; wrong
video mode is used; card
loose in socket.
Make sure the monitor is connected and turned

on. Attach another monitor thats capable of very
high resolution modes. If video is displayed, set
a lower resolution mode and then reattach the
original monitor. Check for bent or broken pins
in the video connector and visible damage to the
cable. Replace the video card or cable if
necessary. Reseat the video card (remove and reinsert it into the slot).
Video scrolls, flips,

wavers, is too large;
doubles up lines; and
so forth
Video card is set to refresh

rate or resolution mode
that monitor cant support;
card loose in socket.
Either replace the monitor with a better one, or

reconfigure the driver to use a lower resolution
mode or lower refresh rate. Reseat the video
card.
Video flickers
Refresh rate is too low.
Configure the driver to use a higher refresh rate.
Video is blurry
Monitor is failing.
Replace the monitor.
Image artifacts are

displayed across the
screen
Software is at fault: either

drivers or application
software.
Update the video card drivers. Check application

settings or check for application updates.
System freezes during a

video change, such as
an image scrolling or
changing
Video driver could be at

fault.
Update the video card drivers.
Video is connected to
DVI connector, but
monitor displays
message that analog
connection is
disconnected
Button on monitor that

switches between analog
and digital was pressed or
menu option was changed.
Reset the button or menu choice to digital

connection.
Expansion cards
827
Sound cards
The following table lists sound card problems you might encounter.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
No sound
External speakers not connected

or turned off; bad cables; sound
muted; volume set to zero;
Windows configured to operate
silently.
Connect the speakers or turn them on. Uncheck

Mute in volume control or press hardware button on
computer or keyboard. Turn up the volume. Confirm
the sound configuration in the Control Panel. Check
for visible damage to cables and replace if necessary.
Sound is very
low
Volume on speakers set too low;

audio output levels set too low.
Turn up the volume knob on the speakers. Click the

speaker icon in the system tray and drag the volume
slider up.
Sound is
distorted
Volume set too high for

speakers; bad driver; card loose
in socket.
Turn down the volume knob on the speakers. Click

the speaker icon in the system tray and drag the
volume slider down. Update the audio card drivers.
Re-seat the card.
No audio
captured
Microphone not connected; bad

microphone; bad cable; audio
input levels set too low or
muted; incorrect input device
selected.
Right-click the speaker icon in the system tray and

choose Open Volume Controls. Under Line In, drag
the volume slider up. You might need to uncheck
Mute. Confirm input device is correctly selected in
application and Control Panel. Check for visible
damage to cables and replace if necessary.
No audio
from CD
CD audio volume set too low or

muted; CD audio cable not
connected to sound card.
Turn up volume in Windows and on external

speakers (if applicable). You might need to uncheck
Mute. Open the PC and confirm that the sound cable
from the CD drive is connected to the sound card (if
applicable).
828

Modems
The following table describes modem-related problems you might encounter.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Modem picks up
line and dials, but
doesnt connect
Not dialing correct

number; remote
modem disconnected.
Confirm that youre dialing the correct number (try dialing

it with a telephone to confirm that you get modem tones
from the remote end). Confirm that the remote modem is
online and accepting calls.
Modem reports
no dial tone
detected
Phone cord not

connected; bad phone
line; phone cord
connected to wrong
port on modem.
Confirm that the modem is correctly connected to the

phone jack. Connect a phone to the modem line and pick
up the handset. If theres no dial tone, contact your
telephone company or technician to troubleshoot the line
problem. Check for visible damage to phone lines, and
replace if necessary.
Connection drops
frequently
Noisy phone line.
Connect a phone to the modem line, pick up the handset,

and press a single number. If the line isnt silent, contact
your telephone company or technician to troubleshoot the
line noise.
Modem connects,
but only at low
speeds
Noisy phone line;

remote modem
supports only lower
speeds.
Connect a phone to the modem line, pick up the handset,

and press a single number. If the line isnt silent, contact
your telephone company or technician to troubleshoot the
line noise. Confirm that the remote modem supports highspeed connections.
Modem doesnt
work at all
Modem has failed;

drivers not installed;
card loose in socket.
Try installing another modem. Confirm that the required

modem drivers are installed. Re-seat the card.
Configurationrelated error
messages
COM port conflicts;

system resource
conflicts.
Use Device Manager to confirm that the COM port used

by the modem is available and not assigned to another
device. Confirm or resolve resource conflicts (IRQs, I/O
channels).
NIC indicator lights

Most networking devices have status indicator lights that you can observe to see if the
devices are working. Typically, the lights are green if the device is sending or receiving
data properly.
Many NICs have indicator lights, called activity lights, that flash when data is being
sent or received. Some have a separate link light to indicate that theres a working
connection to the network. If these lights arent illuminating, you should check the
configuration of the card to see if thats the problem. You can do so through Device
Manager.
The network card should appear in Device Manager without any error or warning icons.
In Exhibit 8-12, the LAN network card is reported as functioning, but the wireless
adapter is reported as disabled.
Expansion cards
829
Exhibit 8-12: Device Manager displaying the status of NICs

The General tab of the NICs Properties dialog also displays the devices status. As
shown in Exhibit 8-13, it should display, This device is working properly.
Exhibit 8-13: NIC status

Do it!
D-2:
Troubleshooting expansion card problems
Heres how
1 One or more expansion cardrelated problems have been introduced into your lab
computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their cause(s).
fix all problems that arise.
830
Unit summary: Expansion cards

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that video adapters convert computer data into the signals
that are sent to the monitor for display. You learned that resolution is the number of
pixels that an adapter can create and that color depth (or pixel depth) defines the
number of colors that can be displayed. You also learned about the various video
display standards, including CGA, EGA, and VGA. In addition, you identified the
various connector typesVGA 15-pin DE-15, DVI-I, DVI-D, DVI-A, and HDMI.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that sound cards produce music and tones to be played on
external, powered speakers. Before the advent of sound cards, computers could create
beeps and clicks through on-board speakers. Sound cards typically exceed the features
of the SoundBlaster Pro sound card.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned that modems enable you to connect to remote computers over
telephone lines. Modems convert digital signals to analog, and then back again. You
learned about the riser slot types, which are sometimes used for attaching internal
modems to motherboards.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned that expansion cards can fail for various reasons, and you
learned how to update hardware device drivers and troubleshoot expansion cards. You
also examined common symptoms of failures and the probable causes and suggested
solutions.
Review questions
1 The rate at which an image is painted on screen is called which of the following?
A Interlacing
B Pixel depth
C Refresh rate
D Resolution
2 The number of pixels across and down that an adapter can create is called what?
A Interlacing
B Pixel depth
C Refresh rate
D Resolution
3 Which DVI connection types support both digital and analog signals? [Choose all
that apply.]
A DVI-D single link
B DVI-D dual-link
C DVI-I single link
D DVI-I dual-link
Expansion cards
831
4 Which type of video port is shown in the following graphic?
A DVI-A
B DVI-D
C DVI-I
D HDMI
E VGA/SVGA
5 Which of the following is necessary to produce a signal for your speakers?
A Converting analog waves to digital signals.
B Converting digital data to analog waves.
C No conversion is necessary.
6 Which of the following are best-practice guidelines for avoiding electrostatic
discharge? Select all that apply.
A Unplug the computer before opening.
B Work at a static-safe workstation.
C Ground yourself to the buildings electrical ground.
D Handle cards by their edges or cover plates.
7 True or false? Riser cards are a common way to connect an internal modem in a
modern PC.
False. Riser cards never became popular, and PCI remains the most popular expansion bus type
for internal modem cards.
8 True or false? The cables you use to connect a modem to a phone jack have RJ-45
connectors.
False. Such cables use an RJ-11 connector.
9 Your computer produces no sound, yet you know that it has a sound card installed
and speakers connected. What is a possible cause of the problem?
The sound is muted or the volume is set at or near zero.
10 A customer tells you that the image on her monitor flickers and is giving her
headaches. Which of the following is the most likely cause of the problem?
A Color depth set too high.
B Refresh rate set too low.
C Video card driver is out of date.
D Pins in the video connector are bent or broken.
832

In this activity, youll practice identifying adapter cards and their features.
1 Your instructor will provide you with one of the following expansion cards: I/O
card; network card; TV or video capture card; or media reader. Following safe ESD
practices, install the expansion card you were given.
2 Verify the card is functional.
3 Use Device Manager to determine the name of your video adapter card.
4 Search the Web to find the data sheet for your video adapter, and review its
features.
5 Use Device Manager to determine if your sound card is functioning properly.
6 Open the Control Panel and then Hardware and Sound, Sound to view the
configuration settings available for your sound card.
7 Use Device Manager to query (test) your modem by using the Diagnostics tab of
your modems Properties dialog box. Review the query results.
91
Unit 9

A Identify and connect serial and parallel
ports, cables, and connectors.

B Identify and connect PS/2 ports, cables,
and connectors.
C Identify and connect USB ports, cables,
and connectors.
D Identify and connect FireWire ports,
cables, and connectors.

E Identify and connect multimedia ports.
F Identify the symptoms, probable causes,
and potential solutions for problems related

to ports, cables, and connectors.
92
Topic A: Serial and parallel connections

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
Serial
Parallel
Communications
Modem
1.8
Install and configure peripherals and input devices
1.9

I/O
Serial
Parallel
Communications
Modem
1.11
Install and configure printers
Ports
Explanation
A port is a connector into which you can plug cables from external devices, or
sometimes, plug in the devices themselves. Two ports that have been available from the
earliest PC models are the serial and parallel ports.
Serial and parallel transmission
Serial transmission is a technique in which bits of data are sent, one at a time, across the
transmission medium. You can imagine the bits marching single-file down a single data
transmission wire (or across a single wireless transmission channel), as illustrated in
Exhibit 9-1. Special sequences of bits delineate data from associated control
information, such as marking the beginning and end of bytes or blocks of data.
Exhibit 9-1: Serial transmission
93
Parallel transmission is a technique by which data is transmitted simultaneously over

multiple conductors, with each bit traveling over its own path in the transmission
medium. Parallel transmission is illustrated in Exhibit 9-2. In a wired configuration,
each bit would travel over its own wire. Control and timing information is sent over
additional wires.
Exhibit 9-2: Parallel transmission
Serial ports
Serial ports are the connectors into which you plug devices that use serial transmission
to communicate with your PC. While many types of devices and ports use serial
transmission, when most people speak of serial ports, they mean the communicationsoriented ports to which you connect devices such as modems. These ports are called the
communication or COM ports.
The basic PC hardware supports four COM ports: COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4.
You can use only two of those at any one time. Windows supports software emulation
of additional COM ports, when extra ports are necessary. Therefore, you might find PCs
with higher-numbered COM ports.
System resources
By default, COM ports use the system resources listed in the following table.
Port
IRQ
I/O address (hex)
COM1
03F8-03FF
COM2
02F8-02FF
COM3
03E8-03EF
COM4
02E8-02EF
COM ports 1 and 3 share the same IRQ, and COM ports 2 and 4 share the same IRQ.
This means that you cant have COM ports 1 and 3 (or 2 and 4) enabled at the same
time unless you reconfigure one of the ports to use a different IRQ.
94

To configure the resources used by these ports, you can use your systems BIOS setup
utility or Windows Device Manager. Plug and Play should detect these settings and
configure Windows accordingly. You can confirm PnP settings by using Windows
Device Manager.
Operational characteristics
Personal computer serial ports typically implement the RS-232 standard. This
standardalso known as EIA RS-232, EIA 232, or TIA 232defines the electrical and
physical characteristics of connectors and cables. It also specifies the meaning of and
timing of signals sent through the port.
In addition to specifying the IRQ and I/O addresses used by a COM port, you can
configure some of its operational characteristics. These are described in the following
table.
Parameter
Description
Port speed
The rate, in bits per second, at which data communications proceed over the COM
port. This speed controls how fast your computer interacts with the serial device (not
the communications speed of the device itself).
Consider an external modem: the port speed determines the speed at which your PC
and modem interact. The modem might communicate over the phone line either
faster or slower than that rate. If it communicates faster than the port speed, it has to
buffer data destined for the PC.
Data bits
The number of bits of data sent within a single block.
Start/stop bits
The number of bits added before and after the data to designate the beginning and
end of the data within a block. Often, this value is configured as just the stop bits.
Parity
The error checking method used over the COM port. Options are:
None Parity checking is disabled.
Even If the sum of the data bits is an even number, the parity bit is set to 0. If the
sum is odd, the parity bit is set to 1. In this way, the sum of data and parity bits is
always an even number.
Odd If the sum of the data bits is an odd number, the parity bit is set to 0. If the
sum is even, the parity bit is set to 1. The sum of data and parity bits is always an odd
number.
Mark The parity bit is always set to 1.
Space The parity bit is always set to 0.
Flow control
A means by which communications over a serial port can be slowed down or even
stopped to permit the devices involved to keep pace with communications. Options
are:
None Flow control is disabled.
Hardware Devices use a separate flow-control wire, within the serial cable, to
send handshaking signals. Through these signals, devices can start and stop the
communications.
Xon/Xoff A software handshaking technique in which Transmit On (Xon) and
Transmit Off (Xoff) signals are sent over the same data communications line that
transmits the data. The receiving device sends the Xon and Xoff signals to the sender.
Xoff is ASCII character 19 (equivalent to the Ctrl+S key combination), and Xon is
ASCII 17 (Ctrl+Q).
95
Serial cables
Standard serial cables come in the following types:
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
V.35
X.21
EIA/TIA-530
The maximum distance for a serial cable depends on the data rate. In general, the slower
the data rate, the longer the maximum distance can be without signal degradation. The
following table lists the various data rates and corresponding recommended maximum
distances for the various types of serial cables.
Data
rate
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449, -530, -530A,

V.35, and X.21
2400 bps
60 meters
1250 meters
4800 bps
30 meters
625 meters
9600 bps
15 meters
312 meters
19200 bps
8 meters
150 meters
38400 bps
4 meters
75 meters
56000 bps
3 meters
30 meters
1544000 (T1) bps
Not supported
15 meters
Typical serial connectors

PCs serial connectors are typically either 9-pin or 25-pin connectors. Few modern
devices use the 25-pin connector, instead favoring the smaller 9-pin variety.
Connectors come in one of two types, called genders. The gender of a connector
determines whether it has pins or sockets (into which the pins go). Male connectors
have pins, and female connectors have sockets, as shown in Exhibit 9-3.
Exhibit 9-3: Male and female connectors (left to right)
96

Typically, the male connector is used on the computer, while devices usually have the
female connector. Thus, to connect a serial device, you need a cable with a male
connector on one end and a female connector on the other end.
By convention, the serial ports on modern PCs are teal or surrounded by a teal label.
This color helps you distinguish the serial port from the other connectors on your PC.
Sometimes theyre labeled with COM or with a series of ones and zeros to suggest the
one-by-one transmission of bits of data.
The pins (or sockets) in the connector at one end of a serial cable connect to certain
sockets (or pins) at the other end. To assist cabling technicians, the manufacturers assign
standard numbers to pins (and sockets). The standard numbers are shown in Exhibit 9-4.
Pin 6
Pin 9
Pin 5
Pin 1
Exhibit 9-4: A 9-pin serial connector

Typical serial cables
Even though serial data is sent one bit at a time over a single wire, serial cables use
multiple wires. At least three wires are required: one for sending, one for receiving, and
one for ground. The other pins provide power and control signal transmission.
Serial cables come in two forms:
Straight-through Use straight-through cables to connect your PC to a serial
device.
Null modem Use a null modem cable to connect two PCs as if each were
connected to a modem.
In a straight-through cable, the corresponding pins at each end of the cable are
connected. In other words, pin 1 is connected to pin 1, and so forth.
In a null modem cable, pins at one end of the cable are connected to specific pins at the
other end to simulate the presence of a modem between two devices. A pin at one end of
the cable might be connected to two or more pins at the other end.

Do it!
A-1:
97
Attaching a serial device
Heres how
Heres why
1 Locate the serial port on your PC,

and describe how you know that
its the serial port
2 On the cable supplied by your

instructor, determine which end
connects to your PC, and which
end connects to an external serial
device
3 Attach the serial device to your
computer
4 If the serial device requires it,
install the appropriate drivers
5 Verify that your serial device is
functional
Parallel ports
Explanation
Parallel ports are the connectors into which you plug devices that use parallel
transmission to communicate with your PC. Most often, when people speak of parallel
ports, theyre referring to the ports used for printers. These ports are called the LPT
ports. LPT stands for line printer, reflecting the use of this sort of printer with earlymodel PCs.
The basic PC hardware supports two LPT ports: LPT1 and LPT2. Additional LPT ports
can be added through expansion adapters. Many modern printers dont use the LPT port
at all, instead using the newer and more capable USB port.
System resources
By default, LPT ports use the system resources listed in the following table.
Port
IRQ
I/O address (hex)
LPT1
n/a
0378 - 037F
LPT2
n/a
0278 - 027F
LPT3 or sometimes LPT1
n/a
03BC - 03BF
Because LPT devices are used for output, these devices dont need to signal the
processor. Thus, LPT ports arent typically assigned IRQs for printing in Windows. By
default, in all Windows 7 versions, all Windows Vista versions, all Windows XP
versions, and Windows 2000 Professional, the parallel port driver doesnt assign an
interrupt.
98

If you are using the parallel port for a device other than a printer, LPT1 and LPT3 are
typically assigned IRQ7, while LTP2 is typically assigned IRQ5. You can use another
IRQ if these IRQs are already in use. You can configure the resources used by these
ports through your systems BIOS setup utility or Windows Device Manager. PnP
should detect these settings and configure Windows accordingly. You can confirm the
PnP settings by using Windows Device Manager.
Unidirectional and bidirectional LPT ports
Originally, the LPT port was a one-way communications port: the PC sent data to the
printer, but the printer never sent data to the PC. Such unidirectional ports were suitable
for interfacing with printers but not with other types of devices, such as external hard
drives.
Even though the port was unidirectional, the printer could, in effect, signal some
conditions to the PC. Before transmitting data, the PC would check five control lines to
determine if the printer was ready, out of paper, had experienced an error, and so forth.
The original LPT port specifications were developed largely by the Centronics
Corporation, thus the port is often called the Centronics port. Few modern printers
support this old unidirectional parallel port mode.
A group called the Network Printing Alliance formed to improve the functionality of the
LPT port. Their work resulted in the IEEE 1284 standard, which defines five modes of
operation:
Compatibility modealso called standard parallel port (SPP) mode. This mode
provided backward compatibility with Centronics-compatible printers.
Nibble mode, which is a unidirectional mode that enables the printer to transmit
four bits of data (a nibble) over the status lines. This communication sent
additional status information to the PC.
Byte mode, which is similar to nibble mode, except that eight bits of status data
can be transmitted over the status lines.
Enhanced parallel port (EPP) is a half-duplex bidirectional mode supporting

data transmission of up to 2 MB per second.
Extended capabilities port (ECP) is a half-duplex bidirectional mode supporting
data transmission of up to 2.5 MB per second.
The EPP and ECP modes enabled two-way communication across the parallel port. This
development enabled manufactures to create devices, such as external hard drives or
data transfer cables (like the once popular LapLink cable), that operated over the
parallel port. These modes supported data transfer rates nearly equal to the ISA
expansion bus, which was the most popular type when these modes were first defined.
Modern PCs typically support each of these modes. You might need to use the BIOS
setup utility to enable or disable specific modes.
99
Typical parallel connectors

Typically, parallel ports are 25-pin ports. The PC normally uses a female D-connector,
matching that used by a 25-pin serial port (though opposite in gender). Such a port
connector is shown in Exhibit 9-5.
Parallel port
Exhibit 9-5: The female 25-pin parallel port on a PC

According to the PC99 specification, parallel ports should be burgundy or surrounded
by a burgundy label. (On most PCs, the color you see would be better described as
magenta or hot pink.) This color helps you differentiate the parallel port from the other
connectors on your PC. Sometimes parallel ports are labeled with a graphic of a printer.
Printers often feature a 36-pin Centronics connector, officially called the Centronics-36
connector. The female connector is mounted on the printer. Such a port connector is
Exhibit 9-6: A female Centronics connecter on a printer
910

Typical parallel cables
Typical parallel printer cables have a male DB-25 connector on the end that you connect
to the PC, and a male Centronics-36 connector on the printer end. Exhibit 9-7 shows the
connectors on a parallel printer cable.
Exhibit 9-7: Printer cables have DB-25 (left) and Centronics connectors
Do it!
A-2:
Attaching a parallel device
Heres how
1 Locate the parallel port on your
PC, and describe how you know
that its the parallel port
2 On the cable supplied by your

instructor, determine which end
connects to your PC and which to
the printer
3 Consider this scenario: You plug a
printer into the parallel port of
your PC. Windows recognizes the
new hardware and installs the
proper driver. Is your printer port
unidirectional or bidirectional?
4 Attach the parallel device to your
computer
5 If the parallel device requires it,
install the appropriate drivers
6 Verify that your parallel device is
functional
Heres why
911
Topic B: PS/2 connections

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
PS/2
1.8

Mouse
Keyboard
Bar code reader
KVM switch
Input devices
Explanation
Keyboards, mice, and trackballs typically attach through keyboard and mouse ports on
the back of the PCs case. Other input devices, such as pens (styli) or touch screens,
typically connect to a USB or specialized port. In this topic, youll focus on the
keyboard and mouse ports.
Keyboard ports and connectors
The typical modern keyboard port is a round, six-pin mini-DIN port, about a quarter
inch in diameter. Exhibit 9-8 shows this port. Its typically called a PS/2 port because
it was used for the first time with that model of IBM PC.
PS/2 keyboard port
Exhibit 9-8: A PS/2 keyboard port

Keyboard ports are typically purple or surrounded by a purple label. There might be a
keyboard icon next to the port. The keyboard port is usually located right next to the
nearly identical mouse port, making it easy to mistakenly connect these devices to each
others ports.
912

The keyboard connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN
connector, as shown in Exhibit 9-9. Sometimes the connector has a label or keyboard
icon molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Sometimes youll have to
trace the wires back to the device to see if it connects to the keyboard or the mouse.
Exhibit 9-9: A PS/2 keyboard connector

As you can see from Exhibit 9-8 and Exhibit 9-9, the PS/2 keyboard connector is a
keyed connector. The large, rectangular pin, along with notches in the plastic of the
inner barrel, helps ensure that you insert the connector into the port in the correct
orientation. Dont force the connector into the port; if it doesnt fit easily, try turning it
until it does fit.
The original IBM PCs used a larger, 5-pin DIN port, shown in Exhibit 9-10. Generally
called the AT keyboard port, this connector was too large for the smaller computer
designs, beginning with the PS/2. Also, the plug was more likely to make a bad
connection with this sort of socket than with the newer PS/2-style port.
Exhibit 9-10: The AT keyboard port
Exhibit 9-11: An AT keyboard connector
913
Mouse ports and connectors

The typical mouse port is identical in form to the PS/2 keyboard port, as shown in
Exhibit 9-12. Its typically green or surrounded by a green label and might be
accompanied by a mouse icon.
PS/2 mouse port
Exhibit 9-12: A PS/2 mouse port

The mouse connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN
connector, as shown in Exhibit 9-13. Sometimes the connector has a label or mouse icon
molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Mouse ports and connectors, like
their keyboard equivalents, are keyed so that you connect them in the right orientation.
Exhibit 9-13: A PS/2 mouse connector

Older serial mice used the 9-pin D-shaped serial port connector. During a brief
transition time before the PS/2 port became popular, some adapter card manufacturers
added proprietary mouse ports to their video and other expansion cards. These ports
were often round like the PS/2 connector. Most used a different number of pins. You
cant connect these older mice to a PS/2 port, nor can you connect a PS/2 mouse to one
of these proprietary ports.
Interchangeability
The mouse and keyboard connectors and ports arent interchangeable. You cant plug
the keyboard connector into the mouse port, and vice versa, or youll receive an error.
Typically, you get a BIOS keyboard error message if you boot the PC with the mouse
and keyboard connected incorrectly.
Generally, you should connect the keyboard and mouse before you boot the PC. You
shouldnt unplug, or hot swap, these devices when the PC is running.
914

Some bar code readers connect to the keyboard port. A Y-adapter is used to connect
both the bar code reader and the keyboard to the port. An example of such a connection
is shown in Exhibit 9-14.
Exhibit 9-14: A bar code reader and a keyboard connected to the keyboard port

Do it!
B-1:
915
Attaching a keyboard and mouse
Heres how
1 Power down your computer
Heres why
If your computer has a USB keyboard and
mouse, you will need a PS/2 keyboard and
mouse for this activity.
2 Examine your PC to locate and

identify the keyboard and mouse
ports. What clues did you use to
determine which was which?
3 Speculate on some ways that the

similarity between these ports
could have been designed to be
less of a problem
4 Disconnect your keyboard and
mouse from the PC ports
5 Reattach your keyboard and
mouse in the opposite ports
7 What error do you receive?
8 Power down your computer

9 Disconnect your keyboard and
mouse from the PC ports
10 Insert the mouse and keyboard
connectors into the correct ports
12 Log onto Windows 7 as
COMPADMIN## with a
13 Verify that both your keyboard
and mouse are functional
To practice installing this sort of connector.
916
Setting mouse properties

Explanation
You can customize a mouse to suit a users needs and work preferences. For example, if
the user is left-handed, you can configure the right button as the primary button and the
left button as the secondary button. The user can then use the right button for doubleclicking, dragging, and selecting, and the left button for opening shortcut menus. You
can also change the speed with which the mouse pointer moves across the screen.
To access the mouse properties, open Control Panel. Click Hardware and Sound and
then, under Devices and Printers, click Mouse.
The Mouse Properties dialog box contains five tabs, described in the following table.
Tab
Used to
Buttons
Specify whether the mouse is set for right-hand or left-hand use. You can also set the doubleclick speed and activate ClickLock.
Pointers
Specify the appearance of your mouse pointer.

If you are using a USB mouse with Windows Aero, you might notice that the mouse
pointers position on the screen is not accurate and the mouse doesnt move correctly. If this
occurs, change the Mouse Pointer Scheme to (None).
Pointer
Options
Specify how you want the pointer to act on screen, including speed and visibility, and enable
or disable the Snap To feature.
Wheel
Specify the number of lines the screen moves for each wheel notch in both the horizontal and
vertical directions.
Hardware
Open the Properties dialog box for your specific brand and model of mouse, so you can work
with the mouse driver. If you open the mouses Properties dialog box through this method,
some of the driver buttons might be grayed out; thats a UAC feature.
Exhibit 9-15: The Mouse Properties dialog box

Do it!
B-2:
917
Setting mouse properties
Heres how
1 Open Control Panel
Heres why
From the Start menu.
2 Click Hardware and Sound
3 Under Devices and Printers, click

Mouse
To open the Mouse Properties dialog box,
shown in Exhibit 9-15. The Buttons tab is active
by default.
4 Observe the options
By default, the mouse is configured for righthanded use. The double-click speed is set
halfway between Slow and Fast.
5 Under Double-click speed, drag

the slider bar to the right
To increase the double-click speed.
In the test area, double-click the

yellow folder
To test the new double-click speed. If you

double-click successfully, the folder opens (or
closes if it is already open).
Reduce the double-click speed
To set it to a comfortable setting.
918

6 Select the Pointers tab
Youll change the pointer scheme.
Under Scheme, from the list,

select Windows Inverted
(system scheme)
Observe the Customize list
It displays the pointer shapes that will appear in

various situations.
Click Apply
To apply the selected pointer scheme.
Observe the pointer

The shape of the pointer changes to a solid black
arrow.
7 Change the mouse pointer back to

the default scheme
Click OK
Windows Aero (system scheme).
To close the Mouse Properties dialog box.
919
Keyboard properties
Explanation
You can also change the keyboard properties. In Windows 7, to do so, open Control
Panel, and under Hardware and Sound, click Devices and Sound, and right-click your
keyboard and choose Keyboard settings. In Windows Vista, open Control Panel, and
under Hardware and Sound, click Keyboard.
The Keyboard Properties dialog box has two tabs: Speed and Hardware. As described in
the following table, youll most likely use the Speed tab to change keyboard settings.
Property
Tab
Description
Character repeat:
Repeat delay
Speed
Specifies how long Windows waits before repeating a character whose

key youre holding down.
Character repeat:
Repeat rate
Speed
Specifies how quickly a character is repeated when you hold down its
key.
Cursor blink rate
Speed
Specifies the rate at which the insertion point blinks on the screen.
Device
Hardware
Specifies the driver used to control the keyboard.
Exhibit 9-16: The Keyboard Properties dialog box
920
Do it!
B-3:
Setting keyboard properties
Heres how
1 In Control Panel, switch to Small
icons view
Heres why
In the View by list.
Click Keyboard
2 Under Cursor blink rate, drag the
slider bar to the right
To increase the rate at which the cursor blinks.

The blinking cursor to the left of the slider bar
shows the rate.
3 Click Cancel
To leave the blink rate at the default setting.
4 Return to Category view
Choose Category from the View by list.
Close the Control Panel
921
KVM switches
Explanation
KVM stands for keyboard, video, mouse. A KVM switch is a hardware device that
allows you to connect multiple computers to a single keyboard, video display, and
mouse. Each computer is connected to the box through a cable set provided with the
box. The keyboard, video display, and mouse are connected to the specified ports on the
box.
You use a manual switch on the front of the device or a keyboard shortcut to select
which computer you want to use with the keyboard, display, and mouse. Typically, a
light on the front of the switch box will light up, indicating which computer has control
of the keyboard, video, and mouse, as shown in Exhibit 9-17.
Indicator light:
computer is
controlling the
keyboard,
video, and mouse
Indicator lights:
computer is turned on
Selector switch
Exhibit 9-17: Front of PS/2 KVM switch

Exhibit 9-18 shows the back of the KVM shown in Exhibit 9-17. It is an older-style
KVM that provides PS/2 ports for the keyboard and mouse.
Keyboard
Master video,
keyboard, and
mouse connections
Mouse
Video
Video, keyboard, and

mouse connections to
individual computers
Exhibit 9-18: Back of a PS/2 KVM switch

Newer KVM switches have USB ports, as shown in Exhibit 9-19. Newer KVMs also
sometimes provide speaker and microphone ports, as shown in Exhibit 9-19.
922
Exhibit 9-19: Back of a USB KVM switch

The KVM switch typically receives its power from the computer itself through the PS/2
mouse connection or USB connection. Thus, many KVM switches dont require
connection to an external power source.
Do it!
B-4:
Using a KVM switch
Heres how
1 Examine the KVM switch
provided by your instructor
Heres why
You will work with at least one other student to
connect your computers up to the same monitor,
keyboard, and mouse through the KVM switch
Determine where the master

keyboard, video, and mouse plug in
2 Determine how the KVM switch
gets its power
3 Shut down your computer
4 Disconnect your monitor,
keyboard, and mouse
5 Verify that the ports on the KVM
switch match the corresponding
device ports on your computer
6 Connect one monitor, keyboard,
and mouse to the master ports on
the KVM switch
7 Both partners connect the
provided KVM cables to the
monitor, keyboard, and mouse
ports on their computers
8 Connect the other end of the cable
to one set of ports on the KVM
switch
For example, a USB KVM switch cant be used

to connect a PS/2 keyboard and mouse.

9 Turn on your computer
COMPADMIN## with a
10 Observe the indicator lights on the
front of the KVM switch
Which computer currently has
control of the video, keyboard,
and mouse?
11 Switch between computers and
verify that each one can use the
keyboard and mouse
12 Shut down your computer
13 Disconnect your computer from
the KVM switch
14 Reconnect your monitor,
keyboard, and mouse
15 Turn on your computer
COMPADMIN## with a
Verify that the monitor, keyboard,
and mouse are functioning
correctly
923
924
Topic C: USB connections

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
USB 1.1 and 2.0
1.8

Mouse
Keyboard
Bar code reader
Multimedia (e.g., Web and digital cameras, MIDI, microphones)
Biometric devices
Touch screen
KVM switch
1.9

I/O
USB
1.11
Universal Serial Bus

Explanation
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standardized peripheral specification developed by

Compaq, Digital Electronics Corp., IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Northern Telecom.
The USB specification defines bus architecture, similar in concept to the PCI or ISA
buses, to which you can connect one or more expansion devices.
USB offers these features:
Hot-swapping and self-configuration The bus and its devices are hotswappable and self-configuring. This means you can plug a device into or
unplug a device from the bus while the computer is running. Devices identify
themselves to the bus controller, which informs the operating system that a new
device is present. If the necessary drivers are on the system where Windows can
find them, Windows loads the drivers and enables the USB device for immediate
use.
Multiple-device support Typical PCs include two or more USB ports. You
can connect USB devices or hubs to those ports. Hubs provide additional ports
to which you can attach additional devices or hubs. You can connect a maximum
of 127 devices to the bus.
925
High-speed data transfer Depending on the version of USB supported by

your system and peripherals, the USB specification enables data transfer rates of
up to 480 Mbps (USB 2.0) or 5 Gbps (USB 3.0).
Power USB can deliver electrical power through the port.
USB classes
According to the specification, USB components are categorized into classes. There are
two basic classes, which are described in the following table.
Class
Description
Host
Theres just one host per bus. This class is responsible for managing the USB
bus. The host provides power to devices and manages the configuration process
thats followed when devices are added or removed. A system might include
multiple hosts, each representing a separate USB bus. Windows Device Manager
identifies the host as a Hub or Controller.
Device
This class is divided into two subclasses: Functions and Hubs. The Functions
subclass includes the peripherals that you connect to the USB bus. Equipment in
this class can send and receive data over the bus, and control the flow of data.
These are the devices themselves, such as keyboards, mice, external drives, and
so forth. The Hub subclass (not to be confused with the Windows labeling of the
Host as a hub) defines the expansion devices that provide no functionality other
than providing more USB ports.
USB device classes

USB devices themselves are categorized into classes. The following table details some
of the device classes defined in the USB specification.
Class
Typical devices in this class
Audio
Audio input and output devices, including MIDI instruments.
Communication
s device
Network adapters, including wireless network adapters.
HID (Human
Interface
Device)
Keyboards, mice, joysticks, and steering wheels; Point of Sale (POS) devices, such as
barcode scanners and scales; and arcade devices, such as coin changers, general input
and output devices, and other arcade devices.
Imaging
Still digital cameras and scanners.
IrDA Bridge
Software that supplements or replaces IR transceivers built into the motherboard. An

IrDA bridge is software that converts data between USB and IrDA. It enables a
computer to use USB to monitor, control, and exchange data over the IrDA interface.
Mass storage
Hard drives and optical drives; card readers (for CompactFlash, Memory Stick, Secure
Digital, and other memory cards); and digital cameras that use the mass storage
interface (they appear to the operating system as a drive letter rather than enabling
camera-specific functions).
Monitor
Monitors.
Printer
Printers.
Video
Video cameras and video capture devices.
926

USB versions
The USB specification is an active and growing standard. As of this writing, USB 1.1
and USB 2.0 version devices are widely available. USB 3.0 devices were first sold in
January, 2010, and have not sold significant volumes. The following table compares
these USB versions.
Version
Transfer rates
Notes
USB 1.1
12 Mbps
This specification is generally called USB and is still

sometimes used by devices that dont need high-speed
data transfers or other functions provided by the newer
specifications, such as keyboards and mice.
Half-duplex, meaning that it can upload or download,
but cannot do both simultaneously.
USB 2.0
This specification defines

three transfer rates:
Low-speed: 1.5 Mbps
Full-speed: 12 Mbps
Hi-Speed: 480 Mbps
Backward-compatible with USB 1.1, in that you can

connect USB 1.1 devices to this bus. However, they will
operate at USB 1.1 speeds. Additionally, the entire bus
will slow to USB 1.1 speeds. Most USB 2.0 devices also
work on a USB 1.1 bus, though at USB 1.1 speeds (USB
2.0s full-speed mode).
Like USB 1.1, USB 2.0 is half-duplex.
USB 3.0
Supports USB 1.1 and 2.0

rates
Adds SuperSpeed mode,
with up to 5.0 Gbps
Uses slightly different plugs and sockets that are

upwardly compatible. The means you can plug a USB
1.1 or 2.0 cable into a USB 3.0 socket. It will not fit in
all the way, making contact with only the pins necessary
to provide USB 1.1 or 2.0 connectivity. However, a
USB 3.0 cable will not fit into an older style socket.
Full-duplex, meaning that it can upload and download
simultaneously (its bidirectional).
Distinguishing between versions

You can determine which USB version a device supports by examining the USB logo
on the device or its connector. USB connectors are typically identified by the symbol
Exhibit 9-20: The USB port symbol

Devices that comply with the USB 2.0 specification often display the label shown in
Exhibit 9-21.
927
Exhibit 9-21: The USB 2.0 label
Exhibit 9-22: USB 3.0 labels

You can determine which type of USB is available in your system by using Device
Manager. According to motherboard manufacturer documentation, USB 3.0 hosts are
identified with USB 3.0 in their names. The terms USB2 or Enhanced identify USB
2.0 hosts. Hosts with none of those terms in their names are USB 1.1. A modern system
often includes multiple hubs of varying types.
Exhibit 9-23: Device Manager, showing both USB 1.1 and USB 2.0 hubs
Physical characteristics
USB ports and connectors come in two shapes, generally called Type A and Type B.
Both types use four pins or conductors. Type A ports and connectors are wide and flat
and are used at the PC end of a USB-to-device connection. If the device uses a
removable cable rather than a permanently connected one, it uses the Type B connector.
These two port and connector types are shown in Exhibit 9-24 and Exhibit 9-25.
928
Exhibit 9-24: USB Type A (left) and B (right) ports
Exhibit 9-25: USB type A (left) and B (right) connectors

Computers and hubs provide power to the USB bus. Devices use that power. The use of
different connector and port types prevents you from inadvertently plugging in two
devices that both provide power to the bus. Doing the latter would potentially damage
one or both devices.
Various smaller versions of these connectors have been created. Digital cameras, cell
phones, MP3 players, and so forth use these smaller connectors. Most phone
manufacturers have standardized the micro-USB connector to provide both battery
charging power as well as connectivity to your PC or other devices.
The USB specification permits you to daisy-chain up to five hubs, that is, connect one
hub to another hub. In practice, youll probably encounter problems with more than two
hubs in a line.
For USB 1.1 buses, cables can be up to 3 meters long. For USB 2.0 buses, cables can be
up to 5 meters long. In theory, at least, you could connect devices up to 25 meters away
by daisy-chaining hubs. The practical limit is closer to 15 meters. The USB 3.0 standard
doesnt define maximum cable assembly lengths. However, its estimated that its top
speed is achievable with a maximum cable length of 3 meters.
USB power
The USB standard specifies that the host must provide power to the bus for use by
devices on the bus. Low-power devices, such as mice and keyboards, can be completely
powered by the USB bus and thus dont require an external power supply. Other
peripherals, such as external drives, require more power than USB can provide. Such
devices require an external source of power.
More technically, a USB host provides 5 volts of power on the bus in increments called
a unit load. In USB 2.0, a unit load is defined a 100 mA (milliamps). A device may
draw up to 5 unit loads (500 mA). USB 3.0 increases that to 150 mA and permits
devices to draw up to 6 unit loads (900 mA). Devices are supposed to connect at one
unit load level and then request the number of unit loads they actually need to operate.
929
External USB hubs are available in powered and unpowered versions. An unpowered
USB hub does not provide power to the bus and simply passes through the power
provided by the host. A powered hub uses an external power supply and provides bus
power to the ports it supplies.
You might need to use a powered USB hub to provide sufficient power on the bus, even
if youre connecting only low-power devices such as webcams. Such devices will fail to
initialize, or connectivity might intermittently fail, if theres insufficient power on the
bus. Factors, such as the devices in use, how many are attached, and the cable lengths
involved determine if you need to use a powered hub to provide extra power.
Installing USB devices
Typically, you must run an installation or setup program supplied with your USB device
before connecting it the first time. This operation puts device drivers into your Windows
system folder, where Windows can locate them. Only after running this program should
you connect your USB device. Depending on the device and driver, you might be
prompted to restart your computer during these steps.
Devices that connect via the USB port include:
Barcode readers
Keyboards
Mice
Touch-screen monitors
Multimedia devices, such as Web cameras, digital cameras,
and MIDI controllers
Scanners
Printers
Biometric devices, such as fingerprint readers
KVM switches
External storage devices, such as hard disks and optical drives
930
Do it!
C-1:
Installing a USB device
Heres how
1 Locate one or more USB ports on
your PC
Heres why
Systems often include ports on both the front
and back of the unit.
2 Why do you think a PC might

include USB ports on both the
front and back of the case?
3 Determine whether your PCs

USB ports are USB 1.1, USB 2.0
or USB 3.0 ports, and describe
how you were able to determine
this information
4 Examine the USB cable supplied
by your instructor to locate the
Type A and Type B connectors
5 Examine the USB device supplied
by your instructor, and determine
whether it uses a Type A or B
connector, and which USB
version it supports
and log on to Windows 7 as
COMPADMIN## with a
7 If one is provided with your
device, run the installation
program
To place the devices drivers in the Windows

System folder, where Windows can find them.
8 Connect the USB device to your

computer
Windows should recognize the device and make

it available for use.
931
Topic D: FireWire connections

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
IEEE 1394 / FireWire
1.8
1.11
IEEE 1394
Explanation
FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394 and i.Link, is a high-speed peripheral

interconnection bus. FireWire offers these features:
Hot-swapping and self-configuration The bus and its devices are hotswappable and self-configuring.
Multiple-device support You can connect up to 63 devices to the FireWire
bus and interconnect up to 1023 of these buses in a tree topology.
High-speed data transfer FireWire supports transfer rates of 800 Mbps and
beyond.
Asynchronous and isochronous transfer modes FireWire supports devices
that require time-critical transfers on the bus.
Naming
FireWire was originally developed by Apple Computer Corp., which trademarked the
name. Later, with support from Microsoft, Philips, National Semiconductor, and Texas
Instruments, this specification was standardized by the IEEE (the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers) as IEEE 1394. Rather than using either of those names, Sony
decided to use i.Link to identify its implementation of this technology. Other than their
names, all of these technologies are identical. FireWire is trademarked, so companies
must pay to use the name. Youll find that many companies will use IEEE 1394 on
their devices instead of FireWire to avoid paying the licensing fee.
Architecture
FireWire is a peer-to-peer bus, in which every device is an intelligent component. This
means that devices work together to negotiate access to the bus and handle data
transfers. The best device on the bus is put in charge of managing access and data
transfers.
In contrast, USB uses a master-slave model, in which the PC controls all aspects of the
bus. As a result, even though FireWires raw throughput rating might be comparable
to that of USB, FireWire 400 outperforms USB 2.0 in actual use.
932

FireWire versions
The IEEE 1394 specification has undergone some revisions since its original release.
Some people now refer to the original IEEE 1394 specification as FireWire 400 or
1394a. IEEE 1394b is a revision to the original standard and is usually called FireWire
800.
FireWire 400 supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5
meters. The specification also says that there can be a maximum of 17 physical devices
on the bus, interconnected by up to 16 cables. Any of these devices can support multiple
connections, each of which can be connected to a distinct bus. Such multiple
connections enable you to interconnect up to a theoretical maximum of 64,449 devices.
As a peer-to-peer system, the central PC is not necessarily involved in communication
and might not actually be centrally located on the overall FireWire network.
FireWire 800 supports transfers at up to 800 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5 meters.
Additionally, you can use optical repeaters with FireWire 800 to extend cable lengths to
1000 meters. FireWire 800 also supports multiple connection devices and the
interconnected buses specified by FireWire 400.
FireWire S3200 was approved by the IEEE in July of 2008. (FireWire S3200 is not
equivalent to IEEE 1394c.) This version of FireWire supports transfers of up to 3.2
Gbps, while preserving energy properties so that it can power some devices. FireWire
S3200 is backward-compatible with FireWire 800 and works with the original FireWire
400 through an adapter. FireWire 3200 is positioned to complete against USB 3.0.
Isochronous transfers
Most devices work just fine if a block of data arrives a fraction of a second or two late.
These asynchronous devices include disk drives and network adapters. On-board buffers
hold data during transfers or hold applications simply waiting for such data transfers to
finish.
Some devices, however, require time-critical delivery of data. Video capture and video
streaming devices are examples. Full-motion video proceeds at a fixed rate. Your
computer and the FireWire bus must keep pace with that rate, or frames will be lost
during capture. For these devices, FireWire supports the isochronous transfer mode.
Isochronous transfers cant be interrupted or delayed. They proceed at a steady pace. In
this way, the bus keeps pace with the time needs of the transfer. Your PC might not be
able to keep pace if its too slow. In that case, video frames would still be dropped. But
it would be the PC, not the FireWire bus, that caused the data loss.
The use of isochronous transfer mode makes FireWire ideal for video applications. This
includes video streaming (from cameras, for example) and video editing applications in
which video data is transferred to a PC from drives or arrays of drives.
Physical characteristics
FireWire 400 devices use either a 4-pin or 6-pin connector. The 4-pin connector is used
at the device end of the cable, while the 6-pin connector hooks up to the PC. The 4-pin
port and connector are shown in Exhibit 9-26. The 6-pin port and connector are shown
in Exhibit 9-27.
933
Exhibit 9-26: A 4-pin FireWire 400 port and connector
Exhibit 9-27: A 6-pin FireWire 400 port and connector

FireWire 800 devices use a 9-pin connector at both ends of the cable. With the
appropriate adapter cables, you can connect FireWire 400 devices into FireWire 800
ports and vice versa. FireWire 800 devices operate at full speed only when you connect
them to a FireWire 800 port.
FireWire power
The IEEE specification calls for up to 1.5 amps at 30V for a total of 45 watts of power
provided on the FireWire 800 bus. This is considerably higher than USB, so you should
have fewer power-related problems connecting FireWire devices to the bus. The 4-pin
FireWire connector doesnt support power.
Installing FireWire devices

In all Windows 7 versions, all Windows Vista versions, all Windows XP versions, and
Windows 2000 Professional, installing FireWire expansion adapters or devices doesnt
often require you to install drivers. Support for the bus itself is built into these operating
systems. The operating system interacts with the individual devices on the bus through a
standardized means, as defined in the IEEE 1394 specification. Furthermore, because
the devices themselves are intelligent, driver software isnt needed to manage
interactions on the bus. So, installing a FireWire device is a simple matter of plugging it
in.
934

Some of the devices that you might encounter with IEEE 1394 connections include:
Video cameras
Printers
External storage devices, such as hard disks and optical drives
Do it!
D-1:
Installing an IEEE 1394 device
Heres how
1 Locate one or more IEEE 1394
ports on your PC
Heres why
Many PCs do not include these ports on the
motherboard. Theyre added through expansion
cards instead.
2 Do the IEEE 1394 ports on your

PC support FireWire 400 or
FireWire 800, and how can you
tell?
3 Examine the IEEE 1394 cable
supplied by your instructor and
determine the IEEE 1394
specification it supports
4 Connect the IEEE 1394 device to
your computer
Windows should recognize the device and

probably wont install drivers for it.
935
Topic E: Multimedia connections

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
Sound
Video
1.7

Connector types
S-Video
Component / RGB
1.8
Install and configure peripheral and input devices

1.9

Multimedia
Sound card
TV tuner cards
Capture cards
Types of multimedia connections

Explanation
Multimedia connections might be built into the motherboard or provided through a

sound card. Some multimedia devices, such as Web and digital cameras, connect
through standard computer ports, such as USB ports. The ports specifically provided for
multimedia devices include:
TRS, or mini-stereo, jacks
RCA connectors
Coax
MIDI
S/PDIF
S-Video
936

The TRS jack
Officially known as the TRS (Tip, Ring, and Sleeve) jack, the mini-stereo or audio jack
is used to connect speakers, microphones, headphones, and other audio devices. The
TRS jack has three contacts (the tip, ring, and sleeve). Variations include the twocontact TS and four-contact TRRS jacks.
Various sizes exist, but the most common are 1/4, 1/8 (officially 3.5 mm), and 3/32
(officially 2.5 mm) sizes. The 1/4 size is rarely used with computers. The 2.5 mm size
is more common with MP3 players and other small devices.
As shown in Exhibit 9-28, there at least three 1/8" connectors on a sound card. At a
minimum, there are line-in, line-out (also referred to as the headphone or main speaker
jack), and microphone ports. There might also be separate output connections for
additional speakers.
Center speaker
Microphone
Rear speakers
Line in
Main (front) speakers
or headphones
Exhibit 9-28: The 1/8" connectors on a sound card

The line-in port is used to connect a device thats being used as an input device.
Examples of devices include portable musical keyboards, cassette tape players, or other
audio devices with a 1/8" connector. Typically, a cable with a 1/8" connector on both
ends is used to connect a device to this port. The port is usually marked with Line-in,
Input, an arrow indicating an inward path, or some similar symbol. If color coding is
used for the ports on the system, this port is light blue. Exhibit 9-29 shows a music
keyboard with 1/8" connectors. The loose end gets connected to the line-in port on the
sound card.
Exhibit 9-29: A music keyboard connected via a " jack
937
The line-out port is used to connect a device being used as an output device. If a
separate speaker port isnt included, the speakers usually connect to this port. Its
usually identified by Line-out, Output, or a symbol or arrow indicating an outward
path. If color coding is used for the ports on the system, this port is lime green.
The mic port is used to connect a microphone. This port is usually indicated by the word
Mic or a picture of a microphone. If color coding is used for the ports on the system,
this port is pink.
Speakers
You hear operating system and application sounds through the speakers. A system with
a CD or DVD player can play music or video, and the audio portion will be played
through the speakers. Exhibit 9-30 shows speakers connected to a computer.
Exhibit 9-30: Speakers connected to a computer

Speaker or line-out port
Speakers connect to a speaker (line-out) port. On some systems, theres a separate port
for headphones, but sometimes you have to unplug the speakers and plug the
headphones into the same jack.
Some speakers have a headphone jack on the speaker. Plugging the headphones into that
jack overrides the sound coming out of the speakers so that it comes out only through
the headphones.
If your computer has color-coded ports, the speaker port is lime green. All of the ports
on the sound card are 1/8" round ports. The connector from the speakers fits into any of
the ports, but functions properly only when connected to the speaker or line-out port.
Even though speakers come in pairs, they still connect to a single 1/8" port. The
speakers connect to each other, and then one of the speakers has a connection that goes
to the port. Exhibit 9-31 shows how speakers connect to each other and to the computer.
938
Exhibit 9-31: Speakers connect to each other and then to the computer
Some sound cards (or motherboards) feature separate connectors for the various
speakers in a surround-sound system. Others have a single 1/8" port to which you
connect all of the speakers in the system. Consult your computers owners manual for
information about connecting your speaker system.
Microphones
Microphones can be used with a computer to record sounds. The microphone connects
to a microphone port on the sound card. To identify this port, look for a picture of a
microphone, the word Mic, or a pink port, if its color-coded. Exhibit 9-32 shows a
microphone and the port to which you connect it on a computer.
Microphone port
Exhibit 9-32: A microphone connection to a computer

Windows Sound Recorder
Sound Recorder, shown in Exhibit 9-33, is a simple Windows program that you can use
to record sound from a microphone attached to your sound card. Depending on the
version of Sound Recorder, you can save the recorded audio to various types of sound
files, including .wav, .wma, and .mp3. To listen to the sound file you recorded, you can
use Windows Media Player.
939
Exhibit 9-33: The Sound Recorder program in Windows 7

Do it!
E-1:
Using a sound card
Heres how
1 Connect the speakers to each
other
Heres why
If necessary, refer to the documentation for
information on how to connect the speakers
together.
2 Locate the speaker jack on the

computer
Connect the speakers to the
speaker jack
3 Plug in the power for the speakers
If the power cord ends with a large transformer,

try to place it on the end of the power strip so
that it doesnt block other outlets, or use a strip
with widely spaced outlets for transformers.
4 Turn on the speakers
Theres either a pushbutton or a dial to turn the

speakers on.
5 Locate the microphone jack on the

computer
Youll connect a microphone to your computer.
6 Plug in the microphone

7 Choose Windows,
Sound Recorder
8 Click Start Recording

9 Speak into the microphone
For example, say My name is John Smith. I am

working with my sound card.
10 Click Stop Recording

11 In the File name box, type
My Sound Recording
12 Observe the location on the hard

disk where the file will be saved
Click Save
13 Close Sound Recorder
By default, its saved in your Documents folder.
940

14 Open Documents
15 Double-click My Sound
Recording
16 Close Windows Media Player

17 If you are unhappy with the
quality of sound, repeat the steps
to record, and try again
The file opens in Windows Media Player. The

sound file begins to play automatically. You
might need to adjust the volume of your
speakers to hear properly.
941
RCA and S-Video connectors

Explanation
You might encounter computers with RCA connections for connecting video devices
and/or cable-TV cable. These are on a separate card from the sound card. They are often
used for connecting VCRs or video cameras that dont have FireWire or USB ports to
transfer the analog images to the computer for conversion to DVDs or for use in digital
editing applications. Exhibit 9-34 shows RCA connectors on a PC.
RCA connectors
S-Video
FireWire
USB
Exhibit 9-34: RCA connectors on a PC

The yellow connector is for composite video connection. The white connector connects
to the left audio channel, and the red connector connects to the right audio channel.
Separate Video (S-Video) is an analog video connection in which analog signals for
brightness and color are carried separately. In standard composite video connections,
both brightness and color are carried together, resulting in a lower-quality image. An
S-Video connection enables you to connect devices, such as televisions and game
systems, that otherwise could not be connected to the computer. As shown in Exhibit 934, the S-Video connection is a 4-pin mini-DIN connection.
Some laptop computers have an S-Video connection that users might mistake for a
keyboard or mouse port. Trying to force a keyboard or mouse connector into the port
can damage the pins.
Component video
Component video uses five cables to carry audio and video, compared to composite
videos three cables. Component video is paired with the white and red audio cables just
like with composite video. However with component video, the video signal is sent over
red, green and blue cables. Component video has twice the resolution of composite
video.
Coax connectors
Some computers have a coax connector for a cable television connection, enabling the
computer to be turned into a digital video recorder. By using this TV tuner card and
adding software to the computer, you can tune in specific TV channels and record the
broadcast to your hard drive. A video capture card can be used to record video and
might include a TV tuner. A TV tuner/video capture device can be either an internal
expansion card or an external USB device. TV tuner cards and video capture cards are
available in both analog and digital versions.
When you have a TV tuner or video capture card thats compatible with Windows Vista
Ultimate, Windows Vista Home Premium, or Windows XP Media Center Edition, you
can watch and record television on your Windows Media Center PC by connecting it to
a TV signal received from an antenna or cable TV source. A coax connector, similar to
what youd use to connect to satellite or cable TV, is the rightmost connector in Exhibit
9-35.
942
Exhibit 9-35: Coax connector (rightmost connector) for connecting TV antenna

MIDI connectors
MIDI connectors are found on musical instruments that are connected using the musical
instrument digital interface (MIDI) protocol. MIDI defines the port connector, the
format of the data sent, and the format in which the sounds are stored. The port is a large
DIN connector. Devices can be daisy-chained together, with one device connecting
from its MIDI output port to another devices MIDI input port. You can use doubleended cables to extend the connections length. The devices can also be connected to a
mixing board, a synthesizer, or a computer. A hub or connection box enables you to
disconnect an individual instrument without rerouting the remaining instruments.
Some high-end sound cards include MIDI connections, but usually an adapter is used.
The MIDI cable has the DIN connection on the MIDI device end and has either a 15-pin
joystick connector or a USB connector on the other end. There are also MIDI controller
boxes that have MIDI ports built into them; the box then connects to the computer
through a USB cable.
Exhibit 9-36 shows a MIDI device and MIDI cables. The MIDI drum kit on the left side
of the picture has MIDI-in and MIDI-out cables connected. A close-up of the MIDI
ports is shown in the upper right. Below the instrument is a MIDI connection device.
The MIDI instruments connect to the MIDI ports on the box, and a USB cable connects
it to the computer. Notice that the MIDI cable ends in a large DIN connector, similar to
the old-style keyboard connector.
Exhibit 9-36: MIDI connectors
943
S/PDIF
Sony/Philips Digital Interface (S/PDIF) is a standard developed by Sony and Philips for
digital audio transfer. This connection is found on CD and DVD drives. It connects to
an S/PDIF connector on a sound card or on the motherboard.
Because they are digital rather than analog, S/PDIF connections eliminate the need to
convert digital CD or DVD data to analog. And because the signal doesnt have to be
converted, S/PDIF eliminates the noise that would be created during the signal
conversion and would lower the audio quality.
In addition to internal drives, you can have external S/PDIF connections. These are
typically added through a card dedicated to digital multimedia connections. External
devices using S/PDIF connections include home theater receivers and professionalquality CD and DVD players. The external devices connect via either a square
connector or a coaxial connection. Examples of these are shown in Exhibit 9-37.
Coax S/PDIF
connectio ns
Square S/PDIF
optical connections
Exhibit 9-37: S/PDIF connections

The square connectors shown in Exhibit 9-37 have spring-loaded covers that close
automatically when you disconnect a cable. This arrangement prevents potentially eyedamaging light (from the internal fiber) from exiting the connector when nothing is
connected to it. You can connect TOSLINK connectors to the square-style S/PDIF
sockets.
944
Do it!
E-2:
Connecting multimedia devices
Heres how
1 Determine which of the
multimedia connections are
available on your computer
2 Connect one or more devices to
the appropriate port(s)
3 If you needed to connect a game
system to your computer, what
connection would you most likely
use?
Heres why
Remember, S/PDIF connections are likely to be
internal, if theyre available.
945
Topic F: Port, cable, and connector

troubleshooting
This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam version 2.0
objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

components
Adapter cards
I/O cards
FireWire
USB
Parallel
Serial
1.4

Loopback plugs
Working with ports, cables, and connectors

Explanation
causes, and suggested first try solutions for port, cable, and connector problems. The
following tables list problems, probable causes, and suggested solutions for the
following equipment:
Serial ports, cables, and connectors
Parallel ports, cables, and connectors
PS/2 ports, cables, and connectors
USB ports, cables, and connectors
IEEE 1394 ports, cables, and connectors
Wireless ports
Multimedia ports
You might encounter problems not listed in the tables that follow, but they provide a
few scenarios to consider when youre troubleshooting problems. The information listed
is the same not matter if the port in question is on the front of your computer or the
back.
946

Serial ports, cables, and connectors
The following table lists common problems you might encounter with serial ports,
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Serial port physically

present, but not listed
in Device Manager
Port disabled in BIOS;

system resource conflicts.
Use the BIOS setup utility to enable the serial

port. Check for device conflicts in Device
Manager.
Serial port inaccessible
System resource conflicts.
Check for device conflicts in Device Manager.
PC cant detect or
connect to external
modem
Bad serial cable;

communications settings
configured incorrectly;
serial port disabled on
motherboard.
Try using a different serial cable. Confirm the

communications settings between the PC and
modem. Use the BIOS setup utility to enable the
serial port.
Parallel ports, cables, and connectors

The following table lists common problems you might encounter with parallel ports,
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Parallel port physically

present, but not listed
in Device Manager
Port disabled in BIOS;

system resource conflicts;
external connector not
plugged into motherboard.
Use the BIOS setup utility to enable the parallel

port. Check for device conflicts in Device
Manager. Confirm that the connector is plugged
into the motherboard, and if its not, connect the
cable.
Parallel port
inaccessible
System resource conflicts.
Check for device conflicts in Device Manager.
Cant print to printer

connected to the
parallel port
Printer turned off or

disconnected; bad parallel
cable; wrong type of
parallel cable; wrong
parallel port operation
mode for printer; no printer
drivers installed; external
connector not plugged into
motherboard.
Confirm that the printer is plugged in and turned

on. Confirm that youre using the correct type of
cable; try using a different cable that you know
to be working. Use the BIOS setup utility to
confirm that the parallel port mode (SPP, ECP,
EPP) is compatible with the printer. Confirm that
the connector is plugged into the motherboard,
and if its not, connect the cable.
947
PS/2 ports, cables, and connectors

The following table lists common problems you might encounter with PS/2 ports,
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
No Keyboard Found
BIOS error
Keyboard not connected;

keyboard connected to the
mouse port; bad keyboard.
Confirm the keyboard and mouse

connections. Try using a different keyboard.
Moving the mouse causes

random characters to
appear on screen, or
computer emits a series of
beeps
Mouse connected to the

keyboard port.
Confirm the keyboard and mouse

connections.
No mouse pointer, or
pointer wont move when
you move the mouse
Bad mouse; cable

disconnected; or operating
system crash.
Replace the mouse with one you know to be

good. Confirm that the mouse is connected
to the correct port. Restart the computer.
Mouse moves erratically
Dirt in roller mechanisms.
Clean the mouse.
USB ports, cables, and connectors

The following table lists common problems you might encounter with USB ports,
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Cant connect to or
use USB device
Cable not connected; USB

cable is bad; device is
powered off; USB port
isnt enabled; motherboard
doesnt support USB;
external connector not
plugged into motherboard.
Confirm that the cable is connected. Try using a

different USB cable. Make sure the device is
powered on. Use the BIOS setup utility to confirm
that the motherboard supports USB; enable that
support, if necessary. Confirm that the connector is
plugged into the motherboard, and if its not, connect
the cable.
USB device not

listed in Device
Manager
Motherboard doesnt
support USB; device is
turned off or not
connected.
Confirm that the motherboard supports USB.

Confirm that the device is connected and turned on.
USB device works

intermittently or not
at all
Bad cable; too long a

cable; insufficient power
on the bus.
Try replacing the cable with a shorter cable thats

known to be good. Use a powered USB hub, or
connect the device directly to the PC. Unplug other
USB devices to further reduce power demands.
Unknown Device
in Device Manager
Device driver not

installed; corrupted
installation of driver.
Detach the USB device, install drivers for it, and reattach it. Alternatively, use Device Manager to
remove the device and the USB host controller from
the operating system, and then reboot. Windows will
detect the host controller and re-install operating
system support for it.
948

IEEE 1394 ports, cables, and connectors
The following table lists common problems you might encounter with IEEE 1394 ports,
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Device doesnt appear

in Device Manager or
is marked with a
yellow exclamation
point
Device is unsupported.
If the device is a host controller, try using a

comparable Windows driver. Only OpenHCI
host controllers are supported by Windows. NonOpenHCI controllers require additional device
drivers, typically supplied by the manufacturer.
Device disappears
from Device Manager
after installation
Power management feature

of device has turned it off,
thus removing it from the
system.
Change the power management settings on the

device itself.
System stops
responding after you
connect the device
Bus is reset due to bad

hardware, unsupported
hardware, or a loopback
condition in which cables
have been looped back to
the controller.
Turn off power to the device, remove the device,

verify that the cables havent looped back to the
host controller, and then turn on the power.
Device thats buspowered isnt receiving

power
Host controller that

supplies the power isnt
connected to power source
inside the system.
Verify that power has been connected to the host

controller.
A 4-pin device being used

that cant draw power from
the bus.
Plug the 4-pin device into a separate power

source. Verify that the 4-pin device is connected
to the end of the device chain.
Multimedia ports
The following table lists common problems you might encounter with multimedia ports.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
S/PDIF connection produces

garbled data, or error messages
indicate Unknown Format or
Wrong Sample Rate
Analog cable used

instead of digital cable.
Replace the cable with a digital 75 ohm

cable.
MIDI device isnt found
Usually an application
problem.
Review the MIDI sequencer application

for information on how to locate and use
the MIDI device.
Video problems occur when

using S-Video connection
Driver problem.
Try using an older or newer driver for the

video card. If youre using a tuner card, try
changing the driver for it.
No sound from speakers
Audio muted; speakers

plugged into line-in jack;
no power.
Verify audio is not muted. Verify that the

speakers are plugged into the line-out or
speaker port on the sound card. Verify that
the speakers are connected to a power
source.
949
Loopback plugs
When youre testing ports, a useful device to have in your toolkit is a loopback plug,
also known as a loopback adapter. This device is specific to the type of port youre
testing, and it plugs into the port. The loopback adapter enables you to perform a
loopback test, in which a signal is sent, passes through all of the necessary circuits to
complete the path, and returns to the port being tested. The returned signal is compared
to the sent signal to determine if theres a problem with the port or on the path that the
signal traveled.
Do it!
F-1:
Troubleshooting port, cable, and connector problems
Heres how
1 One or more problems related to ports, cables, and connectors have been
introduced into your lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine
their causes.
fix any other problems that arise.
950
Unit summary: Peripheral connection types

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that bits are sent one by one over a single wire in serial
transmission and that multiple bits plus control signals are sent simultaneously over
multiple wires in parallel transmission. Serial ports, often called COM1, COM2, and
so forth, implement serial transmissions for devices such as modems. These ports
typically use 9-pin D-shaped connectors. Parallel ports, often called LPT1, LPT2, and
so forth, implement parallel transmissions for devices such as printers. These ports
typically use 25-pin D-connectors or Centronics connectors.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that you typically connect keyboards, mice, and trackballs to
your PC by using the PS/2 ports. A PS/2 port is a round 6-pin mini-DIN connector.
The keyboard connector is typically purple and the mouse connector is typically green.
Although you can physically connect these devices to the opposite ports, they wont
function if you do.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned that the USB port is a high-speed, hot-swappable peripheral
bus that you can use to connect many types of devices, including keyboards, mice,
monitors, digital cameras, and external drives. USB components are categorized as
hosts or devices. Devices are divided into functionswhich are the peripherals you
connect to the USB portand hubs. You can daisy-chain hubs. USB versions include
USB 1.1, USB 2.0 and USB 3.0, of which USB 3.0 offers the highest speed and greatest
distances.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned that FireWire, IEEE 1394, and Sony i.Link are all names
given to the same high-speed peripheral interconnection bus. IEEE 1394 is a hotswappable, high-speed bus that supports up to 63 devices. FireWire uses a peer-to-peer
architecture for greater efficiency than can be achieved with USB. IEEE 1394 supports
asynchronous and isochronous transmissions. You also learned about the three
IEEE-approved FireWire standardsFireWire 400, FireWire 800, and FireWire
S3200.
Topic E
In this topic, you learned that there are several multimedia ports. Sound cards typically
have 1/8" round jacks. Some computer systems include RCA jacks for connecting
VCR, video cameras, and other electronic devices that use RCA jacks. You also learned
that most systems connect MIDI devices to either a joystick or USB port. Some
computer systems include a card with MIDI ports. S/PDIF is found on some systems
for audio connections. S-Video connections enable you to connect devices that would
normally not be connected to a computer, such as a TV or a game system. You also
learned about TV tuner cards and video capture cards, which allow you to view and
record analog and digital television signals from an antenna, cable, or satellite.
Topic F
In this topic, you learned that ports, connectors, and cables can fail for various reasons.
You learned how to troubleshoot these components. You also examined common
symptoms of failures and the probable causes and suggested solutions.
951
Review questions
1 The following picture is a connector for what type of communication?
A Parallel
B Serial
2 True or false? In parallel transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the
transmission medium.
False. In serial transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the transmission medium.
3 How many COM ports are supported by PC hardware?

A One
B Two
C Four
D Eight
4 True or false? Youll never find more than the maximum number of COM ports on
a computer than what is supported by its hardware.
False. Windows supports software emulation of additional COM ports. Therefore, you might find
PCs with higher-numbered COM ports.
5 Which type of bit is used for error checking?

A Data bit
B Flow control bit
C Parity bit
D Start bit
E Stop bit
6 True or false? LPT parallel printer ports are one-way communication ports.
False. Originally, the LPT port was a one-way communications port. However, various techniques
such as EPP and ECP, have enabled two-way communications.
952

7 Which of the following connectors is a Centronics connector?
A
8 What color is a PS/2 keyboard port?

A Black
B Green
C Pink
D Purple
E Red
F Yellow
953
9 What color is a PS/2 mouse port?

A Black
B Green
C Pink
D Purple
E Red
F Yellow
10 True or false? You can connect a barcode reader or a keyboard to a PCs PS/2
keyboard port, but not both.
False. You can use a Y-adapter to connect both the barcode reader and the keyboard to the port.
11 Which USB version has a top transfer speed of 480 Mbps?

A USB 1.0
B USB 1.1
C USB 2.0
D USB 3.0
12 Which USB connector is wide and flat?
A Type A
B Type B
13 You can get cable lengths of up to of 25 meters with USB by ______________.
daisy-chaining
14 Which FireWire version supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps?

A FireWire 400
B FireWire 800
C FireWire S3200
15 True or false? A FireWire S3200 device plugged into a FireWire 800 port operates
at the FireWire S3200 speed.
True.
16 Which FireWire port is shown in the following graphic?
A FireWire 400
B FireWire 800
C FireWire S3200
954

17 How many pins does a FireWire 800 connector have?
A 4
B 6
C 8
D 9
18 What size are the connectors on a sound card?
A 1/16"
B 1/8"
C 1/4"
D 1/2"
19 The multimedia ports shown in the following graphic are which type?
A PS/2
B Centronics
C MIDI
D RCA
E S-Video
20 Which type of multimedia port is shown in the following graphic?
A Coax
B S/PDIF
C MIDI
D RCA
E S-Video
955
21 True or false? A TV tuner card allows you to record your favorite television
programs on your hard disk.
False. A TV tuner card only allows you to receive the TV signal for your favorite television shows
and watch them. To record the show on your hard disk, you need a video capture card. Some,
though not all, video capture cards include TV tuners.

In this activity, youll practice identifying different types of ports, connectors, and
cables. Your instructor will provide you with either a variety of device ports and
connectors, or photos of device ports and connectors. You need to successfully identify
each example.
1 Given devices or photographs, correctly identify the following connection types:
9-pin serial
FireWire 400 4-pin
Coax
25-pin parallel
FireWire 400 6-pin
MIDI
Centronics
FireWire 800 9-pin
S/PDIF square
PS/2
1/8"
S/PDIF round
USB 2.0 Type A
RCA
S-Video
USB 2.0 Type B
2 If available, also correctly identify: 25-pin serial, USB 3.0, and FireWire S3200.
956
101
Unit 10

A Define the common drive interfaces.
B Install hard drives, and create partitions,
and file systems.

C Describe optical data storage and use
optical drives and discs.

D Use removable drives.
E Maintain your hard disks.
F Identify and resolve problems with hard
disks.
102
Topic A: Drive adapters

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
USB 1.0 and 2.0
Serial
Parallel
PATA
IDE
EIDE
SATA, eSATA
1.9

I/O
SCSI
Serial
USB
Parallel
objective.
#
Objective
1.1
Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal

computer components
Adapter cards
Storage controllers
eSATA cards
I/O cards
FireWire
USB
Parallel
Serial
103
Adapters, controllers, and interfaces

Explanation
Host bus adapter (HBA) is the formal name given to the expansion card or circuitry
integrated onto the motherboard that connects your PC to a storage device. In practice,
that term is usually reserved for use with a few types of drives, such as SCSI drives. The
term adapter is used when referring to IDE/ATA, SATA, and other types of storage
devices.
Regardless of its name, the purpose of an adapter is to enable your computers CPU to
communicate across the storage bus. At the other end, the controller is the circuit that
enables the storage device to communicate across the bus. Typically, a controller is
implemented in a single chip or set of chips integrated into the drives interface
circuitry.
An interface is the communications standard that defines how data flows to and from
the disk drive. In current practice, an interface is implemented as a circuit board
attached to the top (or bottom, depending on how you look at it) of the drive unit, as
With older drive technologies, the interface was implemented with circuitry on the
adapter rather than on the drive. Thus, you sometimes encounter the term interface
referring to that circuit board on the drive. Given that such a circuit board implements
the logic and functions of the interface specification, that use of the term makes a
certain amount of sense.
Exhibit 10-1: A hard disk drive showing its drive interface board
104

PC drive interfaces
The following table lists various interfaces that have been developed for PCs. All are in
common use now.
Interface
Introduced
Description
SCSI
Early 1980s
The original, and still popular, Small Computer Systems Interface

(SCSI) is a parallel system bus, in some ways like an expansion bus.
Newer incarnations of SCSI, including the Serial Attached SCSI,
use a serial transmission method instead of parallel transmission.
Many devices can be connected through a SCSI interface, but
drives, particularly optical drives, are the most common devices to
use it.
IDE
Mid-1980s
The Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface is an older drive

interface largely replaced by ATA, SATA, and other interfaces. It
was developed by Western Digital.
ATA, PATA,
and SATA
Standardized by
ANSI in 1994
The AT Attachment (ATA) interface is an evolution of the IDE

interface. Two versions, Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA
(SATA) exist, though SATA has largely replaced PATA in new
systems. eSATA is a version of SATA used with external devices.
IEEE 1394
(FireWire,
i.Link)
Mid-1990s,
standardized in
1995
FireWire was developed by Apple Computer Corp. and later

standardized by the IEEE to provide a high-speed serial device
interface. Many components, in addition to drives, can be attached
through a FireWire interface.
USB 1.1, USB

2.0, and USB
3.0
Mid-1990s
USB is not technically a drive interface. It is a generic serial bus

that can transport almost any kind of data. However, USB flash
drives use the USB bus instead of a traditional drive interface.
External USB drives, however, typically use an ATA interface and
adapter circuitry that connects that interface to the USB bus.
ATA, PATA, and SATA

The AT Attachment (ATA) interface is an especially popular drive interface thanks to
good performance and low implementation costs for manufacturers. ATA evolved from
Western Digitals IDE and was standardized in 1994 by ANSI as X3.221-1994.
ATA has undergone many revisions since its first release. It can be divided into two
groups: Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA (SATA). As of 2009, SATA has just about
replaced PATA in consumer PCs. PATA continues to be used in CompactFlash storage
applications. The following table describes various incarnations of the ATA interface.
Standard
Transfer
rate
Description
Speed enhancements
ATA
3.38.3 MBps
The first ATA standard.

Supported only hard drives.
Programmed Input Output (PIO)

modes 0, 1, and 2; single- and
multi-word DMA.
Enhanced IDE,
Fast ATA, Fast
ATA-2
13.3-16.6
MBps
Proprietary extensions to the

ATA specification developed by
companies such as Western
Digital, Seagate, and Quantum.
105
Standard
Transfer
rate
Description
Speed enhancements
ATA-2
11.116.6
MBps
The ANSI standardized version

of EIDE/Fast ATA. It provided
for power saving and security
features.
PIO modes 3 and 4, plus two

multi-word DMA modes.
Allowed 32-bit data transfers
and block mode transfers.
ATA-3
Up to 16.6
MBps
Improved the reliability of highspeed data transfers compared to

ATA-2. Introduced the SelfMonitoring Analysis and
Reporting Technology
(SMART) for monitoring drive
health.
None.
ATAPI
No transfer
rate specified
in the standard
AT Attachment Packet
Interfacean extension of the
ATA specifications to support
tape and CD-ROM drives.
None.
ATA/ATAPI-4
16.733 MBps
An enhancement of the ATAPI

and ATA-3 specifications. It
added data integrity checks
(CRC checking) and the new
drive control commands, and it
removed obsolete commands.
UltraDMA modes 0, 1, and 2,

and an improved 80-conductor
cable specification. UltraDMA
mode 2 offered the best
performance, and drives
supporting it are often called
UltraDMA/33 drives, reflecting
their 33 MBps transfer rates.
ATA/ATAPI-5
Up to 66.7
MBps
A further enhancement to the

ATA specification that offered
speed enhancements, command
cleanup, and functions to detect
whether the 80-conductor cable
was in use.
UltraDMA modes 3 and 4;

mandatory use of the 80conductor cable for UltraDMA
mode 4. Drives running in
UltraDMA mode 4 are most
often called UltraDMA/66
drives.
ATA/ATAPI-6
Up to 100
MBps
Further enhancements to offer

increased throughput and
support for extremely large hard
drives.
UltraDMA mode 5. Drives

implementing this mode are
often called UltraDMA/100
drives.
ATA/ATAPI-7
Up to 133
MBps
Yet another enhancement to

offer increased throughput.
UltraDMA mode 6 with drives

being called UltraDMA/133
drives.
SATA 1
(SATA 150)
Up to 1.5
Gbps (150
MBps)
Serial ATAa serial bus

implementation of an ATA-style
interface.
Many enhancements, including

a dual cable arrangement and
dedicated connections to each
device.
SATA 2
(SATA 300)
Up to 3 Gbps
SATA Revision 2.0
Various design enhancements

including improved support in
multitasking environments.
SATA 3
(SATA 600)
Up to 6 Gbps
SATA Revision 3.0
Various design enhancements

including improved support in
multitasking environments.
106

Standard
Transfer
rate
Description
Speed enhancements
eSATA
Up to 3 Gbps
External SATAa version of

SATA designed for connecting
external SATA devices.
Competes against USB and

FireWire interfaces. Its faster
than FireWire 400 and 800 but
not as fast as FireWire S3200.
eSATA has a shorter maximum
cable length: 2 meters.
Speed improvement techniques

In the original ATA schemes, the CPU was involved with every data transfer through a
scheme called programmed input/output (PIO). Five PIO schemes were developed, with
each new level improving performance through various techniques. These schemes are
listed in the following table.
PIO mode
Transfer rate
3.3 MBps
5.2 MBps
8.3 MBps
11.1 MBps
16.7 MBps
Later, designers came up with direct memory access (DMA) schemes that removed the
need for the CPU to be involved with every transfer. The six DMA schemes provided
the performance levels listed in the following table.
DMA mode
Transfer rate
Single-word 0
2.1 MBps
Single-word 1
4.2 MBps
Single-word 2
8.3 MBps
Multi-word 0
4.2 MBps
Multi-word 1
13.3 MBps
Multi-word 2
16.7 MBps
Later improvements of the DMA schemes became known as UltraDMA (sometimes

called UDMA). Currently, there are seven UltraDMA modes, which provide the
performance levels listed in the following table.

UltraDMA mode
Transfer rate
16.7 MBps
25 MBps
33.3 MBps
44.4 MBps
66.7 MBps
100 MBps
133 MBps
107
Cables and connectors

The following exhibits show PATA motherboard connectors, PATA drive cables, and
SATA connectors.
Exhibit 10-2: 40-pin PATA motherboard connectors
Exhibit 10-3: A 40-wire PATA drive cable
108
Exhibit 10-4: A high-speed 80-wire PATA drive cable
Exhibit 10-5: SATA data cables

Drive capacities
The original hard drive specifications limited capacities to 504 MB. This was due to
limitations on the physical parameters of various hard drive components, namely the
number of read/write heads, the number of tracks on the disk, and the number of sectors
(sections) in each track. Memory and other programming space must be set aside for
each. The standards that led to this limit were developed when MS-DOS was the
primary operating system, and memory was limited to 1 MB.
At that time, a 500 MB limit seemed beyond foreseeable needs. However, the need for
storage space quickly outgrew this limit. Another limit was reached later when drive
capacities pushed beyond the 137 GB maximum capacity supported by the ATA
specification itself.
To increase the maximum supported drive size, the various ATA enhancements used a
variety of techniques:
LBA Logical block addressing increased the size limit to 8.4 GB through the
use of sector translation. Basically, the interface made the drive appear to have a
different physical arrangement that bypassed limits that its actual geometry
would impose.
ECHS ECHS is another version of LBA-style sector translation that supports
up to 8.4 GB disks.
109
Interrupt 13h extensions Limits in the BIOS routines limited drive

capacities to 8.4 GB. Moving beyond this limit required BIOS changes. The
interrupt 13h extensions changed the way the BIOS accessed disk drives.
Changing the BIOS in this way required changes to both the BIOS firmware and
the operating system. Since Windows 95, operating systems have supported the
interrupt 13h BIOS extensions. Interrupt 13 extensions theoretically permit
drives of up to 8 ZB (8,549,250,196 TB), though limitations in ATA can limit
drives to as little as 128 GB.
ATA limits Design limits in the ATA specification limited drives to 137 GB.
Newer versions of the ATA specification, beginning with ATA-6, remove this
limit.
Large LBA The most recent capacity enhancements were made possible by
the ATA-6 interface standard. It increased the number of bits used for sector
addressing to 48, leading to a maximum capacity of 144 petabytes (150,994,944
GB). This technique is often called large logical block addressing.
Drive identification
The PATA specification supports two drives per controller. One drive must be
designated as the master disk. The other is called the slave. You must configure or
connect drives to support this arrangement, or communications between the drives
wont work.
You have two methods to configure drive roles in a PATA system. With the earliest
IDE and PATA drives, you set a jumper or DIP switch to specify the role: master, slave,
or the only drive in the system. Later drives enabled you to rely on a feature called
cable-select (CS). Youd set the jumper to the CS position, at which point where you
connected the drive to the cable determined its role. As shown in Exhibit 10-6, the drive
connected furthest from the motherboard is the master drive.
When using cable-select, the CS jumper must be set on both drives and the
motherboard. Otherwise, neither of the drives will work. When assigning roles
specifically via the jumpers without CS, where you connect the drive to the cable has no
effect. In other words, you could plug the master drive into the middle connector and it
would still function as the master as long as you set jumpers correctly.
Motherboard
Slave
Master
Exhibit 10-6: A PATA cable, showing where to connect the master and slave drives
1010 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One

Primary and secondary channels
Most modern motherboards include two built-in PATA channels, as shown in Exhibit
10-7. These are designated as the primary and secondary channels. While not required,
you would typically connect your primary hard drive as the master device on the
primary channel. For best performance, you would then connect your optical drive to
the secondary channel.
Secondary IDE
Primary IDE
Exhibit 10-7: Primary and secondary PATA connectors on the motherboard
SCSI
The Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) is a bus interface and is, in many ways,
more like an expansion bus than like a drive adapter technology. SCSI, which is
pronounced scuzzy, supports all sorts of data storage devices, printers, scanners, and
video devices. SCSI has even been used as the basis for very high-performance
computer networks.
SCSI was developed in the early 1980s but not standardized by ANSI until 1986. Since
that time, the technology has undergone many changes. It remains a popular drive
interface with workstations, servers, and high-end desktop computers. Its also
commonly used with higher-end scanners and digitizing devices. Until recently, SCSI
was also very popular with drives used with Macintosh computers.
Standard
Bus width
(bits)
Bandwidth
Maximum
cable length
Maximum number
of devices
SCSI
8 bits
5 MBps
6 meters
Fast SCSI
8 bits
10 MBps
1.53 m
Fast Wide SCSI
16 bits
20 MBps
1.53 m
16
Ultra SCSI
8 bits
20 MBps
1.53 m
48
Ultra Wide SCSI
16 bits
40 MBps
1.53 m
416
Ultra2/LVD
8 bits
40 MBps
12 m
Ultra2 Wide
16 bits
80 MBps
12 m
16
Ultra3
16 bits
160 MBps
12 m
16
1011
Standard
Bus width
(bits)
Bandwidth
Maximum
cable length
Maximum number
of devices
Ultra-320
16 bits
320 MBps
12 m
16
Ultra-640
16 bits
640 MBps
12 m
16
Serial-attached
SCSI (SAS)
1 bit
300 MBps
8m
128 device ports,

supporting up to 16,256
devices
Device IDs
Every SCSI device, including the host bus adapter (HBA), must be assigned a unique ID
number. SCSI IDs begin at 0 and count upward. With 8-bit SCSI implementations, SCSI
ID 7 has the highest priority and 0 the lowest. With 16-bit SCSI, ID 7 is still the highest
priority (to maintain backward compatibility). SCSI 15 has the next highest, counting
downward to 8 having the lowest priority. The HBA is normally assigned the highest
priority SCSI ID, which is always SCSI ID 7.
You must assign unique IDs to devices. Its not uncommon when implementing SCSI
devices to have ID conflicts that prevent devices from working.
Termination
Both ends of the SCSI bus must be terminated. Such terminators are basically electrical
resistors that absorb signals that reach the end of the bus. Without them, signals could
reflect back onto the bus, leading to a confusing mix of actual and reflected signals.
The HBA includes either removable resistors or switch-selectable on-board terminators
built in. Drives and other devices can also include switch-selectable termination or
removable terminators. Exhibit 10-8 illustrates an external drive with switch-selectable
termination.
SCSI ID
Termination switch
Exhibit 10-8: External SCSI drive with SCSI ID selector and termination slide-switch
SCSI terminators are supposed to add electrical impedance equal to the impedance of
the cable. Passive terminators are simply resistors that dampen reflected signals through
non-electronic means. They come close to matching the impedance in most situations.
In demanding applications, however, you should use an active terminator. An active
terminator is an electronic component that dynamically tunes itself to exactly match the
impedance of the cable. Active termination is most often used with the newer, higherperforming types of SCSI.

Differential SCSI
In the original SCSI specification, electronic signals are referenced compared to a
common ground. In other words, whether a signal is or isnt present on a particular wire
is determined based on its voltage difference as compared to a common ground signal.
This single-ended (SE) scheme works well with slower data transfer rates and short
cables. With the introduction of Ultra SCSI, engineers developed differential SCSI,
which worked better with longer cables and higher data rates. In differential SCSI, later
renamed High Voltage Differential (HVD), data lines are paired. The signal on one line
is the electrical opposite of that on the other. In this way, the presence of a signal is
determined by examining the difference between the voltage levels on these two lines.
In the Ultra2 SCSI specification, designers refined the HVD scheme, reducing the
voltage from 5 V to 3.3 V, and Low Voltage Differential (LVD) was born. The terms
Ultra2 SCSI and LVD can be used interchangeably.
USB
USB is not a drive interface, but instead a general purpose data bus. Most USB drives
are actually ATA drives with an integrated USB interface adapter. While this is
certainly a convenient way to attach an external ATA drive to your PC, its not the same
as connecting a drive directly to the USB interface.
True USB drives are feasible. The circuitry of the drive would be connected directly to
the USB bus without any sort of ATA controller involved. Hard drives with this
configuration are rare, perhaps non-existent. However, the typical USB flash drive or
memory card reader is just such a drive. Circuitry in these devices translates directly
from the memory cards electrical interface to the USB bus. No ATA/PATA controller
is involved in most USB flash drive designs.
USB flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class (UMS), which is a set
of communications protocols defined by the USB Implementers Forum. UMS enables
operating systems to access storage devices via the USB bus. UMS is supported in
Windows since the Windows 98 days. It is also supported by Mac OS X and Linux.
UMS doesnt support the full range of low-level hard drive functions, such as
S.M.A.R.T., command-queuing, and so forth. For USB flash drives, this is typically not
a concern. External hard drives in a USB enclosure might be a PATA drive internally.
But, because they connect to the PC via the UMS interface, they are likewise unable to
take advantage of these advanced low-level functions.
The USB 1.1 specification limited data transfer to 12 Mbps (megabits per second). The
USB 2.0 specification increased that limit to 480 Mbps. The USB 3.0 specification has a
maximum transfer speed of 5 Gbps.
1013

IEEE 1394 is a serial interface technology based on the Serial SCSI standard. Its a
general-purpose interface. As with USB, its possible to use FireWire in place of a more
traditional drive interface. Akin to USBs UMS standard, IEEE 1394 uses the Serial Bus
Protocol 2 (SBP-2) to enable the operating system to interface directly with storage
devices without a traditional drive interface involved.
FireWire 400 supports up to 400 Mbps throughput, while FireWire 800 supports up to
800 Mbps. FireWire S1600, with a data transfer rate of 1.6 Gbps; and FireWire S3200,
with a data transfer rate of 4 Gbps are newer versions designed to compete with the new
USB 3.0 standard.
FireWire supports isochronous transfers in which a device can be granted dedicated
access to the interface for a period of time. This makes FireWire well-suited for video
data, whether it be as a stream of digital video from a camera or a stream of digitized
video read from a fast disk drive or array.
Do it!
A-1:
Distinguishing among drive controllers
Heres how
Heres why
1 If necessary, shut down Windows

7 and power off your computer
2 Following all electrical safety and
ESD precautions, open your PCs
case
3 Determine if your PC supports
ATA drives
Locate the ATA connectors on the motherboard.

SATA drives
Look for the SATA data and power connectors

on the motherboard.

SCSI drives
Look for the SCSI data and power connectors on

the motherboard.

USB drives
The interface circuitry of the USB drive is

connected directly to the USB bus without any
sort of ATA controller involved. This type of
internal drive connection is uncommon.
7 Examine the selection of drives

and adapters provided by your
instructor. For each one,
determine its interface type. Then
rank them in increasing order of
performance.
Topic B: Hard drives

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.1
Categorize storage devices and backup media

HDD
Solid state vs. magnetic
Removable storage
External CD-RW and hard drive
1.2

Contrast RAID (levels 0, 1, 5)
3.2

Computer Management
3.3
File systems
FAT32 vs. NTFS
objectives.
#
Objective
1.1

HDD
SATA
PATA
Solid state
Adapter cards
Storage controllers
2.1
FORMAT

#
Objective
2.3
1015
Disk Manager
Active, primary, extended, and logical partitions
Mount points
Mounting a drive
FAT32, NTFS, FAT64 (exFAT)
External hard drives
Flash drives
Drive status
Foreign drive
Healthy
Formatting
Active unallocated
Failed
Dynamic
Offline
Online
Hard disk drives

Explanation
Most consumer PC hard drives store data by means of magnetism. Magnetic hard drives
are made up of the parts described in the following table.
Component
Description
Platters
The metal or plastic disks on which the magnetic material is coated. Data is
recorded in that magnetic material as a set of magnetically polarized regions.
Spindle
The axis, or central hub, that the platters spin around. A motor turns the
spindle very quickly, 7200 revolutions per minute for example.
Read/write
heads
The magnetic devices that both read and write data on the platters. The heads
are attached to the arms, which are moved by the actuator.
Voice coil
actuator
The mechanism that moves the heads very precisely into position over the
magnetic tracks written on the platters.

Exhibit 10-9 shows the components of a typical magnetic hard drive.
Arm
Actuator
Head
Platter
Spindle
Exhibit 10-9: The internal components of a hard drive

Solid-state drives
Some hard disk drives are solid-state drives (SSDs), meaning that they use memory
chips (RAM or flash memory) to read and write data, instead of using a rotating disk.
SSDs have no moving parts. Therefore, they are less fragile than magnetic hard drives
and are silent. RAM-based disks require power to maintain their data and typically
include backup batteries.
SSDs are becoming increasingly available in laptops, netbooks, and smartphones. They
are more expensive than magnetic hard drives of comparable capacity, form factor, and
transfer speed.
Solid-state drives have the following advantages:
Faster startup time, because the drives dont need to spin up like magnetic
drives do
Faster transfer speeds, because the drives dont have to move a read/write head
Lower power consumption
Less heat generated
Ability to operate in higher temperatures (magnetic drives typically operate
between 40F and 130F; solid-state drives can operate at up to 160F)
Less risk of failure, because SSDs dont have the magnetic drives mechanical
parts
Magnetic drives have the following advantages:
Lower cost
Greater capacity than what is available with current solid-state drives
Higher number of write/erase cycles than SSDs
Faster write speeds
Powering all the way down when the PC is turned off (RAM-based SSDs can
continue to draw power when the PC is off)
1017
Hard drive geometry

In magnetic drives, data is written by the heads onto the platters as the platters spin
beneath the heads. Data is recorded onto both the top and bottom of each platter. A disk
drive typically has more than one platter stacked concentrically.
Data isnt written in a spiral groove, as with an old phonograph record. Instead, data is
written in a series of concentric tracks. A cylinder is the logical collection of all of the
tracks at a given distance from the axis.
Each track is divided into sectors. Each sector contains identification information at its
beginning and end, and contains data in between. A sector typically holds 512 bytes of
data. Sectors are gathered logically into groups called clusters or allocation units. A
cluster typically contains between 1 and 128 sectors, for a range of 512 bytes to 64 KB.
Files are stored in one or more clusters. A table stored on the hard drive tracks the
clusters assigned to each file. If a file does not fill an entire cluster (or the entire last
cluster in a group of clusters to which it is assigned), some space on the disk will be
wasted. The cluster will be marked as in use and thus unavailable. However, some of
the cluster will be left empty.
Using smaller cluster sizes typically wastes less space but results in more overhead
tracking of the clusters occupied by files. Access times can be increased and
performance reduced. Using larger clusters instead wastes more space but results in less
overhead and sometimes better performance. You can specify the cluster size when
installing a new disk drive to balance space and performance factors.
Exhibit 10-10 shows the logical geometry of the typical hard drive.
Cylinder
Sector
Exhibit 10-10: Hard drive geometry
Track

Heads and head crash
During use, the read/write heads float on a very thin cushion of air about half a millionth
of an inchhalf of a microinchabove the platter. In comparison, a human hair or
common dust particle is 20003000 microinches in diameter.
This thin cushion makes hard drives susceptible to head crash, a condition in which the
heads come into contact with the platter surface. Head crash can damage the heads,
platters, or both. Fortunately, modern materials and manufacturing techniques have
made head crash less of a concern than it was with older drives.
When you shut down your PC, the read/write heads are moved by the voice coil actuator
into a safe position and are safely brought to rest, either on the surface or mechanically
suspended above it. The heads are said to be parked.
Before Windows and operating-system shutdown procedures were introduced, you had
to use a special utility to park the heads on your hard drive. Before shutting off your old
DOS PC, you would run the utility to park the heads. Then youd turn off the power to
your PC. Drives themselves now handle this operation automatically when you shut
down Windows.
Connections
You can purchase internal or external hard disks. Internal hard disks can be connected
through a PATA, SCSI, or SATA interface. External hard disks might use eSATA,
USB, or IEEE 1394 (FireWire) connections. Some external hard disks will come with a
variety of ports so you can choose the one that best meets your performance needs and
fits the connections on your computer.
Physical installation
Physically installing an internal hard disk drive into a PC involves a few steps, which
you must perform in the following order:
1 Shut down the PC and open its case. (Observe electrical and safety precautions.)
2 Set jumpers or switches on the drive to provide drive identification.
3 If youre installing a SCSI drive, you might need to configure bus termination by
setting switches or jumpers or by installing or removing terminator blocks. The
bus must be terminated on both ends and cannot have extra termination installed
in the middle of the chain.
4 Install the drive into the PC chassis.
5 Connect data and control cables from the adapter to the drive.
6 Connect the power cable from the PCs power supply to the drive.
After you physically install the drive, additional preparation steps are required to make
it available to the operating system.
1019
Chassis installation
You can typically use any available bay for a hard drive. However, one or more smaller,
drive-sized bays are typically available for this precise purpose. Make sure you install
the drive in a location that the data and power cables can reach.
Most modern drives work equally well mounted horizontally or vertically. Unlike with
older drives, theres typically no harm in mounting a drive one way and then mounting
it in a different orientation later.
As always, before you open a PCs case, make sure you shut down the computer and
unplug it from the outlet. Follow all of the typical static safety precautions. Dont bump
or jar the drive. Hard drives are sensitive to shocks, and you can easily damage them.
Data cable connections
Most drive cables are keyedthat is, their connectors are molded in such a way that you
can insert them only the correct way into the connector sockets. If youre using an older
non-keyed cable, wire 1 in the cable is marked with a red (or other color) stripe. Pin 1
on the socket is labeled with either a number or a small triangle pointing at the pin. You
need to line up the cable so that pin 1 goes into socket 1.
If youre using cable-select to set the master/slave selection for a drive, make sure you
connect the IDE drive to the intended connector. If youre using SCSI, make sure the
bus is correctly terminated at both ends and that termination is not applied in the middle
of the chain.
Power cable connections
Most PATA and SCSI drives use the large peripheral power connector. This connector
has beveled corners so that you can insert it into the socket correctly. SATA drives use a
specialized power connector that looks very different from the peripheral power
connector. Its also keyed so that youre sure to connect it properly.

Do it!
B-1:
Physically installing a hard drive
Heres how
Heres why

and unplug it from the outlet
Youll install an additional hard drive in your

system.
2 Open your PCs case
Follow all electrical and ESD precautions.
3 Set the jumpers or switches, as

appropriate, to specify the drive
identification
Youll need to set master, slave, single drive, or

cable-select for an IDE drive, or set the SCSI ID
for a SCSI drive.
4 Locate an available drive bay and

install the drive
5 Install the data ribbon cable
Install the cable in the correct orientation, and

attach the drive to the correct connector on the
cable.
6 Install the power cable

7 Close the PCs case
Dont turn on your computer yet
You have physically installed the drive, but you

must prepare it for use with the operating
system. Youll do that next.
1021
Hard drive preparation

Once youve physically installed a hard drive, you must prepare it for use by the
operating system. With hard drives, the following steps must be performed separately:
1 Historically, the first step was to perform a low-level format. This step is not
necessary with modern drives.
2 Partition the drive.
3 Format the drive (with a high-level format).
Low-level formatting
Low-level formatting divides the disk into tracks and divides each track into sectors.
Historically, this was a step that the user performed. Since the early 1990s, low-level
formatting is done at the factory. Its not something that you have to do after it comes
from the factory. In fact, in most cases, you cannot low-level format a drive, even if you
wanted to.
Background information
Older hard drives used a stepper motor to move the heads into position over the tracks.
Each step of the motor would move the heads one track in or out. Due to heat, wear, and
other factors over time, the size and shape of the platters changed. Eventually, the steps
moved by the motor no longer put the heads precisely over a track. At that point, data
read/write errors made the disk unusable. Eventually, your only solution was to lowlevel format the drive to define new tracks beneath the new positions of the heads. Of
course, doing so obliterated your data.
New hard drives use voice coil actuators rather than stepper motors. Drive circuitry can
detect whether the head is positioned precisely over the track. If not, the voice coil can
tweak the position to optimize read and write operations. This process eliminates the
need to repeat low-level formatting of a drive.
In older hard drives, each track contained the same number of sectors. Modern hard
drives use complex sector arrangements such as zoned bit recording (ZBR). With ZBR,
more sectors are recorded in the larger outer tracks than in the smaller inner tracks. ZBR
is optimized by the drive manufacturer to balance transfer speed and data density.
Together with the benefits of voice coils, ZBR is another reason why low-level
formatting has become a process done only at the factory.

Partitioning
Partitioning divides a hard drive into one or more logical drives, also called volumes.
Consider a 500 GB drive. You could partition it into two 250 GB drives, each with its
own drive letter. You still have one physical disk drive, but it appears to the operating
system to be two drives.
Partitioning drives was an important consideration with early hard drives and operating
systems that couldnt support large volumes. Without partitioning to create additional
volumes, you couldnt use all of the available space on a hard drive. When you install
Windows operating systems from the command prompt, you can delete and create
partitions.
The original Windows XP product, with no service packs, supported partitions of only
137 GB. To install Windows XP on a partition larger than 137 GB, you need the SP1
or later version for Windows XP. Windows 2000 SP3 and later, plus all versions of
Windows 7 and Windows Vista support larger partitions right out of the box.
Most modern computers and current operating systems support enormous volumes, so
you can generally use the entire space of a drive in a single volume. However, you
must still partition a hard drive into at least one volume.
Exhibit 10-11: Disk partitions as shown in Disk Management in Windows 7

The master boot record (MBR)
The first sector on the bootable hard disk is called the master boot record (MBR). This
sector serves the same purpose as the boot sector on a floppy disk. The MBR, which is
sometimes called the master boot block or partition table, contains partition information
and other information used by the computer after the POST has finished. Critically, it
also contains a pointer to the boot loader, which is used to start your operating system.
Primary and extended partitions
Primary partitions are those partitions that are directly accessed by the operating system
as volumes.
Historically, in DOS and Windows 9.x, you could create a single primary partition on
each hard drive. In all newer versions of Windows, you can create up to four primary
partitions per drive. Most of the partitions you create are primary partitions.
1023
You can also create extended partitions. Each extended partition contains one or more
logical volumes, which are what the operating system accesses for file storage. With all
of the PC operating systems, you can create a single extended partition, which can
contain as many logical drives as space permits.
In most situations, you wont need to create extended partitions. You can install a
separate operating system into each volume (including into each logical volume within
the extended partition). Thus, one justification for creating an extended partition is to
enable booting into more than four operating systems on a single system.
Its important to note that Microsoft changed the partitioning scheme for Windows 7
and Windows Vista to accommodate expanded drive sizes. It places the starting and
ending points for partitions in different locations on the hard disk than in previous
versions of Windows. That makes the new partitioning scheme incompatible with the
scheme used in previous versions of Windows. If you need to create a multiboot
computer, you should create all of your partitions by using Windows 7 and Windows
Vista, not a previous version of Windows or a third-party utility.
Partitioning utilities
In DOS and Windows 9x systems, you use the MS-DOS fdisk command to partition a
hard drive. The version of fdisk that was included with Windows 98 could also
partition drives for use with the FAT32 and NTFS file systems. To force fdisk to write
a new MBR, you must use the fdisk /mbr command.
You can use the Disk Management component of the Computer Management console in
Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows
Server. You can access this console component via the Control Panel and use it to
partition and format new disk drives.
You can use the text-mode diskpart command in Windows XP, Windows Vista,
Windows 7, and Windows Server 2003 and newer. (You might have to download the
tool for some Windows versions.) This command-line tool enables you to perform all
the disk management tasks that youd perform with Disk Management. You can also
use this tool within management scripts, making it a powerful alternative to the
graphical tools.
Disk Management and diskpart are designed for adding a drive to a working
Windows system. For new drives in new systems, you need a different method. Most
versions of Windows since Windows NT offer you the option of partitioning the hard
drive during the operating system installation.
File systems
The operating system must be able to access and track files stored on the hard drive. The
file system is the collection mechanism that enables these functions. A file system
defines such parameters as the minimum and maximum cluster sizes, how the locations
of files are tracked, and how files and directories are stored within the actual clusters.
An operating system can find any file on the hard drive by looking it up in the file
systems data structures.
You select the file system you want to use when you install the operating system. If you
have more than one partition, you can use different file systems on each partition.

After installing the OS, you can format partitions that dont contain your operating
system files by using the Disk Management console, the diskpart tool, or the format
command. There are two broad families of file systems used with PCs:
The FAT file system family
The NTFS file system family
The FAT file system
The File Allocation Table (FAT) file system was originally developed for the DOS
operating system. It was later extended to support the Windows 9x family of operating
systems. There are 16-bit and 32-bit versions of the FAT file system, called FAT16 and
FAT32, respectively. The FAT16 file system is frequently called simply FAT.
The FAT16 file system can store files with names containing up to eight alphanumeric
characters and a three-letter file extension. FAT16 file names cant contain spaces or
most punctuation characters. This is the file system that was used with DOS, Windows
3.1, and Windows 95. FAT16 volumes cannot be larger than 4GB. Newer Windows
versions can read FAT16 volumes and in many cases create them. However, this
support is provided for backward compatibility reasons and, in general you should
choose a more modern file system.
A derivative of FAT, FAT32 was originally introduced in Windows 95 OSR2. The
FAT32 file system can store files with names containing up to 255 characters and with
extensions longer than three characters. FAT32 file names can contain spaces but still
cant contain most punctuation characters. FAT32 volumes cannot be larger than 2TB.
This file system is used with Windows 98 and Me and is supported by Windows 2000
Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, though it is less
commonly used in these latter operating systems. As with FAT16, modern Windows
versions support FAT32 but mostly for backward compatibility reasons.
FAT16 and FAT32 dont support file-level security. Volume sizes are more limited than
with NTFS. Performance of a FAT32 drive is at least theoretically less than that offered
by an NTFS volume of similar size. Server versions of Windows cannot store domain
information on a FAT32 volume. For those reasons, administrators typically choose
NTFS rather than FAT32 for hard drives, both internal and external. However, most
flash drives are preformatted with FAT or FAT32.
Extended FAT (exFAT), sometimes known as FAT64, is a new file system that
Microsoft introduced in 2006. exFAT removes the file and directory size limits of
FAT32, and it provides support for access control lists when used with Windows 7. So
far exFAT has been used primarily for Flash and other removable media and portable
devices, such as external hard drives. Windows 2000 computers cant access exFAT
volumes; Windows XP computers require an update from Microsoft; and Windows
Vista computers require Service Pack 1 or later. Windows 7 computer natively support
access to exFAT volumes.
The NTFS file system
The Windows NT File System (NTFS) was originally developed for Windows NT. This
file system has been updated continually since and is the default file system for
Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows Server. As of this writing, the current
version of NTFS is version 5 (NTFSv5).
1025
NTFS theoretically supports astronomically large partition sizes. A partition can in

theory contain up to 264-1 clusters, each of which could be up to 64KB for a total size of
approximately 1 yottabyte (1 YB, or 280 bytes). Actual implementations of the file
system in various Windows versions impose smaller volume size limits. For example,
Windows XP permits up to 232-1 clusters. With 64 KB clusters (the maximum size), an
NTFS partition on Windows XP can store up to approximately 256 TB.
With NTFS, individual files can theoretically be up to 16 exabytes (EB). An NTFS
volume can store up to 4,294,967,295 (232-1) files. NTFS supports file compression and
encryption. In addition, NTFS contains structures that make it more resilient and less
prone to file loss or corruption than other file systems.
Some of the advantages of NTFS include:
Greater scalability for large disks and better performance than FAT-based
systems on larger partitions.
Ability to configure security permissions on individual files and folders stored
on an NTFS partition or volume.
Built-in support for both compression and encryption.
Ability to configure disk space quotas for individual users.
Recovery logging of disk activities, which allows information about NTFS
partitions or volumes to be recovered quickly in the event of system problems.
Support for dynamic disks (or dynamic volumes) in which a single volume can
span multiple physical disks. The opposite, basic disks, must be contained within
a single physical disk.
If you are running a dual-boot system in which one of the operating systems cannot read
NTFS volumes, you might want to use FAT32 (or maybe even FAT16). Otherwise, in
most situations, you use NTFS with Windows 2000 Professional, all versions of
Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7.

File system comparison
The following table compares selected features of the FAT16, FAT32, and NTFS file
systems.
Feature
FAT16
FAT32
NTFS
File name length
18 characters
1255 characters*
1255 characters*
File extensions
03 characters
0255 characters*
0255 characters*
Maximum file size
2 GB
4 GB
16 EB (exabytes)
Maximum volume size
2 GB
32 GB (some OSes
up to 2TB)
256 TB (theoretically much

higher with NTFSv5)
Maximum files per volume
65,536
4,194,304
4,294,967,295
Most often used with
DOS, Windows
3.1, Windows 95
Windows 9x, Me
Windows NT, 2000, XP, Vista,

7, and Windows Server
Supports file-level security
No
No
Yes
Supports file compression

and encryption
No
No
Yes
* FAT32 and NTFS file names are limited to 255 characters overall, which are divided between the file
name and extension. For example, you could assign a 200-character file name and a 55-character file
extension.
The directory tree

Most PC operating systems use the paradigm of a directory tree to organize files. In this
scheme, a disk contains one or more folders, also called directories. Each folder can
contain files and additional folders (subfolders). These folders are arranged in a familytree-like hierarchy collectively called the directory tree.
The root directory is the highest-level folder on the disk; its the starting point for the
directory tree. As shown in Exhibit 10-12, the root directory is typically identified as
Local Disk (C:) in Windows Explorer. The root directory can contain files and folders.
In the FAT16 file system, the root directory can contain a maximum of 512 files and
folders (total). The FAT32 and NTFS file systems dont have this limitation.
1027
Exhibit 10-12: Windows Explorer identifies the root directory of C: as Local Disk
(C:)
A file system table (called a file allocation table in the FAT file systems) stores the
name and address of the first cluster of each file and folder contained in the root
directory. A marker in each cluster either notes the address of the files next cluster or
marks it as the last cluster in the chain.
Folders other than the root directory are essentially files that contain data about the
actual files and folders they contain. The operating system reads these special files and
uses the information in them to display the list of files and folders. Theres no limit to
how many files and folders you can store in a folder thats not the root directory (other
than the overall limits defined by the file system type).

Formatting
Formatting clears out the file system tables and structures to prepare them to store new
files. Formatting defines the type of file system thats used on a hard disk.
Although formatting is considered a destructive process, you can sometimes recover
from accidentally reformatting your hard drive. The contents of the disk clusters arent
overwritten when you format the disk. Instead, just the file allocation tables are emptied.
Special utilities can painstakingly read every cluster on the disk to recover most of what
was stored in the file allocation tables. Youll probably lose some files during the
recovery, but youll be able to recover most of your data.
You can use the format command, included with most Windows operating systems, to
format a hard drive. You can also use the text-mode diskpart utility with some
Windows versions. Starting with Windows 2000, you can use the Disk Management
console to format volumes.
The Disk Management utility

You can use the Disk Management utility in Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows
Vista, and Windows 7 to manage hard disks and partitions. To open Disk Management,
open Computer Management (right-click My Computer or Computer, and choose
Manage), and select Disk Management in the left pane.
Disk Management displays information about all hard disks and partitions in the
computer. You can create partitions and format volumes, and you can add and initialize
new hard disks.
1029
Depending on the status of a hard disk or partition, Disk Management will display one
of the status messages listed in the following table.
Status
For
Description
Healthy
Partition/Volume
The partition/volume is available for use and

functioning correctly. If the partition or volume shows
Healthy (At Risk), it means that I/O errors have
been detected.
Unallocated
Partition/Volume
The partition/volume hasnt been formatted yet.
Formatting
Partition/Volume
The partition/volume is being formatted.
Failed
Partition/Volume
The disk containing the partition/volume is likely

damaged, or the file system has become corrupt.
Basic
Disk
The disk is configured as a basic disk.
Dynamic
Disk
The disk is configured as a dynamic disk.
Not initialized
Disk
The disk doesnt contain a valid signature. You will

have to re-initialize the disk.
Initializing
Disk
The disk is being initialized by the operating system.
Online
Disk
The disk is accessible and functioning correctly. A

disk will show Online (Errors) when a volume
status is Healthy (At Risk).
Offline
Disk
The dynamic disk has suffered a hardware failure or

has become corrupted in some way. If the status
changes to Missing, the disk can no longer be located.
Unreadable
Disk
This status indicates a hardware failure or I/O errors.
Foreign
Disk
This status is displayed on a dynamic disk thats been

moved from another Windows computer. You can
import the foreign disk into Disk Management to
access its data.

Do it!
B-2:
Partitioning and formatting a hard drive

1 Give at least one reason you might choose to use the FAT32 file system rather
than NTFS on a Windows 7 system.
2 List at least two advantages of NTFS over FAT32.
3 When do you assign the file system thats used on the disks in your PC?
4 Boot your PC and log on to

Windows 7 as
COMPADMIN## with a
If necessary.
5 Click Start and right-click Computer

Choose Manage
To open the Computer Management console.
6 In the left pane, select Disk

Management
You should have space that is listed as
Unallocated.
7 Select the Unallocated space
The size of your unallocated space might vary

from that shown in the screen.
8 Right-click the Unallocated space and choose New Simple Volume

9 Click Next
10 In the Simple volume size in
MB box, enter a number that is
approximately half the current
value
Again, the size of your unallocated space might
vary from that shown in the screen.
1031
11 Click Next
12 Click Next
To accept the default drive-letter assignment.
13 In the Volume label box, type

My Drive
14 Observe the options
A quick format doesnt scan the disk for bad

sectors like a normal format does. You choose
this option if your hard disk has been formatted
before and youre sure that the hard disk isnt
damaged.
The file and folder compression feature
decreases the size of files and folders, reducing
the amount of space they use on your storage
devices.
15 Click Next
16 Record the drive letter of your
new drive
Drive letter: _________
17 Click Finish
To proceed with partitioning and formatting.

19 in the AutoPlay box, click Open
folder to view files
Close Windows Explorer
This window displays the contents of the new

volume. Its currently empty.

Mounting a volume to a local folder
Instead of assigning a drive letter to a volume, you can mount it to a local folder on an
NTFS partition. Disk Management will assign a drive path instead of a drive letter.
Windows creates whats called a mount point between the volume and the file system;
the mount point provides invisible access to the mounted drive.
To mount a volume, in Disk Management, right-click the partition or volume you want
to mount and click Change Drive Letter and Paths. Click Add, and click Mount in the
following empty NTFS folder. Type the path to the folder, or click Browse to find it.
Using the Browse button is generally recommended: youre sure to specify the correct
path to the mount point, and if needed, you can create the folder to which the volume
will be mounted.
Do it!
B-3:
Mounting a volume
Heres how
Heres why
Manage
2 Under Storage, select

Disk Management
3 Right-click the unallocated space

on your primary disk and choose
New Simple Volume
Click Next
4 In the size box, enter 5000, and
click Next
To create a 5 GB volume.
5 Select Mount in the
To mount the new volume to the empty

C:\Marketing folder.
following empty NTFS

folder, and in the box, type
C:\Marketing
Click Next
6 Edit the Volume label box to read
My mount
Verify Perform a quick format

is checked and click Next
Click Finish
1033
7 Open Computer and display the

C:\ drive
Observe the new icon for the
Marketing folder
It has changed to reflect the mounted volume.
8 Right-click the Marketing

folder and choose Properties
Observe the General tab
You can see the mounted-drive icon and the

Mounted Volume type in the description.
Click Cancel
9 In Disk Management, right-click
My mount and choose Change
Drive Letter and Paths
Click Remove
To remove the mount point.
Click Yes
10 In Computer, observe the
Marketing folder
The icon has changed. The mount point has been

removed.

Fault tolerance
Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to continue operating during a component or
environmental failure. For example, by using a backup power generator, your server can
continue running even during a blackout. A multi-processor computer might continue
running in the event one of its CPUs fails. Even though it would perform more slowly,
the server could continue running until you replaced the failed CPU.
Data backups are not an example of fault tolerance, even though they are critical to
prevent data loss. If a hard drive fails, data created since the last backup is lost.
Furthermore, your system can be offline until you provision a new server and restore
data from your backup.
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent [or Inexpensive] Disks) is a fault-tolerant data
storage scheme in which multiple drives are used to store your data. In its simplest
form, two disks are used. Data is written to both disks simultaneously. If one drive fails,
data can still be accessed from the remaining drive. Many more advanced RAID
schemes exist and are covered in the next section.
RAID can be implemented through software, which manages writing and reading data
from the multiple disks and managing operations in the event of a disk failure. RAID
can also be implemented through hardware. For example, you might use a special disk
adapter to which you connect two hard drives. The adapter handles writing to the disks
during normal operations and accessing or rebuilding data when a drive fails.
The Windows Server products support software RAID configurations via built-in
features. Third-party utilities also enable you to create RAID configurations without
relying on operating system-specific features. Third-party hardware-based solutions are
also widely available.
RAID levels
RAID is a technique for adding redundancy, lengthening disk life, improving
performance, and enabling relatively uninterrupted access to data. There are various
basic levels of RAID, which have been extended by nesting the basic types.
1035
The basic RAID levels are as follows:

RAID level 0 Striping with no redundancy features. Striping works by
spreading data equally over two or more drives, as shown in Exhibit 10-13. It is
used to extend disk life and to improve performance. Data access on striped
volumes is fast because of the way the data is divided into blocks that are
quickly accessed through simultaneous disk reads and multiple data paths. The
disadvantage is that if one disk fails, you can expect a loss of all data on the
volume.
Exhibit 10-13: RAID level 0, two disks in a striped volume

RAID level 1 Disk mirroring. Data is duplicated onto multiple drives (a
mirror set), typically two disks. In the event of a failure of one of the disks,
data can be read from the secondary disk (or disks). Disk mirroring is illustrated
on the left in Exhibit 10-14.
Disk duplexing, illustrated on the right in Exhibit 10-14, is similar to disk
mirroring, but each disk is managed by a separate adapter.
Exhibit 10-14: RAID level 1, disk mirroring (left) and duplexing (right)

RAID level 2 Bit-level striping with dedicated parity. Data is striped, bit by
bit, across all disks in the array. Parity (error detection) information is stored on
one or more dedicated disks in the array. RAID 2 is rarely used.
RAID level 3 Byte-level striping with dedicated parity. Data is striped, byte
by byte, across the disks in the array. Parity is stored on a dedicated parity disk.
RAID 3 offers high-read performance, but write performance can suffer because
of the bottleneck caused by the single parity drive.
Exhibit 10-15: RAID 3 stripes data and stores parity on a dedicated drive
RAID level 4 Block-level striping with dedicated parity. Data is striped,
block by block, across the disks in the array. Parity is stored on a dedicated
parity disk.
RAID level 5 Block-level striping with distributed parity. Data is striped
block-by-block across the disks in the array. Parity is distributed across all of the
disks rather than being stored on a dedicated parity disk. Distributing the parity
data removes the single drive bottleneck that limits write performance in lowernumbered RAID levels.
Exhibit 10-16: RAID 5 stripes data and parity across a set of drives
RAID level 6 Block-level striping with double distributed parity. Essentially
identical to RAID 5, except that the parity information associated with each
block of data is stored twice (on separate drives). This enables the array to
continue operating in the event of two failed drives.
1037
Nested RAID levels

In many cases, the drives in an array can themselves be arrays. Such a configuration
creates a nested array, in which one whole array takes the place of a single drive in a
larger array. This arrangement was originally called a hybrid array but is now generally
called nested.
The most common nested RAID levels are:
RAID 0+1 (or RAID 01) A mirrored set of striped disks. At minimum, this
arrangement requires four drives. For example, two drives are striped and then
mirrored with another pair of striped drives.
Exhibit 10-17: RAID 0+1 is a mirrored set of stripes

RAID 1+0 (or RAID 10) A striped set of mirrored disks. For example, two
mirrored drives are striped with another pair of mirrored drives.
Exhibit 10-18: RAID 1+0 is a striped set of mirrors

Many other nested RAID combinations are possible. Each offers a mix of benefits, such
as greater redundancy or higher performance, and detractions, such as higher costs and
greater complexity.

Considerations for using RAID
When considering a RAID solution, keep the following factors in mind.
RAID 0 (striping) doesnt provide any redundancy. Its only benefit is speed.
Windows Server 2000 and newer and Windows Vista and 7 natively support
RAID levels 0, 1, and 5 via dynamic disks. You must install, partition and
convert each to dynamic disks first. Then, you can use Disk Management to join
them into a single volume based on one of the three listed RAID levels.
You can place the boot and system files onto a RAID 1 volume when using
Windows Server, but not with the client operating systems. You cannot place
these files on a RAID 5 volume.
There is a minimum number of required physical disks for each of the RAID
levels. For example, RAID 1 requires at least two disks. RAID 5 requires at least
three disks, though typically more are used.
On a per-gigabyte (or per-megabyte) level, RAID level 1 is more expensive to
implement than RAID level 5. The reason for this is that, with RAID 1, half of
your total disk space is used for redundancy, whereas that value is one-third or
less for RAID 5. The amount of disk space used for parity in RAID 5 is 1/n
times the capacity of your smallest drive, where n is the number of drives in the
array.
Reading from disk is faster than writing with both RAID 1 (duplexing) and
RAID 5. This difference results from the systems being able to read files or
blocks of data from multiple drives simultaneously, whereas it must write as a
singular operation.
Level-specific considerations
In addition to the general considerations given in the preceding section, there are factors
specific to each level that you should examine when choosing a solution.
RAID level
Benefits
Detractions
RAID 0 (striping)
Reduces the wear on multiple disk

drives by equally spreading the load.
No fault tolerance other than that

gained through reduced wear.
Increases disk performance compared

to a single disk.
A loss of a single disk in the stripe set

destroys the data on the entire
volume.
Enables you to create larger volumes

than a single physical drive might
permit.
RAID 1 (mirroring or
duplexing)
Increases read performance over

single-disk solution.
Can protect the boot and system
volumes.
You can split the mirror to back up
one drive while the other one services
ongoing disk requests.
With mirroring, write performance

can be degraded, because a single
adapter manages write operations to
both disks in the set.
Depending on the software and
hardware implementation, read
performance might not be enhanced.
For example, older IDE adapters
could read from only one of the drives
in a set. Software might compare data
read from each drive to check for
errors, thus reducing performance to a
single-drive level.
1039
RAID level
Benefits
Detractions
RAID 5 (striping with

distributed parity)
Read and write performance can be

better than with a single drive as long
as writes, on average, involve the
same amount of or more data than
will fit in a single stripe.
When writing chunks of data smaller

than a single stripe, the overhead for
calculating parity can reduce
performance below that of a single
disk (or mirror or stripe).
Lower cost-per-gigabyte compared to

RAID 1.
The performance of random write

operations, such as those associated
with databases, is slower than with a
single disk (or mirror or stripe).
Mean time between failures (MTBF)
can theoretically be worse than that of
a single disk.
Software RAID and hardware RAID

Two approaches to RAID can be implemented on a computer: software RAID and
hardware RAID. Software RAID implements fault tolerance through the computers
operating system (such as by using the Disk Management tool in Windows)
or through third-party software. Hardware RAID is implemented through hardware in
the server or a dedicated storage subsystem and is independent of the operating system.
Some manufacturers have implemented hardware RAID on the adapter, such as a SCSI
adapter, to which you connect multiple drives. You can also purchase dedicated storage
appliances, such as a storage area network (SAN) or network attached storage (NAS),
that might implement one of the RAID levels. (Not all SAN and NAS devices
implement RAID.)
Hardware-based RAID is more expensive, but offers the following advantages over
software-based RAID:
Read and write performance can be better with hardware-based RAID. The
hardware might implement caching or optimization techniques. Even without
caching, RAID hardware manages striping or mirroring operations or calculates
the parity, removing that burden from the operating system.
Depending on the hardware system, you might be able to place boot and system
files on different RAID levels than those supported by Windows software-level
RAID.
Typically, you can hot-swap a failed disk without shutting down the server when
using a hardware-based RAID. (This option can vary by manufacturer.)
Manufacturers might offer additional redundancy features that cannot be
matched by software. For example, a built-in battery backup can prevent data
corruption that might occur if the power goes out in the middle of a write
operation.

Do it!
B-4:
Exploring fault tolerance

1 How many hard disks are required to implement a RAID-5 volume at a minimum?
A
Two
Three
Four
Five
2 What term is used to describe disk mirroring when each drive is connected to its
own hard disk controller?
A
Disk mirroring
Disk duplexing
Shadowing
Controller mirror
3 Which of the following RAID levels provides no fault tolerance?

A
RAID 0
RAID 1
RAID 4
RAID 5
1041
Topic C: Optical drives

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam objective.
#
Objective
1.1

Optical drives
CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray
Removable storage
This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam objective.
#
Objective
1.1

Optical drives
CDs
Explanation
CDs are 120 mm (12 cm) plastic discs that contain a layer of reflective metal-alloy foil
encased in transparent plastic. The CD contains a single spiral track. A 74-minute CD
can hold 650 MB of data; an 80-minute CD can hold 700 MB of data. Exhibit 10-19
illustrates the components of a CD.
Exhibit 10-19: Components of a CD

Commercially produced CDs are created through a process called mastering. A glass
template is made by depositing a thin film of nickel onto a glass disc. A high-powered
laser removes portions of the nickel coating to create pits and lands (high, flat spots).
Nearly melted plastic discs are pressed against the glass master discusing as much as
40 tons of forceto form the almost-finished discs. The CDs are clear at this point, so a
layer of aluminum is deposited on them to increase reflectivity. Labels are often applied
or printed on the CDs before the manufacturing process is complete.
A group of colored books known as the Rainbow Books detail the specifications for
various types of CDs. The Red Book contains the specifications for audio CDs, the
Yellow Book contains the specs for CD-ROMs, and the Orange Book contains the specs
for recordable CDs. The Orange Book contains sections for CD-MO (magneto optical),
CD-R (previously known as CD-WO for write once), and CD-RW (rewritable) discs.
Recordable CDs
Writable CDs are written using a process called burning. This is what you do when you
write to CDs with your PC. CD-R discs can be read many times but written to just once.
Theyre composed of a gold metal alloy and an organic dye. The dye is heated with the
laser, and this process causes pits and bumps.
CD-RW discs have a silver alloy layer. The alloy can exist in two statescrystalline
and amorphous (non-crystalline)each of which reflects the read lasers light
differently. A two-powered laser system is used to transform the alloy between states. A
high-power laser melts the alloy, which cools to its amorphous state. A lower-powered
laser melts the alloy so that it crystallizes as it cools. CD-RW discs can be written to
multiple times, and you dont have to write the entire disc in a single operation.
Sessions
An optical disc is arranged in sessions. Each session contains these components:
Lead-incontains meta information about the session, including a table of
contents. It serves a similar purpose to the partition table on a hard drive.
Trackseach session can contain up to 99 tracks, which contain the actual data.
Lead-outcontains closure information on the session.
A single-session disc, such as a typical CD-R, contains one session. Multisession discs,
as the name implies, contain more than one session. Regardless of type, an optical disc
must contain at least one session.
CD drives
CD drives have largely been supplanted by multi-format drives that can read (and
maybe write) CDs, DVDs, and other optical disc types. If your computer has a plain
CD drive, it is typically one of two types:
CD-ROM drive Can only read from CDs.
CD-RW drives Can read from and write to CDs.
1043
CD drives of either type contain three major parts, which are illustrated in Exhibit 1020.
The drive motor Drives the spindle, which spins the disc.
The laser lens and laser pickup Focuses in on and reads the disc.
The tracking drive and tracking motor Moves the laser to follow the track
on the CD.
Spindle
Laser
Tray
Exhibit 10-20: CD drive components

Drives might also contain buttons to control the operation of the CD. The buttons
include:
Start
Stop
Next track
Previous track
The drive might also contain:
A headphone jack.
A volume control dial.
A release hole. Pushing a stiff wire, such as a straightened paper clip, into this
hole forces open the tray or ejects the disc. You use this hole if software cannot
be used to eject the disc, such as when the power is off. Be careful if you use this
mechanism, as it is possible to damage the disc or the drive itself, if the wire
misses the release lever inside the drive.
File systems and formats
CDs can store either digital computer data or audio information. These data types are
stored using different formats. Data is stored using the ISO 9660 file system, also
known as CDFS (Compact Disc File System). ISO 9660 (CDFS) is supported by many
operating systems, including Windows, Macintosh, and most Linux versions.
Audio CDs are recorded in the Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA) format. CD-DA
is a two-channel (stereo) 16-bit PCM encoded format with a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per
channel. Monaural (mono) sound is not officially included in the standard; typically,
mono recordings are stored in a single channel or both channels store matching copies
of the mono audio.

CD drive speeds
The speed of a CD drive is expressed as #X, where # is a number. A 1X CD transfers
data at approximately 150 KBps. The original tactic to improve performance was simply
to spin the disc faster. Thus a 2X drive spins the disc twice as fast to double the
throughput. This technique worked up to approximately 12X, at which point vibrations
and heat problems prevented any further speed increases.
In practice, the X rates higher than about 10X dont represent an actual spin rate
difference. They do, however, represent an approximate throughput multiplier. (Actual
rates are often not quite as good as the advertised values.) Thus, a 52X drive spins about
10 times faster than the original 1X drive and achieves further throughput increases
through faster electronics, multiple read heads, and other techniques. The theoretical
throughput of a 52X drive is 7,800 KBps.
CD drives can use either a constant linear velocity (CLV) or constant angular velocity
(CAV) method for spinning the disc, or they can use variations, such as zoned CLV
ZCLV). With CLV, a consistent linear area of the disc spins by the read heads in a
given time, regardless of where the laser is located. In other words, the disc turns faster
when the laser is near the outer edge than when its near the inner edge of the disc. CAV
discs are spun at the same RPMs, regardless of where the laser is located. Spin rates
range from 210 to 539 RPM for a 1X drive and at higher rates for faster drives.
DVDs
Like CDs, DVDs are 120 mm (12 cm) diameter discs but are often thinner than CDs.
DVDs use a different encoding method than the one CDs use, and DVDs are higherdensity discs. The higher density requires a narrower laser beam than CDs require. A
DVD track is 0.74 microns wide, whereas a CD track is 1.6 microns wide.
DVD drives have become standard devices on computers, typically replacing CD drives.
Many computers include DVD-Rewritable (DVD-RW) drives. Read-only DVD drives
can sometimes read and write CDs.
A DVD drive running at 1X transfers data at 1.38 MB per second. DVD drives are
available in higher speeds, up to 16X. They come in read-only, write-once, and
rewritable versions. Note that a 1X DVD is approximately nine times as fast as a 1X CD
drive.
DVD drives use red and infrared lasers with a 650 nm laser beam. Compare this to the
longer-wavelength 780 nm laser used for CDs.
To play a DVD movie, the computer system requires an MPEG-2 decoder. Originally,
this was a separate board installed in the system. Sometimes it was incorporated into the
graphics card. Current systems are powerful enough to handle decoding the content
through software.
DVD media
A standard DVD disc has a 4.7 GB capacity. This DVD is also known as a DVD-5; the
5 refers to the DVD holding almost 5 GB. Discs can be single-sided and singlelayered, as the DVD-5 disc is. A 3" mini-disc is also available; it holds 1.5 GB of data.
Data DVDs use the UDF (universal disc format) file system. (Movie and other noncomputer data DVDs dont use UDF.)
1045
DVDs can also be double-sided, double-layered, double-sided single-layered, or any

combination of single and double sides and layers. Double layering is achieved by
having two layers of pits, one deeper than the other. The laser is refocused on the deeper
layer to read the second layer.
The following table summarizes the number of sides and layers and the capacities of
various types of DVDs.
DVD type
Sides
Layers
Capacity
DVD-5
Single
Single
4.7 GB
DVD-9
Single
Double
8.5 GB
DVD-10
Double
Single on both sides
9.4 GB
DVD-14
Double
Double on one side, single

on the other side
13.3 GB
DVD-18
Double
Double on both sides
17.1 GB
DVD standards, which were created by the DVD Forum, include DVD-R, DVD-RW,
and DVD-RAM. Media created according to these standards can display the DVD logo.
Full details can be found on the DVD Forum Web site, at http://dvdforum.org.
Another source for further information about DVDs is
http://dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html.
The DVD+RW Alliance created standards for DVD+RW, DVD+R, and DVD+ R DL
media. These arent official DVD standards and cant display the DVD logo. Instead,
they display the RW logo. Details can be found at the http://dvdrw.com Web site.
DVD-Rs and DVD+Rs are both write-once media, however with DVD+R discs, you
dont have to write the entire disc in a single session; you can record additional sessions
later. This makes DVD+Rs more suitable for use with a computer in which you might
record data in a series of sessions. DVD-Rs are reputedly more compatible with home
theater DVD players, though thats not as true now as it used to be.
DVD-ROM discs, being non-recordable, are used to distribute software. DVD-RW and
DVD+RW are rewritable discs, with the latter being faster to format. A DVD-RAM
holds up to 9.4 GB. That standard never became well established, and few modern
systems can use it.

Blu-ray discs
The Blu-ray disc was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group of
representatives from consumer electronics manufacturers, computer hardware
manufacturers, and the motion picture industry. The Blu-ray standards were finalized in
2004.
Blu-ray discs are optical discs created with a blue (actually, violet) 405 nm laser.
Because of the violet lasers shorter wavelength, standard dual-layer Blu-ray 12cm discs
hold up to 50 GB of data, and single-layer Blu-ray discs hold up to 25 GB of data. This
capacity is significantly higher than a DVDs capacity. Its important to note that the
Blu-ray specifications dont indicate a maximum upper storage limit. There are less
common higher capacity discs available such as:
Quad-layer (100 GB) discs consisting of four layers containing 25 GB each
Discs that can hold 200 GB of data on a single side, using six 33 GB data layers.
400 GB discs containing 16 data layers of 25 GB each
Hybrid discs that contain both Blu-ray and DVD layers on the same side of the
disc. For example, Infinitys Code Blue disk contains a single Blu-ray Disc layer
(25 GB) and two standard DVD layers (9 GB) on the same side of the disc
Some of the higher capacity discs require special equipment or firmware to be read.
Currently, Blu-ray discs are primarily used to store high-definition video or large
amounts of data.
Blu-ray discs are also available in a mini size of 8cm designed for use in consumer
electronic equipment, such as camcorders. The mini-Blu-ray single-layer discs hold up
to 7.8 GB of data, and the double-layer discs hold up to 15.6 GB.
Blu-ray recordable
There are two types of recordable Blu-ray media:
BD-R discs can be written once
BD-RE can be erased and rerecorded multiple times
The maximum recording speed for Blu-ray discs is currently 12. This isnt as high as a
standard DVDs 20x or 25x, because the higher speeds of rotation cause too much
wobble for Blu-ray discs to be read properly.
Optical drive installation

Installing an optical drive is similar to installing other internal drives. In addition to the
interface cable and power cable, older optical drives had an audio cable that connected
to the sound card so you could listen to music and other audio components from the
disc. Modern drives no longer need or use such a cable.
You need a 5.25" drive bay to install an internal optical drive. Older drives required you
to use a horizontal bay, because the disc trays and loading mechanisms did not work in
a vertical orientation. Modern drives, particularly slot-style drives, can be installed in a
vertical orientation.
Verify that the interface cable and power cable can both reach the back of the optical
drive. You can get extensions for the power cable if you need to, but not for the
interface cable. If required, make sure the audio cable reaches from the sound card to
the optical drive.
1047
Before installing the drive, you need to set the jumpers on an IDE drive to master, slave,
or cable-select. Its much easier to set them before you install the drive into the bay. On
SCSI drives, you need to set the device ID and perhaps termination.
For most systems, the drive is installed directly into the bay and screwed in place.
Along both sides of the drive are screw holes that you should be able to match up with
holes in the bay. In some systems, theres a box you remove; you install the drive in the
box and re-install the box in the computer. Some systems, usually older ones, use drive
rails. The rails attach to both sides of the drive, and they slide into the bay to hold the
drive in place.
After youve fit the drive into the bay, you should check that the door to the optical
drive can open freely and that the tray can extend freely. If the drive is off-kilter and hits
against the frame, you wont be able to open the drive and insert a disc in the tray.
Optical drive connections
Optical drives can be internal or external devices. Internal devices can be connected via
IDE, Serial ATA, or SCSI. External drives are most often IEEE 1394 or USB 2.0
devices. Some external drives might also be connected via SCSI, or even a parallel
connection for older drives. External versions arent as popular as they were in the past
because computers now come with internal optical drives as standard components.
Optical drive connections are shown in Exhibit 10-21.
Exhibit 10-21: Optical drive connections: here, for a CD drive

Drivers
After you install an optical drive and restart your PC, Windows should detect the new
hardware. Windows will try to identify and install the appropriate driver for the drive. If
Windows cant find it, youll be prompted to supply the driver from another source.
If your drive requires specific drivers, they should have been supplied on a disc with the
drive. The drivers are usually available from the Internet as well. Hardware
manufacturers maintain up-to-date drivers on their Web sites. Other third-party Web
sites also maintain drivers for many devices, but third-party sites might not have the
most current versions of drivers.

Do it!
C-1:
Installing an optical drive
Heres how
Heres why
1 Turn off the computer

Remove any external cables
2 Open the computer case
Refer to the system documentation if necessary.
3 If youre replacing an optical

drive, remove the cables from the
back of the drive
Remove the drive from the drive
bay
Unscrew any screws securing it to the bay.
4 Locate pin 1 on the drives data

connector
So that you install the data interface cable

correctly in a later step. Its easier to do this
before installing the drive, while you can hold it
up to the light, turn it over, and inspect it more
closely. Pin 1 is most often located on the side
nearest the power connection.
5 Set the drive for Master, Slave, or

Cable Select
If its an IDE drive.
Set the drive ID
If its a SCSI drive.
Terminate the drive
If its the last drive in a SCSI chain.
6 Insert the drive in the drive bay

Mount the drive
Use the mounting method required by your

computer.
Secure the drive in place
Use screws or whatever mechanism your system

uses to secure the drive to the bay.
7 Verify the alignment with the case
To make sure the drive door and disc tray can

open freely.
1049
8 Connect the interface cable
It should be connected to the secondary IDE

channel or to the SCSI chain, if its a SCSI
drive.
Connect the power cable
Be sure that its properly oriented and firmly

plugged in.
Connect the audio cable
If the sound card contains a wire to connect to

the optical drive.
9 Reconnect the power cord and

external cables
Youll listen to an audio CD.
Turn on the computer

10 Observe the New Hardware
bubble
A message should be displayed, stating that new

hardware was found.
11 Place an audio CD in the optical

drive
12 If this is the first time youve run
Windows Media Player, youre
prompted to configure settings
Select Recommended
settings
Click Finish
13 Click the Stop button, and remove
all discs from the optical drive
Windows Media Player opens and the first track

on the CD begins playing.

Using optical drives
When you load an optical disc in the drive, Windows 7 and earlier Windows operating
systems ask you what you want to do with the CD. (AutoPlay has since been removed to
help prevent malware from loading.) The options listed in the AutoPlay dialog box
depend on the type of disc you inserted. Exhibit 10-22 shows the options displayed
when an audio CD is loaded into the drive.
Exhibit 10-22: The AutoPlay options in Windows Vista for an audio CD

CD software
By default, you can read and write audio CDs by using Windows Media Player. If you
have other software installed that can read from or write to CDs, then when you insert a
CD, the What do you want Windows to do? options includes the actions provided by
the additional software.
A list of CD recording software can be found at Andy McFaddens CD-Recordable
FAQ Web site, at http://cdrfaq.org/faq06.html.
Playing DVD and Blu-ray discs
Movies and video are encoded in a compressed format before being stored to optical
disc. To play back such videos, you need a matching decoder. Common encoding
formats include MPEG-2, MPEG-4, DivX, H.263, and H.264.
Windows Media Player and other video playback software wont typically support
every encoding format. You might need to add missing decoders in order to play back
some video types. Visit the software vendors site to download or purchase add-on
decoders for your software.

Do it!
C-2:
1051
Using an optical drive
Heres how
Heres why
1 Place an audio CD in the CD

drive
2 Select Recommended
Settings
Click Finish
(If necessary.) To configure Windows Media

Player on your computer.
The audio CD begins playing automatically in
Windows Media Player.
3 Click
To pause the playing of the CD. The Pause

button becomes the Play button.
4 Click
The Play button becomes the Pause button

again.
5 Click
Notice that the progress bar continues moving

while Mute is enabled. The Mute button
becomes the Sound button.
Click
6 Click
Click
7 Click
Check two titles and clear all

others
8 Click
9 After the songs are copied,
remove the audio disc and insert a
blank CD-R or CD-RW in the
CD-RW drive
To unmute the CD.
To copy songs from the CD automatically to the

Windows Media Player Library. The playback
continues as the files are copied to the hard drive
and stored in the library.
To stop the copy.
To open the library. Here you can select which

files you want to rip from the CD.
To copy only two songs to the library.
To rip the two selected songs from the CD to the

library.

10 Click open the Burn tab
In the left pane, select Music

Scroll to find the two songs you
just added
Windows Media Player ships with some free

music samples.
11 Select and drag the two songs to

the Burn list
12 Click
Files are converted and then copied to the CD.
The progress percentage is shown in the lower
part of the window.
Observe the Status column
When the CD burn is complete, the CD drive

tray opens.
13 Close the CD drive tray
If the player is capable of playing burned CDs,

you can listen to the CD you just made.
14 Click
To stop playing the CD.
15 Remove the CD from the drive

1053
Topic D: Removable storage devices

#
Objective
1.1

FDD
Removable storage
Tape drive
Solid state (e.g., thumb drive, flash, SD card, USB)
Hot-swappable devices and non-hot-swappable devices
#
Objective
1.1

Storage devices
FDD
Removable
External
USB flash drives

Explanation
USB flash drives are a popular storage solution. They are about the size of an adult
persons thumb or a pack of chewing gum, and they weigh about as much as a car key.
They come with capacities from a few megabytes to many gigabytes. Their capacity is
much greater than that of a floppy disk, and many flash drives can hold more than a CD
can.
Flash drives are designed to be hot-swappable, meaning that you can attach or detach
the device from your computer without shutting the PC down and restarting it. This
functionality is part of the USB specification.
When hot-swapping, be sure that the drive has finished writing before you remove it. If
the drive is in the middle of a write operation when you disconnect it, the file that was
being written, or even the entire directory structure, can become unreadable. Sometimes,
an LED light on the drive indicates when a write operation is in progress. Generally,
you should use the Safely Remove Hardware icon to stop the device before removing it
from the computer. Some computer makers recommend ejecting the drive instead. To do
so, right-click the USB flash drive in Windows Explorer and choose Eject.
Exhibit 10-23 shows three USB flash drives. Notice that the top one is made to look like
a pen, and the drive is contained in half of the pen. Most drives have a size and shape
similar to these examples, but some have slightly different shapes. Some drives have
bulges and ridges to make them easier to grip when youre inserting them in and
removing them from the USB port.
Exhibit 10-23: USB flash drives

The technical specifications of USB flash drives can be found at the usb.org Web site.
In general, USB flash drives are typically composed of:
A controller with a USB interface
A non-volatile memory interface connected to memory
Optionally, USB flash drives might include:
An LED to indicate drive activity
A crystal for external clock generation on high-speed drives
A write-protect switch
A fingerprint sensor
An integrated MP3 player
Some flash drives have a built-in MP3 player. A 2 GB drive can hold 33 hours worth of
MP3 files. Exhibit 10-24 shows a flash MP3 player.
Exhibit 10-24: Flash MP3 player

The drivers that support USB flash drives are included in Windows 2000 Professional
and all versions of Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7. Drivers are also
included in Macintosh OS 9 and OS X or later, as well as Linux kernels 2.4 and later.
Many flash drives come with one or more security features. These include:
Encryption
Password protection
A fingerprint sensor
1055
Booting from flash drives

The BIOS in newer computers often supports booting from a flash drive. Older
computers typically do not permit this boot option. Of course, your flash drive itself
must be bootable. The manufacturer might supply a utility to make the drive bootable.
Third-party utilities and publishers of portable applications also provide tools to make
a flash drive bootable.
Do it!
D-1:
Using a USB flash drive
The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 10\Topic D.
Heres how
Heres why
1 Remove the cover from the flash

drive, or connect the USB cable to
the drive
If appropriate.
2 Connect the USB drive or its

cable to an open USB port on
your computer
Modern PCs include front-accessible USB ports

to make it more convenient for users to connect
USB drives and other similar devices.
Observe the Windows notification

area
Windows 7 installs appropriate drivers and

notifies you that the device is ready for use.
The AutoPlay dialog box is displayed, as is a
Driver Software Installation dialog box.
3 In the Driver Software Installation

box, click Close
4 Click Open folder to view
files using Windows Explorer
5 Observe the files on the flash

drive
The drive might be empty.
6 From the student data folder for

this unit, copy USB drive.txt to
the USB drive
Drag a file onto the drives icon or into its

window.
7 Close Windows Explorer

8 In the system tray,
click
The Safely Remove Hardware and Eject Media

icon. (You might have to click the arrow button
to display the icon.)
Select Eject device
Windows notifies you that it is safe to remove

your USB device.
9 Disconnect the USB drive
Unplug it or its cable from your PC.
1057
Floppy disk storage

A floppy disk is a removable data storage medium composed of a thin, typically brown,
plastic disk contained within a stiff or rigid plastic case. Floppy disks are also called
floppies or diskettes. An example of a 3.5 floppy disk, opened to show its recording
medium, is illustrated in Exhibit 10-25.
Case (opened)
Diskette medium
Exhibit 10-25: A diskette opened to reveal its recording medium

A floppy disk drive (FDD) is the PC component that reads data from and writes data to
floppies. This drive can be internally connected, typically through a 34-pin data
connector on the motherboard. External FDDs are available with USB, IEEE 1394, and
eSATA connections.
Floppy disks were the original storage medium for PCs. By todays standards, they hold
a miniscule amount of data and are very slow to access. Most modern computers dont
include a floppy drive.
Form factors
The original PC floppy disks measured 5.25" in diameter. These disks featured a soft,
flexible outer cover. They held relatively little data, even compared to other floppy disk
technologies. A 5.25" floppy is pictured in Exhibit 10-26.
Exhibit 10-26: A 5.25" floppy disk

Later floppy disks were 3.5" in diameter and were protected by a hard outer case with a
sliding metal door. Despite their hard outer case, these disks arent hard disks; that
term refers to the high-capacity disk drive typically installed inside your PCs case.
Even though theyre physically smaller, the most popular 3.5" disks stored a lot more
data than their larger predecessors. A 3.5" floppy disk is shown in Exhibit 10-27.
Exhibit 10-27: A 3.5" floppy disk

Capacities
Capacities of floppy drives vary by size and recording techniques. Information is
recorded onto the floppy disk in a series of concentric circular tracks. Floppy disks use
either 40 or 80 tracks.
The density of a floppy disk refers to the number of sectors per track, as compared to
the original floppies used in pre-PC computers. PC floppy densities vary from double
density (9 sectors per track) to extended density (36 sectors per track).
The storage capacities of the popular PC floppy disks are listed in the following table.
Size
Tracks
Sectors per track
Density
Capacity
5.25"
40
Double density
360 KB
5.25"
80
15
High density
1.2 MB
3.5"
80
Double density
720 KB
3.5"
80
18
High density
1.44 MB
3.5"
80
36
Extended (or
Extra-high) density
2.88 MB
Identifying a disks storage capacity

Most modern diskettes are labeled with their maximum capacity. Some, however, lack
such labeling. You can distinguish between 3.5" double-density and high-density disks
by counting the holes in their corners. Double-density diskettes have a single hole (the
write-protection hole described in the next section). High-density diskettes have two
holes.
Write protection
You can prevent writing to floppies by engaging write protection. With 5.25" floppies,
you must cover a notch in the plastic case with tape or a label designed specifically for
that purpose. In the associated drives, a mechanical pin feels for the presence of this
notch, and if present, writing is enabled.
1059
With 3.5" disks, you slide open a small door to enable write protection. In the
associated drives, if an LED light can shine through this door, then writing is disabled.
Both of these write protection devices are shown in Exhibit 10-28.
Exhibit 10-28: Floppy disks: write-protected (left) and write-enabled (right)

Do it!
D-2:
Examining floppy disks
Heres how
Heres why
1 Examine the floppy disks supplied

by your instructor
2 Examine the 3.5" diskette that
your instructor has opened up
3 How much data can each disk
store?
4 Enable write protection on a

diskette
5 Disable write protection
So that you can view its flexible inner disk.

Floppy drive cables and connectors
The typical cable used to connect a floppy drive is a 34-pin ribbon cable with either
three or five connectors. One connector is meant to be connected to the drive controller
(typically on the motherboard), and the others are for connecting up to two floppy drives
in the system.
The 5.25" drives use a larger, edge-type connector, whereas 3.5" drives use a smaller
pin-socket connector. A five-connector cable enables you to connect both edge- and
pin-type drives, keeping in mind that you can have at most two drives connected,
regardless of connector type.
Depending on where you connect the drive on the cable, the drive is assigned drive
letter A or B. Floppy cables have a twisted section, and the drive plugged into the
connector after the twist is accessed as drive letter A. A typical floppy cable is shown in
Exhibit 10-29.
Drive A connector
Drive B connector
Motherboard connector
Exhibit 10-29: A floppy cable with pin-style connectors for 3.5 drives
The typical floppy controller connector is a 34-pin male connector soldered to the
motherboard. Such a connector, technically called a header, is shown in Exhibit 10-30.
Exhibit 10-30: A floppy controller header on a motherboard

Do it!
D-3:
1061
Installing a floppy drive
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open your PCs case
Follow all electrical and ESD safety precautions.
2 Remove the front cover or the

plate cover that closes the floppy
drive bay
Many modern computers dont include a floppy

drive.
3 Install the drive into the bay
Secure the drive with at least four screws. This

drive receives more pressure than other drives
because users push floppies in or eject them.
4 Connect the floppy cable to the

motherboard
Make sure you plug the correct connector into

the correct socket on the motherboard.
5 Connect the cable to the floppy

drive so that this drive is drive A
6 Connect an available power cable
to the floppy drives power socket
Modern floppies use the small peripheral power

connector; older drives use the large connector.
7 Close the system case and boot

your PC
Log on to Windows as
COMPADMIN##
8 Open Computer
To view the floppy drive in your system. You

cant access the drive because theres no diskette
in it.

Floppy disk preparation
Before you can store data on a floppy disk, you must format it. When you format a
floppy, you record the sector structure on the disk. Formatting also defines the file
allocation table, which stores information about which files are stored in which sectors.
Formatting is destructive in that existing data is destroyed as new sector and file
allocation information is written to the disk.
Formatting
Formatting is somewhat specific to operating systems. Windows PCs use a different
format from that of Macintosh and Linux computers. Mac and Linux computers can
usually read PC-formatted diskettes. Windows computers typically cannot read Mac- or
Linux-formatted disks.
Your operating system includes the utilities necessary for you to format floppy disks.
Command-line aficionados can use the format command with various parameters,
available since the days of MS-DOS. Perhaps more commonly, you use the graphical
Windows Explorer or Computer (My Computer) tools to format a floppy:
1 With a diskette in the drive, right-click the drive letter and choose Format.
2 Choose the capacity.
3 Choose the file system.
4 Choose the Allocation unit size (optional).
5 Enter a Volume label (optional).
6 Check any Format options you want to use (optional).
7 Click Start.
You can also purchase preformatted floppies, which have been formatted by the
manufacturer. Make sure you purchase floppies formatted to match your operating
system (PC-formatted floppies for Windows and Macintosh-formatted floppies for a
Mac). You can reformat preformatted floppies.

Do it!
D-4:
1063
Formatting a floppy disk
Heres how
Heres why
1 Confirm that write protection isnt

enabled on the diskette supplied
by your instructor
2 Insert the diskette into the floppy
drive
With older 5.25" drives, you had to close a lever

or door on the drive before you could access the
diskette. This step is unnecessary with 3.5"
drives.
3 In Windows Explorer or
Computer, right-click A: and
choose Format
4 Click Start
To format the floppy according to the operating

systems defaults.
5 When formatting is done, click

OK
Click Close
6 Display the contents of the floppy
In Windows Explorer, left-click the A drive. In

Computer, double-click the A drive. The
diskette should be empty.
7 Copy a file to the floppy
Drag a file onto the drives icon or into its

window.
8 Close Windows Explorer or the

Computer window
9 Remove the diskette from the
drive
With older 5.25" drives, you opened the lever or

door on the drive before sliding out the diskette.
With 3.5" drives, you press the eject button to
release the diskette.

Tape drives
Tape drives are used to create backups of data from a hard drive. The tapes are typically
removed to an offsite location for storage. This way, if a disaster occurs in the building
the computer is in, the tape is safe in another location. There are companies you can
contract with for secure, fireproof storage of your tapes. You can also use a safety
deposit box at a bank or a fireproof safe, if you dont require more stringent storage of
the tapes.
Tape is a low-cost, high-capacity storage solution for data backups. Magnetic tapes are
used to record information in burst mode, in which data is written in blocks. Burst mode
results in faster data transfer. An interblock gap is a physical space between blocks on
the tape. These gaps help prevent blocks of data from being overwritten.
Tape drives are sequential-access devices. Instead of being able to go directly to a
specific file when you need to restore it, you must wait while the drive advances the
tape past all of the files before that file on the tape.
Various types of compression are used to fit more data onto the tape at a faster rate.
Most data backup algorithms use lossless compression so that reconstructed data is the
same as the original. Most of these algorithms compress data at a 2:1 ratio or better.
Tape formats
Backup tapes come in various cartridge formats. The original tapes were reel-to-reel
tapes on mainframes; then came cassette tapes, and then DAT tapes. The tapes have
gone from relatively slow devices with low capacity to the high speeds and capacities of
the current tapes.
QIC
Historically, the quarter-inch cartridge, or QIC (pronounced quick), tapes were
enormously popular. Developed in the early 1970s, the QIC cartridge and its
descendents were still in active use in 2010.
QIC tapes are belt-driven, rather than having the tape attached to the reels. Because of
this setup, the tapes need to be retensioned periodically. Retensioning means winding
the tape end to end and then rewinding it in a single operation. This process resets the
belt to the proper equalized tension.
The Travan version of QIC uses a miniature cartridge and was developed for the home
market. This cartridges capacity ranges from 400 MB to 10 GB. The SLR (scalable
linear recording) drive, developed by Tandberg Data, uses a QIC format in quarter-inch
and 8mm versions. Capacities range as high as 200 GB per cartridge. Because it is the
only type of drive still being manufactured that uses QIC-style cartridges, the term SLR
has come to be used in place of QIC in many instances.
DDS
The digital audio tape (DAT) format was designed for audio recording. It has been
adapted for data storage with the digital data storage (DDS) format. This format uses
tape thats 4 mm wide. DDS recorders contain two read heads and two write heads. The
tape is read, and if errors are detected, the data is rewritten.
The cartridges are expected to last for approximately 2000 passes and should be
replaced after that. That should be good for about 100 backups. The cartridges are rated
for a 10-year shelf life. However, the technology is rather old and the tape drives require
frequent cleaning. A DDS2 tape is shown in Exhibit 10-31.
1065
Exhibit 10-31: A DDS2 tape

The capacities of DDS tapes range from 2 GB without compression for DDS-1, to 20
GB without compression for DDS-4. Compression can double the capacity of your tape.
DLT and SDLT
The DLT (digital linear tape) standard was created by DEC and was later sold to
Quantum. It uses linear serpentine recording with multiple tracks on 12.6mm wide tape.
With linear serpentine recording, data tracks are written in alternating bands from the
beginning of the tape to the end and back again. A DLT cartridge contains a single reel,
and it pulls the tape out of the cartridge, using a leader tape attached to a take-up reel
inside the drive. You attach the drive leader tape to the cartridge leader during the load
process. The reel motors control tape speed and tension. The tape is guided by 4 to 6
rollers that touch only the back side of the tape. After data is written across a single
band from beginning to end, the write head drops down and writes another band of data
in the opposite direction. This process continues until the tape has no more room for
data bands.
Super DLT (SDLT) is a higher-capacity version of DLT. Capacities range from 15 GB
to 1200 GB.
LTO
The LTO (linear tape open) format was developed by HP, IBM, and Certance, and its
an open format. Tapes created on one brand of drive can be used on drives from another
manufacturer if theyre LTO-compatible. That isnt the case with other tape formats.
LTO comes in two formats: Accelis and Ultrium. Accelis uses an 8mm tape and a dualreel cartridge. However, licenses for Accelis are no longer available, so you wont find
Accelis drives and media available commercially. Ultrium uses a 0.5" tape and singlereel cartridge. Ultrium is the high-capacity version of LTO. The third generation of
Ultrium, Ultrium format generation 3, has a data storage capacity of up to 800 GB and a
maximum transfer rate of 80 to 160 MBps.

AIT and SAIT
The AIT (advanced intelligent tape) format and its successor, SAIT (super AIT), were
developed by Sony. AIT and SAIT use helical-scan recording, in which the head is tilted
and data is recorded in diagonal stripes across the tape.
AIT uses 8mm tape in a 3.5" drive. Its capacities range from 20 GB to 400 GB,
depending on the specific tape. SAIT uses single-reel, 0.5" tape. Its capacities range
from 500 GB, uncompressed, to 1 TB, compressed. Data transfer rates are 30 MBps,
uncompressed, and 78 MBps, compressed. SAIT technology includes Memory-inCassette (MIC)a 64 KB memory chip used to store the cartridges system log and file
search information.
Tape head cleaning

Regardless of type, the tape is in direct contact with the read/write heads during any
read and write operations. Because of this, any dirt on the tape is quickly transferred to
the heads. Also, small bits of magnetic material and tape substrate can rub off onto the
tape heads.
Tape drive manufacturers normally provide cleaning and maintenance recommendations
with their products. You should follow these guidelines, cleaning the heads as often as
recommended.
Do it!
D-5:
Comparing types of tape drives

1 Where should backup tapes be stored?
2 Tapes are accessed ___________, using _______ mode.
3 What are QIC drives also known as?
4 Whats the shelf life of a DDS tape?
5 What does DLT stand for? What capacities are offered by DLT?
6 Whats the advantage of LTO tape?
1067
Topic E: Drive maintenance

#
Objective
2.5

Scheduling preventative maintenance
Defrag
ScanDisk
CheckDisk
This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.1
CHKDSK (/f /r)
2.3
Disk management tools
DEFRAG
Check Disk
Hard drive maintenance

Explanation
Computer hard disks, like automobiles, benefit from regularly scheduled maintenance.
Windows operating systems include utilities you can use to keep your hard disk
performance at an optimal level. These disk maintenance utilities can:
Remove unnecessary files from a hard disk.
Scan a disk for errors.
Defragment a disk.

Disk Cleanup
You can use the Disk Cleanup feature of Windows XP Professional, Windows XP
Home Edition, and all editions of Windows 7 and Windows Vista to remove
unnecessary files from your hard disk. Unnecessary files are grouped into the following
categories:
Downloaded program files
Temporary Internet files
Offline Web pages in Windows 7 and operating systems before Windows Vista
Files in the Recycle Bin
Setup log files in Windows 7 and Windows Vista
Windows temporary files
Thumbnails of picture, video, and other documents in Windows 7 and Windows
Vista
Error reporting files in Windows 7
Optional Windows components that you arent using
Installed programs that you no longer use
The hibernation file in Windows Vista
Archive files in Windows Vista
To run Disk Cleanup:
1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk Cleanup.
(Or open Windows Explorer, right-click the disk you want to scan for
unnecessary files, choose Properties, and click Disk Cleanup.)
2 Select My files only or Files from all users on this computer. Click Continue
(in the Windows Vista UAC).
3 On the Disk Cleanup tab, check the categories of files you want to delete;
uncheck the categories you want to skip cleaning.
4 If you want to see the files in each category, click View Files.
5 Click OK, and then click Yes.
6 To clean up Windows components or installed programs, activate the More
Options tab and click Clean Up next to Windows Components or Installed
Programs.
The tool you selected will open. Use the Windows Component Wizard or the
Add or Remove Programs utility to remove the desired component or program.
1069
In the editions of Windows XP and Windows 7 and Vista listed previously, you can also
remove old system restore points. To do so:
1 Open Windows Explorer or Computer (My Computer).
2 Right-click the disk you want to scan for unnecessary files, and choose
Properties.
3 On the General tab, click Disk Cleanup.
4 Select My files only or Files from all users on this computer. Click Continue
(in the Windows Vista UAC).
5 Activate the More Options tab.
6 Under System Restore and Shadow Copies, click Clean up.
7 Click Delete (or Yes in OSs before Windows Vista) to remove all system restore
points except the most recent.
8 Click Delete Files (click OK and then Yes in OSs before Windows Vista).
9 Click OK.

Do it!
E-1:
Using Disk Cleanup
Heres how
Heres why

Computer
2 Under Hard Disk Drives, rightclick Local Disk (C:) and

choose Properties
To open the Local Disk (C:) Properties dialog

box.
3 Click Disk Cleanup
Disk Cleanup calculates how much space you

can save on your C: drive.
4 Scroll to view the contents of the

Files to delete list
Disk Cleanup might recommend deleting any of

the following items:
Downloaded program files
Temporary Internet files
Offline Web pages
Files in the Recycle Bin
Setup log files
Temporary files
System-archived error reporting files
With Downloaded Program Files

selected, click View Files
To display the downloaded program files that

Disk Cleanup is recommending that you delete.
Close the Downloaded Program

Files window
5 Click Clean up system files
6 Activate the More Options tab
You can use the Disk Cleanup utility to:

Access the Windows Components Wizard to
disable Windows components you dont use.
Access the Uninstall or change a program
utility to uninstall programs you dont use.
Remove all but the most recent restore point.
1071
7 Activate the Disk Cleanup tab

Clear all items that will save space
except one
Click OK
Click Delete Files
Leave the Local Disk (C:) Properties dialog box

open for the next activity.

Checking a disk for errors
Viruses or poorly written programs can break the chain of clusters that make up a file.
Such a rogue application might change or remove the marker in one cluster that points
to the files next cluster. Manufacturing defects or sudden impacts (in which the read
heads impact the platters) can lead to physical errors in sectors. Both logical and
physical errors can result in unreadable files.
Microsofts original tool for checking logical errors (but not physical errors) was a
command-line tool called Chkdsk (for check disk). Starting with MS-DOS 6.2,
Microsoft introduced a program named ScanDisk that you could use to check your hard
disk for both physical and logical errors. ScanDisk didnt support the NTFS file system.
So, starting with Windows NT, Microsoft eliminated ScanDisk, moving its functionality
into Chkdsk.
You can run Chkdsk from either the command line (covered in the next section) or via
the Windows GUI, in which case the tool is referred to as Check Disk. By default,
Check Disk simply scans for logical errors. You have to specify whether you want to fix
them, too, and whether to scan and fix physical errors.
To check your disk for errors in Windows 2000 Professional or the Windows XP and
Windows Vista and Windows 7 versions:
1 Click Start and choose Computer (My Computer in OSs before Windows Vista).
2 Right-click the drive you want to check for errors, and choose Properties.
3 Activate the Tools tab and click Check Now.
4 In the Windows Vista UAC, click Continue.
5 Check Automatically fix file system errors to fix logical errors and/or Scan
for and attempt recovery of bad sectors to scan for and fix physical errors.
6 Click Start. When the scan is finished, click OK.
Check Disk checks files and folders for invalid file names, dates, and times. It can also
check for data fragments that dont belong to any file. Youll hear these data fragments
called lost file fragments, lost file allocation units, or lost clusters. When it finds
a data fragment, Check Disk can do any of the following:
Automatically delete the fragment.
Attempt to fix the fragment.
Convert the data to a file so you can view its contents.
If Check Disk finds a physical disk error, it does the following:
Attempts to move any data stored on that area of the disk.
Marks the area as bad, so the operating system doesnt store additional data in
the damaged area.

Do it!
E-2:
1073
Scanning a disk for errors
Heres how
1 Activate the Tools tab
Heres why
In the Local Disk (C:) Properties dialog box. In
this activity, youll check your C: drive for
errors by using the ScanDisk utility.
Under Error-checking,
click
2 Clear Automatically fix file
system errors
Check Scan for and attempt

recovery of bad sectors
If you had chosen to automatically fix file

system errors, ScanDisk would need to run
before Windows booted all the way and the files
were in use. You would be prompted to
schedule the scan for the next time Windows
restarts.
Click Start
To begin the scan.
3 When prompted with the scan

report box, click Close
4 Close the Local Disk (C:)

Properties dialog box and the
Computer window

The chkdsk command
You use the chkdsk command to search FAT and NTFS disks for file system errors.
All Microsoft client operating systemsfrom MS-DOS through Windows 7ship with
command-line versions of chkdsk. The version included with the operating systems
that support NTFS is different from the DOS-based version used in operating systems
that support only FAT.
The syntax of the chkdsk command is
chkdsk drive:
where drive is the drive letter of the volume you want to check for errors. Optional
parameters and switches include those shown in Exhibit 10-32 below.
Exhibit 10-32: Command-line options for the chkdsk command

Windows NT Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista,
and Windows 7 include a chkntfs command, which is similar to the chkdsk
command. The chkntfs command is used at bootup on NTFS volumes. You can find
out more about chkntfs at http://support.microsoft.com/kb/160963.
Third-party utilities are sometimes better at determining which disconnected clusters
belong to which files. You can use these utilities to scan your disk for errors and correct
them.

Do it!
E-3:
1075
Running chkdsk.exe
Heres how
Heres why

check drive C: for file system
errors (without fixing them) and
to perform a scaled-down index
check?
Command Prompt and
choose Run as administrator
Click Yes
Enter the command
You should receive results like the following.

3 Run the same command in
verbose mode
Observe the results.
What is the difference in the

reports?
4 What happens if you run chkdsk

with /f?
5 Schedule a check to occur during

the next system restart
Close Command Prompt
6 Restart the computer
7 Log on as COMPADMIN##
Type exit and press Enter.

After the POST, Windows 7 begins its startup
process. Chkdsk checks the file system on C:
and then restarts the computer.
1077
Disk Defragmenter
Disk Defragmenter helps to improve hard disk performance by reorganizing the files on
the disk. It is available with all current versions of Windows.
A file thats saved in one continuous block of space on the hard disk is called
contiguous. A file thats saved in multiple noncontiguous blocks of space is called
fragmented.
Files can be divided across multiple noncontiguous clusters on the disk. From a speed
perspective, the optimal arrangement is to have all of a files clusters located
contiguously on the disk. However, as you add, remove, and change the contents of
files, they grow or shrink. Files can become fragmented into many clusters spread
across noncontiguous portions of the disk.
When a file is saved, it isnt necessarily saved in one contiguous block of space on the
hard disk. The computer starts saving the file in the first available block of space. If that
space isnt large enough for the entire file, the computer saves what it can in the first
space, and then moves onto the second available block.
This pattern continues until the entire file is saved. Noncontiguous blocks of space
become available as files are deleted. When the computer needs to retrieve a fragmented
file, it must gather the pieces from multiple areas of the disk. If you have a highly
fragmented file, this can cause a noticeable decrease in data access and retrieval
performance because the computer requires more time to gather all the pieces of the file
from multiple locations on the disk. The operating system accesses fragmented files
less efficiently than contiguous files.
Fragmentation isnt as much of a problem in newer operating systems such as Windows
XP and Windows 7, as it was in earlier operating systems. However, you can still use a
file defragmentation utility to move file clusters and return the disk to a less fragmented
state. Using such a utility is sometimes called defragging the disk.
Defragging
When you defrag a hard drive, software reads all the clusters that make up your files.
Then the software writes those clusters sequentially on the disk. Typically, the
defragging utility must read and write files multiple times to arrange all of your various
files in the most efficient physical locations on the disk. For maximum benefit, you
often must run the utility multiple times also.

The Disk Defragmenter utility is accessed from the System Tools submenu (under
Accessories). In pre-Windows Vista OSs, the utility has two modes, Analyze and
Defragment, as shown in Exhibit 10-33. (Windows Vista doesnt present such graphs.)
Analyze mode analyzes your hard disk and creates a report advising whether you should
defragment the drive. Defragment mode analyzes the drive and then immediately begins
defragmenting it.
Disk
selection
Runtime graphs
Start
Defragment
mode
Start
Analyze
mode
Legend
Exhibit 10-33: Disk Defragmenter in Windows XP

To defrag your hard drive:
1 (Optional, but recommended) Check your drive for errors before defragging.
2 (Optional, but recommended) Free up space on your disk before defragging, so
that you dont have to wait while old or temporary files are defragmented.
3 From the Start menu, choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk
Defragmenter. Click Continue. Alternatively, in Computer (My Computer) or
Windows Explorer, right-click the hard drive you want to defrag and choose
Properties. Then, click the Tools tab.
4 Click Defragment now. Disk Defragmenter analyzes the disk first, and then
begins defragging if its necessary.
5 Click OK.

Do it!
E-4:
1079
Defragmenting a disk
Heres how
Heres why

System Tools,
Disk Defragmenter
2 Select (C:)
Click Analyze disk
3 Click Defragment disk
4 Click Close
Disk Defragmenter analyzes your disk to see if

you need to defragment it.

Defrag.exe
Defrag.exe is the command-line version of the Disk Defragmenter utility; this
command can be used in scripts. The syntax of defrag is
defrag drive:
where drive specifies the drive you want to defragment. Optional switches include
those shown in Exhibit 10-34 below.
Exhibit 10-34: Command-line options for the defrag.exe command

Do it!
E-5:
1081
Running defrag.exe
Heres how
All Programs, Accessories
Heres why
Youll open a Command Prompt window with
administrator permissions.
Right-click Command Prompt

and choose Run as
administrator
Click Yes
determine if drive C: needs to be
defragmented?
determine if drive C: needs to be
defragmented and to view the
report on screen?
defragment drive C:, even if it
doesnt need to be defragmented?
5 Analyze drive C: and then analyze
it again in verbose mode
Compare the information
displayed by each command
In verbose mode, you can view the details of the

full analysis report.
Topic F: Storage device troubleshooting

#
Objective
2.2
Noise
Odors
Alerts
#
Objective
1.2

components
Storage devices
HDD
SATA
PATA
Solid state
FDD
Optical drives
Removable
External
Recovering deleted files

Explanation
Deleting files in Windows involves two steps: you move the files to the Recycle Bin,
and then you actually delete the files. You can recover files from the Recycle Bin by
selecting them and clicking Restore. This returns them to their former locations.
When you delete a file in the Recycle Bin, the operating system doesnt truly erase the
file. Instead, Windows simply marks the file as deleted in the file allocation tables. The
space used by the deleted file is now available for other uses.
Using a third-party utility, you can sometimes recover these deleted files. The utility
scans the file table for files that are candidates for recovery. Some utilities then scan
each files chain of clusters to determine which files are fully recoverable. Then you
select the files to recover, and the utility marks the file as not deleted. The name of the
file is often altered in the process; typically the first letter of the name is changed or
removed.
1083
You should install the file-recovery utility before you need to restore deleted files.
Otherwise, as you install the utility, its files will use up the disk space containing the
files youre trying to recover.
Third-party diagnostic utilities
Various vendors supply utilities you can use to diagnose disk troubles, recover data, and
optimize the operations of your hard drives. Examples include Symantecs Norton
SystemWorks, Ontrack Data Recoverys Data Advisor, and Stellar Data Recoverys
Stellar Phoenix.
Troubleshooting data storage devices

causes, and suggested first try solutions for problems with data storage devices. The
following tables list problems, probable causes, and suggested solutions for various
issues with data storage devices.

Troubleshooting hard and floppy drives
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Cant access drive

at all
Cables disconnected or
damaged; master/slave or
SCSI ID conflict; dead
drive; drive controller
disabled in BIOS.
Confirm that all cables are connected fully and

properly and show now visible signs of damage.
Check the master/slave or SCSI settings. Try
replacing the drive with a known good drive to see if
that drive works in the system. Try the suspect drive
in another system to see if it works there. These steps
help you determine if the drive is good or bad.
Confirm that the controller is enabled in the BIOS.
Cant boot from the

hard drive
BIOS drive order prevents

booting from the hard
drive; hard drive isnt
bootable; a partition on
another drive is set to be
active (bootable).
Confirm the boot drive order in the BIOS. Confirm

that the drive is set to be bootable and is formatted as
a bootable disk. Make sure you havent set the
partition on another, higher-priority drive to be the
boot partition. An active partition on the master drive
or a higher-priority SCSI ID takes precedence.
Space on drive
doesnt match
advertised space
Disk unit
misunderstanding; file
system limitations; space
being used by system
recovery programs;
reserved space on drive;
BIOS misconfiguration.
Sometimes the M in MB or the G in GB refers to a

decimal measurement (multiples of 1000); other
times, its a binary measurement (multiples of 1024
based on powers of 2). Perhaps you have
misunderstood which units are being used. The
FAT32 file system is less efficient with very large
drives, compared to NTFS. You can also lose space
when using some sector and cluster size
combinations. Windows reserves 16 128 MB of
your partition in case you change from a basic to a
dynamic partition. With older drives, you must
specify drive geometry in the PCs BIOS. If youve
done that incorrectly, some disk space could be
inaccessible.
Files becoming
corrupted
Drive failing; bad data

cable; terminator missing.
Try replacing the data cable with a new high-quality

cable. Make sure all connectors are seated fully.
Confirm that the SCSI chain is terminated properly.
Use a disk testing utility, such as Windows Check
Disk (or the command-line version chkdsk), to
determine if the drive is failing.
No status light
indicator
Dead hard drive
Swap hard drives to determine if theres been a hard

drive failure. Replace drive if necessary.
System boots from

hard drive when
you do a warm
restart, but doesnt
do a cold boot
System booting too

quickly.
Sometimes the motherboard portions of the boot

process can move too quickly for a slower hard
drive, which isnt ready when the CPU tries to access
it. Use the BIOS setup utility to disable the Quick
Boot option, and if available, enable the boot delay
time option.
Drive letter
incorrect
Cables connected
incorrectly; master/slave
setting different from
intended setting; drive
letters reassigned with
Windows.
Confirm that the drive is installed in the correct

location on the cable and that the master/slave
settings are configured as you intend. Use Disk
Management (in the Computer Management
console) to change drive-letter assignments.
1085
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Cant use the full

space of a very
large hard drive
BIOS or operating system

cant support very large
drives.
Install a BIOS update from your motherboards or

drive controllers manufacturer. Install the BIOS
patch included with many extremely large drives.
Upgrade to Windows XP, Windows Vista, or
Windows 7 to use the full capacity of extremely
large drives.
Drive not autodetected during

boot process
BIOS settings incorrect;

bad data cable connection;
failing drive.
Confirm that the BIOS settings controlling disk drive

detection are set correctly. Make sure the cables are
connected properly and fully seated. Try using a
different data cable. Use a diagnostic utility to test
the drive and confirm that its functioning correctly.
Noise
Failing hard disk; failing

floppy drive; defective
floppy disk
Confirm hard disk operating properly in Disk

Manager; confirm floppy disk operating properly in
My Computer. Try another floppy disk. Swap floppy
disk or hard disk drives to determine if noise abates.
If necessary, replace hard drive or floppy drive.
Troubleshooting CD drives
Problem
Probable cause
Suggested solutions
No audio plays
from CD
Volume turned down;

speakers disconnected;
CD drive not connected to
sound card; driver-related
problems.
Check the volume on both the volume control (in the

Windows system tray) and on the speakers. Make
sure the speakers are plugged in and turned on. With
older optical drives, make sure the CD-to-sound-card
cable is connected. Check Device Manager to see if a
resource conflict is preventing Windows from
accessing the drive properly. Make sure youre using
the correct driver, as well as the latest version.
CD drive not found
Drive disabled in BIOS;

driver problem; wrong
drive letter.
Check BIOS settings to confirm that the drive is

enabled. Make sure youre using the newest drivers.
CD drives often get assigned the last drive letter, but
can be assigned other letters. Make sure that the
drive is truly not being found, rather than being
assigned an unexpected drive letter.
Disc cant be read
Disc scratched or
damaged; DVD inserted in
a CD drive.
Treat all optical discs gently and store them in

suitable cases or sleeves. If you must set one down
without a case, lay it label side down. Make sure the
disc type matches your drive type.
No status light
indicator
Failed CD drive
Swap CD drives to determine if theres been a hard

drive failure. Replace drive if necessary.
Buffer underrun
Buffer emptied before you

finished recording.
Check the Buffer Underrun Protection checkbox in

your software, if its available.
Record from an image on disc, rather than directly
from some other source.
Dont run anything else on the computer while
recording. Disable antivirus, screensaver, or other
software that might wake up and disrupt the CD
burning process. Adjust virtual memory settings to
prevent swapping.

Problem
Probable cause
Suggested solutions
Write process fails

several minutes
after starting; on all
media you insert,
the write process
stops at the same
point
Writing at a speed higher

than the CDs or drive can
support; writing faster
than files can be read from
the hard drive; bad CDs.
Try recording at 1X, and write from a disc image by

using disc-at-once writing mode. Try another
package of CDs or another brand of CDs.
Files are corrupted

when recorded on a
SCSI CD-RW drive
Bad cable connection;

incorrect termination;
incorrect drive ID
(master/slave or SCSI ID);
bad memory.
Check the SCSI cable, connection, and termination

for the drive for visible damage. Also check L2
cache and memory settings for potential problems.
Burned CD-RW
disc cant be read
on another
computer
Media incompatibility;
older optical drive in other
computer does not support
recordable CDs; disc not
finalized (fixed, fixated, or
closed).
Check media compatibility. Some players and CD

drives read only pressed CDs or CD-R discs, and not
CD-RW discs. Use a CD burning application or disc
utility to confirm disk session was finalized when
recording.
Noise
Faulty CD drive
Confirm CD drive operating properly in My

Computer. Insert a different CD. Swap CD drives to
see if noise abates. Replace CD drive if necessary.
Troubleshooting DVD and Blu-ray drives

Problem
Probable cause
Suggested solutions
Disc cant be played

when two displays are
being used
On a laptop or other
system with two
displays, the overlay
cant be created to play
on both devices.
Use only one display when playing video through

Windows Media Player.
For more information, refer to
support.microsoft.com/kb/306713.
UDF-formatted discs
cant be read; you can
read only some files or
none; the disc might
not show up in
Explorer
The latest Windows

service pack has not
been installed.
Apply the latest Windows service pack; make sure

recording software is up-to-date.
Cant play movie
No playback software
installed, or decoders
are missing.
You must have special software for playing movies

on a PC. Make sure you have such a program
installed. Movies are encoded in various formats and
its possible that you wont have the correct type
installed. You might find a suitable decoder at
www.free-codecs.com.
Noise
Faulty DVD or Blu-ray

drive
Confirm DVD or Blu-ray drive operating properly in

My Computer. Insert a different disc. Swap drives to
see if noise abates. Replace drive if necessary.
No status light
indicator
Failed drive
Swap drives to determine if theres been a hard drive

failure. Replace drive if necessary.
For more symptoms, causes, workarounds, and other

information, refer to
support.microsoft.com/kb/321640.
1087
Troubleshooting external drives and removable storage
Do it!
Problem
Probable cause
Suggested solutions
Device not recognized;

no status light indicator
Device drivers not

installed.
Manually install drivers for the device.
Port inaccessible.
Verify port functionality in Device Manager; enable

the device; install or update drivers as necessary.
F-1:
Troubleshooting data storage devices
Heres how
1 One or more drive-related problems have been introduced into your lab computer.
Troubleshoot these problems to determine their cause(s).
2 Correct the problems you find in your PC to return it to a working state. Solving
one problem might reveal the presence of another one. Troubleshoot and fix any
other problems that arise.
3 Document the problem(s) you find here:
Unit summary: Data storage devices

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that drive adapters are built into the motherboard or added
via your PCs expansion slot and that the interface is the communications standard
between the controller and the hard drive. You learned about the various interface
standards, including IDE/PATA, SATA, SCSI, USB, and IEEE 1394. You learned that
you must configure IDE drives to designate one as master and one as slave. With SCSI
drives, you learned that each drive must have a unique SCSI ID.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that there are two types of hard disks: magnetic and solidstate. You identified the components of magnetic hard drives, including the read/write
heads, voice coil actuator, platters, motor, and spindle. You learned that hard disks are
divided into partitions, also called volumes. You also learned that file systems, such as
FAT32 and NTFS, define how operating systems access the data stored on a drive.
Topic C
In this topic, you identified features of CD, DVD, and Blu-ray discs. You also learned
how to use an optical drive for reading data, listening to music, watching film clips,
and writing data.
Topic D
In this topic, you examined different types of removable storage media. You identified
USB flash drives and learned that digital cameras connected via USB or IEEE 1394
show up as additional drives on your computer. You learned that floppy drives store
data on flexible media housed in a removable package with either a soft or hard casing.
Floppy diskettes store between 360 KB and 2.88 MB. Floppy drives are slow and lowcapacity compared to hard drives and optical drives, and thus sometimes arent included
with modern PCs. You also identified the different types of tape drives.
Topic E
In this topic, you learned how to perform basic disk maintenance tasks, such as
checking your hard disk for errors and defragmenting the disk. You learned how to use
tools such as chkdsk, Check Disk, Disk Defragmenter, and defrag.exe to perform
these tasks.
Topic F
In this topic, you learned that drives and disks can fail for various reasons, and you
learned how to troubleshoot these components. You also examined common symptoms
of failures and the probable causes and suggested solutions.
Review questions
1 Which PC drive interface is a parallel system bus?
A IEEE 1394
B SATA
C SCSI
D USB
2 The IDE interface is now more correctly called the ______________ interface?
A PATA
B IEEE 1394
C SCSI
D SATA
1089
3 The following graphic is a photo of which type of drive interface cables?
A High-speed PATA
B SATA
C SCSI
D Standard PATA
4 Which PC drive interfaces dont support a maximum of two drives per controller?
A High-speed PATA
B SATA
C SCSI
D Standard PATA
5 Which of the following SCSI standards has the highest bandwidth?
A Fast SCSI
B Fast-Wide SCSI
C Ultra2 Wide/LVD
D Ultra SCSI
6 True or false? SCSI devices with a lower SCSI ID have a higher priority on the
SCSI bus.
False. SCSI IDs begin at 0 and count upward, with higher IDs having a higher priority on the
SCSI bus. For 16-bit SCSI buses, ID 7 has the highest priority, then counting downward from 15
for the remaining IDs.
7 True or false? True USB drives, which connect directly to the USB bus without any
sort of PATA/SATA interface involved, are very common in todays PCs.
True. USB flash drives are extremely popular. Most are true USB drives and dont use the
PATA/SATA interface.
8 True or false? You can designate a master IDE drive on both the primary and
secondary channels.
True. Each channel can have one master and one slave drive.
9 A _______________ disk drive contains no moving parts.

solid-state

10 Which disk drive component is made from a metal or plastic disk?
A Platters
B Read/write heads
C Spindle
D Voice coil actuator
11 True or false? Tracks are divided into clusters.
False. Tracks are divided into sectors. Sectors are grouped into clusters.
12 Lower power consumption and less heat generation are advantages of a

______________ hard disk.
solid-state
13 Lower cost and higher storage capacities are advantages of a _______________

hard disk.
magnetic
14 You can configure an IDE drive to be _________, _________, or

________________ by using jumpers or switches on the drive.
master; slave; cable-select
15 Partitioning divides a drive into one or more logical drives, also called
____________.
volumes
16 True or false? Hard drive tracks are concentric regions on the platters, onto which
the data is written via magnetism.
True
17 True or false? You can format a volume as FAT32 in Windows Vista.

True
18 Which file system has a maximum file size of 4 GB?

A FAT16
B FAT32
C NTFS
19 Which file system supports file-level security?
A FAT16
B FAT32
C NTFS

20 The following graphic is illustrates which RAID level?
A Level 0
B Level 1
C Level 3
D Level 5
21 The following graphic illustrates two variations of which RAID level?
A Level 0
B Level 1
C Level 3
D Level 5
1091

22 The following graphic is an example of which RAID level?
A Level 0
B Level 1
C Level 3
D Level 5
23 Commercially produced CDs are created through a process called what?
A Burning
B Lasering
C Mastering
D Pressing
24 Writable CDs are written through a process called what?
A Burning
B Lasering
C Mastering
D Pressing
25 The speed of a CD drive is expressed in #X, where # is the number of times faster
than the rate at which a CD spins. This power of X is accurate up to approximately
which value?
A Two
B Four
C Eight
D Twelve
E Sixteen
F Twenty-four
26 True or false? DVDs are the same diameter as CDs.
True. Both are 120 mm, or 12 cm.
1093
27 What is the capacity of a single-sided, double-layer DVD?

A 4.7 GB
B 8.5 GB
C 9.4 GB
D 17.1 GB
28 What is the capacity of a double-sided, double-layer (on both sides) DVD?
A 4.7 GB
B 8.5 GB
C 9.4 GB
D 17.1 GB
29 True or false? You can use Windows Media Player to play DVDs.
True. Windows Media Player can be used to play DVD movies. However, it requires a compatible
DVD decoder to be installed on the computer.
30 True or false? To safely remove a USB flash drive, you should shut down the PC.
False. USB flash drives are hot-swappable. To safely remove the device, be sure that the drive
has finished writing data, and then use the Safely Remove Hardware icon to stop the device.
31 The items in the following graphic are examples of which type of storage device?
A IEEE 1394 (FireWire)

B Optical
C SCSI
D USB flash
32 What are the two sizes of floppy disks?
A 3.0"
B 3.25"
C 3.5"
D 5.0"
E 5.25"
F 5.5"

33 When youre connecting a floppy drive, the drive connected to the floppy cable
connector beyond the ______________ is identified as drive letter A.
twist
34 Which tape format was belt-driven rather than having the tape attached to reels?
A AIT and SAIT
B DDS
C DLT and SDLT
D LTO
E QIC
35 Which tape format uses helical-scan recording, in which the head is tilted and data
is recorded in diagonal strips across the head?
A AIT and SAIT
B DDS
C DLT and SDLT
D LTO
E QIC
36 In Windows Vista, which disk maintenance utility runs on a reboot?
A The chkdsk command
B Disk Cleanup
C Disk Defragmenter
D ScanDisk
37 Which disk maintenance utility identifies files that can be deleted to recover space
on a hard disk?
B Disk Cleanup
C Disk Defragmenter
D ScanDisk
38 Which disk maintenance utility arranges files to contiguous areas on the disk?
B Disk Cleanup
C Disk Defragmenter
D ScanDisk
1095

The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 10\Unit summary.
In this activity, youll practice installing, using, and maintaining drives on a PC.
1 Use Device Manager to determine the drive interface used by your computer.
Sometimes it will be within the name of the drive. Sometimes youll need to refer to
the manufacturers Web site.
2 Install a floppy disk drive in your system. Install it as drive A.
3 Restart your computer from the hard drive.
4 If you installed a second drive, and that drive is still installed, physically remove the
additional drive from your computer.
5 Physically remove the floppy drive that you installed during this activity.
6 Insert a blank DVD-R disc into your DVD-RW drive.
7 From the Student Data folder for this unit, burn the video file to the disc.
8 Playback the video from the disc to verify that it burned correctly to the disc.
9 Create a new NTFS partition, using half of the free space available on your
computer.
10 Copy the video file to your new partition.
11 Attach a USB flash drive to your computer.
12 Copy the video file to the flash drive.
13 When the drive has finished writing the file, safely remove the USB flash drive
from your computer.
14 Run the Disk Cleanup utility and remove all recommended files.
15 Schedule and run a check of your NTFS volume at system boot.
16 Use the Disk Defragmenter to analyze your hard disk. If you completed the
defragmentation activity in this unit, it should report back that defragmenting your
drive is not recommended at this time.
111
Unit 11

A Explain how CRT and LCD display
devices produce images.

B Install and configure digital cameras.
112
Topic A: Monitors
exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.7

Projectors, CRT and LCD
LCD technologies
Resolution (e.g., XGA, SXGA+, UXGA, WUXGA)
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Connector types
VGA
Settings
Refresh rate
Resolution
Multi-monitor
Degauss
1.8

Touch screen
6.1
EMI
Magnets
Electrical safety
CRT
Physical safety
Heavy devices
CRT monitors
Explanation
Traditional television sets and computer monitors use the same technology to create
images. A phosphorescent screen coating is struck by electron beams, and the coating
then glows for a fraction of a second. The electron beam must strike the coating many
times to keep the coating glowing.
Color cathode ray terminals (CRTs), use three electron beams to produce images. Each
beam is for a separate colorred, green, or blue. (This is why CRTs are also referred to
as RGB monitors.) The beams pass through horizontal and vertical deflection coils and
are focused by the magnetic yoke. Exhibit 11-1 shows a CRT monitor.
113
Exhibit 11-1: A CRT monitor

The inside of a CRT is a vacuum with a few key components. The cathode is a heated
element at the rear of the monitor. When the cathode is heated, negatively charged rays
are emitted. These are attracted by a positively charged anode, which focuses the rays.
Red, green, and blue light phosphors are arranged in a triad of dots or in strips. The
three electron beams allow the dots to be illuminated simultaneously. The high-speed
electron beam passes through a device that positions the electronic beams and strikes
the phosphor-coated screen.
To control the electronic beam, CRTs use one of three technologies: shadow mask,
aperture grill, and slotted mask. A shadow mask is a sheet of metal with a hole for each
pixel triad. A pixel triad is a grouping of the three color dots. The mask or grill prevents
stray electrons from illuminating dots that shouldnt be illuminated. An aperture grill is
composed of thin, vertical, metal strips to block stray electrons. The slotted mask
combines features of shadow mask and aperture grill technologies. Exhibit 11-2
illustrates how CRTs produce images.
Exhibit 11-2: How CRTs produce images
114

Coils move the beam horizontally and vertically. Changing the voltages in the coils
enables the electron beams to be aimed anywhere on the screen. A device called a
flyback transformer, which produces high-voltage signals from a low-voltage power
source, controls the horizontal motion of the beam. Because high voltages are present,
you must take caution if attempting to repair a CRT.
Some monitors have a degaussing button. Powerful magnets, such as those found in
speakers or industrial motors, can magnetize the mask or grill, causing the focusing of
dots to be misaligned. The degaussing button enables you to demagnetize the monitor.
Most monitors automatically perform a degaussing process when you turn them on.
Repeated degaussing can damage a CRT.
CRT monitor characteristics

When you examine the specifications for a CRT, youll see several terms and values.
These are useful for comparing image size, image clarity, and monitor performance.
Screen size
The screen size is the diagonal measurement, in inches, of the entire picture tube. This
measurement can be misleading because it includes areas of the picture tube that are
within the bezel (the plastic case that surrounds the viewable area of the screen). For this
reason, you might also find another measurement, called the viewable area, which
measures just the portion of the tube thats visible.
Most viewable areas are between 15 and 19 inches diagonal. If you work in an
environment with older equipment, you might occasionally find a 12" or 14" monitor,
but with the advent of graphical user interfaces for operating systems and applications,
larger screens are far more useful. Some monitors are also available at 21 inches.
Monitors larger than that are uncommon and expensive. Engineers, graphics artists, and
other users with specialty applications typically have the larger monitors.
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of the screen is the relationship between width and the height of the
screen. It is expressed as x:y, where x is the width and y is the height. When an image is
measured in x units, y is always measured and displayed in the same units, usually
pixels in computer terms, producing a standard image size of x:y pixels.
Standard CRT monitors have a 4:3 ratio, the same as a standard-definition TV, which
produces an almost square image. Current flat panel displays support a 4:3, 5:4, and
16:9 or 16:10 aspect ratios, the latter two producing the wide-screen image thats typical
of high-definition content.
Resolution
Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device. The resolution is
expressed in rows and columns. A monitor with a 12801024 resolution has 1280
columns of dots and 1024 rows of dots.
Resolution is affected by screen size. Both 15" and 21" monitors with a 12801024
resolution have the same number of pixels. Theyre just closer together on the smaller
monitor. Having the pixels closer together creates a sharper image.
115
Some applications, especially games and graphics applications, require that the
resolution be set to a specific setting. Common Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows
XP, and Windows 2000 Professional settings are 800600, 1024768, 1152864,
1280800, 12801024, and 16001200. Exactly which ones are available on your
system depends on the resolutions your monitor and video adapter support.
Refresh rate
For an image to stay on the screen, it needs to be refreshed multiple times per second.
The refresh rate is the number of times per second the screen is refreshed or redrawn.
This rate is measured in Hertz (Hz). At 60 Hz, the monitor is refreshed 60 times per
second. The image appears more stable, with less noticeable flickering, at higher refresh
rates. The human eye usually doesnt notice the redraw at 72 Hz or higher. A refresh
rate of 85 Hz is recommended for a 12801024 resolution.
If your monitor cant support that combination, it drops back to the previous setting so it
can show the screen image and prevent damage to the hardware.
Dot pitch
Dot pitch is the distance, measured in millimeters, between dots of the same color on
the screen. Most monitors have a dot pitch between 0.15 and 0.30 mm. The smaller the
dot pitch number, the better the image. An average-quality monitor usually has a dot
pitch between 0.22 and 0.26.
A television set usually has a dot pitch between 0.5 and 0.7. This is why the TV image
is so much grainier than the image on a CRT monitor.
Flat or curved screens
Traditionally, televisions and monitors had curved screens. The edges of the display
area were slightly distorted. Newer units are almost all flat screens, which are clear
across the entire surface.
A flat screen is different from a flat-panel monitor. Flat-screen CRTs still use the
cathode ray tube, and the dimensions of the monitor are quite deepusually as deep as
they are high. These monitors are called "flat screen because the CRT tube is flat on
the front, rather than curved. Flat-screen monitors are more expensive than typical
CRTs.
116
Do it!
A-1:
Choosing a CRT monitor
Heres how
Heres why

and log on to Windows 7 as
COMPADMIN## with a
2 Open your Web browser and
access a computer hardware sales
Web site
Youll examine a store Web site to find a

monitor with the best characteristics to examine
when purchasing a monitor.
3 Display the CRT monitors that are

for sale
Youll compare the lowest-price monitor, a midpriced one, and the highest-price monitor.
4 Record the dot pitch for the

following:
The lowest-price monitor
The mid-priced monitor
The highest-price monitor
5 Record the highest resolution for
the following:
6 Record the screen size for the
following:
7 Which monitor would you
recommend to a customer?
117
Video connectors
The monitor connects to a video adapter. VGA and SVGA CRT monitors connect via a
15-pin D-subminiature (D-sub) connector. The monitor cable ends in a male connector,
which plugs into a female port on the video adapter. If the computer uses color-coded
ports that follow the color coding created by Microsoft, Intel, and Toshiba, this is a blue
port. The video adapter converts digital information from the computer into analog
information for transmission to the monitor, which then converts the information back
to digital.
Each pin in a video cable is responsible for carrying specific information. If one of the
pins is bent or damaged, the monitor wont display the image properly.
Display properties
When you connect a monitor to a Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, or
Windows 2000 Professional system, it automatically detects the monitor and installs
either the Default Monitor driver or the PnP monitor driver for it. To get the full benefit
of features available on your monitor, you can check for drivers that are specific to it.
Through Display in Windows 7, Display Settings in Windows Vista, and Display
Properties in previous versions of Windows, you can set the screen resolution, color
quality, and monitor settings. To set the refresh rate, monitor type, and properties
specific to your monitor, click the Advanced Settings button (Vista) in the Display
Settings dialog box, or click the Advanced button (pre-Vista versions) on the Display
tab in the Display Properties dialog box.
In Windows 7, in Display, click "Change display settings, then click Advanced
Settings and select the Monitor tab.
Color depth
Color depth specifies how many bits are used to describe the color of a single pixel.
VGA monitors use 16-bit color depth, known as High Color or HiColor, and can show
65,536 colors. SVGA monitors are capable of 24-bit color depth, using 8 bits for red, 8
bits for blue, and 8 bits for green. An SVGA monitor can show 16,777,216 colors; this
setting is also known as True Color. The 32-bit color depth uses the additional bits for
showing additional information in the image. This setting is useful for games and other
graphics-intensive applications.
Display adjustments
When you install a monitor, you might need to adjust the display a bit. Settings usually
include brightness, contrast, and the position of the image on the screen. The method
used to adjust these settings varies from monitor to monitor. Some monitors have
separate buttons or knobs for each setting; others display a menu thats accessed using
buttons on the monitor.
If the image isnt visible, the brightness or contrast might be set too low. If the image is
distorted, the brightness or contrast might be set too high. If the image is partway off the
screen, adjust the image position. If these settings dont improve the image, refer to your
monitor documentation for additional suggestions on resolving the issue.
118
Safety
Caution: Never open a monitor unless youve been specifically trained in internal
monitor repair techniques, which arent covered in this course.
Computer equipment can be heavy and bulky, especially laser printers, servers, and
large CRT monitors. Use care when lifting and moving equipment, not only for the sake
of the equipment, but also for your back and other muscles.
When lifting equipment, take a balanced stance. If the equipment is on the floor, squat
close to it and use your leg muscles to lift it as you stand up. Keep your back straight
with your chin tucked in. Grip the equipment, using your entire hand rather than just
your fingers, and bring it close to your body, keeping your elbow close to your body as
well.
Make sure that you can see where youre going with the equipment. Crashing into
another person, a wall, or other equipment can be hazardous.
Interference
Images can be distorted if a CRT monitor is placed near another CRT, a powerful
magnet (such as those found in speakers), fluorescent lights, or heavy machinery
(containing motors that generate large magnetic fields). Move the monitor as far away
from the interference as possible to see if thats the problem. Moving it away should
reduce or eliminate the problem. The monitor might need to be degaussed.
Do it!
A-2:
Using a CRT monitor
Heres how
1 Shut down Windows 7
Heres why
Youll disconnect your monitor, reconnect a
CRT monitor, and examine the display settings.
Turn off your computer

2 Disconnect the power to the
monitor
Monitors have very high voltages and need to be

handled carefully.
3 Disconnect the video cable from

the video adapter
4 Examine the connector and the
port for the CRT monitor
The female port has 15 holes, and the male cable

end has 15 pins.
5 Connect the video cable to the

port
Be careful not to bend pins as you make the

connection.
Plug the monitor into the power

outlet
COMPADMIN## with a
Monitors should be plugged into surge strips to

help protect them.
The monitor image should be clear and centered,
with no distortions.

7 Using the buttons on the front of
the monitor, adjust the display
119
If necessary, to display a clear image centered

on the screen.
8 Right-click the desktop

Choose Personalize
In the navigation pane, under See
also, click Display
To open the Display dialog box.
9 In the navigation pane, click

Adjust resolution
10 Raise the Screen resolution to the

highest available setting
This varies based on the capabilities of your

monitor.
11 Click Advanced settings

Activate the Monitor tab
Raise the Color quality to the
This also varies based on the capabilities of your

video card and monitor.
Click Apply
If you changed the settings.
Click Yes
If you like the new settings.
Click No
If you want to revert to the previous settings.
12 Click Cancel
Close the Screen Resolution
window

Flat-panel monitors
For many reasons, CRTs have been replaced by flat-panel monitor technologies. Flatpanel monitors used to be found only in laptops. Now, theyre the standard display
option for desktop systems as well. These flat-panel monitors are liquid crystal display
(LCD) monitors that use thin-film transistor (TFT) technology. Exhibit 11-3 shows an
LCD monitor.
Exhibit 11-3: A flat-panel monitor

Compared with CRT monitors, LCD monitors:
Use less power
Generate less heat
Require less desk space for the same size viewable area
Produce less glare
Emit less radiation
Modern LCDs use an active-matrix TFT to control liquid crystals, chemicals whose
molecules can be aligned by the presence of an electrical field. When aligned, the
crystals let light pass through. An LCD display uses layers of liquid crystals, a
fluorescent or LED light source, and polarizing filters. A transistor controls each pixels
transparency by setting the electric field to adjust the liquid crystals alignment.
Transparent pixels shine white, compared to the black or gray of reflective pixels.
In a color LCD display, such as a computer monitor, each pixel is made up of three
subpixels. Each subpixel is covered by a red, green, or blue filter. Because each subpixel
can be turned on or off, a pixel can be made to glow in the various colors that make up
an image. Each subpixel is controlled by its own transistor.
Older LCD technologies, such as passive matrix, used fewer transistors than active
matrix use. Such screens were less sharp or suffered from ghost images. Dual scan
technology offered an improvement over passive matrix, but eventually gave way to the
better images of TFT. Dual scan separated screens into two parts, refreshing both at the
same time, thus providing faster refresh rates than passive matrix provided.
Flat-panel monitor characteristics

In addition to the specifications used for CRTs, LCD monitors use other specifications
to describe their performance. These are related to the way LCD monitors produce
images.
1111
Screen size
LCD monitors are measured diagonally, just like CRT monitors. However, unlike the
published dimensions of CRT monitors, those of an LCD monitor refer to the viewable
area. Such measurements dont include areas of the screen hidden by the bezel.
Viewing angle
The viewing angle can be an important factor to consider. When youre viewing an
LCD monitor straight on, as you do most of the time, the monitor should be fine.
However, if you want to show other people whats on your monitor, and theyre
viewing it from an angle, the image might not be visible or might be distorted, or the
colors might look wavy or incorrect.
Angles are measured in degrees. The maximum angle at which the image isnt distorted
is listed as the viewing angle. Because various manufacturers measure this differently,
you should check it yourself. Be sure to check from both sides of the screen, as well as
from top and bottom angles, if you think people might need to see from those angles as
well.
Response rate
The response rate measures how quickly the pixels can change colors. This number is
important if you have moving images, such as in Web sites, videos, or gaming. The
response rate is measured in milliseconds. A response rate should be a lower number for
better performance. An 8 ms response time works very well for gaming. A 20 ms
response time works fine for such tasks as word processing.
Contrast ratio
Contrast ratio is the ratio between the monitors brightest white and darkest black. The
higher the contract ratio, the better the image, so 900:1 is better than 600:1. Today, its
easy to find monitors with a contrast ratio of 40,000:1.
Native resolutions
The native resolution is the number of individually addressable pixels in the screen
matrix. Some of the common native resolutions found in LCD monitors are:
XGA 1024768 pixels
SXGA 12801024 pixels
UXGA 16001200 pixels
Widescreen LCD resolutions include:
WXGA+ 1440900 pixels
WSXGA+ 16801050 pixels
WUXGA 19201200 pixels
LCD monitors produce the clearest picture when all pixels are used. Although you can
usually configure an LCD monitor for a lower resolution than the native resolution, the
image will be somewhat blurry or distorted, because not all pixels will be illuminated.
On a few LCD monitors, you can set a higher resolution than the native resolution, but
again, the image might not be as clear as the image at the native resolution.

Brightness
Brightness or luminescence is the amount of light produced by an LCD monitor,
measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2). A typical range is 250 to 500 cd/m2,
though a range of 250 to 300 cd/m2 is adequate for most tasks. Brighter monitors are
better for movies and games.
Other features
Other features you might find in the LCD monitor descriptions include:
Orientation Some monitors can be pivoted so that you can view the image in
portrait or landscape mode. This option is available only on widescreen
monitors.
Built-in speakers Speakers are incorporated in the LCD monitor.
USB hub You can connect other USB devices to the computer through the
monitor.
Anti-theft lock The slot fits a standard locking device that, when locked,
turns a metal bar perpendicular to the slot.
Wall mounting This option allows multiple people to view the monitor, such
as in conference rooms and classrooms.
Touch-screen monitors
Some touch-screen monitors are CRT-style monitors. Other touch-screen monitors use
LCD panels. Still others consist of a separate panel that fits over a monitor.
Touch-screen monitors use several methods to receive input information:
Layers Electrical current runs through a layer thats placed over the monitor.
When the layer is pressed, it touches another layer. This action indicates the
screen position youve selected, and the software knows whats on the screen at
that location.
Capacitors Capacitors are placed between layers over the screen. A touch
changes the charge in the capacitors, and this change in charge is used by the
controller to calculate the location of the touch.
Acoustic waves A sending transducer and a receiving transducer are placed
on the surface of the monitor. Reflectors on the monitors surface send the
electrical signal between the transducers. A touch on the screen interrupts the
flow, and the location can be calculated.
Touch-screen monitors take the place of mice. The drivers for the monitor communicate
with the operating system, and the information that would usually come from the mouse
is instead interpreted from the information received from the monitor.
Connections can be damaged by pressing the screen too hard or by using sharp objects
on the surface. There are usually connections to the video adapter and to another port,
such as a USB or mouse port. If these connections arent set up properly, the touch
screen wont work properly. If the touch panel is attached to a regular monitor but isnt
properly aligned, the touches wont match up with the on-screen items.
A touch screen usually requires calibration, which identifies the corners and the center
of the surface. The drivers use this information to calculate where the user is touching
the screen. You might need to recalibrate the monitor if it isnt working properly.
1113
Laptop monitors
Laptop monitors are usually LCD monitors, although some are plasma monitors. The
connections for a laptop monitor include a ribbon cable that connects the screen to the
video card. The inverter regulates power to the fluorescent lamps in the LCD panel. The
lamps provide the backlight in the monitor.
Laptop computers can have integrated or separate graphics cards. Built-in cards use the
main memory. Dedicated cards usually use their own memory, although some cards
have some memory but also share main memory. Dedicated video cards require more
power, so those notebooks have a shorter battery life. However, the tradeoff might be
worth it for users who need faster response times.

Do it!
A-3:
Choosing an LCD monitor
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open your Web browser and go to

a Web site that sells computer
hardware
Youll examine a store Web site to find a

monitor with the best characteristics you should
examine when purchasing a monitor.
2 Display the LCD monitors that are

for sale
Youll compare the lowest-price monitor, a midpriced monitor, and the highest-price monitor.
3 Select a standard size to compare
For example, compare 19" LCD monitors.
4 Record the following information

for the lowest-price monitor:
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
Record the following information
for the mid-priced monitor:
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle
Record the following information
for the highest-price monitor:
Brightness
Contrast ratio
Native resolution
Response rate
Viewing angle

5 Record any extra features
included in the lowest-price
monitor
Record any extra features
included in the mid-priced
monitor
Record any extra features
included in the highest-price
monitor
6 Which monitor would you
recommend to a customer?
1115

Flat-panel monitor connections
Flat-panel monitors are connected via either analog or digital connectors. Most monitors
ship with a 15-pin VGA connection cable, even if theyre equipped to handle digital
video interface (DVI) connections. Some monitors come with cables for both connection
types.
If you want to use the DVI connection, you can purchase a video card with a DVI
connection or use a VGA-to-DVI converter. You also need to determine if the card uses
a DVI-D or DVI-I connection.
DVI-D
DVI-D is a digital-only connection. A dual-link DVI-D connection contains 24 pins in
three rows of eight, plus a grounding slot. A single-link DVI-D connection contains 18
pins.
DVI-I
DVI-I supports both digital and analog signals. The DVI-I connector contains four more
pins than a DVI-D connector contains. These four pins carry analog signals. The analog
signal pins are located above and below the grounding slot.
TMDS
Transition minimized differential signaling (TMDS) is the protocol used to transmit data
to a digital monitor. The data remains in digital format with no need for analog
conversion, as in analog CRTs. TMDS is a high-speed method of sending data.
Single-link cables use one TDMS transmitter. Dual-link cables use two TDMS
transmitters. A DVI-D single-link cable supports digital-only transmission with
resolutions of up to 19201200. A dual-link cable supports resolutions of up to
25601600.
LCD monitor installation

The first step in connecting an LCD monitor is determining which type of video
connector your computer has. If it has only a 15-pin VGA connector, youll have to use
an analog connector to the LCD monitor.
If you have a DVI connector, you need to determine which type of DVI cable you need.
Also, some LCD monitors come with a DVI cable, but others come with only an analog
VGA cable. You can purchase a separate DVI cable if your monitor supports digital
video and if you have a DVI video card installed in your system.
If you want to take advantage of the digital connection and you dont have a DVI
connector in your computer, you can install a graphics adapter with DVI connectors on
it. DVI-D is the most common connector type for PC-to-LCD-monitor connections.
DVI-I is more common for connecting to other equipment, such as HDTV television
sets.
1117
Multiple monitors
If youre using an operating system that supports multiple monitors, such as Windows
7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000, or Windows 98, you can use two or
more monitors simultaneously. This arrangement is useful when youre working with
large spreadsheets, multiple related documents, and other large documents. Using dual
monitors in Windows 7 gives you a larger space to display two windows than the Aero
Snap feature does. Aero Snap displays each window in half of a single monitor. To use
multiple monitors, you need two displays, two video cables, and either two video
adapters or one video adapter with two ports.
You can connect CRTs, LCD monitors, or a mix of each. The setup depends on which
adapters your computer has and what types of monitors you have. The Microsoft
Knowledge Base article "Hardware requirements for multiple-display support in
Windows XP (article 296538), Windows Vista article located at
http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/device/display/multimonVista.mspx,
or Windows 7 Help at http://support.microsoft.com/kb/976064. This
contains information that can help you figure out what equipment you need to set up
multiple monitors. Exhibit 11-4 shows an example of a connecting two monitors to a
computer.
Exhibit 11-4: Connecting two monitors

To configure multiple monitors in Windows:
1 In Windows 7, right-click the desktop, choose Personalize, click Display and
click Change display settings. Open Display Settings in Windows Vista, or
Display Properties in Windows XP or 2000.
2 In Windows XP or 2000, select the Settings tab.
3 Select and drag the monitor boxes so theyre either side by side or one above the
other. Side-by-side extends your desktop to the left or right. Top-and-bottom
extends the desktop up and down.
4 Select each monitor box and set the appropriate screen resolution and color
settings.
5 If necessary, select the box for your main monitor. In Windows 7 and Vista,
check "This is my main monitor. In Windows XP or 2000, check "Use this
device as the primary monitor.
6 Select the monitor box for the secondary monitor. In Windows 7, under Multiple
displays, choose "Extend these displays. In Windows Vista, check "Extend the
desktop onto this monitor. In Windows XP or 2000, check "Extend my
Windows desktop onto this monitor.
Configuring multiple monitors in Windows 7 is shown in Exhibit 11-5.
7 Click OK.
Exhibit 11-5: Configuring dual monitors in Windows 7
1119
Display projectors
Display projectors enable you to show whats on your screen to a room full of people.
These projectors are useful for meetings and classes. The device connects to the
computers VGA port. Theres usually a splitter so that the image is displayed on your
monitor and is projected onto a whiteboard, wall, or movie screen.
DisplayPort technology
The DisplayPort digital display interface is a new specification being developed by
VESA members. It covers CRT, LCD, plasma, and projection displays. It also covers
connections to PCs, game systems, DVD players, and other image sources. The cable
can carry high-quality audio along with the video information.
The specification defines a common interface for internal and external display
connections. The high bandwidth in the specification supports higher-resolution
monitors, higher refresh rates, and more colors.
The DisplayPort connector is smaller than connectors meeting the current video
standards. The smaller cable accommodates thin notebook computers and other devices,
as well as desktop computers. Multiple ports fit on a single video card. More
information can be found at vesa.org/press/displayportpr.htm.

Do it!
A-4:
Using an LCD monitor
Heres how
Heres why
1 Shut down Windows 7 and turn

off your computers power
Youll disconnect your monitor, reconnect it,

and examine the display properties.
2 Disconnect the power to the

monitor
Monitors have very high voltages and need to be

handled carefully.
3 Disconnect the video cable from

the video adapter
4 Examine the connector and the
port for the LCD monitor
The standard analog VGA female port has 15

holes, and the male cable end has 15 pins. If
your system has a DVI port, its most likely the
DVI-D port, with three rows of pins and a
separate area of four more pins.
5 Connect the video cable from the

LCD monitor to the port
Be careful not to bend pins as you make the

connection.
Plug the monitor into the power

outlet
Monitors should be plugged into surge protector

strips to help protect them.
The monitor image should be clear and centered,
with no distortions.
COMPADMIN##
Adjust the display
If necessary, to display a clear image.
7 Right-click the desktop

Choose Personalize
Click Display
Click Change display
To open the Screen Resolution window.
settings
8 Raise the Screen resolution to the

This depends on the capabilities of your

monitor.
1121

Activate the Monitor tab
Raise the Color quality to the
This also depends on the capabilities of your

video card and monitor.
Click Apply
If you changed the settings.
Click Yes
If you like the new settings.
Click No
If you want to revert to the previous settings.
10 Close the Screen Resolution

window
Topic B: Cameras
This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam version
2.0 objective.
#
Objective
1.8
Install and configure peripheral and input devices

Digital cameras
Explanation
Digital cameras are very popular devices. The quality of the picture that a digital camera
takes is expressed in megapixels, or millions of pixels contained in the image. Camera
resolution capacities range from less than 1 megapixel to more than 8 megapixels.
The following table describes the resolutions needed for typical uses. Higher-megapixel
images are larger files. As the cost of digital technology comes down, youll find higher
megapixel depths offered in Web cameras, phone cameras, and consumer-grade cameras
than those listed in the following table.
Megapixels
(MP)
Good for
Print size
(max.)
Found in
Under 1 MP
Broadcasting over the

Internet
1 to 2 MP
E-mailing pictures
4"6"
Phone cameras; the still-shot feature on

digital video cameras; older digital cameras.
3 to 4 MP
Printing, e-mailing, or
using on the Web, if you
resize or crop the image
5"7"
High-end phone cameras; low-end

consumer-grade digital cameras.
5 to 8 MP
Large prints
8"10"
Mid-range consumer-grade cameras.
Over 8 MP
Professional use and very

large prints
11"14"
and larger
"Prosumer cameras that blend features

typically found in consumer-grade and
professional-grade digital cameras;
professional-grade digital cameras.
Web cameras ("webcams).
Memory cards
Images in digital cameras are stored on memory cards. Some cameras also include
internal memory, which is built into the camera and isnt removable.
The higher a pictures resolution is, the larger the file is. Most cameras have settings for
lower-quality pictures so that you can fit more pictures on a card, but the default setting
is typically for the highest quality.
An uncompressed picture from a 4 MP camera is around 6 MB per picture. An
uncompressed picture from a 6 MP camera is about 7.5 MB per picture. Most cameras
use compression, though, so the file is half the size of the uncompressed state.
1123
Memory cards are removable, so having extra ones allows you to take more pictures
without needing to delete some or transfer them to your computer before taking more
pictures.
This is useful if youre going to be away from the computer for a while, such as on
vacation or taking a full days worth of pictures before being able to upload them to the
computer.
There are several different types of memory cards. Check your camera documentation
to see which one your camera uses. The following table describes the memory cards
youre likely to encounter. They all use solid-state circuitry with no moving parts.
Exhibit 11-6 and Exhibit 11-7 show a few of the memory cards described in the table.
Type
Description
CompactFlash
Comes in two versions: CF-I and CF-II.

Controller: Built into the memory card.
Capacity: Up to 16 GB for HC (high-capacity) cards.
See compactflash.org for additional details.
Memory Stick
Comes in two versions: MS and MS Duo. Duo is often sold with an adapter so that
it can be read by or used in devices that use MS.
Capacity: Up to 8 GB.
Secure Digital
Comes in SD and miniSD formats. An adapter is available to allow miniSD cards to

be used in SD slots.
MultiMedia Cards (MMCs) can be used in some devices interchangeably with SD
cards. Check the documentation for your device to see if they can be used.
Capacity: Up to 16 GB for HC cards.
See sdcard.org for additional details.
SmartMedia
No controller built into the memory card.

Capacity: Up to 128 MB.
xD-Picture Card
No controller built into the memory card.

Capacity: Up to 2 GB.
Memory stick
SD card
Exhibit 11-6: Memory stick and SD flash memory cards
Exhibit 11-7: CompactFlash memory cards

Printing images from digital cameras
Digital cameras have become very popular because there are no film development costs.
You can store the photos on your computer and view them there. You can also purchase
special photographic paper to use in inkjet printers so you can print the pictures.
Another alternative is to take the memory card to a photo store, which can print the
photos by using traditional photo printing methods.
Printing photos on standard copier or ink jet paper results in pictures that arent up to
the standard of photographic quality. Most home-printed photos fade in a few months
unless you use special archival-quality inks and papers.
Digital camera connections
Digital still cameras most often use USB connections. Digital video cameras use either a
USB connection or an IEEE 1394 connection. Some cameras require drivers, but others
just show up as another storage device on the computer when the connection is made.
Digital cameras run on either rechargeable or disposable batteries. You should always
select a battery thats rated for digital devices because of the high power drain.
Because the batteries are used up quickly, card readers are available so that you can
remove the memory card from the camera and transfer the images to the computer
without needing to use the camera and its batteries. These readers are sometimes built
into the computer, and some are available as separate devices. Exhibit 11-8 shows a
memory card reader that can read several types of cards.
1125
Exhibit 11-8: Memory card reader

Some cameras use a docking station to recharge the batteries and to transfer the images
from the camera to the computer. Some docking stations also include a photo printer.
Some docking stations can print the pictures without being connected to the computer;
others require a computer connection.
Do it!
B-1:
Connecting a digital camera
Heres how
1 Insert the media card into the
digital camera
Heres why
Youll use a digital camera and then connect it
to the computer to transfer the picture to the
hard drive.
2 Take a picture with the digital

camera
3 Determine what type of
connection the camera uses to
connect to the computer
Its usually a USB connection, but it could be an

IEEE 1394 connection, through a docking
station, or via another port.
4 Connect the camera to your

computer
5 If prompted, install software or
drivers
Some cameras require drivers to be installed.

Others, using the USB specification, show up
automatically as storage devices in the
Computer folder.
6 Access the camera through

Computer or the cameras
software
The camera might show up as a removable drive

or might be accessible only through the camera
vendors software.
7 Copy the picture to Pictures

8 Display one of the pictures
Usually, you can double-click the image file to

display it in a preview window or other
application.

Web cameras
Web cameras (or webcams) are specialized cameras designed to record live video and
transmit it across a network or the Internet. The video can be transmitted live, or
recorded and saved for transmission at a later time. Many webcams include built-in
microphones, and most include software for video e-mail, video capture,
videoconferencing, and still-image capture. Most consumer webcams provide VGAresolution video at 30 frames per second. They capture video at relatively low
resolutions, typically one megapixel or less, which is fine for personal and low-end
business video.
Webcams must be connected to a desktop PC, usually via a USB connection. Many
laptops now have Web cameras built into the lid above the display screen. The PC runs
software to capture the video and package it for network-based distribution.
Exhibit 11-9: A webcam
Network cameras
Network cameras (also called IP cameras), like webcams, are designed for Web-based
video, and sometimes audio, distribution. Unlike webcams, network cameras dont need
to be connected to a PC. Instead, they include a network port supporting wired or wireless
Ethernet network connections. Network cameras also include embedded software that
captures the video and packages it for distribution. Often the embedded software includes
a limited-functionality Web server that allows a limited number of users to connect and
view the video stream.
Exhibit 11-10: A wireless network camera
1127
Network cameras are used for live video feeds (and are often called "live webcams
when used this way). Some include software that enables their use as security
camerasthe software detects motion, turns on the camera, begins saving video footage
on an internal storage location or server, and sends an e-mail or text message to a
designated address.
Headsets, microphones, and speakers

Webcams and network cameras typically feature integrated microphones. Users rely on
their computers speakers when using such cameras for video conferencing. Users
seeking better call quality can use a headset, which combines speakers and a
microphone into a wearable unit. Headsets help eliminate echo and feedback, in which
the microphone picks up the output from the speaker, sends it through the speaker, picks
it up again, and so forth. Headsets typically connect to the PC via wired USB
connections or a wireless system, such as Bluetooth.
Exhibit 11-11: A headset with integrated microphone
Connection software
In order to make a connection with a webcam or network camera that doesnt have its
own Web server software, you need to connect to a service provider, such as Skype,
Vonage, or a plethora of other providers, which enable people across the globe to
communicate with one another, often at no charge. The exact steps to install, configure,
and connect vary by provider, so its best to use the instructions on your chosen
providers Web site to get your webcam or network camera transmitting across the Web.

Do it!
B-2:
Making a video call with Skype
Heres how
1 Download Skype for Windows
Heres why
If youre using a different operating system,
download Skype for that platform instead.
Visit www.skype.com
Click Download Skype
Click Download Now
If necessary.
When prompted, click OK
To download SkypeSetup.exe to your computer.
Note the drive and folder to which

the file is downloaded
Location: ______________________________
2 Open SkypeSetup
Follow the programs prompts to
install Skype
3 When prompted, create a new
Skype account
From the location to which you downloaded the

file.
Do not install the Google toolbar.
Enter your full name, a Skype user name (or

accept the suggested name), and a password.
Click Next
Enter your e-mail address and location
Click Sign In
Close the Getting Started window
Among other steps, the Getting Started window

will prompt you to make a Skype test call,
which you can skip during class.
1129
4 Exchange Skype names with

another student in the class
5 Click
To begin adding contacts to your contacts list.
Enter another students Skype

name and click Find
Click Add Skype Contact
6 Install the webcam supplied by
your instructor
If necessary, connect speakers and
a microphone to your sound card
To add the contact.

Follow the manufacturers instructions to install
the camera and its software.
They might already be connected from the
Peripheral connection types unit.
7 If the webcam software doesnt

automatically integrate with Skype:
In the notification area, right-click
the Skype icon and choose
If youre not signed in already, sign in now.
Open Skype
Choose Tools, Options

On the left, select Video settings
Check Enable Skype Video
From the Select webcam list,
select your webcam
Or select Default video device.
Click Test Webcam
A window showing the video from your

webcam opens.

8 Click Close
Click Save
9 Coordinate with your lab partner
to decide who will place the call
To save your video settings.

One of you will place the call; the other will
answer it.
If youre placing the call, select

your contact and click
To place the call
If youre receiving the call,

click
To answer the call.
10 Both partners:
click
Your webcam video is not automatically

enabled during the call. This setting offers you a
measure of privacy during calls from your
contacts.
11 Have a brief videoconference with

your lab partner
12 When youre done, click
13 Close Skype
To end the call.
1131
Unit summary: Video output and image input

devices
Topic A
In this topic, you learned about CRT monitors. You learned how CRTs produce
images, and you learned about the terminology used to describe CRT monitors. Then,
you identified advantages of LCD monitors over CRT monitors. You learned how
images are produced on an LCD monitor. You also briefly examined using multiple
monitors, display projectors, touch screens, and DisplayPort technologies.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned that you can use different types of cameras to input both static
and live images to your computer. Network video hardware and softwareincluding
webcams, network cameras, headsets, microphones, and speakerscan transmit both
live and previously recorded video, and sometimes audio, across the Web.
Review questions
1 Whats another name for a CRT monitor?
A DVI monitor
B Flat-panel monitor
C LCD monitor
D RGB monitor
2 What color dots are in a pixel triad? [Choose all that apply.]
A Black
B Blue
C Green
D Orange
E Red
F White
G Yellow
3 True or false? Degaussing prevents stray electrons from illuminating dots that
shouldnt be illuminated.
False. Thats the purpose of the shadow mask or aperture grill. Degaussing demagnetizes the
mask or grill, thereby neutralizing it. Degaussing prevents beam scattering, which degrades the
image display.
4 How is a CRT monitors size measured?

A Diagonal measurement, edge to edge
B Diagonal measurement, picture tube corner to corner
C Total area, length width
D Width

5 True or false? The monitor that has a better image is one with a dot pitch of 0.15
compared to 0.30.
True. The smaller the dot pitch number, the better the image.
6 True or false? "Resolution refers to the relationship between the horizontal and
vertical sizes of the screen.
False. Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device.
7 True or false? "Contrast ratio refers to the difference between the shades of each
color on an LCD monitor.
False. Contrast ratio is the ratio between the monitors brightest white and darkest black.
8 True or false? A response rate of 20 ms is better than a response rate of 8 ms.

False. A response rate should be a lower number for better performance.
9 The 24-bit color depth shows how many shades for each of the three basic monitor
colors?
A 24
B 32
C 128
D 256
E 1,024
10 True or false? LCD monitors use thin film transistor technology.
True
11 Laptop monitors are most often which type of monitor?

A CRT
B LCD
C Plasma
D Touch screen
12 What does the response rate on an LCD monitor refer to?
A How quickly, in milliseconds, the pixels change colors
B The ratio between the monitors brightest white and darkest black
C The measurement, in candelas per square meter (cd/m), of the light produced
D The number of individually addressable pixels in the screen matrix
13 Why is an LCD monitor display somewhat blurry when configured below its native
resolution?
Because not all pixels are illuminated at the lower resolution.
14 True or false? An image from a 1 MP camera is smaller than that created by a 3 MP

camera.
True
1133
15 If you wanted to create 8"10" prints of digital photographs, what minimum

megapixel range would your camera need to have?
A 1 to 2 MP
B 3 to 4 MP
C 5 to 8 MP
D Over 8 MP
16 Which types of removable memory cards come in the largest capacity? [Choose all
that apply]
A CompactFlash
B MemoryStick
C Secure Digital
D SmartMedia
E xD-Picture Card
17 True or false? All webcams include built-in microphones and software for video email, video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture.
False. Some webcams include built-in microphones, and most include software for video e-mail,
video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture.

In this activity, youll install and configure dual monitors on your PC.
1 If your system supports two monitors, connect a second monitor to it.
2 Extend your Windows desktop onto the second monitor.
3 Open Notepad and drag it to the second monitor.
4 Open Windows Explorer and leave its window on the primary monitor.
6 Return your desktop to a single monitor.
7 Disconnect the second monitor.
121
Unit 12
Printers

A Compare and contrast printing
technologies.
B Install printers.
C Optimize printing and perform routine
maintenance tasks for printers.

D Troubleshoot printer problems.
122
Topic A: Printing technologies

exam objective.
#
Objective
1.11

Differentiate between printer types
Laser
Inkjet
Thermal
Impact
Dot-matrix printers
Explanation
Dot-matrix printers have been around for as long as personal computers have been
available. They are rather rare today, but they still have their place in some companies
because multipart forms can be printed on them.
These printers are noisy and slow compared to other printer types. The noise comes
from the impact nature of the print method. Impact printers, such as dot-matrix printers,
use a mechanical means to press ink from a ribbon onto the page. With a dot-matrix
printer, small pins do the pushing. Each character is printed separately, leading to slower
output than from other printers.
Print quality on dot-matrix printers is comparable to that produced by a typewriter. One
of the main uses of typewriters was typing letters. Thus, the top print quality of a dotmatrix printer is referred to as near letter quality (NLQ).
Components
A dot-matrix printer uses a print head that usually contains 9 or 24 pins. The pins are
pushed forward in patterns to form letters, numbers, and other characters. The pins
strike an inked ribbon, and the ribbon strikes the paper.
Nine-pin printers produce low-quality images. Some printers print over the same area
after moving the paper slightly to overprint the first set of dots, thus improving the print
quality. Twenty-four-pin printers have smaller pins closer together, so they produce a
finer image than 9-pin printers do.
The paper is pulled through the printer by a tractor feed or friction. A tractor feed uses a
sprocket to mesh with holes in the side of continuous-form paper. The sprockets turn,
pulling the paper through the printer. Friction feed uses single sheets of paper. The
roller is held tight against the print head, and the paper moves through. Typewriters use
friction feed. Most printers have a lever for switching between tractor feed and friction
feed.
The continuous-form paper usually has perforations at 11-inch or 14-inch intervals so
the paper can be separated into standard-sized pages. The paper is also perforated along
the side so that the area with the tractor holes can be removed after printing. When
youre setting up the paper in the printer, align the top of the page with the print head so
that pages dont print across the perforations.
Printers
123
Banners are often printed on dot-matrix printers using continuous-feed paper. Banners
can be printed on perforated paper, usually without worrying about whether the paper is
at the top of the first page. You might also print banners on paper that has no
perforations between sheets.
Multipart forms are the main use of dot-matrix printers now that other printer types have
become more affordable and easier to use. The forms can be preprinted or blank.
Preprinted forms require careful alignment so that the print falls in the boxes or on the
lines of the forms.
Friction feed was primarily used for envelopes and single sheets of paper. Some dotmatrix printers include a paper tray from which single sheets are fed, but more often,
you must insert the single sheet, set the lever for friction feed, and print each page, one
at a time.
Connections
Dot-matrix printers usually have either a serial or parallel interface connection. These
printers were the usual choice for users when personal computers were first introduced
(before interfaces such as USB, infrared, and IEEE 1394 were introduced). Its also rare
to find a dot-matrix printer with a built-in network interface. Some printers have both
serial and parallel interfaces so that users can choose.
Options
Dot-matrix printers dont usually have a lot of optional features. However, some printers
have slots for adding font cards, memory, or additional paper feeders for easy switching
between single sheets and continuous-form paper.
Other impact printers

Other types of printers also strike the paper with an inked ribbon to produce images.
These printers include daisy-wheel printers, which could produce letters only in the
font that was on the wheel (shown in Exhibit 12-1) installed the printer. To change the
font, you had to remove the wheel and install another wheel with the desired font.
Exhibit 12-1: A daisy-wheel
124

Band printers have the letters, numbers, and symbols repeated multiple times around on
a band. The band moves at a high speed and strikes the ribbon when struck by hammers.
There are hammers for each column of print on the page. Some band printers combine
dot-matrix pins with the hammers for each print column. For more information, see
www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/defineterm.jhtml?term=band+printer
Do it!
A-1:
Examining the dot-matrix printing process
Questions
Answers
1 Why do companies use dot-matrix

printers?
2 How many pins are in most dotmatrix print heads?
3 Which paper feed mechanisms are
typically used in dot-matrix
printers?
4 In addition to dot-matrix printers,
what other impact printers might
you encounter?
Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers, also known as ink dispersion printing technology, produce images by
forcing ink through tiny nozzles and onto the paper. Each nozzle is approximately 50 to
60 microns in diameter. The ink is forced through the nozzles through either of two
basic methods: thermal bubble or piezoelectric bubble. Exhibit 12-2 shows an inkjet
printer.
Exhibit 12-2: An inkjet printer

Thermal bubble technology
Thermal bubble technology heats the ink, which vaporizes it, creating a bubble. The
bubble protrudes out through the nozzle and sprays onto the paper. When the bubble
bursts, it creates a vacuum, which draws more ink from the cartridge into the print head,
preparing it to create another dot.
Printers
125
Piezoelectric technology
Piezoelectric technology creates a bubble with a piezo crystal behind each nozzle. An
electrical current sent to the crystal causes it to vibrate. When it vibrates inward, it
releases ink onto the paper; when it vibrates outward, it pulls ink from the cartridge.
Ink cartridges
Ink cartridges are the reservoirs that hold ink for inkjet printers. The number of
cartridges used varies, but most printers have a black cartridge plus a color cartridge
with compartments for yellow, cyan, and magenta. The entire color combination is often
referred to as CYMK (cyan, yellow, magenta, and black). Some printers have separately
replaceable cartridges for each of the colors. Some have more colors than these three
basic ones. Some inexpensive printers dont have a separate black cartridge. Instead,
when black is required, they mix all three colors together to produce a dark color.
Exhibit 12-3 shows two inkjet cartridges: one black, and one containing cyan, yellow,
and magenta inks.
Exhibit 12-3: Inkjet cartridges

Print heads
The print head for an inkjet printer is usually part of the ink cartridge. Because this is the
printer part that wears out the soonest, having it replaced each time you replace the ink
means that you always have a good print head. It also makes the cartridges more
expensive. If the print head is part of the printer rather than the cartridge, the cartridges
are usually less expensive, but after a couple of years, you might notice that the print
quality has degraded. Exhibit 12-4 shows the print head on an inkjet cartridge.
Exhibit 12-4: Print head on an inkjet cartridge
126

A print head usually has between 300 and 600 nozzles, corresponding to 300 DPI and
600 DPI printers. These resolutions are standard for thermal bubble printers.
Piezoelectric printers can print at 720720 DPI. Enhancements through the software
drivers can raise the DPI by having the print head move fractionally so that dots can be
placed between dots previously placed on the page. Thus, a 600 DPI printer can produce
48001200 DPI images, and a 720 DPI printer can print images at 57601440.
The print head moves across the page, printing columns of pixels. To increase the
resolution, a second pass is made across the page to overwrite between the existing dots.
On some printers, printing occurs on both passes across the pageleft to right and right
to left. On others, it prints in only one direction, and as the stepper motor advances the
page, the print head moves back across the page to begin printing the next line.
Visit www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artjan99/inkjet.html for close-up
photos and information about inkjet cartridges and print heads. The page is a bit dated,
but it still provides interesting and relevant information about how inkjet print heads
work.
Print quality
Inkjet printers provide a major improvement over the quality offered by dot-matrix
printers. The ink dots can be grouped much closer together than the pins in the dotmatrix printer. Originally, laser printer output was the standard that the print quality of
inkjet printers was measured against. This is still true for text output. Now, however,
with advances in inkjet technology, the print quality of graphics and photos is compared
to the standard provided by traditional, analog, chemically produced darkroom
photographs.
In addition to printer resolution, your choice of paper affects the quality of the output.
Regular copier paper doesnt produce as clear an image as specially coated inkjet paper
does. The ink bleeds out on regular paper, creating fuzzy edges to characters and
images. Coated inkjet paper has a waxy layer that the ink sits on, thus preventing bleedout of the ink. You will probably find that the bleeding issue is more important for
photographs than for text documents.
Attempting to print on a shiny surface such as a transparency can also prove difficult if
the wrong type of transparency plastic is used.
The ink might not dry properly and could smudge on the kind of transparency plastic
thats used to write on with markers. Transparency sheets with a special textured
coating allow the ink to adhere and dry properly.
The ink in most inkjet cartridges is water-soluble. This can be a problem if your
printouts get wet. Being caught in the rain with a poster containing images printed from
an inkjet printer can result in the ink running down the page. You can purchase
waterproof inks for some inkjet printers.
Dithering
Shades of each of the basic colors are often produced through dithering, which is also
known as halftones. By varying the pattern of dots, as well as the density of the dots,
you can make a color appear to be more saturated or darker. Newspapers use this
method to print photos.
Printers
127
Paper path
Some inkjet printers have a paper tray behind the printer and pull the paper through the
printer on a straight-through path. This setup leads to fewer paper jams and is good for
heavy paper stock. Exhibit 12-5 shows a straight-through paper path in an inkjet printer.
Exhibit 12-5: Straight-through paper path

Other printers store the paper in a tray below and to the front of the printer and pull the
paper up through rollers and under the print head. Printers using this technology pull the
paper up through an S-curve or a U-curve. Exhibit 12-6 shows a curved paper path in an
inkjet printer.
Exhibit 12-6: Curved paper path
Inkjet photo printers

Most inkjet printers are designed to be everyday printers for a variety of document
types, from text to graphics. Some printers are designed just for printing photos. These
are often small printers that can print 46-inch or smaller photos on specialty paper.
Good quality regular-size photo printers can print full page borderless photos. Printing
photos on an inkjet printer can produce some very nice prints, but they dont hold up as
long as a traditional, chemically produced darkroom photos do. Special photo paper is
required for printing high-quality images from a camera or photos that were scanned in.
Printing them on regular paper or even coated inkjet paper results in lower-quality
photos. Some printers also enable you to print on non-paper items, such as CDs. Exhibit
12-7 shows a photo printer printing on a CD.
128
Exhibit 12-7: Printing directly onto a CD

Do it!
A-2:
Examining how inkjet printers work
Questions
1 What are the two basic methods of
ink dispersion in inkjet printers?
2 List the colors found in a fourcolor inkjet printer.
3 True or false? The print head
moves across the page and prints
columns of pixels.
4 True or false? You can print
photos on any paper, but some
kinds of paper produce better
images than others.
5 Describe the paper path for inkjet
printers.
Answers
Printers
129
Laser printers
Laser printers provide the standard level of quality by which other printers are
measured. They can produce high-quality printouts in a high-volume printing
environment. Many laser printers are black-and-white output devices, but color laser
printers are dropping in price, to the point where theyre worth considering, even for
home use, if you plan to do more printing than an inkjet printer can handle. Exhibit 12-8
shows a laser printer.
Exhibit 12-8: A laser printer

Laser printers produce images by using an electrophotographic (EP) process. By
combining electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light, the printer produces high-quality
images or documents, one page at a time. The components in a laser printer include:
Toner cartridge
Laser scanning assembly
Power supplies
Paper control and transport assembly
Transfer corona assembly
Fusing assembly
Electronic control package
Toner cartridge
A toner cartridge is shown in Exhibit 12-9. A toner cartridge contains:
A hopper filled with toner. Toner is a fine powder composed of plastic, iron, and
carbon particles.
An EP drum covered with a photosensitive coating that holds a static charge
until exposed to light.
A blade for removing used toner from the drum.
A corona charging assembly, which applies a static charge to the drum after an
image has been printed.
Exhibit 12-9: Toner cartridge, photographed from top and bottom

The price on a laser printer is now nearing the price of a good inkjet printer. As with
inkjet printers, the manufacturer can sell the printer itself at or below cost and make up
the difference with the consumables. For example, one $100 laser printer requires a
replacement toner cartridge that costs $90. A $300 color laser printer from this same
manufacturer requires three color cartridges and a black cartridge that add up to almost
$300. Output capacity varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but on average, you
should be able to get at least 1000 to 1500 printouts from a toner cartridge. Check the
specifications for the printer youre considering to determine the lifespan of a toner
cartridge for that printer.
The laser scanning assembly contains the components:
Laser Shines on the drum and creates an electrostatic image of whats to be
printed. Creates areas of negative charge on the positively charged drum.
Mirror Reflects the laser beam.
Lens Focuses the laser beam. Multiple lenses might be used to focus the laser
beam on the various areas of the drum: the areas closer to or farther away from
the mirror and laser beam.
Power supplies
A high-voltage power supply (HVPS) converts standard 120 volt AC current into highvoltage electricity used by the electrophotographic process. A DC power supply (DCPS)
is used to power components, such as the laser and fuser, that dont require high
voltages. The DC power supply provides +5V and -5V for the printers logic circuitry,
and +24V for the paper transport motors.
Paper is moved through the printer by a series of rollers. Some of the rollers simply
guide the paper from one location to another, and some rollers apply pressure to the
printed page in order to fuse the toner.
Printers
1211

The HVPS applies a high-voltage charge to the charging roller or, in older laser printers,
to the corona wire. The primary charger roller, or corona wire, then charges the paper so
that the toner from the drum can be transferred onto the paper as it passes under the
drum. After the paper passes the drum, the static charge eliminator strip drains the
charges from the paper so that it doesnt adhere to the toner cartridge and create a paper
jam.
The charged corona wire in a laser printer creates ozone. Ozone is a triatomic molecule
that, in the lower atmosphere, is an air pollutant capable of causing respiratory illness in
humans. To keep the concentrations of ozone below the currently regulated standard,
many newer laser printers employ ozone filters. The ozone filter is replaceable activated
charcoal filter. You change the ozone filter after a specified number of pages have
printed. The maintenance instructions for your printer specify how often you should
replace the ozone filter.
Fusing assembly
The fusing assembly is composed of rollers and a heating lamp. It applies heat and
pressure to adhere the toner permanently to the page.
Electronic control package
The electronic control package is also known as the printer control circuitry or the main
logic assembly. This component is responsible for communicating with the internal
printer memory, the control panel, and the computer that sent the print job.
The laser printing process

All laser printers use basically the same process to produce images. Through the use of
negative and positive electrostatic charges, a laser writes the image to be printed into the
charges, and then negatively charged toner is attracted to the positively charged paper.
Exhibit 12-10: The printing process for a laser printer

The following table describes the steps in the laser printing process.
Stage
Description
Cleaning and
erasing
A rubber blade clears the excess toner from the drum. Another roller or corona wire
removes the charges from the drum.
Charging or
conditioning
The primary charge roller (in newer laser printers) or primary corona wire (in older
laser printers) applies a negative charge of approximately -600 volts to the EP drum.
Writing or
exposing
The laser beam reduces the negative charge to about -100 volts on the EP drum in the
areas that become the image to be printed.
Developing
Areas of the drum that were written to by the laser attract toner.
Transferring
A positive charge of about + 600 volts is applied to the paper by the transfer charging
roller or corona wire. The ink is transferred to the paper due to the charge.
Fusing
Pressure and heat set the toner to the paper. A 350F fusing roller melts the toner, and
by squeezing the paper through a set of rollers, presses the toner into the paper.
Note: Some sources place the cleaning and erasing stage at the beginning of the
process. Others place it at the end of the process. In either case, it prepares the drum for
receiving and printing the next image.
Do it!
A-3:
Examining how laser printers work
Question
1 Using your Web browser,
compare the cost of a laser printer
to the cost of the consumables.
2 What process do laser printers use
to produce images?
3 List the components of a toner
cartridge.
4 List the components of the laser
scanning assembly.
5 True or false? The HVPS converts
120-volt current into high-voltage
electricity used by the EP process.
6 List the steps in the laser printing
process.
Answer
Printers
1213
Other printers
Most corporate and home users use either an inkjet or laser printer. A few people still
use dot-matrix printers for special requirements or because they never upgraded as
newer technologies became available and at lower prices.
There are several other types of printers that you might encounter in your support
career. Most of these are too expensive for the casual user, but as prices continue to
drop on printer technologies, even these more expensive printer types might become
more commonplace.
Most of the printers mentioned in this topic are designed for high-quality production of
graphics. They produce a higher-resolution image even if the DPI statistics listed are as
the same as those of inkjet or laser printers. Printer resolution refers to addressable dots
per inch. Each of these dots can be composed of over 25 dots, thereby enabling a 300
DPI image to look the same as a 4800 dpi inkjet printout.
Solid-ink printers
Solid-ink printers use sticks of wax that are melted to create the ink for printing. There
are usually cyan, magenta, yellow, and black sticks. These are heated to a melting point.
After being combined to form the various colors in the image, the ink is then sprayed
onto the drum. The paper passes over the drum and under a roller, and the image is
transferred onto the paper.
Solid-ink printers are environmentally friendly, because they dont produce ozone as
laser printers do, and the ink is nontoxic. The process doesnt use excessive heat, as
laser printers do.
The output from solid-ink printers is very high quality. The ink sticks last for
approximately 3000 pages, compared to an average of 1500 pages for laser printers or
500 to 1000 pages for inkjet printers.
Dye sublimation printers

Another high-quality printer is the dye sublimation printer, often referred to as a "dye
sub printer. The dye is a solid, contained on either a ribbon or a roll. The roll consists
of consecutive pages of cyan, magenta, yellow, and sometimes black.
The term "dye sublimation can be a bit of a misnomer. The dye is a solid dye, so that
part of the name fits fine. However, the scientific process of sublimation refers to a solid
being converted to a gas without its becoming a liquid in between. Although this does
happen in a few very high-end printers, most dye sub printers actually use a diffusion
process. The dye diffusion thermal process is known as D2T.
To transfer the dye from the ribbon or roll, the print head is pushed against the paper by
weights or springs. The depth of color is regulated by varying the heat applied. This
method enables printing without the use of either halftones or dithering, which are
required for other printing methods. The transparent dyes are combined to create a wide
variety of colors, with 256 possible shades of each color.
Dye sub printers require special paper, which has a special layer to receive the dye. To
protect the output from water, UV light, and fingerprints, a layer of lamination material
is applied after the image has been created.
Dye sub printers print square dots, with higher densities of color in the center of each
dot and lower density at the edges. The density varies by the amount of power applied
to the print head, thus changing the shade of the color.

Thermal printers
Thermal printers produce output with heat. The image can be created through several
methods:
Thermal wax transfer
Direct thermal
Thermal autochrome
Thermal wax transfer printers use ink in a wax base. The ink is melted from the transfer
ribbon by a heating element in the print head. Separate cyan, yellow, magenta, and
black transfer ribbons are used to create the image. The cooled wax becomes a
permanent image on the paper. These printers dont require special paper.
Direct thermal printers use coated paper. A row of heating elements is used to burn dots
directly onto the paper. These are monochrome printers.
Thermal autochrome printers use special paper in which cyan, magenta, and yellow
pigments are embedded. Each page passes three times under the thermal print head at
varying temperatures. Each color is processed at a different temperature. UV light sets
individual colors after each pass so that no more processing of that color occurs on the
subsequent passes under the print head.
Plotters
Plotters are pen-based output devices that produce line images. (Printers produce raster
images.) Plotters are typically used for precise engineering documents from CAD
applications. A pen in the printer moves side to side on an X-axis as the paper moves up
and down on the Y-axis.
A multi-color plotter uses multiple pens to create an image. Usually, the plotter is a
carousel containing 4 to 12 pens, but in some plotters, you need to change the pen to
each color as you need it.
Plotters create lines with the pens. Other printers can create lines only by spacing the
dots very close together. Curved lines produced with a pen are smoother than those
produced with dots.
Most plotters are used to create engineering documents. Some other industrial uses have
replaced the pens with cutting devices. For example, in the garment industry, rather than
printing from the application, you cut fabric. The sign industry also uses plotters with
cutting devices to cut out signs; an application outputs the sign shape to the material to
be cut.
Additional printer types

Other printers you might encounter are variations on the printer types already discussed.
Some of these are designed to create smaller than standard letter-sized output, and some
printers produce very large output formats.
Snapshot printers typically produce 4"6" pictures or 5"7" pictures. These printers
typically use inkjet or dye sublimation printing technologies. They often require special
paper to get photo-quality prints. Some of these printers accept media cards from digital
cameras, allowing users to print directly from the card to the printer, instead of using a
computer between the card and the printer.
Printers
1215
Some of these printers also include a pop-up screen that enables you to manipulate the
picture before printing it. You can typically crop pictures and reduce red-eye effects
with such printers.
Large-format printers are typically inkjet-based printers. They are often used to create
banners and large signs.
Do it!
A-4:
Identifying other printer technologies
Questions
1 Whats the base in which solid-ink
colors are held?
2 What features make solid-ink
printers environmentally friendly?
3 What base is the ink for a dye sub
printer held in?
4 Whats another name for the dye
diffusion thermal process?
5 True or false? Dye sub printers
require the use of halftones and
dithering to create shades of
colors.
6 List three types of thermal
printers.
7 Why can a plotter make a
smoother line than other types of
printers?
Answers
Topic B: Printer installation

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.11

Local vs. network printers
Print drivers (compatibility)
2.3
Given a scenario, determine the troubleshooting methods and tools for printers
Print spooler
Printer properties and settings
Print a test page
2.5

Updates
Driver
The Windows printing process

Explanation
The Windows print process can be divided into three major processes. Each of these
processes is composed of several sub-processes involved in getting the print request
from the user to the printer. The three main processes are:
Client
Spooler
Printer
The client processes include the following:
1 A user sends a print job from within an application.
2 The application calls a graphics device interface (GDI).
3 The GDI sends the print job to the print spooler.
Printers
1217
The spooler processes include the following:

1 Winspool.drv issues an RPC (remote procedure call) to Spoolsv.exe.
Winspool.drv is on the client side. Spoolsv.exe is on the server side.
2 Spoolsv.exe calls Spoolss.dll, the print router.
3 Spoolss.dll routes the print job to either the local print provider or the remote
print server.
4 The local print provider finds a print processor capable of handling the jobs
data type and then sends the job to the print processor.
5 The print processor makes any necessary modifications for printing the job.
6 The page-separator processor receives the print job from the print processor and,
if necessary, adds a separator page.
7 The job is sent either directly to the appropriate port monitor or to a language
monitor and then on to the port monitor. The port monitor is responsible for
communications between the PC and the printer. A language monitor is
responsible for translating the print job into code that the printer understands.
For the printer process:
The print language is translated into information that the printer can print.
Do it!
B-1:
Examining the Windows printing process

1 List the three main processes of the Windows print process.
2 Which process does this step fall into: A graphics device interface (GDI) is called
by the application?
3 Which process does this step fall into? The print language is translated into
information that the printer can print.
4 Which process does this step fall into: The print processor makes any necessary
modifications for printing the job?

Inkjet printer installation
Most local printers connect via USB today, so when you connect the printer, Windows
automatically detects it and attempts to install the driver for you. Your printer likely
comes with a CD-ROM, containing drivers and additional software to enhance the print
quality. Exhibit 12-11 shows the bubble alerting you that new hardware was found on
your computer. If Windows has the appropriate printer driver, it begins installing the
driver. If Windows doesnt have or cant find the right driver, you need to install the
driver software for your printer. Windows will guide you through the process as shown in
Exhibit 12-12.
Exhibit 12-11: Identified new hardware notification in Windows 7
Exhibit 12-12: Notification that Windows 7 cant automatically install the appropriate
driver
Some printers come with a utility for monitoring the ink levels in the cartridges, so youll
know when ink supplies are getting low and need to be replaced. Exhibit 12-13 shows
such a screen from such a utility. Notice that it includes information about the current
print job and about the ink levels in the printer.
Exhibit 12-13: A utility for monitoring ink levels
Printers
1219
Although you can purchase kits for refilling cartridges, using one usually voids the
printer warranty. If you do refill a cartridge, make sure that you get the ink thats right
for your printer. Thermal inkjet printers need ink that can withstand high heat. Getting a
water-soluble ink for a solvent-based ink printer or vice versa can result in improper
application of the ink to the page and create a major mess. Because the print head is
contained in most print cartridges, a cartridge should be refilled only two or three times.
Printer interfaces
Today, most inkjet printers are connected by USB interfaces. In supporting inkjet
printers, you might encounter some that still use the parallel port interface. Even less
likely, you might encounter some printers with SCSI or serial interfaces. Many inkjet
printers are also being manufactured with wired or wireless Ethernet network connections
so that they can be connected directly to your home or business network. Exhibit 12-14
shows the communications interfacesa parallel port and a USB porton an inkjet
printer.
Exhibit 12-14: Communications interfaces on an inkjet printer

In Windows, be sure to configure the printer so it uses the right connection type:
If its using SCSI, be sure to assign a unique device ID.
If its using parallel, be sure that youve specified the correct LPT port. The
default of LPT1 is usually fine.
If its using serial, verify that youve specified the correct COM port. COM2 is
preferred for printers. COM1 is generally reserved for modems.
Exhibit 12-15 shows Device Manager information for a printer connected to a
computer.
Exhibit 12-15: Port identified for the printer

Installing an inkjet printer
To install an inkjet printer:
1 Connect the printer to a computer, using the correct interface.
2 Plug the printer in.
3 Power it up.
4 If youre connecting the printer to a Windows computer, Windows will probably
recognize that youve connected a new device and will install drivers for it.
5 If drivers arent installed automatically, you can do it manually, using the
materials that shipped with the printer.
If your printer is configured with an incorrect printer driver, Windows wont be able to
send documents to the printer. If you send a document to the printer and it doesnt show
up in the queue, check Device Manager to see if its reporting any driver problems. If it
is, you should reinstall or upgrade the driver.
Upgrading the device driver
To upgrade a device driver, open Device Manager, right-click the printer, and choose
Update Driver Software (in Windows 7 and Vista) or Update Driver (in Windows XP or
2000). Then complete the wizard to install the new driver. You can also use any
installation program that comes from the printers manufacturer.
After the printer is connected and working, you can configure options for best
performance. Then print a test page to verify that the printer is working properly and
that its compatible with any programs or operating systems deployed. Also, take a few
minutes to educate the user about basic printing functionality.
Laser printer installation

When a printer is shipped to a store or to you, the toner cartridge is removed. (If the
printer were shipped with the toner installed, it could get all over the insides of the
printer and make a huge mess.) Therefore, the first step in installing a laser printer is to
unpack the printer and the toner cartridge from their respective packaging. Laser
printers usually come with chunks of Styrofoam in place of the toner cartridge. Other
components might be taped down so that they dont move during shipment. Be sure to
remove all of the packing materials and tape before trying to use the printer. Follow the
directions to remove any packing materials and tape that might be inside the printer.
Check the documentation for the toner cartridge for installation procedures. Usually you
start by gently rocking the cartridge from side to side; this distributes the toner, as it
likely settled during shipment. According to the manufacturers directions, remove the
tape insert from the toner cartridge and install the cartridge in the printer.
On some printers, the drum and some other components are outside the cartridge. If this
is the case, refer to your documentation for how and where to install them.
Printers
1221
Interfaces
Laser printers are used in a wide variety of situations. These printers have the most
widely varied connection types of any printers. Most laser printers have two or more
connection interfaces. These could include:
Parallel
SCSI
USB
Serial
IEEE 1394/FireWire
Wired or wireless Ethernet network connections
Examples of the communications interfaces on a laser printer are shown in Exhibit 1216.
USB interface
Parallel interface
Exhibit 12-16: Communications interfaces on a laser printer

Some interfaces also include network connections, infrared ports, and wireless
connections.
An RJ-45 network connection enables the printer to be connected directly to the
network.
Infrared and other wireless technologies, such as Bluetooth and IEEE 801.11x,
enable users to send jobs to the printer without physically connecting the printer
and computer with a cable.
Installing a laser printer
To install a laser printer:
1 Connect the printer to the network or a computer, using the correct interface.
2 Plug the printer in.
3 Power it up.
4 If youre connecting the printer to a Windows computer, Windows will probably
recognize that youve connected a new device and will install drivers for it.
5 If drivers arent installed automatically, you can do it manually, using the
materials that shipped with the printer.

To upgrade a device driver:
1 In Device Manager, right-click the printer and choose Update Driver Software
(in Windows Vista or 7) or Update Driver (in Windows XP or 2000).
2 Complete the wizard to install the new driver.
Alternately, you can use any installation program that comes from the printer
manufacturer.
After the printer is connected and working, you can configure options for best
performance. Then print a test page to verify that the printer is working properly.
Installing a network printer in Windows 7
1 In Windows 7, open Devices and Printers.
2 Click Add a printer.
3 Click Add a network, wireless or Bluetooth printer.
Windows searches for available printers on the network.
4 Select the desired printer and click Next, or click The printer that I want isnt
listed.
If the printer isnt listed, you can use the wizard to browse for it, then enter its
share name, TCP/IP address, or host name.
5 If the print drivers are available on the network, Windows prompts you to install
them. Click Install driver.
6 Enter a name for the printer and click Next.
7 If desired, set as the default printer and print a test page.
8 Click Finish.
Installing a network printer in Windows Vista, XP, and 2000
1 In Windows Vista and Windows 2000 Professional, open Printers. In Windows
XP, open Printers and Other Hardware.
2 In Windows Vista and Windows XP, click Add a printer.
In Windows 2000 Professional, double-click Add Printer.
3 In Windows Vista, click Add a network, wireless or Bluetooth printer.
Windows searches for available printers on the network.
In Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP, click Next.
Select Network printer and click Next again.
4 In Windows Vista, select the desired printer and click Next, or click The printer
that I want isnt listed. If the printer isnt listed, you can use the wizard to
browse for it, then enter its share name, TCP/IP address, or host name.
In Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP, enter the name of or the URL
to the network printer, then click Next. You can also just click Next to browse
for the printer.
In Windows 2000 Professional, if desired, set as the default printer and click
Next.
5 In Windows Vista, if the print drivers are available on the network, Windows
prompts you to install them. Click Install driver.
6 In Windows Vista, enter a name for the printer and click Next.
7 In Windows Vista, if desired, set as the default printer and print a test page.
8 Click Finish.
Printers
Do it!
B-2:
1223
Installing a local printer
Heres how
as COMPADMIN##
Heres why
2 Connect the power cord to the

printer
3 Connect the interface cable to the
printer
The interface cable varies based on the printers

connection type. Most current printers are USB
printers, but some also have parallel or serial
ports, and some have SCSI ports.
4 Plug the power cord into an

electrical outlet
If possible, this should be on a surge protector

strip.
5 Connect the interface cable to the

computer
The port varies based on the printers connection

type.
6 Insert paper in the printer
If none is loaded.
Install print cartridges
If they arent already installed. Refer to the

printers documentation for the procedure to
install the cartridges.
Turn on the printer
Windows 7 recognizes that youve connected a

device and attempts to install device drivers for
it.
7 If Windows 7 reports that the

device driver software was not
successfully installed, click
Start, right-click Computer,
and choose Manage
To open the Computer Management console,

where you can access Device Manager.

8 In the console tree, select
To display the computers devices.
Device Manager
Find your printer in the list
Its listed under Other Devices.

Some printers require that you install software
from the CD or from a download, rather than
installing the driver through Device Manager. If
this is the case with your particular printer, skip
the next step.
9 If your instructor has the printer

driver available, right-click the
printer and choose Update
You can have Windows search for a new driver

or you can manually select it from a location on
your computer or the network.
Driver Software
Click Browse my computer

for driver software
Follow the prompts to finish

installing the driver
10 If your printer requires you install
the drivers from an executable
file, close Computer Management
Locate and run the printer
installation executable file
Follow the prompts to install the
printer
Dont print a test page
11 Click Start and choose Devices
and Printers
To open the Devices and Printers window. Your

newly installed printer should be listed.
Printers
1225
12 Right-click the printer and choose

Printer Properties
Click Print Test Page
Close any notification page from

the printer and click OK
To close the printers Properties dialog box.

Observe that the test page prints successfully. If
it doesnt, click Troubleshoot and follow the
steps to resolve the problem until you can
successfully print a test page. If necessary,
adjust the print-head alignment.
13 Close the Devices and Printers

window
14 Open Notepad, enter some text,
and print the page
Notepad is on the Start, Accessories menu.

To open the Computer Management console,

where you can access Device Manager.
Manage
16 In the console tree, select
To display the computers devices.
Device Manager
Find your printer in the list
It might be under Imaging devices in

Windows 7 and Vista or Other Devices in
Windows XP or 2000.
17 Right-click the printer and choose

Update Driver Software
Click Cancel
You would use this wizard to upgrade the device

driver. You can have Windows search for a new
driver or you can manually select it from a
location on your computer or the network.
To close the wizard.
Topic C: Printer optimization and maintenance

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.11

Consumables
2.3
Given a scenario, determine the troubleshooting methods and tools for printers
Manage print jobs
Print spooler
6.1
Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and

given a scenario, apply them
Electrical safety
Laser printers
objectives.
#
Objective
1.4

Extension magnet
1.5
Given a scenario, detect and resolve common printer issues

Issue resolution
Install maintenance kit (reset page count)
Clean printer
Printer configuration
Explanation
After installing a printer in Windows, you can configure how it prints. Configuration
options include setting the defaults for orientation, number of pages, print quality, and
printer language. Keep in mind that laser printers connected to a print server might
require you or a server administrator to optimize the servers print settings, which can
override any settings you configure on a network client. An example of printer
configuration settings is shown in Exhibit 12-17.
Printers
1227
Exhibit 12-17: Printer configuration options for a Lexmark printer

Some of the common configuration options are described in the following table.
Option
Description
Orientation
Portrait (narrow dimension is the top of page) or landscape (wide dimension is the top of the
page).
Collation
The way individual pages in a multipage document are printed when you print more than one
copy. Collated means that entire copies of the document are printed together. Uncollated
means that all copies of page 1 are printed, then all copies of page 2, and so forth.
Copies
Number of copies to print.
Quality
Options for draft, normal, or high quality on some printers. Others offer varying resolutions.
Color
Full color or black-and-white. There might also be options for color matching software to be
used if such software is installed with your printer.
Order
The order the pages are printed infrom last page to first, or from first page to laston
multipage print jobs.
Paper tray switching

One simple way to optimize output is to configure paper tray switching. If the printer
has multiple trays, you might be able to configure the printer to change printer trays
when one is empty. This feature isnt always available on inkjet printers. More likely,
you can configure this setting on large laser printers. You might also need to load
different types of paper, such as letterhead or photographic paper, in one or more of the
trays.

Print spool optimization
Another way to optimize printing is to reconfigure print spool settings. The print spool
is a temporary file that collects print jobs before theyre sent to the actual print device.
The pages youre printing are collected in the spool file and are gradually sent to the
printer. This feature allows you to continue using the application youre printing from,
and it allows a printer to handle large jobs that it might not normally be suited for.
To configure the print spooler:
1 In Windows 2000 Professional, click Start and choose Settings, Printers. In
Windows XP, click Start and choose Printers and Faxes. In Windows Vista,
click Start and choose Control Panel; then, under Hardware and Sound, click
Printer. In Windows 7, click Start and choose Devices and Printers.
2 Right-click the printer you want to configure and choose Printer Properties (in
Windows 7) or Properties (in previous versions). Select the Advanced tab and
select the desired options, shown in Exhibit 12-18.
By default, documents are spooled, and printing is started immediately. Usually, this is
sufficient. But if you have users who often print large documents with many graphics,
you might be able to optimize performance by selecting "Start printing after last page
has spooled.
Sometimes a print job will stall as it is spooling, preventing it or any documents behind
it in the queue from printing. In the print queue, youll see the job listed as "Spooling.
Unfortunately, there typically isnt any error message that tells you the print job has
stalled. It simply sits in the print queue listed as spooling. If this happens, right-click the
job thats stalled and choose Cancel Printing. Try reprinting the job. Remember that
documents with graphics take longer to print than text documents, so make sure the
document is stalled and not just processing the graphics.
Windows Vista, Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows XP all allow you to bypass
the spooler and print directly to the printer, thus decreasing printing time:
1 Open the desired printers Properties dialog box.
2 Select the Advanced tab.
3 Select Print directly to the printer.
4 Click OK.
This feature is a useful option for applications that use their own spooling process.
When an application uses its own spooler, but the Print directly to the printer option is
not enabled, a copy of the print job resides in both the applications spooler folder and
in the Windows spooler. Depending on the print jobs, this can use up a significant
amount of disk space. Microsoft states that you should use this option only for a printer
that isnt shared.
Exhibit 12-18: Windows printer spooling options
Printers
1229
Printer configuration on the printer

Some printers have buttons or menus you can use to configure them. Some of the
configuration options include setting the defaults for orientation, number of pages, print
quality, and printer language. If your printer connects directly to the network, you have
to configure the printer with a network address. If the printer has multiple ports, you
might need to configure the printer to specify which port is used.
Managing print queues
After users have sent print jobs to a printer from an application, these jobs are queued
while waiting to be output on the printer. The most common way for a user to view the
print queue for a printer is to double-click that printers icon in the Printers utility. When
a print job has been queued, users with Print permissions can pause, resume, restart, or
cancel the printing of their own documents by selecting the desired document and
choosing a command from the Documents menu.
Users cant pause, resume, restart, or cancel print jobs belonging to other users unless
they have the Manage Documents permission for that printer.
Problems can occur that will make jobs back up in the queue. A printer might be offline,
the Print Spooler service might be stalled, or the printer might have run out of paper.
You can stop and restart the printer spooler service by accessing the Services applet in
Control Panel, Administrative Tools or in the Computer Management MMC. Scroll to
locate the Print Spooler service. Right-click the service and choose "Restart or "Stop.
If you chose Stop, right-click the service again and choose Start.
Separator pages
You can configure your printer to print a separator page at the beginning of each print
job. You can use one of the four separator pages included with Windows 7, and Vista,
Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows XP, or you can create a custom page. A
separator page typically states the user who sent the print job to the printer, along with
the print date and time. Separator files have a .sep extension and are located in the
%systemroot%\System32 folder. The following table describes the available files:
File name
Printer language
Description
pcl.sep
Printer control
language (PCL)
Switches the printer to PCL printing and prints a

separator page at the beginning of each print job.
pscript.sep
PostScript
Switches the printer to PostScript printing but

doesnt print a separator page at the beginning of
each print job.
sysprint.sep
PostScript
Switches the printer to Postscript printing and

prints a separator page at the beginning of each
print job.
sysprtj.sep
PostScript
A variation of the sysprint.sep file but using

Japanese fonts, if they are available.
For steps on creating a custom separator page using a text editor such as Notepad, go to
www.microsoft.com and search for "create custom separator page. There are several
articles about this process on Microsofts support site.

Printer priorities
Windows allows you to configure printer priorities for different groups of users. Print
priorities are useful in cases where you want different groups of users to have different
levels of priority to a limited number of print devices. For example, you might want to
configure your print environment to give precedence to any printouts from the CEO of
the company, even if there are other documents already ahead of it in the print queue.
To configure print priorities:
1 Use the Add Printer wizard to install two printers on the Windows print server,
connecting both printers to the same physical print device.
2 Open each printers Properties dialog box and select the Advanced tab.
3 Configure the priority of each printer to a number between 1 and 99, with 1
being the lowest priority and 99 being the highest priority.
4 Click Apply.
Continue in Windows 7 and Vista and Windows 2000 Professional (not available in
Windows XP):
5 Select the Security tab.
6 Restrict the higher priority printer to the users or groups you want to have
priority access to the printer.
7 Click OK.
Do it!
C-1:
Optimizing printing
Heres how
1 Open Notepad
2 Type some text in Notepad
3 Choose File, Print
Heres why
Youll examine the options available for your
printer.
Printers
4 Click Preferences
1231
The options vary based on your printer.
Scroll through the settings

available for your printer
5 Close all open windows and
dialog boxes
Dont save changes in your Notepad document.
6 Click Start and choose Devices

and Printers
7 Right-click your printer and

choose Printer properties
To open the printers Properties dialog box.
Select the Advanced tab

8 Select Start printing after
last page is spooled
To configure the printer to print only after the

entire document has been spooled. This setting
can optimize printing when a user frequently
prints large documents with many graphics.
9 Click OK
10 Close the Devices and Printers
window

Printer options
The options and upgrades available for printers vary widely. Some options are specific
to a certain type of printer, and some apply to all printers. Usually, you need to purchase
options and upgrades from the printers manufacturer because theyre integrated into the
printer mechanism. Some options and upgrades are basic, and others turn a printer into a
multifunction device.
Options and upgrades for dot-matrix printers
Dot-matrix printers with both friction feed and tractor feed might have an option called
paper park or something similar. This option enables you to switch between sheet-feed
single-page paper and tractor-feed paper without having to unload either from the
printer.
Other options on dot-matrix printers are input and output trays. An input tray with
multiple sheets of paper can often be purchased separately or can be removed if it was
included with the printer. Many dot-matrix printers dont have an output tray; the
printed pages just pile up on the table or floor in front of it or behind it.
Some dot-matrix printers include a slot in which font cartridges can be installed. This
was useful before print jobs included font details, as with DOS applications and early
Windows applications. Documents were printed with the default font on the printer.
For printers that use continuous-roll paper, rather than perforated sheet paper, some
manufacturers offer a paper cutter. You can use it to tear off the printout cleanly at the
end of the document.
Options and upgrades for inkjet printers
Options for inkjet printers vary by manufacturer. Most printers come bundled with
software to enhance the printers output.
Many inkjet manufacturers offer a combination printer-scanner-copier-fax device.
These multifunction devices are popular for home users and home offices. Exhibit 1219 shows a multifunction printer.
Exhibit 12-19: A multifunction printer

Some printers have options for additional paper trays. These allow you to leave the
paper in the paper tray and then select a tray when you want to print. Other printers
enable you to leave the paper in the paper tray and hand-feed a single sheet of paper or
an envelope or postcard through an alternate paper path.
Printers
1233
Some printers come with holders for printing on smaller media or on unconventional
media, such as CDs. The sensors often detect a paper jam if you try to feed envelopes or
small media through the normal paper path, so these holders enable the sensor to see a
full-size sheet going through.
Upgrades for inkjet printers include auto-duplexers. Usually, to print two-sided pages
with an inkjet printer, you have to determine how the sheet feeds through the printer,
and then turn the paper over so that the second side doesnt print upside down or on top
of the first page. The duplexer takes care of positioning the pages correctly for printing
on the backside.
A PostScript upgrade kit is available for some printers. This kit enables the user to send
PostScript output to the inkjet printer. Most printers dont use such sophisticated
language for creating printer output.
Mobile inkjet printers include batteries. This variation on the inkjet printer is popular
with users who do a lot of traveling and need to print documents. Options for mobile
printers include car adapters that plug into the cigarette lighter, additional batteries, and
carrying cases.
A Bluetooth adapter can be plugged into the USB port on the printer. This adapter
enables any Bluetooth-compatible device to print wirelessly.
Most inkjet printers arent designed for high-volume printing. However, if you want to
share your printer on a network, and you want to connect it directly to the network,
some printers have the option of installing an Ethernet card or a print server card. Some
other interfaces you might be able to add include IEEE 1394b and serial ports.

Options and upgrades for laser printers
Laser printers have the most robust selection of options and variations. Most laser
printers have one or more page description languagesusually PCL and PostScript.
Some have proprietary languages instead of or in addition to these.
Laser printers usually have at least one input tray and one output tray. Additional input
and output trays are common options that users request as upgrades. An offset stacker is
a device that makes it easier for users to identify a complete set of multiple-page and
multiple-copy print jobs. This device stacks each set of output either to the left or to the
right of the output tray.
Laser printers are often connected directly to the network. For this, a network card must
be installed in the printer, or a network adapter must be connected to one of the printer
ports. Laser printers often include USB, serial, and parallel ports and might also include
infrared, Ethernet, or wireless Ethernet ports.
To speed up the printing of large jobs, you can add an internal hard drive to some laser
printers. The jobs are spooled to the printer and are read directly from the internal hard
drive. Large jobs with a lot of graphics consume large amounts of printer memory. You
might need to upgrade the memory, if large jobs start out fine but end in gobbledygook
or are missing sections or if you receive out-of-memory error messages when
attempting to print.
Duplexers might be built into the laser printer or added as an upgrade. Duplexers are
useful in creating long documents if both sides of the paper can be used. Some
duplexers also include collators and stapling options. Some copiers can be connected to
the network and used as printers, with all of the features of the copier available as
printer options.
Options and upgrades for other types of printers
For large-format printers that print on continuous-roll paper, an automatic take-up reel
is very useful. Rather than letting the paper pile up on the floor, this device rolls the
paper onto a spool as its printed. Another option for some of these printers is a
refillable ink tank, used instead of ink cartridges. A network card or other interface card
can be installed in some large-format printers so they can connect to a network directly
or via other connection types.
Do it!
C-2:
Installing printer add-ons and upgrades
Heres how
Heres why
1 Obtain the option or upgrade for

your printer from your instructor
2 Obtain the manufacturers
documentation for the printer
Youll need it for the installation.
3 Install the option or upgrade
According to the manufacturers instructions.
4 Verify that the option or upgrade

is working
Print a test page, if necessary.
Printers
1235
Maintenance
Sometimes simple maintenance is all thats needed to keep a printer running smoothly.
Check the manufacturers documentation for each device youre supporting. The
documentation will list any requirements for scheduled maintenance tasks, especially
on laser printers. Also check the devices log and service history to see which
maintenance tasks or repairs other technicians have performed.
Exhibit 12-20: Cleaning cloths

Common maintenance tools to have with you when performing routine maintenance
include:
Cleaning solutions and sprays, including isopropyl alcohol and denatured
alcohol
Cleaning equipment, including soft cloths, such as those shown in Exhibit 12-20,
and cotton swabs
Lubricants
Compressed air
Toner vacuums and toner rags, or extension magnet brushes
Screwdrivers (to open compartments)
Chip puller, for removing memory chips if they need to be reseated or replaced
Safety
When working with any type of printer, remember to take certain safety precautions.
These include following ESD safe practices, keeping dangling jewelry, neckties, and
long hair away from the printer, and handling components so as not to damage so as not
to damage them. Also, if youre clearing a paper jam, be careful about not damaging the
printer, the cartridges, or yourself. And remember the main rule for printer maintenance:
Always follow the manufacturers recommendations. When maintenance is complete,
document the steps you took in the devices service log.
Dot-matrix printers
Keeping the printer clean helps it last a long time. Paper bits, dust, and other debris can
easily get into a printer and cause problems. You can spray compressed air into the
printer to help remove such contaminants. You can use mild household cleaners on the
exterior case to keep it clean.
The roller can become sticky, especially if it gets printed on without any paper on it.
Rubbing alcohol is useful for cleaning the roller. Oil the print head or guide only if the
printer documentation instructs you to. Otherwise, doing so can clog the workings of the
printer.

As with any electronic devices, you should always take care when youre working
around printers. With dot-matrix printers, make sure you dont become entangled with
the print-feed mechanism. Secure or remove neckties, watches, or hanging jewelry and
pull back and secure long hair before leaning over the printer and operating the
mechanism.
Inkjet printer maintenance

The main thing you need to do to keep an inkjet printer working properly is to replace
consumables, such as paper and ink cartridges, whenever necessary. Keeping an eye on
the paper tray ensures that theres always a ready supply of paper. When an ink
cartridge gets low, you usually have a visual warningfrom lights on the printer, a
software utility, or just poor output. Always use recommended cartridges when
replacing ink supplies.
You can tell when one of the colors is low; often the output doesnt even remotely
match the colors on the screen. For example, the output might have a pink cast if the
blue or yellow ink is low, but the red is still going strong. When replacing a cartridge,
remember to calibrate the print heads, as described in the following paragraph, to ensure
good output.
Sometimes you might have to clean the print nozzles and recalibrate the printer. You
can do this by following the manufacturers instructions, which typically have you use
the printers control panel or a software utility. Then print a test page to verify
functionality. You should also clean the small well that holds the ink thats dispersed
during a cleaning cycle. The well might have a sponge or absorbent pad that needs to be
replaced periodically.
Color matching
Color matching is one area that printer manufacturers continue to improve on. The
colors used on a monitor are based on a color scheme (RGB) thats different from that
of the printers (CYMK). The results are usually close to what you see on screen, but
they might need to be adjusted a bit after you see the actual output. Some printers come
with utilities to adjust the calibration of ink output to match your desired output more
closely.
Environment
Keeping the inkjet printers environment properly ventilated helps the printer last
longer. Adequate ventilation prevents the printer from overheating. Another
environmental concern is keeping dust out of the printer. Most inkjet printers have a
very open design, which allows dust to gather inside. The accumulation of dust can
result in the following:
Stray marks on the paper if the dust gets caught on the print cartridge
Overheating of elements if dust blocks airflow around them
Other such problems
You can use a dry cloth to remove dust or paper dander, or if its recommended by the
manufacturer, use a vacuum cleaner designed for electronics. Clean the outside of the
unit with a damp cloth or with any recommended cleaning solution.
Printers
1237
Laser printers
Laser printers require more maintenance than inkjet printers, and the maintenance is
more involved. However, regular maintenance can prevent service calls for poor print
output and paper jams. Generally, there are two times when you should perform
preventive maintenance on laser printers:
Scheduled maintenance Clean, lubricate, and perform adjustments based on
the manufacturers recommended schedules.
Unscheduled service calls During service calls, check the counters, such as
the one shown in Exhibit 12-21. Check the manufacturers recommendations for
maintenance, and clean, lubricate, and adjust components, or replace
components as needed. Before you complete the service call, examine the printer
for any potential future problems, and resolve those before you leave.
Exhibit 12-21: The counter on a laser printer

Laser printer maintenance routines might include the following tasks:
Replacing toner cartridges.
Cleaning internal components. (Be sure to follow safety procedures, as well as
the manufacturers guidelines for cleaning components.) For example, clean
rollers are less likely to slip and cause paper jams.
Replacing componentssuch as the ozone filter, fuser assembly, or transfer
rolleras recommended by the manufacturer. Often the components come in a
special maintenance kit that you can get from the manufacturer. To keep a
printer operating smoothly, some manufacturers recommend installing
maintenance kits after a specified duration of use or a specified number of
printed pages, tracked by counters. (Other printers have their counters displayed
on a control panel or an on-board monitor.) After installing the maintenance kit,
you might have to reset the page count. Check the documentation.
Check the printers firmware version and the manufacturers Web site to see if
theres a newer version available. Newer firmware can improve print quality and
provide better interoperability with newer operating systems. Check the printers
documentation to find out how to access the firmware utility (usually through
the printers administrative software or by connecting to the printer through a
Web browser).
Depending on your companys financial and service contracts with the manufacturer,
you might receive toner and maintenance kits automatically. Some newer, large laser
printers can contact the manufacturer directly to report page counts.

This contact, generally for financial purposes, can then trigger the automatic shipment
of maintenance kits and replacement parts. Your company or client might have a similar
arrangement; ask about it before you order any supplies.
When replacing components, take some time to clean out any accumulated toner and
paper dust inside the printer. Doing so prevents the debris from hindering printer
operations, and it keeps a clean printing environment. Manufacturers maintenance kits
often include cleaning materials. When removing toner, dont use a regular vacuum
cleaner or even an antistatic vacuum cleaner. Use only a special toner-certified vacuum,
which has a filter designed to catch the super-fine toner particles.
Be sure the printer is well ventilated and is situated securely on a flat surface, and keep
the printer trays full. Use only recommended supplies. Remember to follow appropriate
safety precautions when working with the laser printer.
After youve completed maintenance, print a few test pages to verify functionality. You
dont want to leave an inoperable printer after youve completed your service routine.
Safety issues
There are some environmental and safety issues you should be aware of with laser
printers. The toner can be toxic if inhaled at high levels. Spilled toner is very messy and
easily stains skin, clothing, and various plastic or other materials. You should use latex
or rubber gloves, and perhaps wear a mask over your mouth and nose, when working
with toner. Dont use compressed air to clear out toner. Doing so can spread the
particles into the air and onto other surfaces. If you get toner on your hands or clothes,
use cold water and soap to remove it. Hot water can set the toner.
Printers contain high-voltage power supplies, so you need to take special care when
working around them. The fusing assembly also becomes very hot, so if youre working
inside the printer, you need to let it cool down a bit so that you dont burn yourself.
Consumables
You should always keep a sufficient supply of consumablespaper, ink cartridges, and
toner cartridgeson hand. If you must order these supplies from another person whos
in charge of ordering supplies for the company, ensure that your requests are submitted
in a timely fashion and that you follow up on their status.
All consumables should be kept in their original packaging; in a cool, dry location, out
of direct sunlight; and in a room with low humidity. If paper is too moist because of
high humidity, the toner might not adhere properly. Conversely, dry paper can create
static electricity, which can cause the paper to stick together, resulting in paper jams.
Toner cartridges stored out of their packaging in a humid environment can cause the
toner to clump.
Do it!
C-3:
Performing inkjet and laser printer maintenance

tasks
Heres how
1 Turn off and unplug your inkjet
printer
Heres why
Youre going to perform some routine
maintenance tasks on an inkjet printer.
Printers
1239
2 Obtain the appropriate

manufacturers documentation
Find the maintenance
recommendations
3 Follow electrical and ESD safety
procedures to prepare to open the
printer
4 Open the printer and remove the
ink cartridges
Remove any dust or debris in the
compartment and on the outside of
the printer
Use recommended cleaning solutions.
5 Follow the manufacturers

instructions to clean the print heads
If necessary, reinstall the ink
cartridges and download and
install printer software
Plug in the printer, if youre using a Windowsbased utility. Connect to your computer, if
necessary.
6 Make sure theres enough paper

Print a test page, and recalibrate
the printer as needed
Follow the instructions to print a page and adjust

settings.
7 Obtain a laser printer and its

documentation
Follow electrical and ESD safety
procedures to prepare to open the
printer
8 Follow the manufacturers
cleaning and maintenance
instructions
(Check the counters.) This step can include

removing accumulated toner and dust and
cleaning internal components. This step might
also include replacing the ozone filter, which is
important to prevent damage to printer
components and to prevent the release of ozone
into the environment around the printer.
9 Close the printer and plug it in

If necessary, connect it to your
computer
10 Ensure that the printer has enough paper
11 Print a test page
To verify that the printer is working properly.
Topic D: Printer troubleshooting

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009) Edition version 2.0
exam objective.
#
Objective
2.2
Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and

operating system symptoms and their causes
OS-related symptoms
Windows-specific printing problems
Print spool stalled
Incorrect / incompatible driver
Noise
Alerts
Visible damage (e.g. cable, plastic)
objectives.
#
Objective
1.5
Given a scenario, detect and resolve common printer issues

Symptoms
Paper jams
Blank paper
Error codes
Out-of-memory error
Lines and smearing
Garbage printout
Ghosted image
No connectivity
Issue resolution
Replace fuser
Replace drum
Clear paper jam
Power cycle
Set IP on printer
Clean printer
Printers
#
Objective
2.4
Evaluate and resolve common issues
1241
Operational problems
Print spool stalled
Incorrect / incompatible driver / form printing
Resolving printer problems

Explanation
When troubleshooting printer problems, which can include failed, distorted, and
defective print jobs, you can follow some general troubleshooting steps to isolate the
problem to one of the following areas:
The application trying to print
The printer
The operating system and drivers
The connection (either a printer cable or the network adapter, the network cable,
and the part of the network thats between the computer and the printer)
The application
To troubleshoot the application, first close down and restart it. If that doesnt solve the
problem, try printing other files from the same application.
If you can print other files from the same application, troubleshoot the file that
wouldnt print.
If the other files wont print either, try printing from another application,
especially a simple text editor, such as Notepad.
If you can print from another application, troubleshoot the application thats
causing problems, using the manufacturers documentation or Web site.
If you cant print from any applications, move on to testing the printer.
The printer
To verify that the printer is online and working, check its control panel or on-board
screen. Cycle the power off and on to see if that resolves the problem. Look for any
service error messages, which can indicate critical operational failures. Service
messages might also appear on the users screen if the printer or print server is
configured to display messages to users.

If the printer displays a service or error and alert code, refer to the manufacturers
documentation or Web site for a description of the error and the recommended
solutions. Some common error and informational messages include:
"Add media, which indicates empty paper trays or cassettes, or if the paper
supplies are full, a possible sensor problem.
"Add supplies or "Add toner, which can indicate a low toner supply or a
sensor problem.
"Regular maintenance, which can indicate that a parts life counter has reached
a number that means its time for regular maintenance of a specific component,
such as the drum.
"Paper jam, which indicates an obstructed paper path or a problem with a
sensor.
"Incorrect media, which can indicate a problem with the media in the trays or a
problem with driver and option settings.
HP laser printers use numerical error and alert codes such as:
13.2 Paper Jam Open Input Trays Paper-stopped jam at the paper-feed area.
20 Insufficient Memory The printer received more data than can fit in
available memory.
51.1 Printer Error A loss-of-beam-detect error occurred.
At the time of this writing, Rhinotek published a helpful PDF document containing
common HP Laser Jet error codes. You can find this at document at:
http://www.rhinotek.com/PDFs/HP%20Error%20Codes.pdf.
If there are no error or alert codes, print an engine test page by using the printers
control panel or touch screen, or an engine-test button located somewhere on the printer
(refer to the manufacturers documentation). If the test is successful, assume that the
printer is working properly. Then, on the computer, troubleshoot the operating system
and drivers and the connection.
Finally, you can also print a user settings list, which details all of the settings you can
modify directly on the printer (not through the operating system). You might want to
check to see if these settings are correct before troubleshooting the operating system and
drivers.
Printers
1243
The operating system and drivers

If the printer is online, and you can print a test page from the printers Properties dialog
box in Windows.
If the test page prints from the Properties dialog box, you can stop
troubleshooting the printer, the connection, the operating system, and the
drivers. Go back and troubleshoot the application and verify that the application
settings arent conflicting with the driver settings.
If the test page doesnt print from the Properties dialog box, try these options:
In the Printers window, verify that the printer status is Ready. If its
Offline, put the printer into the Ready state.
Use the printers Properties dialog box to verify that the most current
version of the correct driver is installed. If necessary, update the driver, or
uninstall and then reinstall the drivers. This will resolve problems with
incorrect drivers.
Verify the driver port settings, using the printers Properties dialog box.
Verify that the printer driver supports any accessories and options, such as
duplex printing, that are configured for the print job.
Check the Windows event logs for any error messages related to printing.
Verify that the print spool isnt stalled.
The connection
To test a network connection, verify that you can access the Internet or intranet or
access another network server. You can also use TCP/IP utilities to verify that the
computer is connected to the network and can communicate with other devices. You
might need to work with a network technician.
To test a local connection, verify that the cable is securely connected at both ends, and
then try printing a test page. If the test page wont print, try printing from the computer
with a different cable:
If the test page prints, the problem was probably with the cable.
If the test page wont print, try printing from another computer, using the
original cable:
If you can print the test page, the problem is with the original system and
the drivers.
If you still cant print a test page, using another printer with the same
connection, the problem is likely with the printer, the cable, or the drivers.
Connectivity issues might be indicated by slow printing, intermittent activity,
communications errors, unexpected output, or no output at all. To detect the source of
the problem, you might need to consult with a network administrator or technician, or
check the manufacturers documentation for error codes and messages, not just for
printers but for any network devices, such as hubs, switches, routers, or print servers.

When troubleshooting connectivity problems, look for the following:
Loose, broken, damaged, or improperly wired cables. You can probably check
the printer cable and network cable attached to the computer and printer, but you
might need assistance to check cables elsewhere in the network or to check the
cable attached to a printer server locked in a server room.
Broken or malfunctioning network devices. To verify network activity, check for
blinking LEDs or link lights on network devices such as routers or hubs. This
step is likely to involve a network technician.
Incorrect protocol, network settings, or TCP/IP settings on the computer thats
experiencing problems, and on network devices, such as print servers or the
network printer itself.
A bad network card on the problem computer, the network printer, or the print
server. To verify network activity, check for a blinking LED light on the
network card.
Outdated firmware on network printers and other network devices, such as
routers.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or other interference from nearby electrical
devices. Although EMI isnt usually a big problem, sometimes network cables
that are too close to electrical devices can cause intermittent connectivity
problems.
Wireless connection problems, including obstacles within the line of sight of a
wireless device and wireless access point. Obstacles can include walls and other
structural components, and devices that can cause interference with radio waves,
including other wireless devices.
Power supply
An error message such as the "HP 57.x Fan Failure Call Service message, might lead
you to suspect a power problem. If you suspect a printer power issue, you should use a
multimeter to check the J210 power supply. The test should show the following values:
Pin 1: +5V
Pin 5: -5V
Pin 9: +24V
Printer issues
When youve ruled out the application, the operating system, the drivers, and the
connection, youve isolated the problem to the printer. Use the following sections to
find a cause and solution for the specific print issue. If you arent able to resolve the
problem yourself, or you believe the solution requires a repair beyond your ability,
contact a qualified printer technician.
Printers
1245
Dark images
Cause
Solutions
Application settings; printer settings
Adjust settings to lighten the text and graphics.
Light or weak images

Cause
Solutions
Low toner
Remove the toner cartridge and shake it horizontally (or according to the
manufacturers instructions) to redistribute toner. Replace the toner
cartridge as needed.
Laser failing
Test and replace the laser assembly.
Incorrect paper
Replace paper according to manufacturers specification.
Repetitive image defects

Cause
Solutions
Drum defect
Clean the drum, if possible. Replace the drum.
Faulty registration rollers
Clean or repair rollers and gears. Replace as needed.
Debris on heated fusing

roller
Unplug the printer and allow the heated roller to cool for at least
15 minutes. Clean the roller, following the manufacturers
instructions. Replace the roller or fuser assembly if necessary.
Ghosting and shadows

Cause
Solutions
Residual toner on drum
Repair or replace the cleaning blade and discharge lamps.

Replace the drum if necessary.
Drum not discharging

properly
Repair or replace the drum.
Primary corona not putting

adequate conditioning
charge on drum
Repair or replace the primary corona.

Smearing
Cause
Solutions
Dirty or worn registration

rollers
Clean debris from rollers. Clean rollers. Clean and replace

damaged gears.
Dirty or worn registration

assembly
Clean, reinstall, or replace the registration assembly.
Dirt or debris on polygon

mirror
Clean the mirror and optical components, or contact a qualified

printer technician.
Damp or moist paper
Replace the paper supply with fresh paper. Store all

consumables in a dry, cool location.
Incorrect paper
Replace paper with paper recommended by the manufacturer.
Fuser not at correct

temperature
Inspect the thermistor and thermistor cable. Test and replace the
fuser assembly. Replace worn or missing cleaning pads in the
fuser assembly.
Banding or unusual noise

Cause
Solutions
Paper feed problem
Inspect the paper path and remove any obstructions or paper

scraps.
Specially coated paper
Registration roller worn or

dirty
Clean rollers. Clean and replace damaged gears.
HVPS ground loose (heavy

banding)
Check that the HPVS (high-voltage power supply) harness isnt

crimped or shorted by other assemblies.
Laser/scanner assembly
failure (white horizontal
lines)
Check connectors on the main logic board and mechanical

control boards. Replace the boards. Replace the laser assembly.
Printers
1247
Focus
Cause
Solutions
Not enough toner on drum
Remove the toner cartridge and shake it to redistribute the toner.

Replace an empty toner cartridge.
Loose or improperly
mounted laser assembly
Remount the laser assembly.
Incorrect paper
Fusing temperature or
pressure too low
Replace worn or missing pads in the fuser assembly. Adjust

roller pressure.
HVPS failing
Troubleshoot and replace the HVPS.
Voided areas
Cause
Solutions
Paper entering printer too

early
Check the registration rollers and registration roller clutch. If the

clutch is jammed in an on position, repair or replace it.
Damaged drum
Examine the drum surface; replace the drum if necessary.
Limited memory
Try printing simpler print jobs to see if theyre successful.

Install more memory, if possible.
Slipping gear; failing motor

drive
Repair or replace gears or the motor drive assembly.

Registration, jitters, unusual noise, or skewing
Cause
Solutions
Problems with pickup

roller
or separation pad
Verify that the pickup roller is operating properly. Clean and remove
any obstructions. Replace components as needed.
Faulty rollers or roller

assembly
Replace worn rollers or roller assemblies.
Drive train worn or

clogged
Check for proper operation of gears in the drive train; remove debris,
if necessary.
Paper path obstructions
Check for and remove obstructions in the paper path.
Damaged paper tray
Verify that the paper tray isnt worn or defective. Check paper guide
tabs.
Special paper
If heavy or other nonstandard paper is used, try printing with plain

20lb paper or the paper recommended by the manufacturer.
Paper in paper path at

wrong angle
Check for loose or bent paper guide tabs. Check for obstructions or
debris buildup in the paper path.
Misaligned color registration

Cause
Solutions
Misaligned print heads

on inkjet printers
Print a color registration test page and recalibrate print heads,

following manufacturers instructions.
Misaligned or worn
transfer belt
Recalibrate or replace the transfer belt.
Weak or missing color

Cause
Solutions
Low toner supply

(laser printer)
Remove the toner cartridge and shake it horizontally to redistribute

toner. Replace the cartridge as needed.
Low ink supply

(inkjet printer)
Replace ink cartridges
Dried ink in nozzles

(inkjet printer)
Follow the manufacturers directions to clean the print head

manually or by using the printers software.
Incorrect paper
Printers
1249
Vertical or horizontal black or white lines

Cause
Solutions
Misaligned beam detector

(horizontal black lines)
Remount the beam detector. Remount the laser assembly.

Replace the beam detector. Replace the laser assembly.
Dirty transfer corona

(vertical white lines)
Clean the transfer corona.
Blocked laser beam or LED

Remove dust and debris from the laser aperture, LEDs, or other
optical components.
Failed or failing beam sensor

(horizontal white lines)
Reseat or replace cables from the beam sensor. Replace the

laser assembly.
Debris in toner cartridge

Check for debris (tape, staples, etc.) in the cartridge where the
magnetic roller lifts the toner out of its trough. Remove debris.
Black or blank pages

Cause
Solutions
Damaged primary corona (black pages)
Replace the primary corona.
Faulty drum (blank pages)
Replace the drum.
Defective logic board (black pages, banding)
Replace the logic board.
Defective toner cartridge
Replace the toner cartridge.
Transport/feed issues
Transport and feed issues, some of which have already been described, include the
following:
Media jamming
Skewing
Creasing, wrinkling, folding, and tearing
Multiple sheets feeding in at one time (multifeeding) and misdirected media
(misfeeding)
Burning

To troubleshoot any of these issues, look for and correct the following causes:
Foreign objects Check for foreign objects, such as staples, paper clips, and
tape. Clear away any jammed paper, paper scraps, or other debris.
Damaged media Verify that all media conform to the manufacturers
recommendations and arent damaged, warped, wet, or too dry. Damaged or
incorrect paper can cause burning or scorching when it reaches the fuser
assembly.
Media-feed problems Check for problems with the pickup roller, separation
pad, and registration assembly. Check any roller thats involved in moving the
paper through the printer or multifunction device, including the rollers in any
automatic document feeder. Make sure the paper is fresh and matches the
manufacturers specifications.
Poor media-feed timing Check the pickup rollers and registration assembly.
Separation problems Ensure that the transfer corona is working properly so
the paper doesnt stick to the drum. Check the heated fusing roller to ensure that
the paper isnt sticking to it.
Duplex printing problems Check the duplex assembly if a duplex print job
is causing problems in the printer.
Fusing problems Make sure the paper is properly separating from the heated
roller in the fusing assembly. Make sure the fuser is at the proper temperature.
To prevent burning and scorching, check that the assembly doesnt contain any
debris.
Media exit and delivery problems Make sure the exit rollers arent blocked
or jammed with any debris or foreign objects, and ensure that theyre working
properly. Check any finishing assemblies, such as staplers or collators, for wear
or malfunction.
Faulty sensors If there are no foreign objects or debris in the paper path, and
you cant find any other problems, check for malfunctioning sensors that could
be giving false paper-jam errors.
You can also perform a paper path test by using the printers control panel or on-board
screen. This test pulls paper through the printer. If the printer ejects the paper, theres no
paper path obstruction. If the paper jams, the printer informs you of the specific location
in the paper path. You can then examine that location for paper, debris, foreign objects,
or failed sensors. If the printer has multiple paper trays, you can perform the test on
each tray to isolate the problem to a specific tray.
Printers
Do it!
D-1:
1251
Troubleshooting printer problems
Heres how
Heres why
1 Determine whether you can print

a document from within Notepad
One or more problems were introduced into

your system. You need to resolve them.
2 Determine whether you can

successfully print a test page
From the printers Properties dialog box.
If possible, print an engine test

page or a user settings list
Follow the instructions in the documentation.
3 Determine whether the print

quality of the page is acceptable
You might need to perform some printer

maintenance to resolve print quality problems.
4 Document the problem(s) you find

5 Use the concepts in this topic to
take the appropriate steps to
resolve the problem(s) you
encountered
6 Document the steps you took to
resolve the problem(s):
7 Test the system
To verify that the problems were completely

resolved.
Unit summary: Printers

Topic A
In this topic, you learned about dot-matrix printers, which are slow, noisy impact
printers good for printing multipart forms. You learned that dot-matrix print heads
typically have 9 or 24 pins and that the paper can be moved through the printer by
tractor-feed or friction-feed mechanisms. You learned about inkjet printers and how
they force ink through nozzles by using thermal bubble or piezoelectric technology.
You learned that cyan, yellow, magenta, and black (CYMK) inks are commonly used in
color inkjet printers. Next, you learned about laser printers, which are becoming quite
affordable, although the consumables sometimes cost as much as the printer. You
learned that laser printers use the electrophotographic process to produce images. You
identified the components of a laser printer, and you listed the stages involved in the
laser printing process. Finally, you learned about other types of printers, including
solid-ink, thermal, and dye sublimation printers. You also examined the use of plotters,
snapshot printers, and large-format printers.
Topic B
In this topic, you examined the Windows printing process and its components,
including the spooler. Then you installed a printer and learned how to upgrade printer
drivers. You installed printer add-ons and upgrades.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned how to maintain printers. You learned the steps you should
take during routine maintenance of inkjet and laser printers, including replacing
consumables, removing accumulated dust and toner, replacing parts based on parts-life
counters, and ensuring a well-ventilated environment.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned how to troubleshoot printers. You learned how to isolate
problems in printers and how to troubleshoot problems with image quality.
Review questions
1 Whats the print quality of dot-matrix printers compared to?
A Darkroom photographs
B Laser printer output
C Thermal printer output
D Typewriter output
2 How many pins does the print head of a dot matrix printer contain? [Choose all that
apply.]
A 6
B 9
C 12
D 24
E 36
3 A __________-wheel printer is an impact printer that could produce letters using
only the font that was on the wheel installed in the printer.
daisy
Printers
1253
4 Which printing technology uses an electrical current sent to a crystal, which causes
it to vibrate and release ink onto the paper?
A Inkjet
B Laser
C Piezoelectric bubble
D Thermal bubble
5 True or false? The print head for inkjet printers is usually part of the ink cartridge.
True
6 Whats inkjet output quality compared to? [Choose all that apply.]
A Darkroom photographs
B Laser printer output
C Thermal printer output
D Typewriter output
7 A(n) _____________ paper path stores paper in a tray below and in front of the
printer, and the printer pulls the paper up through rollers and under the print head.
curved
8 True or false? Laser printers combine electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light to
produce high-quality images one page at time.
True
9 What is the laser printing step in which "areas of the drum that were written to by
the laser attract toner?
A Exposing
B Fusing
C Developing
D Transferring
10 Which laser printer component is made up of rollers and a heating lamp?
A Electronic control package
B Fusing assembly
C Transfer corona assembly
D Toner cartridge
11 Which laser printer component is used to focus the laser beam?
A Corona wire
B HVPS
C Mirror
D Lens

12 True or false? Solid-ink printers need the ink changed about every 500 pages.
False. Solid-ink printers use sticks of wax that are melted to create the ink for printing. The ink
sticks last approximately 3000 pages.
13 Which thermal printer uses paper with colors embedded in it?

A Direct thermal
B Thermal autochrome
C Thermal wax transfer
D Dye sub
14 True or false? In order to install a printer, you need the manufacturers disc that
came with the printer.
False. Most printers connect via USB today, so when you connect the printer, Windows
automatically detects it and attempts to install the driver for you. However, your printer likely
comes with a CD-ROM containing drivers and additional software that will enhance the print
quality or provide additional features.
15 For dot-matrix printers, what is the option that allows you to switch between sheetfeed, single-page paper and tractor-feed paper without having to unload either from
the printer?
A Additional paper trays
B Auto-duplexers
C Offset stacker
D Paper park
16 For inkjet printers, what is the option that allows printing on both sides of a single
sheet of paper?
A Additional paper trays
B Auto-duplexers
C Offset stacker
D Paper park
17 True or false? Inkjet printers cant print PostScript.
False. Some can be upgraded with a PostScript upgrade kit.
18 If you have users who print large documents with many graphics, you can optimize
performance by configuring the printer _________ setting.
spool
19 True or false? Low toner is a likely cause of repetitive image defects.

False
20 Why might improperly stored paper cause smearing?

The toner wont adhere to the paper properly.
Printers
1255
21 Which of the following is the most likely cause of ghosting or shadows on printed
page?
A Accumulated toner on the transfer corona
B Broken paper guides
C A faulty sensor in the registration assembly
D Residual toner on the drum
22 Which of the following are possible causes of smudged print? [Choose all that
apply.]
A Low toner
B Damp paper
C Debris on the laser scanning mirror
D Limited memory
E Fuser problems
23 What problems might you see if the temperature of the fuser is too low?
Smearing; unfocused text and graphics.
24 Whats the likely culprit when printouts are skewed or misaligned?

A problem in the paper path, including rollers and the registration assembly.
25 What problem should you suspect if you have weak or missing color on printouts?
The color toner supply or incorrect paper.
26 List some likely problems youd see on pages printed in a laser printer with a faulty
drum.
Repetitive image defects, blank pages, light or weak text and graphics, voided areas, and ghosts
or shadows.
27 How can a paper path test help you isolate a problem in a laser printer?
It can show you where theres a problem in the paper path, from the paper tray to the exit rollers.

In this activity, youll research printers.
1 Using your Web browser, find a Windows 7compatible 24-pin dot-matrix printer
available for sale. Determine:
The connections provided
The type of paper it accepts
The fonts supported
Other included options
User reviews
The purchase price

2 Using your Web browser, find a Windows 7compatible inkjet printer with four
separate cartridges for black, cyan, yellow, and magenta. Determine:
The speed for printing black and white
The speed for printing color
Other included options, such as memory or additional paper trays
User reviews
The purchase price
3 Using your Web browser, find a Windows 7compatible color laser printer
available for sale. Determine:
The speed for printing black and white
The speed for printing color
Other included options, such as memory or additional paper trays
User reviews
The purchase price
4 Obtain the manufacturer and model of a laser printer in your classroom, training
center, or school, or at your place of business. Go to the manufacturers Web site
and find the documentation for the printer.
5 How often does the manufacturer recommend service? Detail the maintenance steps
recommended at each different page-count threshold.
Answers will vary by manufacturer.
6 What kind of maintenance kits are available and what do they contain?
7 Are there updated firmware or drivers available for download?

8 Work with another student to introduce a problem into a printer.

9 Try to print a test page from the printer.
10 Examine the output, if any, to determine if its acceptable quality.
11 Document any problems you encountered, along with the steps you took to resolve
the problem.
131
Unit 13

A Describe the basic components of a
network.
B Compare wired network connections.
C Differentiate between basic
internetworking devices.
132
Topic A: Networking concepts

exam objectives.
#
Objective
4.1
Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and

protocols
Bandwidth and latency
Full-duplex, half-duplex
Basics of workgroups and domains
LAN/WAN
Identify Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
4.2

Cables
Plenum/PVC
UTP (e.g., CAT3, CAT5/5e, CAT6)
STP
Fiber
Coaxial cable
4.3
Compare and contrast the different network types

Broadband
DSL
Cable
Satellite
Fiber
Dial-up
Wireless
Cellular
6.1
EMI
Network interference
133
objective.
#
Objective
3.2
Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network

Connection types
Dial-up
Broadband
DSL
Cable
Satellite
ISDN
Wireless
Routers / Access Points
LAN (10/100/1000BaseT, Speeds)
Cellular
Basic VoIP (consumer applications)
Wireless router placement
Cable length
Networking models
Explanation
Nowadays, networks make the world go round. From the small home network to the
larger networks at your doctors office or your bank to the world-wide Internet,
networks are involved in some way in almost all of the business activities and a good
part of the leisure activities in the world today.
Local area networks

A local area network (LAN) is a specifically designed configuration of computers and
other devices located within a confined area, such as a home or office building, and
connected by wires or radio waves that permit the devices to communicate with one
another to share data and services. Computers and other devices connected on a LAN
can send information to and receive information from one another.
Each device with an address that can be used to send or receive information is a node. A
node can be a computer, a router, a printer, a video camera, a controller, or any number
of other electronic devices. The network directs the communication passing through it
and acts as a sort of electronic traffic cop to prevent collisions or mixing of data.
We will refer to a computer node as a host. A host requires an operating system to
manage its applications, hardware, and connection to the network. The operating system
is also responsible for enabling the computers on the LAN to share their resources. The
term resource refers to any files, databases, or printers installed on or attached to a host.
134

A LAN can be connected to the Internet, either through a direct cable connection or by a
telephone link through a modem, so that workstations on the LAN have access to all of
the networks and sites linked to the global Web.
Exhibit 13-1 shows the components of a sample LAN. While this example includes a
server on the middle right, its important to note that a server isnt required for a LAN.
The computers are workstations on the LAN, and three of them are connected with a
cable of some type. The second laptop is also a workstation on the LAN, but its
connected through a wireless access point. The printer is a shared network printer
available to clients on the LAN.
Exhibit 13-1: A LAN
Network topologies
Networks are defined by a combination of their logical and physical topologies. A
logical network topology describes the path that data takes between nodes. It is
generally determined by the communication protocols used. The physical network
topology describes the material layout of network wiring and the locations of nodes.
Logical network topologies

There are two basic logical LAN network topologies that youll encounter:
Peer-to-peer
Client/server
A logical network topology that extends your LAN to users at remote locations is a
virtual private network (VPN).
135
The peer-to-peer model

A peer-to-peer logical network usually consists of several client computers that are
connected to a network for simple file and printer sharing in a small office or home
office. Microsoft refers to this model as a workgroup. Each computer has a network
card, which is connected to the network by a network cable or wireless network
medium.
The computers run a client operating system that allows network connectivity. Client
operating systems that provide networking features and support include: all versions of
Windows 7, Vista, and XP; Windows 2000 Professional; versions of Apple Macintosh
OS X, such as Snow Leopard, and Macintosh OS 9; and Linux Ubuntu and RedHat.
All communication occurs between the client computers. There are often fewer than a
dozen hosts on this type of network. Client operating systems can have connection
limits that make them impractical for larger networks.
In the peer-to-peer networking model, each host on the LAN has the same authority as
other hosts. Each computer user is the administrator of his or her own computer and
decides whether to share a resource (such as a file, database, or printer). The user is
responsible for backing up data, installing software, sharing resources, enforcing
security policies, and performing many other administrative tasks.
You might also hear a peer-to-peer network described as a decentralized networking
model. You must administer each user account and computer on the network
individually.
In a peer-to-peer model, several hosts using different operating systems can be
connected to form a small LAN in a small business or home office, as shown in Exhibit
13-2. In this example, the hosts and other devices are physically connected by network
cabling, but you can also create a small LAN with only wireless connections or a mix of
physical and wireless connections.
Exhibit 13-2: A peer-to-peer LAN
136

A peer-to-peer network can also include an Internet connection. Many times small peerto-peer networks will share a single network connection by connecting through a router.
If you dont have a router acting as a gateway, Microsoft client operating systems can
use a feature called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS). ICS allows one computer in
peer-to-peer network to share its Internet connection and act as a gateway allowing all
computers access the Internet through the single connection. The computers can also be
connected to an Internet gateway similar to the one shown in Exhibit 13-3.
Peer-to-peer authentication
A user account is a collection of all the information that pertains to a user, such as his
user name, password, access rights, and permissions. In a peer-to-peer network, user
accounts reside on individual computers. Each user must enter a user ID and password
combination that resides on a particular computer to be able to use it. The process of
entering a correct user ID and password to gain access to a computer is called
authentication, validation, or logging on. In the peer-to-peer model, the local client
operating system authenticates the user ID and password.
User IDs and passwords allow users to access only their own computers. Their user
accounts exist only on their own computers, so they cant be authenticated on and gain
access to someone elses computer.
In order to access shared resources on another computer, a user must have a user
account on that local machine or know a valid username and password of an account on
that computer. These accounts are referred to as local user accounts. Its important to
understand that while you can create identical user accounts with the same user name
and password on multiple computers in a peer-to-peer network, the user accounts are
uniquechanges in one computers user account has no effect on the other accounts
with the same name.
The client/server model

In a client/server network, computers called servers hold data and provide services that
users can share. Most of the communication on this type of network occurs between the
client computers, referred to as workstations, and the servers. Client/server networks can
be much larger than peer-to-peer networks.
A network operating system (NOS)such as Windows Server 2008 or 2003, Windows
2000 Server, UNIX, or Novell Open Enterprise Server or NetWarecan be installed on
a server and used to manage network resources, including user accounts, printers, and
file sharing. There are some significant differences between an NOS and a networkaware client operating system. For example, an NOS can provide:
Unlimited connections
Network directory services
Network security, monitoring, and auditing features
The architectural framework (APIs) to support server-based applications
A sample client/server network is illustrated in Exhibit 13-3.
137
Exhibit 13-3: A client/server LAN

Client/server authentication
In the client/server networking model, user accounts are created centrally and stored on
a server. A trained system administrator is usually responsible for maintaining the server
and NOS while managing resources to meet user needs. Each user can be authenticated
on the network and gain access to any resource on it by entering his or her network user
ID and password.
The local client operating system isnt responsible for authenticating user IDs and
passwords. Instead, the client OS uses its network client software to send this
information to the NOS on the server. The directory service verifies the user ID and
password based on the information stored in its database.
The logon process goes something like this:
1 The network client on the client computer displays a logon screen.
2 The user enters his or her user ID and password and clicks OK.
3 The network client sends this information to the NOS for authentication.
4 After the user ID and password have been authenticated, the user can gain access
to the computer and to the network resources.
The server uses a database to store user account information, user permissions, security
policies, and other configuration settings. This information is used to control which
resources on the network are shared and who can access them. The system administrator
assigns user permissions that specify which resources users can access on the network.
Software, files, printers, and other resources can be accessed by users on the network
only when the system administrator has granted specific permission to a user account.
138

You might also hear a client/server network described as a centralized networking
model, because it enables you to administer computers and users as a group instead of
individually.
Virtual private networks

A virtual private network (VPN) is a private communications network transmitted
across a public, typically insecure, network connection. With a VPN, a company can
extend a LAN segment to employees working from home by transmitting data securely
across the Internet. A VPN, illustrated in Exhibit 13-4, is a means of providing secure
communications across the extranet zone. A Point of Presence (POP) is an access point
from one place to the rest of the Internet.
Exhibit 13-4: A typical VPN using Point of Presence (POP)

To create a VPN, you need to select and set up two categories of components:
Remote access communication options
VPN hardware and software
Communication options
Remote-access VPNs are most often implemented via the Internet nowadays. This
means that users need a way to connect to the Internet, such as DSL, cable, or even dialup. They need an ISP account and the equipment required by the ISP for their
connectiona cable modem or DSL router or an analog POTS/PSTN modem.
Site-to-site VPNs are also most often implemented via the Internet. Few other shared
public networks remain since access to the Internet became widespread. Thus, your
remote offices need a communications line to the Internet. Most often, this would be
provided through an always-on connection. DSL, cable, ISDN, and T/E dedicated
circuits are all common ways that companies provide Internet connectivity, though dialup access is doable.
139
VPN hardware and software

VPN solutions are offered by many vendors. Some require dedicated access hardware,
most commonly on the corporate LAN side of the connection. Many require special
software to be installed on the client workstation.
Microsofts VPN solution uses standard Windows components on the client side and
Microsofts version of a remote access service (RAS). In Windows Server 2008, you
can install the Routing and Remote Access Service (RRAS) components of the Network
Protection Services (NPS) to create the server to which clients connect.
Cisco, Juniper Networks, and OpenVPN provide commercial or open-source VPN
solutions to businesses and end-users. Some solutions are software only, while others
require specialized hardware components, such as a VPN concentrator.
Tunneling (illustrated in Exhibit 13-5) is used by third-party service providers who carry
traffic of multiple customers across their networks. Third-party service providers offer
VPN solutions that work like this: The business creates a secure connection to the VPN
providers systems; the client connects to the providers network via the Internet or dialup; data packets are created using a VPN protocol format; these data packets are
encapsulated within some other base or carrier protocol and transmitted between VPN
client and server; and the packets are then de-encapsulated on the receiving side. The
VPN encapsulation within a base or carrier protocol is what creates the tunnel. Such
solutions eliminate the need to purchase, install, and maintain VPN systems. However,
communications from the client to provider are not secure (though communications over
the providers network are secure).
Exhibit 13-5: Service provider tunneling

Do it!
A-1:
Describing networking models

1 How are client/server networks different from peer-to-peer networks?
2 Why would a company want to implement a client/server network?
3 What kind of company would implement a peer-to-peer network?
Do it!
A-2:
Identifying the basic components of a network
Heres how
1 Identify the server computer in
your classroom
Heres why
Youll identify components of your classroom
network. There might not be a server in your
classroom configuration.
2 Identify the client workstations on

your classroom network
3 Identify nodes on your classroom
network
4 Determine whether youre using a
wired or radio communication
channel in your classroom
A node can be a computer, a router, a printer, a

video camera, a controller, or some other
electronic device.
1311
Network wiring
The computers in the network need a pathway to connect each other. This pathway can
be a physical connection, using cabling. The connection can also be made through radio
waves, infrared light, or other wireless methods.
Wiring is the heart of a network. Its also the part most vulnerable to performance
problems caused by poor installation practices. Installing wiring in new construction is
generally a straightforward process. Installing wiring in existing structures, whether
within the walls or on the surface, can be a frustrating experience. No network is better
than the quality of the wiring it runs on.
Fiber optic cable

Fiber optic cabling, which carries light-based data through strands of glass or plastic no
thicker than a human hair, is currently the fastest and most expensive network
transmission medium. Fiber optic cables are composed of a glass or plastic strand,
called a core, through which light is transmitted. The core is encased in a glass tube,
called cladding, designed to reflect the light back into the core as the light bounces
while moving through the fiber core. The glass cladding is coated by a buffer to protect
it from moisture and other damaging elements. An outer insulating, rubberized jacket
covers the entire cable to protect it. Exhibit 13-6 shows a single-strand fiber optic cable.
Exhibit 13-6: A single-strand fiber optic cable

Fiber optic cables are classified based on the diameter of their core:
Single-mode fiber (SMF) optic cable has a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns, and
light travels down the cable in a single ray. SMF supports only a single
transmission path.
Multi-mode fiber (MMF) optic cables are common in diameters of 50 to 100
microns. In U.S. LAN network applications, the most common size is 62.5
microns. The outside diameter of the cable is also expressed in microns, such as
125 microns. Youll see fiber optic cable with a light fiber diameter of 62.5 and
an outside diameter of 125 expressed as 62.5/125 fiber. Multi-mode fiber
works with LED light sources of different wavelengths depending on the speed
required. MMF supports many transmission (propagation) paths.
Fiber optic cable is used by the telephone and cable companies to deliver information
across long distances. Its also used as the backbone for networks. Fiber optic cabling
has many benefits over metal-based wiring such as coaxial or twisted-pair, which uses
electrical impulses to transmit data.

The advantages are:
Thinner and lighter weight Its possible to manufacture optical fibers that
have smaller diameters and weigh less than the comparable copper wire cable.
Higher carrying capacity Optical fibers are thinner than copper wires, so
more fibers can be bundled together into a cable jacket. Fiber optic cable
supports data rates up to 10 Gbps, over distances ranging from 2 meters to 40
kilometers, depending on the media standard used (10GBase-SR/SW, 10GBaseLR/LW, 10GBase-ER/EW). Some manufacturers have shown that 40 Gbps
speeds are possible and are working on achieving a speed of 1 terabit per second
(Tbps).
More secure Wiretapping fiber optic cabling is more difficult compared to
wiretapping cables using electrical connections. There are concentric dual-core
fibers that are advertised as tap-proof.
Use of digital signals Optical fibers are ideal for carrying digital information,
which makes them useful in computer networks. Both multi-mode and singlemode fibers are used in communications.
Less signal degradation The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in
copper wire, because the copper cables interact with the environment around
them. Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, you can use lower-power
transmitters instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters you need for
copper wires. The fibers used in long-distance communications are always glass
because it has lower optical attenuation.
Multi-mode fiber is used mostly for short distances (up to 500 m), and
single-mode fiber is used for longer distances.
Single-mode fiber has a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more
potential distance than multi-mode fiber, but it costs more. Because of the
tighter tolerances required to couple light in single-mode fibers, singlemode transmitters, receivers, amplifiers, and other components are
typically more expensive than multi-mode components.
Less interference Because optic fiber is resistant to electrical interference, it
prevents crosstalk between signals in different cables and the pickup of
environmental noise. Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from
one optical fiber dont interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable.
Non-flammable You can run fiber optic cabling in hazardous, high-voltage
environments because it doesnt carry electricity. You can also use fiber optic
cables where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition, because
no electricity passes through optical fibers.
The bulk of the expense of fiber optic cabling systems can be attributed to the interface
devices that convert computer signals to and from light pulses. For end-users to use
fiber optics, they must purchase conversion equipment that changes electrical impulses
into photons. At present, these devices are costly, but the cost is certain to decline as the
technology matures, making their widespread use more likely in the future.
1313
Twisted-pair cable
Twisted-pair cable is commonly used in many business applications to deliver both
voice and data information from one location to another. Selection of the proper cable
type is based on the cables electrical characteristics, conductor size, and ability to resist
electromagnetic interference (called crosstalk or noise).
Until recently, most networks have used either unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) or
shielded twisted-pair (STP) cabling to connect the nodes in the network. The twistedpair cable used for networking has four pairs of wires. The wires in each pair are twisted
around each other, and the pairs are twisted together and bundled within a covering, as
shown in Exhibit 13-7. The two wires (two halves of a single circuit) are wound
together to cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources. The
pairs are twisted together to prevent crosstalk.
Crosstalk occurs because alternating electrical current flowing through a wire creates an
electromagnetic field around the wire. This field then affects the current flow in any
adjacent cables. When you place two wires in an electrical circuit close together, as is
done in each of the twisted wire pairs, their electromagnetic fields are the exact opposite
of each other. The magnetic field in one wire cancels out the other wires field. The
more twists you have in a cable, the better it is at reducing crosstalk. However, there is a
drawback. When you increase the number of twists, you also increase the distance that
signals must travel down the cable, thus increasing attenuation. Attenuation is a decrease
in the strength of the electrical signal as it travels farther down the cable.
Exhibit 13-7: UTP cable

UTP cable comes in various categories. Each category has a specific use, number of
twists per foot, and speed. The following table lists the commonly used categories of
twisted-pair cabling.
Category
Speed and
frequency
Typical use
CAT 3
10 Mbps; 16 MHz
Voice in newer telephone systems.

The minimum category you can use for data networks. Most
often found in 10BASE-T networks.
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Token Ring all support CAT3.
CAT 5
100 Mbps; 100 MHz

155 Mbps ATM
Used for data and voice in Ethernet networks running at 10 or

100 Mbps.
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Token Ring, and
ATM all support CAT5.
CAT 5e
100 Mbps; 100 MHz

155 Mbps ATM
Used for data and voice in Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet
networks. Has better transmission performance characteristics
than CAT 5.
ATM all support CAT5e.
CAT 6
1 Gbps; 250 MHz
Used for data in Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet networks.
155 Mbps ATM

ATM all support CAT6.
For networking, CAT 3 cable used to be acceptable. However, CAT 3 operates at up to

only 10 Mbps with about two or three twists per foot. Most networks now use at least
CAT 5 cable, which operates at up to 100 Mbps, or CAT 5e, which operates at up to 1
Gbps. CAT 5 and CAT 5e cables have 20 twists per foot.
CAT 6 cables use better materials and can operate at up to 2.5 Gbps. The number of
twists in CAT 6 cable can vary. All twisted-pair cabling has a maximum LAN run
length of approximately 100 meters; however you will find it used elsewhere without
such a limitationfor example, the phone line coming into your house.
1315
There are other categories of twisted-pair cabling, which the following table describes.
Category
Speed and
frequency
Typical use
CAT 1
Up to 1 Mbps; 1 MHz
Analog telephone networks. Not suitable for data networks.
CAT 2
4 Mbps; 4 MHz
Voice and low-speed data transmission. Mainly found in IBM

Token Ring networks.
CAT 4
16 Mbps; 20 MHz
Data and voice in Token Ring networks.

Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Token Ring all support CAT4.
The CAT4 standard wasnt widely implemented.
CAT 6a
10 Gbps; 550 MHz
Used in Gigabit Ethernet networks. This standard was

published in Feb. 2008.
Cabling can be shielded (STP, ScTP, S/FTP) or unshielded
(UTP).
CAT 7
10 Gbps; 600 MHz
Used for full-motion video, teleradiology, and government and

manufacturing environments. CAT 7 is an emerging standard.
Youll also hear this category referred to as ISO Class F.
CAT 7a
40 Gbps at 50 meters,
100 Gbps at 15 meters;
1000 MHz
CAT 7a is Amendment 1 and 2 of ISO/IEC 11801 Class F,

which defines CAT7. It can be used for multiple applications
across a single cable similar to CAT 7.
Currently, when you go to purchase CAT twisted-pair cabling, youll find two
categories: solid and stranded. Solid cabling has a thicker, more protective covering,
making it less flexible. Its best for longer network runs and for fixed wiring
applications. Stranded cabling has a thinner protective covering, making it more pliable
and useful for shorter distances and for movable wiring applications such patch cables.
Current TP telephone wire typically contains two pairs of wires: pair 1 is blue and
blue/white; pair 2 is orange and orange/white. The oldest style of residential twistedpair wiring consisted of just two wires, typically wrapped in brown insulation.

Composite cable
For the best wiring value and expansion capability, use composite cable (shown in
Exhibit 13-8), which combines Cat5 or Cat6 and other transmission cables within a
single PVC jacket. It makes multiple-wire installation easier and saves on the cost of
future wiring. Some of these cables contain two Cat5 or Cat6 wires for the network and
two shielded RG-6 coaxial cables for cable and satellite television. The top-of-the-line,
future-proof version of this type of cable contains Cat5 or Cat6 and RG-6 wires and a
fiber optic linethe fastest transmission medium.
Exhibit 13-8: A composite cable
Coaxial cable
Twisted-pair and fiber optic cabling are used most often in todays networks, but if
youre supporting older networks, you might run into some coaxial cable. Coaxial
cables (coax for short) contain a layer of braided wire or foil between the core and the
outside insulating layer. The shielding provided by this layer helps protect the data from
EMI problems. Another layer of plastic or rubberized material separates the central core
from the shielding layer, because if these two layers touch, the data signal will be
damaged or lost. A coaxial cable is shown in Exhibit 13-9.
1317
Exhibit 13-9: Common components of a coaxial cable

Coax comes in many variations. The type used for Ethernet networks is marked RG-8 or
RG-58A/U. The RG stands for Radio Guide, which was based on now-obsolete
military specifications. RG cable might also have letters after the number to indicate the
cables impedance (specified in ohms, ) and whether the inner conductor is solid or
stranded.
Just like twisted-pair cable, stranded coax is more flexible. The design of coax cable
restricts the electromagnetic waves used to transmit data to the area between the center
conductor and the shield, thus allowing the cable to bend and be attached to conduit
supports without affecting the signal.
Thick Ethernet (Thicknet) cables are RG-8 cables. Shown in Exhibit 13-10, these are 50ohm stranded-core cables. RG-8 doesnt bend easily because it is 10 mm in diameter
(four-tenths of an inch). These cables can carry signals up to about 500 meters, so they
were typically used for Ethernet network backbones rather than for drops to network
nodes.
Exhibit 13-10: Thicknet cable

Thin Ethernet (Thinnet) designs, wired with RG58A/U coaxial cable, are limited by the
attenuation of signals in the cable. Thinnet cables can support network segments up to
only 185 meters long.
Thick Ethernet designs, wired with 50-ohm RG8/U coaxial, are more resistant to
attenuation and can span up to 500 meters. Neither of these is being widely used now,
because more advanced cable types can span distances of up to several kilometers with
less attenuation of network signals.
Exhibit 13-11: Thinnet cable

The various RG standards are described in the following table.
Standard
Impedance
Core size
Uses
RG-6/U
75
1.0 mm
Cable and satellite television; cable modems.
RG-6/UQ
75
1.0 mm
Q stands for quad: four layers of shielding,

compared to RG-6/U, which has two.
RG-8/U
50
2.17 mm
Thicknet network backbones; amateur radio.
RG-9/U
51
2.17 mm
Thicknet network backbones.
RG-11/U
75
1.63 mm
Cable and satellite television; video

surveillance. Thicker than RG-6. Used
underground or for outdoor antennae drops.
RG-58A/U
50
0.9 mm
Thin Ethernet; radio; amateur radio.
RG-59/U
75
0.81 mm
Baseband video in closed-circuit television;

cable television.
Another coax cable you might encounter is marked RG-62/U. This cable is used for the
older network technology called ARCnet. This cable has 93 impedance and uses
AWG 22 gauge wire with a .64 mm core.
1319
When youre working with coax for networking applications, its important that you
dont mistake RG-59 cable for RG-58, the stranded copper defined for 10Base2 thinnet.
RG-59 coaxial cable is used for low-power video and RF signal connections. Youll
find it shipped with consumer electronic equipment, such as VCRs or digital cable and
satellite receivers. The impedance between these two cables is different50 versus
75 . Network equipment is designed to expect particular cable impedance. If you use a
cable with incorrect impedance, power is lost during data transfer, resulting in low
signal reception. Such low reception causes the network link performance to suffer or to
fail completely.
In recent years, RG-6 cables have become the standard for cable TV, replacing the
smaller RG-59. RG-6 cables have less attenuation of data signals and better shielding
than RG-59. RG-6 cable handles signals sent in the higher GigaHz frequencies better
than RG-59 cable does; the latter was designed to handle MegaHz range signals. RG-6
cables are most commonly used to deliver cable television signals to and within homes,
and they arent suitable for networking.
Duplex data transmission

Data transmission can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex, data is
transmitted in a single direction. In half-duplex, data is transmitted across the medium in
both directions, but in only one direction at a time. In full-duplex, data can be
transmitted across the medium in both directions at the same time. Network
transmissions can be either half-duplex or full-duplex, but the majority are half-duplex.

Do it!
A-3:
Identifying cable types
Heres how
Heres why
1 What speeds do fiber optic cables support?
2 How long can fiber optic cables be?
3 Locate a twisted pair cable

What category is the cable?
4 Locate a network coaxial cable
Locate a cable television coaxial
cable
Whats the difference between the
two cables?
5 What are some other coax cable

types that wont work for Ethernet
networking?
6 What is thicknet coax cable
typically used for?
7 Examine the cable used to connect
your computer to the network
Identify its type
Cable type:
______________________________________
8 Record the backbone cabling used
Your instructor will describe the backbone cable

used to connect network segments.
______________________________________
1321
Plenum wiring
A plenum is an enclosure thats used to move air for heating, cooling, or humidity
control in a building. A plenum might be created by a false ceiling, a false floor, metal
duct work, or a variety of other construction methods, but its main purpose is to move
air thats environmentally controlled in some manner. A secondary purpose of a plenum
might be to contain high- or low-voltage wiring. Because plenums often connect rooms
in a building, they provide convenient paths through which to run wiring.
Exhibit 13-12: Examples of plenum spaces in an office

Cables that run in plenums must meet applicable fire protection and environmental
requirements. These are important because the plenum-run cables might be subjected to
temperature and humidity extremes not encountered in normal wiring paths. Plenum
wiring also poses a greater hazard than wiring run inside walls because if a fire occurs
in the plenum-run wiring, smoke and heat are carried by the moving air in the plenum to
other parts of the building, thus spreading the fire faster than it would otherwise spread.
Protecting plenum-run cables might mean enclosing them in conduit (inside the plenum)
or using cables with jackets and other components made of materials that are resistant to
open flame and are nontoxic at high temperatures. Plenum-rated cabling is often
covered with Teflon and is more expensive than ordinary cabling. The outer material of
plenum-rated cabling is more resistant to flames, and when burning, produces less
smoke and fewer noxious fumes than ordinary cabling. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable
are both made in plenum-rated versions.

Do it!
A-4:
Researching plenum wiring
Heres how
and log on to Windows 7 as:
Password: !pass1234
3 Use your preferred search engine
to determine which categories of
network cable are available in
plenum grade
4 What is the price difference
between plenum-grade cabling
and general-purpose cabling?
5 What is a typical temperature
rating for plenum-grade CAT
cable?
6 Close Internet Explorer
Heres why
Where ## is your assigned student number.
1323
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most popular media access method in use today. Its popular because it
strikes a good balance between ease of setup and use, speed, and cost. Four types of
Ethernet architecture are available now. Each is distinguished primarily by the speed at
which it operates. This is referred to as the networks data rate or bandwidth and is
measured in bits per second (bps). The four types are:
10-Gigabit Ethernet (also called 10GbE) The fastest of the Ethernet
standards. With a data rate of 10 Gbps (gigabits per second), it is 10 times faster
than Gigabit Ethernet.
1000-Mbps Ethernet (or Gigabit Ethernet) Operates at a speed of 1000
Mbps (1000 megabits per second = 1 gigabit per second). Its used for large,
high-speed LANs and heavy-traffic server connections. Few, if any, home
networks require Gigabit Ethernet.
100-Mbps Ethernet (or Fast Ethernet) Operates at a speed of 100 Mbps.
10-Mbps Ethernet Operates at a speed of 10 Mbps. The first Ethernet
version was developed by the Xerox Corporation in the 1970s and later became
known as Ethernet IEEE 802.3. All subsequent Ethernet architectures conform
to IEEE 802.3.
Ethernet can be set up with various types of wire or cable. However, the different
speeds of the versions and the conditions in which they operate usually dictate what
type of connecting wires you need to use. BASE refers to baseband signaling, which
means that only Ethernet signals are carried on the wire or cable.
The bandwidth for each network type is a theoretical maximum value. A networks
actual bandwidth can be reduced by network data processing delays. These delays are
collectively called latency. Latency can be caused by a variety of factors, such as when
a network device that operates at a slower data rate than other network components, or a
device becomes overloaded with data and cant process it all in a timely manner. The
impact of latency on a networks bandwidth can last just a few seconds or can be
persistent depending on the source of the delays.
Designations for the different Ethernet standards are based on the medium that each
standard uses:
BASE-R standards Run over fiber optic cable.
BASE-W standards Run over fiber optic cables; referred to as Wide Area
Network Physical Layer (WAN PHY). BASE-W standards use the same types of
fiber and support the same distances as 10GBASE-R standards; however, with
BASE-W, Ethernet frames are encapsulated in SONET frames.
BASE-T standards Run over twisted-pair cable, either shielded or
unshielded.
BASE-C standards Run over shielded copper twisted-pair cable.
Most current Ethernet installations use unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable or fiber
optic cable. Older Ethernet installations used either 50-ohm RG58A/U coaxial cable
(also known as thin Ethernet and 10Base2) or 50-ohm RG8/U coaxial (known as thick
Ethernet and 10Base5). However, these are both obsolete now.
In the names of these standards, F typically identifies fiber optic cabling. R refers to
LAN technologies, and W refers to WAN encodings. S, L, and E designate wavelength.

10-Gigabit Ethernet standards
The following table lists the 10-Gigabit Ethernet standards and their specifications.
Standard
Medium
Distance
10GBASE-T
Copper twistedpair, shielded or

unshielded
100 meters with CAT6a;

up to 55 meters with
CAT6
10GBASE-SR
10GBASE-SW
Multi-mode fiber
26 or 82 meters,
depending on the
diameter of the cable used
Notes
Preferred choice for

optical cabling within
buildings.
300 meters over 50

microns at 2000 MHz per
km with OM3 multi-mode
fiber
10GBASE-LR,
10GBASE-LW
Single-mode fiber
10 km
10GBASE-ER,
10GBASE-EW
Single-mode fiber
40 km
Used to connect
transceivers.
Gigabit Ethernet standards

The following table lists the Gigabit Ethernet standards and their specifications.
Standard
Medium
Distance
Notes
1000BASE-T
Unshielded twistedpair: CAT5, CAT5e,

or CAT6
100 meters per

network segment
Requires all four wire

pairs.
1000BASE-CX
Balanced copper
shielded twisted-pair
25 meters
An initial standard for

Gigabit Ethernet
connections.
1000BASE-LX
Single-mode optic
fiber
5 km*
See the notes below

this table.
1000BASE-LX10
Single-mode optic
fiber
10 km
Wavelength of 1270 to
1355 nm.
1000BASE-BX10
Single-mode fiber,
over single-strand
fiber
10 km
Different wavelength
going in each
direction1490 nm
downstream, 1310 nm
upstream.
1000BASE-SX
Multi-mode optic
fiber
500 meters
1325
* The 1000BASE-LX standard specifies transmission over a single-mode optic fiber, at

distances of up to 5 km over 9 m (micron or micrometer). In practice, it often operates
correctly over a much greater distance. Many manufacturers guarantee operation at 10 to 20
km, provided that their equipment is used at both ends of the link.
1000BASE-LX can also run over multi-mode fiber with a maximum segment length of 550
meters. Link distances greater than 300 meters might require a special launch conditioning
patch cord, which launches the laser at a precise offset from the center of the fiber. This
spreads the laser across the diameter of the fiber core, reducing differential mode delay.
Differential mode delay occurs when the laser couples onto a limited number of available
modes in the multi-mode fiber.
Fast Ethernet standards

The following table lists the Fast Ethernet standards and their specifications.
Standard
Medium
Distance
Notes
100BASE-TX
Twisted-pair
copper, CAT5
or above
100 meters per

network segment
Runs over two pairs: one pair of

twisted wires in each direction.
Single- or
multi-mode
fiber
400 meters for

half-duplex
Uses two strands: one for receiving

and one for transmitting.
2 km for fullduplex over MMF
Not compatible with 10BASE-FL.
100BASE-FX
The most common Fast Ethernet.
10BASE-T
The 10BASE-T standard has a peak transmission speed of 10 Mbps, using copper
twisted-pair cable. It can operate up to 100 meters. This standard was widely deployed
in the 1980s, using inexpensive and flexible twisted-pair cabling. It was easier to install
than previous Ethernet implementations that used coaxial cable.
Ethernet bonding
Ethernet bonding combines the bandwidth of two network interface cards as a costeffective way to increase the bandwidth available for data transfers for critical servers,
such as firewalls and production servers. Ethernet bonding can also provide fault
tolerance so that when one NIC fails, you can replace it without disabling client access
to the server.

Do it!
A-5:
Describing Ethernet standards
Questions
1 Which is the fastest Ethernet
standard?
2 Which Ethernet standards run

over fiber optic cables?
3 What type of cabling do most
current Ethernet networks use?
4 Which 10 Gigabit Ethernet
standard can run the longest
distance?
5 What type of cabling would you
use for a 1000BASE-T Ethernet
network?
6 Whats the difference between
100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T
cabling?
Answers
1327
Wireless LANs
Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology uses radio waves or infrared light instead of cables to
connect network nodes. Connections are made through a wireless NIC, which includes
an antenna to send and receive signals. WLANs are popular in places where networking
cables are difficult to install, such as outdoors or in historic buildings with wiring
restrictions, or where there are many mobile users, such as on a college campus.
Wireless devices can communicate directly (for example, a handheld device

communicating with a computer via an infrared connection), or they can connect to a
LAN by way of a wireless access point (WAP). Access points are placed so that nodes
can access at least one access point from anywhere in the covered area. When devices
use an access point, they communicate through it instead of communicating directly
with each other. Exhibit 13-13 illustrates a wired network with wireless segments.
Exhibit 13-13: Wired network with wireless segments

Benefits and drawbacks of wireless networks
The benefits of WLAN technology are many. The most obvious benefit is the increased
flexibility and mobility they provide. Employees can move freely around the
organization without disconnecting from the network. Examples of how wireless
networking can benefit an organization include the following:
Taking inventory is more convenient when employees can freely walk around
the warehouse or organization.
Portable devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and tablet PCs can be
used in hospital wards to track patients and doctor visits.
Mobile workers moving between offices, and telecommuters coming into the
office, can easily connect to the LAN from almost anywhere.
Online information is always available for research or retrieval.
Production on manufacturing shop floors can be readily evaluated.
A wireless network infrastructure can be moved to a new building more easily.
The cost of providing network access to buildings is substantially lowered.
Although WLANs have some obvious advantages in places where running cables would
be difficult or expensive, WLANs tend to be slower than wired networks, especially
when theyre busy. Another problem with WLANs is security. Companies are reluctant
to use them when its possible for an unauthorized person with a receiving device to
intercept wireless LAN transmissions. Security on a WLAN can be achieved by filtering
the MAC addresses of wireless NICs that are allowed to use the access point and by
encrypting data sent over the WLAN.
Do it!
A-6:
Describing wireless networking
Question
1 In wireless communications, what
replaces the wire?
2 What should you consider when
determining which wireless
technology to use?
Answer
1329
WAN bandwidth technologies

A wide area network (WAN) spans larger geographical distances and connects multiple
LANs together with high-speed communication lines, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-14.
Wide area networks expand the basic LAN model by linking LANs so they can
communicate with one another. By traditional definition, a LAN becomes a WAN
when you expand the network configuration beyond your own premises and (often)
must lease data communication lines from a public carrier. WANs support data
transmissions across public carriers by using facilities such as dial-up lines, dedicated
lines, or packet switching.
Exhibit 13-14: A wide area network (WAN)

Packet-switching vs. circuit-switching networks
In a packet-switching network, data are grouped into packets before being sent over a
shared network. The packets can contain a variety of data types, which are transmitted
together. During transmission, packets can be buffered and queued by network devices
such as network adapters, switches, and routers. This buffering and queuing can result in
transmission delays as the packets data travel from source to destination. LANs and the
Internet are examples of packet-switching networks.
In a circuit-switching network, a dedicated path is allocated for the transmission of data
between two network nodes. There is no buffering with circuit switching, so the transfer
moves at a non-stop rate. The path is unavailable for other data traffic until it is
released. PSTN and ISDN are examples of circuit-switching networks.
Circuit switching is the best choice when data needs to be transmitted quickly and must
arrive in the same order in which its sent, as with most real-time data (live audio and
video streams). Packet switching is more efficient for data that can withstand delays in
transmission, such as e-mail messages and Web pages.

WAN connections
There are several ways to create WAN connections, depending on location and available
hardware.
WAN connection
Description
Dial-up networking
(DUN)
Connections made by modem through regular, analog phone lines.
Virtual private
network (VPN)
A network connection that uses encryption and security protocols to

create a private network over a public network.
Digital Subscriber
Line (DSL)
High-speed connections made over regular analog phone lines.
Cable
Connections made over the same lines that carry cable television
signals.
Satellite
Connections made by sending signals to and receiving signals from

satellites in orbit around the earth.
Wireless
Connections made through infrared light or radio waves. Wireless

networks are often used to connect users in hotspots, where wireless
Internet service is provided by an employer, business, or
governmental unit, such as a city. Wireless connections can also be
made over cellular telephone networks or via satellite.
Cellular
Connections made through a cell phone or laptops cellular network

PC Card on a cellular phone network.
Faster WAN technologies are used to connect a small ISP or large business to a regional
ISP, and to connect a regional ISP to an Internet backbone. These technologies include
the following:
T lines and E lines
X.25 and frame relay
ATM
POTS/PSTN
The slowest but least expensive Internet connection to an ISP is affectionately known
as plain old telephone service (POTS). Also referred to as the public switched
telephone network (PSTN), its the network of the worlds public circuit-switched
telephone networks. Use of this network used to be a common method of home
connection, and it uses a dial-up system each time the connection to the ISP is made
over the telephone line, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-15. As the Exhibit illustrates, digital
data are converted to analog by the modem, then sent over the telephone system. At the
receiving end, the modem converts the data from analog back to digital. The
connection isnt continuous, and when the line isnt connected to an ISP, it can be used
for regular telephone service or any other telecommunications function. The maximum
data speed on a regular telephone line is 33.6 Kbps for uploading and 56 Kbps for
downloading.
A technology called modem bonding allows multiple dial-up links over POTS to be
combined for redundancy or increased throughput.
1331
Exhibit 13-15: Communication via POTS/PSTN

ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) technology also uses a telephone line to
transmit data, but unlike with POTS, the data isnt converted to analog form. Instead of
using a modem, as with POTS/PSTN, ISDN uses a terminal adapter.
An ISDN line is digital and consists of two data channels, both carried on one pair of
wires, along with a slower, third channel used for control signals. Each data channel can
transmit data at up to 64 Kbps, and the two channels can be combined to move data at a
speed of 128 Kbps. This configuration of an ISDN line is known as the basic rate
interface (BRI) and is intended for home and small-business users. Another, higher-cost
ISDN level of service is called primary rate interface (PRI) and is intended for larger
organizations. It has 23 data channels and a control channel over a T1 line.
The following table describes the different ISDN channels:
Channel
Description
B channel
(Bearer channel) The primary data or voice communication channel

that can transmit data at 64 Kbps in full duplex.
D channel
Channel for signaling and control information.
H channel
A high-speed data channel formed by bonding together multiple B

channels in a PRI.
DSL
A Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a high-speed data and voice transmission line that
still uses telephone wires for data transmission but carries the digital data at frequencies
well above those used for voice transmission. DSL uses a DSL transceiver (commonly
referred to as a DSL modem by laymen), a standard phone line coming into the
transceiver, and a USB or Ethernet RJ-45 connection to the computer. Voice and digital
data can be transmitted on the same line at the same time. The regular voice telephone
line must be dialed for each use, but the DSL part of the line is always connected to the
computer.
A typical DSL can transmit data at speeds up to 1.5 Mbps in both directions, or it can be
set up as an asymmetric line (ADSL), which can transmit up to 800 Kbps upstream (to
the ISP) and 8 Mbps downstream (from the ISP). Other variations of DSL include
Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL), with speeds up to 2.3 Mbps in both
directions; High-bit-rate DSL (HDSL), with speeds up to 1.5 Mbps in both directions;
and Very high-bit-rate DSL (VDSL), with speeds up to 52 Mbps downstream and 16

Mbps upstream. DSL Lite or G.Lite is a less expensive version of DSL for home and
business use. Using a DSL transceiver, it achieves speeds of up to 384 Kbps upstream
and 6 Mbps downstream.
Higher bandwidth can be achieved by bonding multiple DSL lines, similar to the
modem bonding technology described for POTS.
Cable
A cable modem connects to the cable television line thats already installed or available
in many homes. These devices are actually transceivers (transmitter/receivers), rather
than modems, but they are commonly known as cable modems. With a cable modem,
digital data is converted to analog signals and placed on the cable at the same time as
the incoming television signal. The modem converts incoming analog data signals into
digital data for the computer.
The data frequencies differ from the television signal frequencies, and the two signals
dont interfere with one another on the cable. Depending on the individual
configuration, a cable modem can transmit data at speeds of 500 Kbps to 50 Mbps. Its
important to note that you share the cables bandwidth with others on your network
segment. This segment is established by the cable company and is typically
neighborhood-sized. As the number of people accessing the Internet for your network
segment increases, the bandwidth available to you decreases. Also, because the
transmission medium is shared across a group of individuals, data that isnt sent using a
secure transmission method could be intercepted and read, posing a security risk.
Cable connections are illustrated in Exhibit 13-16.
Exhibit 13-16: Cable connections

When a modem isnt a modem
The term modem is sometimes used in inappropriate ways. The term is an abbreviation
of modulate/demodulate, which is a digital-to-analog (or vice-versa) conversion process.
Modems for use over telephone lines do just that. However, the term is sometimes
applied to cable and DSL (digital subscriber line) Internet connectivity devices.
Cable and DSL are digital media. There is no need to modulate and demodulate signals
sent over those lines.
1333
Thus, the connectivity devices you use with those media should not be called modems.
Technically, such devices are transceivers. However, most people still call them
modems, as in cable modem or DSL modem.
Satellite
A satellite-link Internet connection to an ISP is available nationwide. Its especially
attractive in rural areas where telephone-based services might be limited and cable
sometimes isnt available. A satellite communication link uses a dish, similar to a
satellite television dish, mounted on the building to communicate with a stationary
satellite in orbit. The server is connected to the dish antenna. Incoming Internet data
travels from the ISP to the satellite in orbit, and then down to the dish and into the LAN
server. The connection speed varies according to the ISP but can go up to 1.5 Mbps.
The uplink connection from the LAN to the ISP is sometimes made by a telephone
line/modem connection and isnt as fast as the satellite downlink. A digital radio signal
from the LAN up to the satellitewhich in turn sends the signal to the ISPis also
available. However, it costs much more than the telephone connection, which is usually
adequate for sent data.
Exhibit 13-17 illustrates how a satellite ISP sends data at high speed to LANs via a
stationary satellite and receives data from the LAN over a slower telephone/modem
line.
Exhibit 13-17: Satellite ISP configuration

Wireless
The term wireless refers to several technologies and systems that dont use cables for
communication, including public radio, cellular telephones, one-way paging, satellites,
infrared light, and private, proprietary radio. Because of the expense and the concern that
increasing the use of wireless technology might affect our health, airplane control
systems, pacemakers, and other similar items, wireless isnt as popular as wired data
transmission. However, wireless implementation is increasing considerably and is an
important technology for mobile devices and for Internet access in remote locations
where other methods arent an option.
For Internet access, two popular applications of wireless are:
Fixed-point wireless, sometimes called Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
Mobile wireless
Exhibit 13-18: A Wireless WAN

Cellular
All of the major cellular phone companies now provide Internet connection service for
their customers. Wherever you have cell phone reception, you can connect to the
Internet through your Internet-capable phone or laptop by using a cellular network PC
card. Cell phone companies typically charge an additional monthly fee for this service.
The connection speed for cellular Internet service is faster than dial-up, but slower than
DSL or cable. There are currently three connection technologies in use: Enhanced Data
rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), and HighSpeed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA).
Connection technology
Exhibit 13-19: Cellular Internet access through EDGE
1335
At the time this course was written, many cellular providers were promoting their 3G
and 4G networks. The 3G networks are wide-area cellular telephone networks that
evolved to incorporate high-speed Internet access and video telephony. The 3G standard
is based on the ITUs IMT-2000 standard and doesnt specify a standard data rate. It
typically provides a minimum speed of 2 Mbps and a maximum of 14.4 Mbps for
stationary users, and 348 Kbps in a moving vehicle. The 3G networks use EV-DO
technology.
The 4G networks are capable of speeds of 100 Mbps while moving and 1 Gbps
stationary.
The 4G standard is still in development, with the following goals:
More simultaneous users per cell, thus increasing network capacity
A minimum data rate of 100 Mbps between any two points in the world
Connectivity and roaming across multiple networks
High QoS (quality of service) for multimedia support: Multimedia Messaging
Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content, and Digital Video
Broadcasting (DVB)
Interoperability with existing wireless standards
Implementation as an all IP-packet-switched network
Access to 4G networks will be provided by such schemes as the following: Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA); Multi-carrier code division multiple access (MCCDMA); and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) schemes, such as
Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), and Interleaved
FDMA.
T lines and E lines
The first successful system that supported digitized voice transmission was introduced
in the 1960s and was called a T-carrier. A T-carrier works with a leased digital
communications line provided through a common carrier, such as BellSouth or AT&T.
Although it was originally intended for voice, the line also works with data. The system
has become a popular choice for Internet access for larger companies. The leased lines
are permanent connections that use multiplexing, a process of dividing a single channel
into multiple channels that can be used to carry voice, data, video, or other signals.
Several variations of T-carrier lines are available; the most popular are T1 and T3 lines.
Multiplexing allows a T1 line to carry 24 channels, and each channel can
transmit at 64 Kbps. A 24-channel T1 line can transmit a total of 1.544 Mbps. If
a T1 line is used for voice only, it can support 24 separate telephone lines, one
for each channel.
A T3 line can carry 672 channels, giving it a throughput of 44.736 Mbps.
T1 and T3 lines can be used by a business to support both voice and data, with some
channels allocated to each.
The E-carrier is the European equivalent of the American T-carrier. The E-carrier is a
digital transmission format devised by ITU. (See the ITU Web site at www.itu.int.) An
E1 line can transmit data at a rate of 2.048 Mbps, and an E3 line can work at speeds of
34.368 Mbps.
Both T-carriers and E-carriers use four wires: two for receiving and two for sending.
Originally, copper wires were used (telephone wiring), but digital signals require a
clearer connection.

Thus, other cabling, such as shielded twisted-pair wiring and fiber optic cabling,
became the preferred wire. The carriers on shielded twisted-pair wiring need repeaters
that can regenerate the signal every 6000 feet. Businesses with multiple T1 lines
generally use coaxial, fiber optic, or microwave cabling (a high-end, high-performance
cable that can support microwave frequencies). T3 lines require microwave or fiber
optic cabling.
A fractional T1 line is an option for organizations that dont need a full T1 line. The
fractional T1 allows businesses to lease some of the channels of a T1 line rather than
leasing all 24 channels. This arrangement is also good for businesses that expect to
grow into a T1 line eventually. Each T1 channel has a throughput of 64 Kbps, so a
fractional T1 can be leased in 64-Kbps increments.
Organizations can also choose to implement a fractional T3 line. The fractional T3 line
enables businesses to lease some of the channels of a T3 line in order to support higher
speeds. Each T3 channel has a throughput of 1.544 Mbps, so a fractional T3 line can be
leased in 1.544 Mbps increments.
X.25 and frame relay
Both X.25 and frame relay are packet-switching communication protocols designed for
long-distance data transmission, rather than the circuit-switching technology used by the
telephone system. Packet-switching technology divides data into packets and sends each
packet separately; its the technology used by the Internet. Each packet might be sent on
a different path. This technology works well because it can use the bandwidth more
efficiently.
Frame relay is based on X.25, but its a digital version, whereas X.25 is an analog
technology. Frame relay can run on T1 or T3 lines, thus giving it speeds of anywhere
from 64 Kbps to 44.736 Mbps, compared with X.25, which supports up to 56 Kbps.
X.25 was popular for about 20 years and was the most common packet-switching
technology used on WANs. Frame relay, which was standardized in 1984, has largely
replaced X.25.
Both X.25 and frame relay use a permanent virtual circuit (PVC). A PVC is a logical
connection between two nodes. PVCs arent dedicated lines, as the T-carriers are.
Rather, when you lease a PVC, you specify the nodes (two endpoints) and the amount
of bandwidth required, and the carrier reserves the right to send the data along any
number of paths between the two stationary endpoints. You then share the bandwidth
with other users who lease the X.25 or frame relay circuit.
The biggest advantage of X.25 and frame relay is that you have to pay for only the
amount of bandwidth you need. Frame relay is less expensive than newer technologies,
and it has worldwide standards already established. Both X.25 and frame relay use
shared lines, so throughput decreases as traffic increases.
Circuits for X.25 arent readily available in North America, but frame relay circuits can
be found easily. International businesses that communicate overseas might use frame
relay to connect offices.
1337
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a very fast network technology that can be used
with LANs as well as WANs. It uses fixed-length packets, called cells, to transmit data,
voice, video, and frame relay traffic. Each cell is 53 bytes: 48 bytes of data plus a 5-byte
header. The header contains the information needed to route the packet. All packets
used by ATM are 53 bytes, so its easy to determine the number of packets and the
traffic flow, and this helps utilize bandwidth efficiently.
ATMs also use virtual circuits, meaning that the two endpoints are stationary but the
paths between them can change. ATMs can use either PVCs or switched virtual circuits
(SVCs). SVCs are logical, point-to-point connections that depend on the ATM to decide
the best path along which to send the data. The routes are determined before the data is
even sent. In contrast, an Ethernet network transmits the data before determining the
route it takes; the routers and switches are responsible for deciding the paths.
ATMs achieve a throughput of 622 Mbps. This makes them popular for large LANs,
because theyre faster than Ethernet at 100 Mbps. An ATM network works best with
fiber optic cable, so it can attain high throughput. However, it also works with coaxial
or twisted-pair cable.

The following table compares a number of communication bandwidth technologies,
their common uses, and their speeds.
Technology
Maximum throughput
speed
Common uses and connection

type
POTS
Up to 56 Kbps
Home and small business access to an ISP.

Uses a modem and a standard phone line.
ISDN
64 Kbps to 128 Kbps
Medium-level home and business access to an

ISP. Uses a Network Terminal Interface
(NT1), terminal equipment (TE), and terminal
adapter (TA).
Digital Subscriber Line

(DSL)
Up to 1.5 Mbps
Home and business access to an ISP. Uses a

DSL transceiver, a standard phone line coming
into the transceiver, and a USB or Ethernet
RJ-45 connection to the computer.
DSL Lite or G.Lite
Up to 384 Kbps upstream;

up to 6 Mbps downstream
Less expensive version of DSL for home and

business access. Uses a DSL transceiver.
Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line
(ADSL)
8 Kbps upstream; up to 6.1

Mbps downstream
Home/business access, with the most

bandwidth from the ISP to the user. Uses an
ADSL transceiver.
Symmetric DSL
(SDSL)
1.544 Mbps
Home/business access, with equal bandwidth

in both directions. Uses a single line, separate
from your standard phone line.
High-bit-rate DSL
(HDSL)
1.5 Mbps
Home/business access. Uses two separate lines

in addition to your standard phone line.
Very high-bit-rate DSL

(VDSL)
Up to 52 Mbps downstream
and 16 Mbps upstream
Home/business access. Uses a VDSL

transceiver in your home, and a VDSL
gateway in the junction box.
Cable modem
512 Kbps to 5 Mbps
Home/business access to an ISP. Uses a cable

modem, an RG-59 cable going in, and an
Ethernet RJ-45, coax RG-58, or USB
connection to the computer or a router.
802.11a wireless
Up to 54 Mbps
Home/business access. Uses a wireless router

or wireless access point.
802.11b wireless
11 Mbps
Home/business LANs. Uses a wireless router

802.11g wireless
Up to 54 Mbps

802.11n wireless
Up to 300 Mbps in either the

5 GHz or 2.4 GHz band

Enhanced Data rates for

GSM Evolution
(EDGE)
200 Kbps
Used by cellular phone companies that use

Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM).
Evolution-Data
Optimized (EV-DO)
300 to 400 Kbps upstream;

400 to 700 Kbps downstream
Used by cellular phone companies that use

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).
1339
Technology
Maximum
throughput speed
Common uses and connection type
High-Speed
Downlink Packet
Access (HSDPA)
384 Kbps upstream; 3.6

Mbps or higher
downstream
Is not in widespread use by cellular phone

companies.
T1
1.544 Mbps
Shared leased-line access for businesses. Supports

both voice and data.
T3
44.736 Mbps
Shared leased-line access for businesses. Supports

both voice and data.
E1
2.048 Mbps
European equivalent of T1.
E3
34.368 Mbps
European equivalent of T3.
X.25
Up to 56 Kbps
Packet-switching communication designed for

long-distance data transmission.
Frame relay
Up to 1.544 Mbps
Digital version of X.25.
ATM
622 Mbps
Popular for WANs and LANs. Works with fiber

optic, twisted-pair, or coaxial cabling.
SONET
Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) is an ANSI-standard protocol for signal
transmission on optical networks. SONET was originally designed to transport data
traffic in circuit-switching networks, such as T1 and T3. It evolved to transport ATM
traffic. SONET can carry nearly any higher-level protocol (including IP). Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is the European counterpart to SONET.
The SONET standard is divided into categories based on a base signal (Synchronous
Transport Signal, or STS) and an optical carrier (OC) level. The following table lists the
various categories of SONET.
Signal
Rate
STS-1, OC-1
51.8 Mbps
STS-3, OC-3
155.5 Mbps
STS-12, OC-12
622.0 Mbps
STS-48, OC-48
2.48 Gbps
STS-192, OC-192
9.95 Gbps
STS-768, OC-768
39.81 Gbps

Voice over IP
Many cable companies now offer Voice over IP (VoIP) service, also known as digital
phone service, to their users. With VoIP, you can make telephone calls over a data
network such as the Internet. VoIP converts the analog signals from digital back to
voice at the other end so you can speak to anyone with a regular phone number.
Do it!
A-7:
Discussing WAN bandwidth technologies

1 Whats the difference between a T line and an E line?
2 How often is a repeater needed on a T line?
3 Whats a fractional T1 line?
4 Whats packet-switching technology?
5 Name two packet-switching technologies.
6 Whats ATM?
7 Whats a benefit of ATM?
1341
Small-office/home-office (SOHO)
In this day and age, you can assume that all small-office/home-office (SOHO) networks
are going to connect to the Internet in one way or another. The connection might be
used to browse the Web, communicate with customers through e-mail, or connect to a
private network at an office or school to check e-mail or transfer files. A SOHO can
connect to the Internet through an Internet service provider (ISP) and private networks
using any of the following methods:
POTS/PSTN
ISDN
DSL
Cable
Satellite
Wireless
Cellular
Bluetooth

Do it!
A-8:
Selecting a SOHO connection technology
Exercises
1 For each user, select the appropriate connection technology.
Susan is a salesperson who travels extensively. She needs to send and receive
communication with the home office and clients while in transit. Whats Susans
best choice for connection technology?
James is an architect who works out of his home in a mountainous region. James
must send and receive large CAD drawings to and from clients and builders. What
is Jamess best choice for connection technology?
Grace lives next to James in the Adirondack mountains. She is retired and uses
e-mail to communicate with her children and grandchildren all over the country.
Sometimes they send her digital pictures attached to the messages so she can see
the grandchildren. She occasionally uses her Web browser to look up information.
What is Graces best choice for connection technology?
Outlander Spices currently spends thousands of dollars a month for local and long
distance telephone service. Like most companies, they have high-speed Internet
connections to most locations. What connection technology could they use to
support their telephone needs and save money?
2 Describe the ways that the cellular telephone system can be used to make Internet
connections.
1343
Topic B: Wired network connections

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2

I/O interfaces
NIC
Modem
1.9

Communications
NIC
Modem
4.1

protocols
Status indicators
4.2

Cables
UTP (e.g., CAT3, CAT5/5e, CAT6)
STP
Fiber
Coaxial cable
Connectors
RJ45
RJ11
4.3

Dial-up
objective.
#
Objective
3.2

Connection types
Dial-up
Cable length

Fiber optic connectors
Explanation
Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable.
The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either
mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. A ferrule is a cap placed
over the end of an object to prevent splitting. For optical fiber, the ferrule is a
component of the connector. The purpose of a cable connector (ferrule) is to terminate
the end of the cable and allow for ease in connecting and disconnecting the cable from
network devices to avoid splicing. In addition to preventing splitting, it aligns the fiber
with the socket. Ferrules can be ceramic, plastic, or stainless steel. Fiber optic
connectors must be designed to connect and align the fibers cores so that light can pass
through correctly. The most common fiber optic connectors include:
ST (straight tip) connectors are the most popular connection type for fiber optic
cables. These come in a few varieties. One is a slotted bayonet with a 2.5 mm
cylindrical ferule that screws on to the cable. The drawback of this is that it can
cause scratches on the fiber. Another ST type is a feed-through mechanism in
which the cable passes through the connector.
SC (standard connector) connectors use a 2.5 mm ferrule that snaps into a
network device with a simple push/pull motion. Its standardized in TIA-568-A.
You might also hear SC connectors referred to as subscriber connectors or
square connectors.
LC (local connector) connectors are half the size of SC connectors with a 1.25
mm snap-in type ferrule. You might hear LC connectors referred to as Lucent
connectors.
Other less common fiber optic connectors include:
FC (fixed connection) connectors have been mostly replaced with SC and LC
connectors. The FC connector uses a 2.5 mm ferrule that is keyed to align in the
connection slot and then screw tightened.
MT-RJ (mechanical transfer registered jack) connectors are duplex connectors
with both fibers in a single ferrule. It has male and female (plug and jack)
connections, snaps in to connect, and uses pins for alignment. You may hear
these connectors incorrectly referred to as RJ-45.
FDDI connectors have two 2.5 mm ferrules with a fixed shroud covering the
ferrules. FDDI connectors snap-in and are generally used to connect network to
a wall connection.
Opti-jack connectors have two ST-type ferrules in a fixed shroud the size of a
twisted-pair RJ-45 connector. Like the MT-RJ connector, the Opti-jack
connector snaps-in and has both male and female connections.
MU connectors are snap-in connectors similar to SC connectors but with a 1.25
mm ferrule.
Volition connectors are made by 3M. They dont use a ferrule. Instead you align
fibers in a V-groove like a splice. It connects using a snap-in and comes in both
male and female connections.
LX-5 connectors use the same ferrule as the LC connector, but it includes a
shutter over the end of the fiber. It also connects using a snap-in.
Examples of the fiber optic connectors are shown in Exhibit 13-20.
Exhibit 13-20: Examples of some common fiber optic connectors

Do it!
B-1:
Discussing fiber optic connectors
1 What are the most common fiber optic connectors you might encounter?
2 Which connector type has been replaced by the SC and LC connectors?
3 Which connector has been incorrectly referred to as an RJ-45 connector?
4 Which connector is standardized in TIA-568-A?
1345

Twisted pair connectors
There are two common types of connectors used on unshielded twisted pair cabling
RJ-11 and RJ-45. The RJ in the jacks designation simply means Registered Jack,
and the number refers to the specific wiring pattern used for jacks and connectors.
Youll find RJ-11 connectors used for telephone and dial-up modem connections.
Twisted pair network cables use RJ-45 connectors, which look a lot like the RJ-11 snapin connectors except theyre larger. Examples of RJ-45 and RJ-11 cables are shown in
Exhibit 13-21.
Exhibit 13-21: RJ-45 connector at left and RJ-11 at right

The RJ-11 connector has a total of 6 connector pins. However, in an RJ-11 connector,
also referred to as a 6P2C connector, only 2 of the wires in the twisted pair cable are
actually used, thus the 6P (6 pins) 2C (2 wires) designation. They are connected to pins
3 and 4.
The RJ-45 connector attaches to eight wires. The jacks, with which the two types of
connectors mate, have corresponding conductor counts and are also different sizes. An
RJ-45 connector wont fit into an RJ-11 jack. The TIA/EIA-568-B standard defines two
wiring patterns for Ethernet CAT cabling: T568A and T568B. These standards specify
the pattern in which the color-coded wires in a twisted pair cable are connected to the
pins of the RJ-45 connector or the jack. Both are electrically identical, as long as you
use the same color pattern to connect both ends of a given cable. If youre consistent in
this, pin 1 at one end of the cable is always connected to pin 1 at the other end, and pin 2
on one end is connected to pin 2 on the other end, and so on, regardless of which of the
two color patterns you use.
If you hold an RJ-45 connector in your hand with the tab side down and the cable
opening towards you, the pins are numbered, from left to right, 1 through 8, as shown in
Exhibit 13-22. The pin numbers connect to the following colored wires in the cable for
T568A or T568B.
1347
Exhibit 13-22: The pin numbering of an RJ-45 connector

For the network youre working on, pick one standard and use it for all the wiring. It
doesnt matter which you choose. If you were to buy a pre-made CAT6 patch cable that
has been made to the other standard, it still works on the network because both ends of
the cable are wired to the same standard.
The RJ-48 connector provides the connection for shielded twisted-pair cabling. RJ-48 is
an 8P8C connector. Youll find it providing connections for T1 and ISDN services.
Straight-through, cross-over, and rollover cables
A straight-through cable is a TP cable where both ends follow either 568A or 568B
wiring standard. You use straight-through cables to connect computers to a hub or a
switch. This is in contrast to a cross-over TP cable where one end is wired using 568A
and the other using 568B. A cross-over cable lets you directly connect two computers
together. A rollover TP cable is used to connect a computers serial port to the console
port of a router or managed switch. Rollover cables are wired with the ends the reverse
of one another other:

End 1
End 2
Pin 1
Pin 8
Pin 2
Pin 7
Pin 3
Pin 6
Pin 4
Pin 5
Pin 5
Pin 4
Pin 6
Pin 3
Pin 7
Pin 2
Pin 8
Pin 1
Terminating CatX to RJ-45 connectors

To terminate CAT6 or similar cable to an RJ-45 connector, you must use an RJ-45
stripper/crimping tool, which can be purchased in a wide range of qualities and prices
from $10 to $90.
To terminate a CAT6 or similar cable:
1 Remove about 1-1/2 inches of jacket from the cable. If you arent using a feedthru connector, you need to trim the exposed wire pairs down to only 3/8 - 1/2
inch of un-twisted wire required by the connector.
2 Untwist the full length of the exposed wire pairs.
3 Place the cable end on to the connector and arrange the wires into the slots on
the connector using the color code for T568A or T568B.
The jacketed portion of the cable must go all the way up into the connector.
Dont leave any of the twisted wires in the cable exposed without a jacket
covering them.
4 Using the stripper/crimper tool, press the tools bit down on to the terminal with
the side of the bit that cuts the wire pointed to the outside of the connector.
5 Press down on the tool to compress the spring until the tool hammers down the
wire into the terminals slot. At the same time, the hammer action drives down
the cutting edge of the bit to terminate and cut the wires.
Exhibit 13-23: Terminating cable to an RJ-45 plug
1349

Do it!
B-2:
Examining twisted-pair connectors
Heres how
Heres why
1 Locate a segment of twisted-pair cabling

2 Verify that it has an RJ-45
connector
3 If the connector is clear, examine
the color of each wire to the pins
What T568 standard is being
used?
RJ-45 has eight wires, whereas RJ-11 has only

six.
1351
Coaxial connections
Thinnet (RG-58) cables connect to the computer with a BNC barrel connector. The
standard BNC is considered a 2-pin connectorpin 1 is the center conductor which
carries the data signal, and pin 2 is the tinned copper braid which provides the ground.
Segments of coax cable for networks are connected with T-connectors. The end of the
line ends in a terminator, which is needed to keep the signal from reflecting back down
the cable and corrupting data. Examples of these connectors are shown in Exhibit 13-24.
Exhibit 13-24: Coax cable connectors

RG-6 and RG-59 cables are typically fitted with F-connectors. The F-connector uses the
solid conductor (center wire) of the coaxial cable as the pin of the male connector, as
shown in Exhibit 13-25. The male connector can be crimped or screwed onto the coax
cables outer braid.
Exhibit 13-25: An F-connector

Terminating coax to BNC connectors
To terminate coaxial thinnet cable to a BNC connector, you should have a cable stripper
and a BNC crimper. Youll use the BNC crimper twice in the connection process. The
first time is to crimp the BNC pin to the main conductor. The second time is to crimp
the collar over the outer insulation. Some people try to make the crimp using a pair of
pliers, but it works best if you use an actual crimping tool. Getting a good quality crimp
can be the difference between a connector that works and one that doesnt.
Exhibit 13-26: A BNC cable connector

Thicknet cables connect to computers through a vampire tap. The name comes from the
fact that the tap contains metal spikes, which penetrate the cable to make the connection
within the layers. A transceiver device is then connected to the cable and to the
computer or other network device via an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) port or a DIX
connector. A Thicknet vampire tap connector is shown in Exhibit 13-27. AUI is a 15-pin
connector.
Exhibit 13-27: Thicknet vampire tap

Do it!
B-3:
Examining coaxial connectors
Heres how
1 Locate a network coaxial cable
Locate a cable television coaxial
cable
2 What type of connector is
attached to each cable?
Heres why
1353
Network adapter
A network adapter, also referred to as a network board or Network Interface Card
(NIC), provides a communication channel between your computers motherboard and
the network. The function of a NIC is to send and receive information from the system
bus in parallel and to send and receive information from the network in series. The NIC
also converts the data that it receives from the system into a signal thats appropriate to
the network. For an Ethernet card, this means converting the data from the 5-volt signal
used on the computers motherboard into the voltage used by UTP cables. The
component on the NIC that makes this conversion is a transceiver.
In most cases, the NIC is an adapter card that plugs into one of the expansion slots that
most PCs have on their motherboards or attaches to the computer through an external
port, such as a USB 2.0 or IEEE 1394 (sometimes referred to as FireWire) port. The
NIC has one or more ports built into it that are used to connect the NIC and its computer
to a network using a cable that plugs into the port or wireless radio waves. The type of
connector on the card varies with the type of network medium being used, as shown in
Exhibit 13-28.
Exhibit 13-28: Examples of NICs for different network media

Most new network adapter cards youll install will be PCI or PCIe Ethernet cards with
an RJ-45 port to connect to unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling. A NIC might have
ports that can accept more than one type of cable connection. For example, on the ISA
(Industry Standard Architecture) Ethernet card pictured in Exhibit 13-29, it has two
transceiversone to convert data into the appropriate voltage for UTP and a second to
convert data for thinnet coaxial cable.
Exhibit 13-29: An Ethernet combo NIC

Notebook computers
Network adapters are standard equipment on notebook computers now. They used to be
PC Cards that you added to a computer. Now theyre typically built into the notebook
computer. 10/100BASE-T Ethernet or 10/100/1000 Gigabit Ethernet cards are the
network adapters found in most cases, along with a wireless n or g adapter. For
notebooks without a built-in network adapter, PCMCIA adapters, also called PC Card
adapters, are most common. These cards are relatively simple to install. Usually when a
PC Card NIC is inserted in the slot, the system recognizes it and loads the appropriate
drivers, or the OS prompts you for the driver location. Most PC Cards are hot
swappablemeaning you dont need to power down the computer to insert or remove
them.
NIC selection
When selecting a NIC, its critical to match it with the following:
The network architecture to which it connects
If wired, the specific type of cable connection it uses; if wireless, the standard it
uses (802.11a/b/g/n)
The type of slot in the computer (PCI or ISA) in which its installed
All internal cards for desktop systems are PCI cards at this point. If youre supporting
older equipment, you might encounter some ISA or EISA cards in which you need to
configure the IRQ, DMA, and I/O addresses. A utility from the manufacturer is used to
configure the settings on those cards.
1355
Status indicators
Most networking devices, including NICs, have status indicator lights that you can
observe to see if the device is working. Typically, there is a solid link light if the device
sees a compatible networking device. An activity light flashes when data is being sent
or received. Some NICs have a single light that indicates both. If these lights arent
illuminating, you should check the configuration of the card to see if thats the problem.
You can do so through Device Manager.
The network card should be listed in Device Manager without any error or warning
icons. In Exhibit 13-30, the LAN network card is reported as functioning, but the
wireless adapter is reported as disabled.
Exhibit 13-30: Device Manager displaying the status of NICs

The General tab of the NIC cards Properties dialog box also displays the devices
status. As shown in Exhibit 13-31, the status should be, This device is working
properly.
Exhibit 13-31: Device status in a NICs Properties dialog box

Do it!
B-4:
Examining your NIC
Heres how
Heres why
1 Examine the ports on your

computers NIC
What types of ports are there?
Most network adapter cards will be PCI Ethernet

cards with an RJ-45 port to connect to UTP
cabling.
2 If the computer is not turned on,

boot it and log in as your
COMPADMIN## user
As you boot the computer and
Windows loads, observe the status
indicator lights on your NIC
The lights will flash when data is being sent or

received. Youll also probably see a green light
indicating that theres a working connection to
the network.
Manage
Click Continue
4 In the navigation pane, under
System Tools, select Device
Manager
5 Expand Network Adapters

Your network card should be listed in Device
Manager without any error or warning icons.
6 Right-click your network adapter

card and choose Properties
The dialog box should state that the device is

working properly.
7 Click Cancel
Close Computer Management
To close the Properties dialog box.
1357
Modems
As you learned previously, modems are devices that enable you to connect your
computer to another computer through a phone line. A modem can be an external device
(Exhibit 13-32) connected to a USB or serial port. It can also be a modem card (Exhibit
13-33) using PCI slot, or in older computers, an ISA slot. The modem in the sending
computer must convert the digital signals within the computer to analog signals that are
compatible with the phone system. The receiving modem must convert analog signals to
digital signals.
Exhibit 13-32: Actiontec USB/Serial 56K External Modem
Exhibit 13-33: A Mach2 56K PCI modem card

Modulation and demodulation
Computers are digital, and regular phone lines are analog. Data stored inside a PC is
communicated to a modem as binary, or digital, data (0s and 1s). A modem converts this
data into an analog signal, in a process called modulation, which can travel over a phone
line. The modem at the receiving end converts the signal back to digital data, in a
process called demodulation, before passing it on to the receiving PC. The two
processes of MOdulation/DEModulation lead to the name of the device: modem.
Exhibit 13-34: Modems convert digital signals to analog and then back to digital
Sound traveling over regular phone lines is transmitted as analog signals. PC data must
be converted from two simple states or measurements, 0 and 1, or off and on, to waves,
like sound waves, that have a potentially infinite number of states or measurements.
Modems use different characteristics of waves to correspond to the zeros and ones of
digital communication.
On a PC, the modem provides a connection for a regular phone linean RJ-11
connectionwhich is the same type of connection that you see for a regular phone wall
outlet (Exhibit 13-35). In addition to a line-in connection from the wall outlet, a modem
usually has an RJ-11 connection for a telephone.
Exhibit 13-35: RJ-11 connection on a modem

Modems must perform some basic core functions. These include modulating and
demodulating the signal, as well as interfacing with the operating system. This latter
function includes things like error correction, compression, command set interpretation,
and so forth. This can be done strictly through hardware or can be accomplished using
software installed on the computer.
A modem must be able to both receive and transmit data. Communication in which
transmission can occur in only one direction at a time is called half-duplex; an example
of this type of communication is a CB radio. A modem that can communicate in only
one direction at a time is called a half-duplex modem. Communication that allows
transmission in both directions at the same time is called full-duplex, a regular voice
phone conversation is an example of full-duplex communication. If a modem can
communicate in both directions at the same time, it is a full-duplex modem. Most
modems today are full-duplex.
Do it!
B-5:
1359
Examining your modem
Heres how
Heres why
1 Examine the ports on your

computers modem card
What types of ports are available?
2 Does your modem include status

indicator lights similar to those on
your NIC?
Your modem provides a connection for a regular

phone linean RJ-11 connectionwhich is the
same type of connection used in a regular phone
wall outlet. The modem might also have an RJ11 connection for a telephone.
Some modems include a status indicator light.
3 Open Device Manager and view

your modem
It should be listed in Device Manager without
any error or warning icons.
4 View the devices status
It should show that the device is working

properly.
5 Click Cancel
Close Computer Management
Topic C: Basic internetworking devices

exam objective.
#
Objective
4.1

protocols
Hub, switch, router
5.2
Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies

Software firewall
objective.
#
Objective
3.2

Connection types
Firewall
Basics of hardware and software firewall configuration
Internetworking devices
Internetworking can be defined as the technology and devices by which computers can
communicate across networks. To connect computers together in a network, you need
connection devices, in addition to network interface cards or modems and cabling. In
this topic, youll look at three common internetworking devices: the hub, the switch, and
the router.
Common physical network topologies

The design of a networks wiring or radio wave connections is called its physical
topology. Its helpful to think of a topology as a shape. Common network topologies
include the star, bus, ring, and mesh. The computers in a physical topology are
connected using various internetworking devices, such as hubs, switches, and routers.
The star topology
In a star topology, each node is connected to a central network connectivity device, such
as a hub or a switch. This device then distributes the information packets it receives to
the stars nodes. As shown in Exhibit 13-36, in a star topology, each node has its own
wired or wireless connection to the hub.
1361
The benefit of the star design is that because each node has its own connection to the
central network connectivity device, when a single connection fails, it doesnt affect the
communication ability of other nodes connected to the same central device. However, if
the central device fails, all of the nodes connected to it will no longer be able to
communicate on the network. Currently the star design is the most popular LAN
physical topology.
Exhibit 13-36: A star topology

The bus topology
In a bus topology, each node is connected to the next by a direct line so that a
continuous line is formed, as shown in Exhibit 13-37. Theres no central point in this
arrangement. Each node is simply connected to the next one on either side of it. The bus
design incorporates coaxial cable and T connectors to connect the individual computers
to the bus. When the end of the line is reached and there are no further nodes to be
connected, the bus is closed off with a terminator device specific to the cabling used.
In an Ethernet bus, data is sent on the network line in both directions from the source
node. The data passes from one node to the next until it reaches the terminator at the end
of the network. The terminator absorbs the data signal, so it cant reflect back on the
network line and head back to the node it just came from. All information on the
network passes through each node but does so only once. Theres no replication or
broadcasting of data as in a star topology. Each node determines whether data it receives
is addressed to it. If it is, the data is read and receipt is confirmed.
The benefit of a bus topology is that its simple and inexpensive to set up. However, if
theres a break in the line anywhere, all communication on that segment stops. The
technology used is also not very scalable. Currently the bus design isnt used much in
LAN physical topologies.
Exhibit 13-37: A bus topology

The ring topology
In a ring topology, each node is connected to two nodes on either side of it so that all
nodes form a continuous loop, as shown in Exhibit 13-38. Communication is enabled by
passing a token around the ring to each nodeif a node has the token, it can transmit
data. The token packet is always present somewhere on the network.
An FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) network is an example of a dual-ring
topology. The nodes are physically connected by two rings for redundancy. FDDI
networks send data in a clockwise direction on one physical ring and in a
counterclockwise direction on the other ring so that a cable problem doesnt stop all
communication to the nodes.
Exhibit 13-38: A ring topology

Token Ring networks are physically set up in a physical star topology, but they use a
networking device called a multistation access unit (MSAU) to create a ring electrically
for data. (The MSAU is sometimes referred to as a MAU.) Each node is connected to
the MSAU by two pairs of wires. The token packet travels from the MSAU up one
connecting wire to a node and back to the MSAU through the other wire, and then up
one wire to the next node and back through the other wire. The token packet passes
through the MSAU after each node, and after passing through all of them and returning
to the MSAU, it travels through the main ring cable back to its starting point at the other
end of the central device. The token packet travels in a circle or ring on the network in a
single direction, even though the nodes are physically arranged as a star.
1363
The mesh topology

In a mesh topology, all nodes in the mesh have independent connections to all other
nodes in the mesh. This configuration makes it very fault tolerant and scalable. Mesh
topologies require computers to have multiple network cards, and are rarely used for
user computers due to the complexity of wiring and support. Youll most often find the
mesh topology connecting wide-area or campus links, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-39.
Exhibit 13-39: A mesh topology

Most mesh topologies arent fully meshed due to the cost. More common is a partial
mesh topology with some redundant links, but not all nodes are directly connected to all
other nodes.

The hybrid topology
In a hybrid network topology, two or more types of network topologies are combined
into one network. For example, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-40, a campus-wide network
might use a combination mesh topology between the buildings and use a star topology
with nodes connected to hubs within the buildings.
Exhibit 13-40: Combined mesh and star Ethernet design

Do it!
C-1:
Describing physical network topologies

1 Which physical network topologies make use of a central networking device?
2 Which physical network topology has the benefit that its simple and inexpensive
to set up?
3 In which physical network topology does all communication on that segment stop
if theres a break in the line anywhere?
4 Which physical network topology is most fault-tolerant and scalable?
5 Whats the benefit of the hybrid network physical topology?
1365
Ethernet hubs
To connect computers together in a network, in addition to cabling, connection devices
are also necessary. These vary depending on the transport protocol used.
When wiring Ethernet in a star topology, it is necessary to use a device that will take
the signal transmitted from one computer and propagate it to all the other computers on
the network. This device is called an Ethernet hub.
A hub is a network device that can be used to connect network devices. An example of a
hub is shown in Exhibit 13-41. A hub is generally inexpensive and is best suited for a
small, simple network. These devices can include computers, servers, or printers.
Exhibit 13-41: A hub

When a computer transmits a packet on the network in Exhibit 13-42, the packet is
received by the hub. When a hub receives the packet, it regenerates it, and sends it out to
every port except the one on which it was received. Each computer receives the packet
and looks at the destination MAC address. If the destination MAC address does not
match the MAC address of the receiving network card, the packet is ignored. If the
destination MAC address does match the MAC address of the network card, the packet
is passed up to the protocol stack, usually to the IP protocol.
Exhibit 13-42: Data traffic through a hub

A hub operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model. The Physical layer of the OSI
model is responsible for media characteristics and electrical signaling. A hub looks at
each electrical signal as it is received and regenerates it. Regenerating each signal
allows it to travel the full distance allowed by the media type. For instance, twisted-pair
cabling is capable of carrying an electrical signal 100 m before the signal attenuates so
much that it cannot be understood by the receiving computer. If a hub is used at 100m,
then the signal can travel another 100 m before becoming unreadable.
Because a hub deals only with electrical signals, it cannot perform tasks that require an
understanding of an entire packet of information. Consequently it cannot direct packets
to a particular location because it does not understand MAC addresses or IP addresses.
Hubs are easy to configure because they broadcast data packets to every device at once.
Think of a hub as just a pass-through and distribution point for every device connected
to it. The hub does not pay attention to the kind of data passing through it, nor to where
the data might be going. For this reason, a hub can generate a lot of unnecessary traffic
on a LAN, which can result in slow performance when a lot of nodes are connected to a
hub.
All of the computers connected to a hub, or a series of hubs, belong to the same
collision domain. In a large network, this results in a significant degradation of network
throughput due to many collisions.
1367
When a signal passes through a hub, it takes a small amount of time for the signal to be
regenerated. The time lag, or delay, between receiving the signal and sending it out
again is called latency. When many hubs are linked, a high level of latency is introduced
for packets traveling from one end of the collision domain to the other, and the carrier
sense portion of CSMA/CD becomes unreliable. When the latency is too high, the
number of collisions will increase because a computer at one end of the collision
domain can begin sending a packet while another computer at the other end is sending a
packet at the same time. A collision is the result.
There are several types of hubs on the market, of which the important ones are of four
types. Each has features of its own, but just about any combination of these feature sets
can be found in a single hybrid device. When purchasing a hub, make sure to perform
sufficient research to get a combination of necessary features.
Passive hubsA passive hub takes incoming electrical signals on one port and
passes them down the cable on its other ports
Active hubsActive hubs repair weak signals by actually retransmitting the
data with proper transmission voltage and current. This essentially resets the
cable length limitations for each port on the hub.
Switching hubsA switching hub takes an incoming packet of data and
actually looks inside at the destination hardware address. Then instead of
rebroadcasting this packet on all the ports, the hub sends the packet out to only
the port connected to the destination machine. Switching hubs can also make
changes in transmission speeds.
Intelligent hubsAn intelligent hub might have management features that help
it to report on traffic statistics, retransmission errors, or port
connects/disconnects. These hubs might have advanced features, such as built-in
routing or bridging functions.
Layer 2 switches
The term Layer 2 switch (also known as an Ethernet switch or simply switch) is
generally a more modern term for multiport bridge. Switches operate at the data link
layer of the OSI model. This means that they are capable of performing tasks that deal
with full packets of data and MAC addresses.
A switch connects devices like a hub, but learns MAC addresses and uses them to make
forwarding and filtering decisions. When a switch is first turned on, its not configured
with any information about which computers are connected to what ports. When a
switch doesnt know where to deliver a packet, it is delivered to all ports. Therefore, in
the first few moments of operation, it functions very much like a hub, in that it will
forward each packet received to every port except the one from which the packet came.
Broadcast packets are always forwarded to all ports.
As each packet is processed by the switch, the switch tracks the source MAC address of
the packet and the port on which it was received. In this way, the switch eventually
builds a list that contains the location of each computer on the network. Based on this
list, the switch forwards packets only to the relevant port. This enhances network
throughput by reducing traffic on the overall network.

A major limitation of hubs is their lack of scalability at higher speeds. When only one or
two hubs can be linked together then the network must remain quite small. Switches
expand the network by creating separate collision domains on each port. When a switch
receives a packet, it is buffered in the memory of the switch. This allows the switch to
resend the packet if there is a collision. Many switches can be linked, or many hubs can
be linked to a single switch, as shown in Exhibit 13-43. Switches are also capable of
connecting dissimilar network architectures, such as Ethernet and wireless.
Exhibit 13-43: Configurations for switched networks

Switches can operate at full-duplex. The internal speed of a switch is much faster than
the individual ports. For instance, a switch with 24 100 Mbps ports will have a
backplane speed of 2 Gbps or faster. This allows multiple computers to communicate
through the switch at their full link speed.
When you link multiple switches, ensure that there are not any segments that will act as
bottlenecks. To do this, make sure that all segments of your backbone run at a faster
speed than links to the individual workstations or servers. Exhibit 13-44 shows a
switched network with bottlenecks.
Exhibit 13-44: Switched network with bottlenecks

Exhibit 13-45 shows a switched network without bottlenecks.
Exhibit 13-45: Switched network without bottlenecks
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A switch has several benefits over a hub:
Each port on a switch is a separate collision domain allowing the division of
large networks and a reduction in the number of collisions.
In addition, a switch is capable of directing traffic only to the port to which the
destination computer is attached, which reduces overall levels of network traffic.
Switches are also capable of connecting dissimilar network architectures, such
as Ethernet and wireless.
Switches are capable of port-based authentication, which restricts unauthorized
clients from connecting to a LAN through publicly accessible ports.
Routers
As networks become more complex, you need an internetworking device that provides
control of the flow of traffic. Routers open the MAC (Media Access Control) layer
envelope and looks at the contents of the packet delivered at the MAC layer. The
contents of the MAC layer envelope are used to make routing decisions. The router
provides a port of entry that can control entrance and exit of traffic to and from the
subnet. This segmentation is vital in organizations that rely on department-level network
management. It also improves security and reduces congestion across the internetwork.
As shown in Exhibit 13-46, you can segment an extended internetwork into manageable,
logical subnets by using routers.
Exhibit 13-46: Routing between network segments
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When a router receives a packet, it will generally forward it to the appropriate network
based on a table maintained in the router. There are two types of tables:
A static table is maintained by a system manager and is updated manually as the
network is modified.
A dynamic table is updated automatically as routers converse among themselves,
by using a common routing protocol.
The additional intelligence of routers provides for multiple (redundant) paths between
locations, which provide both backup and the ability to do load balancing, and makes
full use of available bandwidth.
Some key points to know about routers include:
A router connects two or more subnetworks.
A router might be configured to support a single protocol or multiple protocols.
A router will only process packets contained in frames specifically addressing it
as a destination.
Packets destined for a locally connected subnetwork are passed to that network.
Packets destined for a remote subnetwork are passed to the next router in the
path.
A router that exists in the same subnet as a host can be configured as a default
gateway.
Note: The term gateway is also used to refer to a network device used to connect
dissimilar systems or protocols.
Network address translation

Network address translation (NAT) devices correlate internal (usually private addresses)
and external addresses (usually public addresses). A SOHO network might have just a
single IP address on the Internet, but dozens of private (internal) IP addresses. All
Internet communications will appear to come from that single public IP address. The
NAT router makes sure that inbound and outbound packets arrive at the correct
destination. Unless an internal system has initiated a communication session, its more
difficult for external devices to find or communicate with internal devices due to the
translated network addressing scheme, but its not entirely hack-proof.
There are a couple of good reasons to use NAT:
Availability of addresses The American Registry for Internet Numbers
(ARIN) regulates and assigns IP addresses that can be used directly on the
Internet. Companies must apply and pay for the use of address ranges, and
typically must justify the addresses they request. Rather than going through the
trouble for every new block of network devices they add, companies use a
private range of addresses within their network.
Security By using private addresses within the company, network
administrators make it more difficult for hackers and automated malware on the
Internet to discover and compromise internal systems.
In the SOHO environment, a cable or DSL modem or router might provides NAT
functionality to map internal addresses to one or more IP addresses assigned by the
Internet service provider. In a corporate environment, routers, firewalls, or other devices
provide large-scale address translation services.

Firewalls and proxy servers
A firewall is software or hardware used to control information thats sent and received
from outside the network. The firewall resides on the networks gateway, which is the
connection point between the internal network and outside communication. Firewalls
examine the contents of network traffic and permit or block transmission based on
access control list (ACL) rules. The firewall ensures that all communication received
from outside users and computers is legitimate. A firewall can be installed on several
types of gateways, including routers, servers, computers, and standalone appliances.
A good firewall solution is a hardware firewall that stands between a LAN and the
Internet, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-47. A hardware firewall is ideal for a home network
consisting of two or more computers because it protects the entire network. For most
home and small-office LANs that connect to the Internet through a single cable modem
or DSL converter, a broadband router is used as a hardware firewall. You can buy a
broadband router with enough ports to connect several computers and perhaps a network
printer to it. Some broadband routers also serve double duty as wireless access points for
the network, DHCP server, and proxy server. The broadband router connects directly to
the cable modem or DSL converter. Note that some DSL devices are also broadband
routers and include embedded firewall firmware.
Exhibit 13-47: A hardware firewall

Starting with Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, Microsoft includes Windows Enhanced
Firewall with its client operating systems. Unlike most firewalls, Windows Firewall can
be configured to block only incoming network traffic on your computer. All outgoing
network traffic is allowed to travel, unrestricted, from your computer to its destination.
Windows Firewall offers new features, such as allowing incoming network connections
based on software or services running on a users computer, and blocking network
connections based on the source (the Internet, your local area network, or a specific
range of IP addresses). By default, Windows Firewall is turned on.
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Software firewalls include those bundled with Windows 7, Vista and XP, as well as
third-party applications, such as Zone Alarm. A software firewall on a local PC can also
prevent the spread of worms that transmit themselves to open ports on other PCs.
At their core, all firewalls protect networks by using some combination of the following
techniques:
NAT (network address translation)
Basic packet filtering
Stateful packet inspection (SPI)
Basic firewalls use only one technique, usually NAT, but firewalls that are more
comprehensive use all of the techniques combined. Of course, as you add features,
complexity and cost increase.
Stateless packet filters examine IP addresses and ports to determine whether a packet
should be passed on or forwarded. Stateful packet filters monitor outbound and inbound
traffic by watching addresses, ports, and connection data. Each time an internal client
makes an external request, its IP address is placed in a connection table. When the
stateful packet filter receives a communication from an external source, it attempts to
match the communication with the entries in the connection table. If the packet is part of
an existing communication stream initiated by an internal client, the packet is allowed
through. If not, the packet is dropped.
Some more advanced firewalls understand the data contained in packets and thus can
enforce more complex rules. For example, a firewall might determine that an inbound
packet is carrying an HTTP (Web) request and is going to a permitted address and port.
Such a packet would be transmitted. Packets carrying other protocols or going to other
addresses might be blocked.

Proxy servers
A proxy server is a type of server that services requests on behalf of clients. With a
proxy server, a clients request is not actually sent to the remote host. Instead, it goes to
the proxy server, which then sends the request to the remote node on behalf of the client
as shown in Exhibit 13-48. Before sending the packet, the proxy server replaces the
original senders address and other identifying information with its own. When the
response arrives, the proxy server looks up the original sending computers information,
updates the incoming packet, and forwards it to the client.
Exhibit 13-48: A proxy server used as a firewall

By these actions, a proxy server masks internal IP addresses, as a NAT device does. It
also blocks unwanted inbound trafficthere will be no corresponding outbound
connection data in its tables, so the packets will be dropped. Many proxy servers also
provide caching functions. The contents of popular Web pages, for example, could be
saved on the proxy server and served from there, rather than by sending requests out
across a WAN link, thus reducing WAN traffic.
Do it!
C-2:
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Differentiating between basic internetworking

devices

1 You have a large Ethernet network that uses hubs. Data traffic is slowing the
network down. What might be a better connection option?
2 You want to reduces congestion across the your network. Which internetwork
device would you use?
3 Hubs are used for what type of network?
Unit summary: Connecting computers

Topic A
In this topic, you described the basic components of a network. You identified the
components that are required for a local area network, and learned about the difference
between a node and a host. You also learned about peer-to-peer and client/server
networks, and how each model works. You then identified the various types of
cablesfiber optic, UTP, STP, and coaxialused in LANs. You also learned how
computers are networked together in the most common network architecture, Ethernet.
You then examined how computers can be added to a network through wireless
connections. Finally, you learned about WAN technologies.
Topic B
In this topic, you compared the various wired network connections, the features of each
cable type, their data speed ratings, and the connectors they use. You also learned about
the special characteristics needed for plenum wiring. You then examined the different
types of NICs and how they differ between desktop and notebook computers. In
addition, you learned about modems and how they work.
Topic C
In this topic, you differentiated between three basic internetworking devices: Ethernet
hubs, routers, and switches. You learned that Ethernet hubs are used to wire network
devices into a star topology. Routers are used to connect network segments and to
create smaller, more manageable subnetworks out of a large network. Switches are used
to connect two networks and make them function as one.
Review questions
1 Which type of network is defined as a specifically designed configuration of
computers and other devices located within a confined area?
A Peer-to-peer network
B Local area network
C Client/server network
D Wide area network
2 In which type of network does each host on the LAN have the same authority as the
other hosts?
D Wide area network
3 Which type of network requires a network operating system (NOS)?
D Wide area network
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4 A network device with an address that can be accessed to send or receive

information is called a __________.
A LAN
B Node
C Workstation
5 Which network medium carries light-based data through strands of glass or plastic
no thicker than a human hair?
A Coaxial
B Twisted pair
C Fiber optic
D Wireless
6 Which network medium is composed of four pairs of wires, where the pairs are
twisted together and bundled within a covering?
A Coaxial
B Twisted pair
C Fiber optic
D Wireless
7 Which network medium contains a layer of braided wire or foil between the core
and the outside insulating layer, plus another layer of plastic or rubberized material
that separates the central core from the shielding layer?
A Coaxial
B Twisted pair
C Fiber optic
D Wireless
8 Which network medium is a popular choice for outdoors or in historic buildings?
A Coaxial
B Twisted pair
C Fiber optic
D Wireless
9 Fiber optic cabling is often used as the ____________ for networks.
Backbone
10 _____________ cable has the best wiring value and expansion capability.
Composite

11 Which type of coaxial cable is used for low-power video and RF signal
connections?
A RG-6
B RG-8
C RG-11
D RG-58
E RG-59
12 Which of the following are Thicknet cables? [Choose all that apply.]
A RG-6
B RG-8
C RG-11
D RG-58
E RG-59
13 Which connectors can be used with fiber optic network cabling? [Choose all that
apply.]
A FDDI
B ST
C RJ-45
D BNC
14 Which Ethernet standard is the fastest?
A Twisted Pair Ethernet
B Fast Ethernet
C Gigabyte Ethernet
D 10GbE
15 Which Ethernet standards designate fiber optic cabling as the required medium?
A BASE-CX
B BASE-R
C BASE-T
D BASE-W
E BASE-X
16 In a WLAN, the wireless NIC allows nodes to communicate over ____________
distances, using radio waves, which it sends to and receives from the hub.
Short
17 True or false? A LAN becomes a WAN when you expand the network
configuration beyond your own premises and must lease data communication lines
from a public carrier.
True
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18 Which WAN connection technology uses encryption and security protocols to

create a private network over a public network?
A Cable
B Cellular
C DSL
D DUN
E Satellite
F VPN
G Wireless
19 Which WAN connection technology uses high-speed connections made over regular
analog phone lines?
A Cable
B Cellular
C DSL
D DUN
E Satellite
F VPN
G Wireless
20 Which WAN connection technology is shown in the following graphic?
A Cellular
B DSL
C ISDN
D POTS/PSTN

21 Which WAN connection technology currently uses Enhanced Data rates for GSM
Evolution (EDGE), Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), or High-Speed Downlink
Packet Access (HSDPA)?
A Cable
B Cellular
C DSL
D DUN
E Satellite
F VPN
G Wireless
22 Which WAN technology is used to connect a small ISP or large business to a
regional ISP, and connect a regional ISP to an Internet backbone, and uses fixedlength packets to transmit data, voice, video, and frame relay traffic?
A ATM
B E1/E3
C Frame relay
D T1/T3
E X.25
23 Which categories of UTP cabling can be used in Gigabit Ethernet networks?
A CAT 1
B CAT 2
C CAT 3
D CAT 4
E CAT 6e
F CAT 7
G CAT7a
24 The diameter of fiber optic cable is expressed in which measurement?
A Centimeters
B Microns
C Millimeters
D Ohms
25 ________-mode fiber optic cable is used mostly for short distances (up to 500 m).
Multi
26 Which of the following Radio Guide cable categories are used for Ethernet
networking? [Choose all that apply.]
A RG-6
B RG-8
C RG-9
D RG-11
E RG-58
F RG-59
27 Which of the following fiber optic cable connectors is an ST connector?
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28 Twisted-pair network cable uses which RJ connector?
A RJ-11
B RJ-14
C RJ-25
D RJ-45
29 An RJ-11 connector is which type?
A 6P2C
B 6P4C
C 6P6C
D 8P8C
30 What are the pinout differences between the T568A and T568B standards? [Choose
all that apply.]
A The wire color attached to pin 1
B The wire color attached to pin 2
C The wire color attached to pin 3
D The wire color attached to pin 4
E The wire color attached to pin 5
F The wire color attached to pin 6
G The wire color attached to pin 7
H The wire color attached to pin 8
31 Cables that run in _______________ must meet applicable fire protection and
environmental requirements.
Plenums
32 The device on a NIC card that converts the data it receives from the system into a
signal thats appropriate to the network is called a ______________.
A Port
B PROM chip
C Receiver
D Transceiver
33 True or false? On the majority of todays laptop computers, the network adapters
are PC Cards.
False. Network adapters are standard equipment on notebook computers now.
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34 True or false? The purpose of a modem is to convert digital data signals from the
computer into analog signals for transmission over the phone line.
True. It also converts analog signals received from the phone line back into digital signals for the
computer.
35 Modems use which RJ connector?

A RJ-11
B RJ-14
C RJ-25
D RJ-45
36 Which internetworking device makes computers that are connected to separate
segments appear and behave as if theyre on the same segment?
A Bridge
B Hub
C Router
D Switch
37 Youre wiring Ethernet in a star topology. What is the internetworking device you
use to take the signal transmitted from one computer and propagate it to all the other
computers in the network?
A Bridge
B Hub
C Repeater
D Switch

In this activity, youll identify components used to connect your computer to the
network.
1 What hardware device does your PC use to make your Internet connection?
In class, it is a NIC. Outside of class, it could be a modem or a NIC.
2 Youve just purchased a laptop computer and want to connect it to your network,
which supports 802.11b wireless LAN. Research the cost of a wireless LAN card to
insert in your laptops PC Card slot. Compare the data transfer rates of the cards
youve researched.
Answers will vary.
3 Answer the following questions regarding your computers network connection.

a What type of NIC is installed in your computeran expansion card, a wireless
LAN card, or an embedded NIC?
Answers will vary.
b Use the status of your Local Area Connection object to determine the speed of
your network adapter.
Answers will vary.
c What type of network cable is used to connect your NIC to the LAN? What are
its properties in terms of connectors and maximum length?
Answers will vary.
d Whats the speed of your LAN?

Answers will vary.
e Is your network using the peer-to-peer model or the client/server model?

Answers will vary.
f If your computer is using the client/server model, is your computer part of a

Windows domain? If so, whats the name of the domain?
Answers will vary.
141
Unit 14

A Describe how various types of addresses
are used to identify devices on a network.

B Create client network connections through
wired, wireless, and dial-up methods.
142
Topic A: Addressing
exam objectives.
#
Objective
3.2

telnet
ping
ipconfig
Run line utilities
Cmd
4.1

protocols
Basics of configuring IP addressing and TCP/IP properties (DHCP, DNS)
Protocols (TCP/IP, NETBIOS)
Common ports: HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, TELNET, HTTPS
Basic class identification
IPv6 vs. IPv4
Address length differences
Address conventions
4.3

Wireless
All 802.11 types
Bluetooth
6.1
RFI
Cordless phone interference
Microwaves
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objectives.
#
Objective
2.1
IPCONFIG (/all /release /renew)
PING (-t l)
3.1
Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools

TCP/IP settings
Gateway
Subnet mask
DNS
DHCP (dynamic vs. static)
Characteristics of TCP/IP
Loopback addresses
Automatic IP addressing
Mail protocol settings
SMTP
IMAP
POP
FTP settings
Ports
IP addresses
Exceptions
Programs
Tools (use and interpret results)
Ping
Ipconfig
telnet
SSH
Secure connection protocols
SSH
HTTPS
3.2

Bluetooth (1.0 vs. 2.0)
144
Network protocols
Explanation
Computers and devices that are connected via network media require a method for
communicating with other computers and devices on the network. In order for
communication to occur, there must be a set of rules or protocols. Network
communication protocols establish the rules and formats that must be followed for
effective communication between networks, as well as from one network node to
another. A network communication protocol formats information into packages of
information called packets. The media access method, such as Ethernet, is then used to
send these packets onto the medium itself. The following table describes some common
network LAN protocols that you can use in Windows networks.
Protocol
Description
TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) A routable, non-proprietary

protocol thats the predominant Windows network protocol. Its supported by
all versions of Windows and most other non-Microsoft operating systems.
TCP/IP is also the protocol of the Internet.
IPX/SPX
(Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange) A routable,

proprietary protocol that was the native protocol in early versions of Novell
NetWare. Later versions of NetWare supported TCP/IP as the native protocol.
Windows computers can connect to IPX/SPX networks and NetWare servers by
using Microsofts version of IPX/SPX, called NWLink. To share files and
printers on a NetWare server, you must install the Microsoft Client for
NetWare.
AppleTalk
A routable network protocol supported by Apple Macintosh computers.

Windows NT and Windows 2000 support AppleTalk. Mac OS X (10.2 and
later) supports TCP/IP and can connect to Windows networks without requiring
AppleTalk support.
AppleTalk computers are called nodes and can be configured as parts of zones
for sharing resources. As with other networks, each node on an AppleTalk
network must be configured with a unique network address.
NetBEUI
(NetBIOS Extended User Interface) A non-routable, proprietary Microsoft

protocol thats supported in Windows 9x/Me, Windows NT, and Windows
2000. NetBEUI uses NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) services to
communicate with other computers on a network. (NetBIOS helps with
computer names and some basic communication services.) Although it isnt
technically supported in Windows XP, you can install it by manually copying
files from the installation CD-ROM.
Whats nice about NetBEUI is that it has no settings to configure. You install
the protocol, connect the computer to the network, and it just works. The
drawback is that it isnt routable, so it cant pass data from one network segment
to another. This means that it cant be used for remote access or any
communication outside a single segment.
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Addressing
Every device on a network must have a unique address. On a network, different methods
are used to identify devices and programs, as shown in Exhibit 14-1. These methods are:
Media Access Control (MAC) address A unique address permanently
embedded in a NIC by the manufacturer.
IPv4 address A 32-bit address consisting of a series of four 8-bit numbers
separated by periods.
IPv6 address A 128-bit address, which can support a much bigger pool of
available addresses than IPv4.
Character-based names Host names, and NetBIOS names used to identify a
computer on a network with easy-to-remember letters rather than numbers.
Exhibit 14-1: Identifying addresses
MAC addresses
A MAC address, also referred to as a physical address, adapter address, or Ethernet
address, identifies a device on a LAN. Its a unique value expressed as six pairs of
hexadecimal numbers, often separated by hyphens or colons, as shown in Exhibit 14-2.
(In a hexadecimal number, a base of 16 rather than 10 is used to represent numbers.
Hexadecimal numbers consist of a combination of numerals and letters.) Part of the
address contains the manufacturer identifier, and the rest is a unique number. No two
NICs have the same identifying code. MAC addresses are absolutea MAC address on
a host normally doesnt change as long as the NIC doesnt change.
Exhibit 14-2: A MAC address
146

The MAC address is used only by devices inside the LAN and isnt used outside the
LAN. This address functions at the lowest (Data Link) networking level. If a host
doesnt know the MAC address of another host on a LAN, it uses the address resolution
protocol (ARP) to discover the MAC address. Computers on different networks cant
use their MAC addresses to enable communication because the hardware protocol (for
example, Ethernet) controls traffic on only its own network.
For the host to communicate with a host on another LAN across the corporate intranet
or Internet, it must know the IP address of the host.
IP addresses
An IP address identifies a computer, printer, or other device on a TCP/IP network, such
as the Internet or an intranet. When you install a network interface card in a device, you
can configure it to use an IP address to communicate. The exact steps to do this vary by
device and operating system. You should refer to the appropriate manufacturer
documentation to configure IP addressing on your device.
There are two types of IP addressing schemes: IPv4 and IPv6. All protocols in the
TCP/IP suite identify a device on the Internet or an intranet by its IP address.
IPv4
An IPv4 address is 32 bits long and is made up of 4 bytes separated by periods. For
example, a decimal version of an IP address might be 190.180.40.120. The largest
possible 8-bit number, in binary form, is 11111111, which is equal to 255 in decimal.
The largest possible decimal IPv4 address is 255.255.255.255. In binary, its
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111.
Within an IPv4 address, each of the four numbers separated by periods is called an octet
(for 8 bits). This number, in decimal form, can be any number from 0 to 255, making
for a total of 4.3 billion potential IP addresses (256 256 256 256). With the
allocation scheme used to assign these addresses, not all IP addresses are available for
use.
All IP addresses are composed of two parts: the network ID and the host ID. The first
part of an IP address identifies the network, and the last part identifies the host. The
network ID represents the network on which the computer is located, whereas the host
ID represents a single computer on that network. No two computers on the same
network can have the same host ID; however, two computers on different networks can
have the same host ID.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) implemented classful IPv4 addresses
in order to differentiate between the portion of the IP address that identifies a particular
network and the portion that identifies a specific host on that network. These classes of
IP addresses are shown in the following table.
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Class
Addresses
Description
1.0.0.0 126.0.0.0
First octet: network ID. Last three octets: host ID.

Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0.
128.0.0.0 191.255.0.0
First two octets: network ID. Last two octets: host

ID. Default subnet mask: 255.255.0.0.
192.0.0.0 223.255.255.0
First three octets: network ID. Last octet: host ID.

Default subnet mask: 255.255.255.0.
224.0.0.0 239.0.0.0
Multicasting addresses.
240.0.0.0 255.0.0.0
Experimental use.
APIPA
The network 169.254.0.0 is reserved for Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA).
Windows operating systems (Windows 2000 and later) automatically generate an
address in this range if they are configured to obtain an IPv4 address from a DHCP
server and are unable to contact one. These addresses are not routable on the Internet.
IPv6
IP version 6 uses 128-bit addresses. These addresses are written and displayed in the
hexadecimal-equivalent values for each of their 16 bytes. In hexadecimal, you represent
the first four bits in a byte (which means there are 16 possible values for those four bits)
by using the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A through F. You then represent the
remaining four bits in a byte with their hexadecimal equivalent value. Thus, for each
byte, you see two numbers, with the first number identifying the first four bits and the
second number identifying the remaining four bits. Like IPv4 addresses, IPv6 are also
composed of two parts: the network ID and the host ID.
You write an IPv6 IP address by grouping the address in hexadecimal, two bytes at a
time, and separating these groups by colons (:). For example, you might see an IPv6
address of 3FFE:FFFF:0000:2F3B:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A. You can remove any
leading zeroes in an IPv6 address. If a 2-byte block of an IPv6 address consists of all
zeroes, you can "compress the address by using double colons (::) to indicate those
bytes. The double colons (::) can be used only once in an IPv6 address. This means that
with the address in our previous example, we could rewrite it in the format
3FFE:FFFF::2F3B:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A.
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In IPv4, the first octet of the address denotes the networks class. However, classes are
no longer formally part of the IP addressing architecture, and they have been replaced
by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), which allows you to create additional
addresses beyond those allowed by the IPv4 classes using a variable-length subnet mask
(VLSM). With IPv6, there are three broadly defined classes of addresses:
Unicast A single address that identifies a single interface. This IPv6 address
type includes two local-use address types (link-local and site-local) and a
globally routable address type (global).
Link-local The IPv6 version of IPv4s APIPA. Link-local addresses are
self-assigned using the Neighbor Discovery process. You can identify them
by using the ipconfig command. If the IPv6 address displayed for your
computer starts with FE8, FE9, FEA, or FEB, then its a self-assigned linklocal address.
Site-local Site-local addresses begin with FE and use C to F for the third
hex digitFEC, FED, FEE, or FEF.
Unique local address The IPv6 version of an IPv4 private address.
Begins with FC or FD.
Global unicast The IPv6 version of an IPv4 public address. A global
unicast address is identified for a single interface. Global unicast addresses
are routable and reachable on the IPv6 Internet.
All IPv6 addresses that start with the binary values 001 (2000::/3) are
global addresses, with the exception of FF00::/8, which are addresses
reserved for multicasts. Those bits are followed by 45 bits that designate
the global routing prefixthe network ID used for routing. The next 16
bits designate the subnet ID. The last 64 bits identify the individual
network node.
Multicast An address that identifies a multicast group. Just as with IPv4, an
IPv6 multicast sends information or services to all interfaces that are defined as
members of the multicast group. If the first 8 bits of an IPv6 address are FF, the
address is a multicast address.
Anycast A new, unique type of address in IPv6. An anycast addressa cross
between unicast and multicast addressingidentifies a group of interfaces,
typically on separate nodes. Packets sent to an anycast address are delivered to
the nearest interface, as identified by the routing protocols distance
measurement.
Multicast addresses also identify a group of interfaces on separate nodes.
However, the packet is delivered to all interfaces identified by the multicast
address, instead of to a single interface, as with anycast addresses.
IPv6 doesnt use broadcast addresses; that functionality is included in multicast and
anycast addresses. The all-hosts group is a multicast address used in place of a
broadcast address.
149
Subnet mask
Subnet masks are used to identify the network-ID portion of an IP address. You can use
it to infer the host-ID portion of the IP address. Subnet masks allow additional addresses
to be implemented within a given address space. The default mask for each class is
listed in the previous table.
The following table shows two examples of how the network ID and host ID of an IPv4
address can be calculated by using the subnet mask.
IP address
Subnet mask
Network ID
Host ID
192.168.100.33
255.255.255.0
192.168.100.0
0.0.0.33
172.16.43.207
255.255.0.0
172.16.0.0
0.0.43.207
No matter how many octets are included in the network ID, they are always contiguous
and start on the left. If the first and third octets are part of the network ID, the second
must be as well. The following table shows examples of valid and invalid subnet masks.
Valid subnet masks
Invalid subnet masks
255.0.0.0
0.255.255.255
255.255.0.0
255.0.255.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.0.255
When data is routed over interconnected networks, the network portion of the IP address
is used to locate the right network. After the data arrives at the LAN, the host portion of
the IP address identifies the one computer on the network thats to receive the data.
Finally, the IP address of the host must be used to identify its MAC address so the data
can travel on the hosts LAN to that host.
The default gateway
In TCP/IP jargon, "default gateway is another term for "router. If a computer doesnt
know how to deliver a packet, it gives the packet to the default gateway to deliver. This
happens every time a computer needs to deliver a packet to a network other than its
own.

A router has an IP address on every network to which it is attached. Remember that
routers keep track of networks, not computers. When a computer sends a packet to the
default gateway for further delivery, the routers address must be on the same network
as the computer, because computers can talk directly to only the devices on their own
network. Exhibit 14-3 illustrates a computer using a default gateway to communicate
with another computer on a different network; the example uses IPv4 addresses.
Exhibit 14-3: A routed network

DHCP and DHCPv6
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is an automated mechanism that assigns
IP addresses to clients. There are two versions: the original DHCP, which is used for
IPv4 addressing, and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6 (DHCPv6), which
is used for IPv6 addressing.
1411
A computer configured to obtain its IP configuration through DHCP or DHCPv6 will

contact a DHCP or DHCPv6 server on the local network and get the needed information
from it. Other TCP/IP configuration settings, such as the local router or default gateway,
can also be handed out by a DHCP or DHCPv6 server. DHCPv6 can assign stateful
IPv6 addresses or stateless configuration settings to its IPv6 clients. The DHCP Client
service in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2008 supports both the
original DHCP and DHCPv6.
Character-based names
Computers use numeric network addresses to communicate with each other. People
prefer to use names, such as fully qualified domain names (FQDNs) or NetBIOS names,
to describe the computers on the network. Most likely, when you direct your computer
to connect to a remote host, you provide a name for that remote host.
Fully qualified domain names
FQDNs (fully qualified domain names) are hierarchical names, conforming to a
hierarchical naming scheme called the DNS (Domain Name System) namespace or
BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain) because it was originally developed at the
University of California at Berkeley. FQDNs are typically composed of three parts: a
host name, a domain name, and a top-level domain name. For example, in the name
www.microsoft.com, "www is the hosts name (or at least an alias for the actual
name), "microsoft is the domain, and "com is the top-level domain.
Its also possible to use subdomains. For example, in
server1.corporate.microsoft.com, "corporate is a domain within the microsoft
domain. Four-part names such as this arent rare, but you probably wont see further
divisions beyond that.
RFC 1123 specifies that the name can contain:
ASCII letters a through z (not case-sensitive)
Numbers 0 through 9
Hyphens
The entire FQDN has a maximum of 255 characters.
When your computers FQDN matches another computers FQDN with the exception of
the host name, many times you dont need to enter the full FQDN to connect. For
example, on a Windows network, when you enter a host name without an FQDN, the
operating system automatically uses your computers domain information with the host
name youve entered to find the computer you want to connect to.
DNS
The most common use for the Domain Name System (DNS) is resolving host names to
IP addresses. When you visit a Web site, you normally specify a fully qualified domain
name (FQDN), such as www.yahoo.com, in a Web browser. DNS servers match host
names to IP addresses. These specialized servers maintain databases of IP addresses and
their corresponding domain names. For example, you could use DNS to determine that
the name www.yahoo.com corresponds to the IP address 69.147.76.151.

NetBIOS
A NetBIOS name is 16 characters, with the first 15 characters available for the name and
the 16th character reserved to describe a particular service or functionality. A NetBIOS
name can consist of letters, numbers, and the following special characters:
!@#$%^&()-_{}.~
NetBIOS host names must be unique and cant contain spaces or any of the following
special characters:
\*+=|:;"?<>,
NetBIOS names arent case-sensitive, so "A is equivalent to "a. Some examples of
valid NetBIOS names are SUPERCORP, SERVER01, and INSTRUCTOR.
In a NetBIOS name, the reserved 16th character is typically expressed as a hexadecimal
number surrounded by angle brackets at the end of the name. For example, the NetBIOS
name SUPERCORP<1C> would represent a request for the SUPERCORP domain
controllers. When you try to access a given service, you dont have to append a
NetBIOS suffix manually; the operating system does it automatically. When youre
setting the NetBIOS name on a domain or computer, you enter it without the 16th
character because a single NetBIOS name can be used to represent many different
services on the same system.
NetBIOS names exist at the same levela concept referred to as a flat namespace
even if the computers to which theyre assigned are arranged in a network hierarchy. All
NetBIOS names are in one big pool, without anything that identifies what part of the
network the names belong to. For example, SERVER01 and SERVER02 are both valid
NetBIOS names. By looking at the names, however, you cant tell that SERVER01 is a
member of the domain CHILD01, and SERVER02 is a member of CHILD02. With the
flat-namespace structure, managing a large network environment becomes much more
difficult.
Do it!
A-1:
Examining addresses
Heres how
Heres why
1 Which protocol was used in early versions of Novell NetWare?

A
TCP/IP
NetBEUI
IPX/SPX
AppleTalk
2 What is the predominant protocol in Windows networks?

A
TCP/IP
NetBEUI
IPX/SPX
AppleTalk
1413
3 Which protocol requires no configuration?

A
TCP/IP
NetBEUI
IPX/SPX
AppleTalk
4 On your Windows 7 computer,

click Start and right-click
Computer
Choose Properties
To open the System window.
5 Examine the "Computer name

and "Full computer name lines
This information relates to the character-based

name your computer is using.

7 In the system tray, click
Click Open Network and
Sharing Center
To open the Network and Sharing Center. This

utility gives you a summary of your computers
network connectivity.
8 Examine the "View your active

networks section
It shows that you have one network connection
enabled, and it has Internet access.
Examine the graphic at the top of

the window
It shows that you have a connection to both the
internal network and the Internet.
9 Click Local Area Connection
To view the status of the connection.
Click Details
10 Examine the Physical Address
line
This is your network cards MAC address.

11 Examine the DHCP Enabled line
This value is Yes, so your computer gets its IP
address from a central server. If this value were
No, a computer administrator would manually
assign your computer an IP address.
12 Examine the IPv4 Address line

This is the IP address your computer is using.
The IP address can be manually assigned to your
computer, or it can be assigned dynamically.
13 Examine the IPv4 Subnet Mask

line
14 Examine the IPv4 Default

Gateway
15 Examine the IPv4 DHCP Server

address
This number works with the IP address to

separate the network portion of the address from
the host portion.
This is the router your computer uses to send

data to computers that arent on the same
network.
This is the server where your computer is

leasing its IPv4 addressing information from.
16 Examine the IPv4 DNS Server

line
This is the IP address of the server your
computer is using to resolve DNS characterbased names to IP addresses. There might be
more than one.
17 Examine the IPv4 WINS Server

line
Its empty. In the classroom, your computer is
using broadcasts on the local subnet to resolve
NetBIOS names. Your computer isnt
configured to use a WINS server.
18 Examine the "NetBIOS over

Tcpip Enabled line
It is set to Yes. NetBIOS is an older application

programming interface. Examples of Windows
applications and services that use NetBIOS are
file and printer sharing and the Computer
Browser service.
1415
19 Examine the IPv6 address

The address begins with fe80:, indicating that it
is a self-assigned address. Note the difference
between the IPv4 and IPv6 address in length and
convention.
20 Click Close twice

Close the Network and Sharing
Center window
21 Open Internet Explorer and verify
that you have Internet
connectivity
Your computer can connect to other computers

on the Internet because it is using a routable
protocol and has the appropriate physical
connections to internetworking devices.

IPCONFIG
You can use the command-line utility IPCONFIG to retrieve a computers IP
configuration. The IPCONFIG utility can display and modify the current TCP/IP stack.
There are several switches you can add to the ipconfig command. The command
ipconfig /all displays the current IP configuration information, as shown in
Exhibit 14-4.
Exhibit 14-4: Current IP configuration information for both wireless and wired network
connections on a computer
This command can also be used with switches to complete tasks related to IP
configuration. For example, ipconfig /release releases a DHCP leased address,
and ipconfig /renew requests a new address lease. For a complete list of
ipconfig switches and their meanings, type ipconfig /? at the command prompt.
When you are having network problems, the first thing you should do is to check the
TCP/IP settings on the computer. Check to see if the IP address and subnet mask are
correct, and verify the default gateway and DNS server address. When you verify this
information, you might find that the computer has no IP address configured or has
configured itself with an APIPA address.
Do it!
A-2:
1417
Using IPCONFIG to view IP configuration
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start, and in the Start

Search box, type cmd
Press e
2 Type ipconfig /all
To display your IP configuration settings.
Press e
3 Compare the IP configuration
information reported to the
information you viewed in the
previous activity
The same IP configuration information is

reported by the IPCONFIG utility.
4 Record your IPv4 address
IPv4 address: ___________________________

Ping and basic TCP/IP connectivity
Ping (Packet Internet Groper) is a simple program that allows one computer to send a
test packet to another computer and then receive a reply. While youre in the MS-DOS
Prompt or Command Prompt window, you can use ping to determine whether another
computer is available for communication on a TCP/IP network.
The ping utility uses ICMP packets to test connectivity between hosts. Internet Control
Messaging Protocol (ICMP) and the newer ICMPv6 are used to send IP error and
control messages between routers and hosts. When you use ping to communicate with a
host, your computer sends an ICMP Echo Request packet. The host that you are pinging
sends an ICMP Echo Response packet back. If there is a response, you can be sure that
the host you have pinged is up and functional. However, if a host does not respond, that
does not guarantee that its nonfunctional. Many firewalls are configured to block ICMP
packets.
After you have verified that the computer has a valid IP address, you can use the ping
command to see if you can communicate with another computer on the network. Youll
need to know the NetBIOS name, DNS name, or IP address of the other computer
perhaps a router or server that you know is operational. At the MS-DOS or command
prompt, enter
ping computer
where computer is the other computers name or IP address. A successful result looks
similar to Exhibit 14-5.
Exhibit 14-5: Successful ping results
1419
If you cant use ping successfully, try the following:

If you used ping with a domain name, use the IP address of the remote host
instead. If that works, the problem is with name resolution.
Try to ping a different computer. Can you communicate with any other
computer on the network?
If you cant communicate with any other computer on the network, use
IPCONFIG to verify that your computer has been assigned an IP address.
Verify all configuration settings in the Network window.
Check the physical connections. Is the network cable plugged in or is there a
telephone connection? Do you get a dial tone?
Reboot the computer to verify that TCP/IP has been loaded.
Try removing TCP/IP and reinstalling it. Perhaps the initial installation was
corrupted.
If all of these methods fail to produce results, you might need to turn to a network
technician to solve the problem.
Any IPv4 address with 127 as the first octet cant be assigned to a host. These addresses
are referred to as local loopback addresses. The most commonly used loopback address
127.0.0.1. All of the addresses starting with 127 actually represent the local host. You
can use these addresses to test the IP stack software.
To help determine where the network problem is, ping the loopback address, and then
ping the computer youre troubleshooting, ping a computer on the local subnet, the
computer configured as the default gateway, a computer on another subnet, and a
computer on the Internet. If you cant ping yourself, consider the computers network
adapter as the problem. If you cant ping another computer, the problem is a network
error somewhere between the computer youre on and the destination you tried to
contact. You can then report network problems to the network administrator.

Do it!
A-3:
Testing TCP/IP connectivity
Heres how
1 At the command prompt, type
ping 127.0.0.1
and press e
Heres why
This is the loopback address, which verifies that
TCP/IP is working on this computer. Pinging the
loopback address tests a computers own basic
network setup.
You should receive four successful responses.

and press e
(Or scroll back to read the information from the

last activity.) Record your IP address and your
default gateway address.
IP address: _____________________________
Default gateway address: __________________
3 Ping your IPv4 address
To verify that TCP/IP communication can be

sent out onto the network cable from your NIC
and back in again.
4 Share your address with your

partner
My partners IP address:
5 Ping your partners IPv4 address
This computer is on the same local subnet as

your computer. This step confirms that you have
connectivity to other computers on your local
subnet.
_____________________________
6 Ping the IP address of your

classrooms gateway
To verify that you can reach the gateway that

connects you to other subnets.
7 Ping 72.14.204.99
This is the IP address of www.google.com. Its

located on the other side of your gateway. This
step confirms that you have connectivity
through the gateway to other networks.
8 Ping www.google.com
To confirm that DNS is working correctly to

translate DNS names to IP addresses.
You should see the IP address in brackets and
then receive four successful responses.
1421
The TCP/IP suite

The most common communication protocol used today is actually a suite of protocols
called TCP/IP, which stands for two of the primary protocols it uses: Transmission
Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.
A four-layer reference model is used to describe the TCP/IP protocol architecture. This
model can be compared to the OSI model. The four architectural layers in the TCP/IP
model are:
Application
Transport
Internet
Network Interface
The Application, Transport, and Internet architectural layers contain the TCP/IP
protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite. The TCP/IP model is also referred to
as the TCP/IP stack. Exhibit 14-6 shows the protocols in each of the four layers in the
TCP/IP model and how they relate to the OSI model. Youll examine these protocols in
more detail later in the unit.
Exhibit 14-6: TCP/IP architecture

In the TCP/IP architecture, the Application layer provides access to network resources.
It defines the rules, commands, and procedures that client software uses to talk to a
service running on a server. This layer also contains a series of protocols that are useful
on TCP/IP networks such as the Internet. For example, HTTP is an Application-layer
protocol that defines how Web browsers and Web servers communicate.
The Transport layer prepares data to be transported across the network. This layer
breaks large messages into smaller packets of information and tracks whether they
arrived at their final destinations. It is also responsible for establishing the connection,
error checking, and guaranteed delivery (with TCP only).

The Internet layer is responsible for logical addressing and routing. IP addresses are
logical addresses.
The Network Interface layer consists of the network card driver and the circuitry on the
network card itself.
Do it!
A-4:
Discussing the TCP/IP architecture

1 On which layer of the TCP/IP model does the network card operate?
A
Application
Transport
Internet
Network Interface
2 Which layer of the TCP/IP model breaks large messages into smaller packets of
information and tracks whether they arrived at their final destinations?
A
Application
Transport
Internet
Network Interface
1423
Application-layer protocols
The TCP/IP architectures Application layer accepts information from applications on
the computer and sends this information to the requested service provider. In addition,
Application-layer protocols are available only on TCP/IP networks, and each of these
protocols is associated with a client application and service. For example, FTP clients
use the FTP protocol, and Telnet clients use the Telnet protocol. However, some client
software can use more than one protocol. For example, Web browsers can use HTTP to
communicate with Web servers and use FTP to communicate with FTP servers.
HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the most common protocol used on the Internet
today. This is the protocol used by Web browsers and Web servers. HTTP defines the
commands that Web browsers can send and the way Web servers can respond. For
example, when requesting a Web page, a Web browser sends a GET command. The
server then responds by sending the requested Web page. Many commands are defined
as part of the protocol.
HTTP can also be used to upload information. Submitting a survey form on a Web page
is an example of moving information from a Web browser to a Web server. You can
extend the capabilities of a Web server by using a variety of mechanisms that allow it to
pass data from forms to applications or scripts for processing. These are some of the
common mechanisms for passing data from a Web server to an application:
Common Gateway Interface (CGI)
Internet Server Application Programmer Interface (ISAPI)
Netscape Server Application Programmer Interface (NSAPI)
The World Wide Web consortium (W3C) is the standards body responsible for defining
the commands that are part of HTTP. To read more about the standards definition
process, visit the W3C Web site: www.w3c.org.
HTTPS connections
Secure Web servers use SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security)
to enable an encrypted communication channel between themselves and users Web
browsers. SSL is a public-key/private-key encryption protocol used to transmit data
securely over the Internet, using TCP/IP. The URLs of Web sites that require SSL begin
with https:// instead of http://. When you connect through SSL, the connection
itself is secure, and so is any data transferred across it.
Secure HTTP (S-HTTP) is another protocol used to secure Internet transmissions.
Whereas SSL secures a connection between two computers, S-HTTP secures the
individual data packets themselves.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a simple file-sharing protocol. It includes commands for
uploading and downloading files, as well as for requesting directory listings from
remote servers. This protocol has been around the Internet for a long time and was
originally implemented in UNIX during the 1980s. The first industry-distributed
document, or Request for Comment (RFC), describing FTP was created in 1985.

Web servers (using HTTP) and e-mail software (using SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) must encode data so it appears as text when it travels over the Internet. FTP,
however, offers an alternative. FTP can transfer binary files over the Internet without
the encoding and decoding overhead, making it a popular protocol for moving files over
the Internet.
Although there are still FTP servers running on the Internet, there are fewer than in
previous years. FTP is slowly becoming obsolete because of its inherent lack of security
and because HTTP can upload and download files.
FTP is implemented in standalone FTP clients as well as in Web browsers. It is safe to
say that most FTP users today are using Web browsers.
TFTP
Another protocol similar to FTP is Trivial File Transfer Protocol (Trivial FTP or
TFTP). TFTP has fewer commands than FTP and can be used only to send and receive
files. It can be used for multicasting, in which a file is sent to more than one client at the
same time, using the UDP Transport-layer protocol.
Telnet
Telnet is a terminal emulation protocol that is primarily used to remotely connect to
networking devices. All of the administrative tasks for these systems can be done
through a character-based interface. This feature is important because Telnet does not
support a graphical user interface (GUI); it supports only text. The Telnet protocol
specifies how Telnet servers and Telnet clients communicate.
The way Telnet works is similar to the concept of a mainframe and dumb terminal. The
Telnet server controls the entire user environment, processes the keyboard input, and
sends display commands back to the client. A Telnet client is responsible only for
displaying information on the screen and passing input to the server. Many Telnet
clients can be connected to a single server at one time. Each client that is connected
receives its own operating environment; however, these clients are not aware that other
users are logged into the system.
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to send and receive e-mail messages
between e-mail servers. It is also used by e-mail client software, such as Outlook, to
send messages to the server. SMTP is never used by a client computer to retrieve e-mail
from a server. Other protocols control the retrieval of e-mail messages.
POP3
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is the most common protocol used for retrieving
e-mail messages. This protocol has commands to download and delete messages from
the mail server. POP3 does not support sending messages. By default, most e-mail client
software using POP3 copies all messages onto the local hard drive and then erases them
from the server. However, you can change the configuration so that messages can be left
on the server. POP3 supports only a single inbox and does not support multiple folders
for storage on the server.
1425
IMAP4
Internet Message Access Protocol version 4 (IMAP4) is another common protocol used
to retrieve e-mail messages. The capabilities of IMAP4 are beyond those of POP3. For
example, IMAP can download message headers, which you can use to choose which
messages you want to download. In addition, IMAP4 allows the use of multiple folders
to store messages on the server side.
Transport-layer protocols
TCP/IP architecture Transport-layer protocols are responsible for getting data ready to
move across the network. The most common task performed by Transport-layer
protocols is breaking messages down into smaller pieces, called segments, that can
move more easily across the network. The two Transport-layer protocols in the TCP/IP
protocol suite are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).
One of the defining characteristics of Transport-layer protocols is the use of port
numbers. A port number is a 16-bit integer ranging from 0 to 65535. There are three
types of port numbers, described in the following table.
Port type
Description
Well-known ports
Port numbers 0 to 1023 are reserved for privileged services.
Registered ports
These port numbers range from 1024 through 49151. Port 1024 is
reserved for TCP and UDP and shouldnt be used. A list of registered
ports can be found on the IANA Web site:
www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
Dynamic ports
A short-lived (dynamic) port is a Transport-protocol port for IP

communications. It is allocated automatically by the TCP/IP stack
software from the IANA-suggested range of 49152 to 65535. Dynamic
ports are typically used by TCP, UDP, or the Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
Each network service running on a server listens at a port number. Each Transport-layer
protocol has its own set of ports. When a packet is addressed to a particular port, the
Transport-layer protocol knows which service to deliver the packet to. The combination
of an IP address and port number is referred to as a socket.
A port number is like an apartment number for the delivery of mail. The network ID of
the IP address ensures that the packet is delivered to the correct street (network). The
host ID ensures that the packet is delivered to the correct building (host). The Transportlayer protocol and port number ensure that the packet is delivered to the proper
apartment (service).

The following table shows well-known services and the ports they use:
Do it!
Service
TCP and UDP port
FTP
TCP 21, 20
20 is used for FTP data;
21 is used for FTP control
SSH
TCP 22
Telnet
TCP 23
SMTP
TCP 25
DNS
TCP and UDP 53
BOOTP and DHCP
UDP 67, 68
Trivial FTP (TFTP)
UDP 69
HTTP
TCP 80
POP3
TCP 110
NTP
UDP 123
IMAP
TCP 143
SNMP
UDP 161 & 162
Secure HTTP
TCP 443
A-5:
Using port numbers
Heres how
1 Switch to Internet Explorer and
observe the address bar
Heres why
http://www.msn.com displays. The Web
browser automatically connects you to port 80
on this server.
2 In the address bar, type

http://www.msn.com:21
Press e
The Web browser cant connect because port 21

isnt used for HTTP.

http://www.msn.com:80
Press e
The Web browser connects and gives you the

same Web page as in step 1.
1427

ftp://ftp.microsoft.com
Press e
The Web browser automatically connects you to

port 21 when you use FTP.

ftp://ftp.microsoft.com:80
Press e
The Web browser cant connect because port 80

isnt used for FTP.

ftp://ftp.microsoft.com:21
Press e
The Web browser connects and gives you the

same information as in step 4.
Close Internet Explorer

7 Switch back to the Command
Prompt window
netstat an |find /i "listening
Press e
The first column shows the service, and the

second column shows the port the service is
listening on.

exit
Press e

The 802.1x standard
Since the first wireless transmissions took place over a century ago, there has been a
push to manage the public airwaves responsibly. During that time, frequency bands have
been divided up to accommodate various user categories, such as the military,
broadcasters, and amateur radio operators. One of the problems with the current wireless
technology is that its a broadcast signal. This means that a wireless device advertises its
presence, making it easy for an intruder to pick up and monitor. To prevent this from
happening, standards were developed and implemented.
The 802.1x standard is a port-based authentication framework for access to Ethernet
networks. Although this standard is designed for wired Ethernet networks, it applies to
802.11 WLANs. This port-based network access control uses the physical
characteristics of the switched LAN infrastructure to authenticate devices attached to a
LAN port. It requires three roles in the authentication process:
A device requesting access
An authenticator
An authentication server
The 802.1x standard allows scalability in wireless LANs by incorporating centralized
authentication of wireless users or stations. The standard allows multiple authentication
algorithms and is an open standard.
Wireless networking standards

The 802.11 standard is the most widely used wireless technology at present. The IEEE
802.11 standard specifies a technology that operates in the 2.42.5 GHz band. Wireless
networks operate according to the specifications of the IEEE 802.11 standards. The
IEEE 802.11 standards are defined at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. In this
standard, there are two ways to configure a network: ad-hoc and infrastructure. In the
ad-hoc network, computers are brought together to form a network on the fly. The
802.11 standard also places specifications on the parameters of both the Physical and
Media Access Control (MAC) layers of the network.
The 802.11 standard defines an access point (AP) as a device that functions as a
transparent bridge between the wireless clients and the wired network. The access point
contains the following: at least one interface to connect to the wired network;
transmitting equipment to connect with the wireless clients; and IEEE 802.1D bridging
software to act as a bridge between wireless and wired Data Link layers.
Major wireless standards include:
802.11a
802.11b
802.11g
802.11n
802.16
1429
802.11b
Devices supporting 802.11b transmit data at up to 11 Mbps and use a frequency range
of 2.4 GHz in the radio band. The speed decreases as the client gets farther away from
the wireless access point, moving closer to the maximum distance of about 50 meters
indoors and 300 meters outdoors. The maximum range depends on many factors,
including product quality, antenna strength, the type of obstructions the signal
encounters, and the presence a clear line of sight between transmitter and receiver. The
802.11b standard was a popular and inexpensive network solution for home and office.
Unfortunately, many cordless phones, microwave ovens, and Bluetooth devices also use
the 2.4 GHz frequency range and interfere with an 802.11b wireless network.
The 802.11b standard extends the Ethernet protocol to wireless communication. It can
handle many kinds of data. Its primarily used for TCP/IP, but it can also handle other
forms of networking traffic, such as AppleTalk or PC file-sharing standards.
802.11a
Devices supporting 802.11a can transmit data at speeds up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz
band. It isnt compatible with 802.11b. It allows for a shorter range between a wireless
device and an access point (15 meters indoors and 30 meters outdoors, compared with
45 and 90 meters, respectively, for 802.11b). However, it is much faster than 802.11b
and doesnt encounter interference from cordless phones, microwave ovens, or
Bluetooth devices, as 802.11b does.
If its higher cost is acceptable, 802.11a could be an option for a wireless home LAN
easily capable of broadcasting high-definition DVD movies to TVs located throughout
the house, without your worrying about bandwidth or cables. Devices supporting
802.11a arent compatible with those supporting 802.11b or g.
802.11g
The 802.11g standard is another IEEE wireless standard that uses the 2.4 GHz band and
has become widely available. Its backward-compatible with 802.11b but has higher
throughput at 20+ Mbps. You will often see 802.11g devices advertised with speeds of
up to 54 Mbps. Devices supporting 802.11g have a transmission range of up to 45
meters indoors and 90 meters outdoors. Note that 802.11g devices can experience
interference from other common household devices, such as microwave ovens,
Bluetooth devices, baby monitors, and cordless telephones that also operate in the 2.4
GHz band.
802.11n
The 802.11n standard was ratified in September 2009 by the IEEE. Devices supporting
802.11n can transmit data at up to 600 Mbps in either the 5 GHz or 2.4 GHz band. The
transmission range is up to 70 meters indoors and 250 meters outdoors. Devices
supporting 80211n can coexist with 802.11g, 802.11b, and 802.11a devices.

WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 Air Interface Standard)
WiMAX, which stands for Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access, provides
wireless DSL and T1-level service. Its an emerging point-to-multipoint broadband
wireless access standard that services wide area and metropolitan area networks,
allowing wireless users with 802.16e devices to roam between wireless hotspots.
WiMAX operates in the frequency ranges of 1066 GHz for licensed communications,
and 211 GHz for unlicensed communications, providing a bandwidth in excess of 70
Mbps, which is shared among the networks users. It has a theoretical maximum of 31
miles with no obstructions. However, the average range for most WiMAX networks is
4-5 miles and up to 10 miles in line-of-sight applications. Its important to note that
WiMAX doesnt rely on a line of sight for connection. As a comparison, WiMAX
wireless coverage is measured in square miles, while 802.11x technologies are
measured in square yards. WiMAX can be deployed in areas where physical limitations,
such as a lack of DSL or T1 cabling, prevent broadband access.
802.11 device compatibility
Although devices that support the 802.11a standard are generally incompatible with
those that support 802.11b, some devices are equipped to support either 802.11a or
802.11b. The newest approved standard, 802.11n, allows 802.11b, 802.11g, and
802.11n devices to operate together on the same network. Many modern APs support
multiple standards. For example, one AP might offer concurrent support for 802.11a, b,
g, and n clients in addition to 100 Mbps wired network clients.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a standard for short-range wireless communication and data
synchronization between devices. This standard was developed by a group of electronics
manufacturers, including Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba, and its overseen by
the Bluetooth Special Interest Group. The transmitters and receivers are applicationspecific integrated circuits (ASICs); they can transmit data at rates in excess of 1 Mbps,
with up to three voice channels also available.
Bluetooth works in the 2.4-GHz frequency range, is easy to configure, and is useful for
short-range connections, such as connecting a PDA to a cell phone so that the PDA can
connect to a remote network.
Bluetooths limited range10 meters for a class 2 devicegenerally confines it to
connecting nodes within a single room or adjacent rooms. It operates at low speeds
compared to other wireless technologies. Version 1.2 has a data rate of 1 Mbits/sec and
version 2.0 + EDR (Enhanced Data Rate) transfers at a rate of 3 Mbits/sec.
Bluetooth technology allows you to create wireless connections between computers,
printers, fax machines, and other peripherals, but it doesnt have the range to serve as a
wireless connection between an access point and laptops dispersed throughout a home
and yard. Some vendors have developed Bluetooth devices with higher transmitting
power, increasing the range of the technology to 100 meters, but these higher-power
devices havent yet gained wide acceptance.
Do it!
A-6:
Comparing wireless network protocols

replaces the wire?
2 List the major wireless protocols.
3 Are 802.11b products compatible
with 802.11a products?
4 Which wireless standard is
currently used in airports and
coffee shops?
5 Whats the range of the original
Bluetooth technology?
6 What should you consider when
determining which wireless
technology to use?
1431
Topic B: Client configuration

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.10
Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and features

Communication connections
Infrared
Ethernet
Modem
4.1

protocols
Basics of configuring IP addressing and TCP/IP properties (DHCP, DNS)
4.3

Dial-up
Wireless
WEP
WPA
SSID
MAC filtering
DHCP settings
5.2
Summarize the following security features

Wireless encryption
WEPx and WPAx
Client configuration (SSID)
1433
objective.
#
Objective
3.2

Connection types
Wireless
WEP
WPA
SSID
MAC filtering
DHCP settings
Disable DHCP
Use static IP
Change SSID from default
Disable SSID broadcast
Change default username and password
Update firmware
Port assignment / setting up rules (exceptions)
Port forwarding / port triggering
Static TCP/IP parameters

Explanation
All IP configuration information can be manually entered on each workstation; this

process is called static IP configuration. Unfortunately, configuring IP information
manually is not efficient and is sometimes problematic. With each manual entry there is
a risk of a typographical error. In addition, if the IP configuration needs to be changed,
doing so on each workstation can be an overwhelming task in a large organization.
However, some computers, such as DNS servers, require static IP addresses so that their
unique addresses never change and clients can always find them on the network.
Each network card in a computer gets assigned a unique IP address. The process for
configuring TCP/IP parameters is the same for desktop and notebook computers.

Do it!
B-1:
Configuring TCP/IP parameters
Heres how
Heres why
1 In the system tray, click

Sharing Center
2 Click Local Area Connection

3 Click Properties
To open the Local Area Connection Properties

dialog box.
This box shows the protocols and services your

network card is using.
4 Select Internet Protocol
Select the item; dont clear the checkbox.
Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)
Click Properties
To open the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Properties dialog box.
5 Select Use the following IP

address
In the IP address box, enter the

IPv4 address provided by your
instructor
This IPv4 address will be on the classroom

subnet, will be unique for your computer, and
wont overlap with any IPv4 addresses the
DHCP server is handing out.
Click in the Subnet mask box
Its automatically filled in with the default

subnet mask for the class of the IPv4 address
you entered.
In the Default gateway box, enter

the IPv4 address of the
classrooms gateway
The default gateway used for Internet access in

your classroom.
In the Preferred DNS server box,

enter the IPv4 address of your
classrooms DNS server
The DNS server used for name resolution

services in your classroom.
1435
6 Click Advanced
To open the Advanced TCP/IP Settings dialog

box.
7 Observe the information on the IP

Settings tab
It displays the data you entered on the Properties

page.
8 Select the DNS tab

9 Observe the information on the
DNS tab
It displays the data you entered on the Properties

page, along with other options for DNS suffixes.
10 Click OK
To close the Advanced TCP/IP Settings dialog

box.
11 Click OK
To close the Internet Protocol Version 4

(TCP/IPv4) Properties dialog box.
12 Click Close
To close the Local Area Connection Properties

dialog box.

connectivity

DHCP and DHCPv6
Using DHCP to assign IP configuration to client computers on your network simplifies
administration and avoids the problem of IP information being entered incorrectly.
Take, for example, a 200-workstation network. If you were to manually change the IP
addresses on all of these workstations, it might take several days. With DHCP, the
DHCP server can be updated with the new IP addresses, and on the next reboot, all
workstations will receive the new information.
DHCP allocates an IP address to a client computer for a fixed period of time. This
temporary allocation is called a lease. If the client still needs the IP address, the client
must renegotiate the lease before it expires.
The IPv4 lease process
The overall process to lease an address is composed of four UDP messages (also called
packets) exchanged during the client computers boot process:
1 DHCPDISCOVER
2 DHCPOFFER
3 DHCPREQUEST
4 DHCPACK
Microsoft refers to this set of messages as DORA (Discover, Offer, Request, and
Acknowledgement).
All four of these messages are broadcast messages because there are no target IP
addresses involved in the communication until the client computer receives an IP
address. Exhibit 14-7 shows the four messages transmitted as part of the DHCP process.
Exhibit 14-7: The four messages in the DHCP lease process

The DHCPDISCOVER message is sent from the client computer to the broadcast IP
address, 255.255.255.255. A broadcast address must be used because the client is not
configured with the address of a DHCP server. The source IP address in the message is
0.0.0.0 because the client does not have an IP address yet. The MAC address of the
client is included in the message as an identifier.
Any DHCP server that receives the DHCPDISCOVER message responds with a
DHCPOFFER message. The DHCPOFFER message contains DHCP configuration
information, such as an IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and lease length. The
destination IP address for the message is the broadcast address, 255.255.255.255. This
destination IP address ensures that the client can receive the message even though it
does not yet have an IP address assigned. The MAC address of the client is included in
the data portion of the message as an identifier.
1437
The DHCP client responds to the DHCPOFFER message it receives with a

DHCPREQUEST message. If multiple DHCP servers send a DHCPOFFER message,
the client responds to only the first one. The DHCPREQUEST message contains the
lease information that has been chosen by the client. This message tells the servers that
their lease offer to the client has, or has not, been chosen.
The DHCPREQUEST message is addressed to the broadcast IP address,
255.255.255.255, allowing all of the DHCP servers to see the DHCPREQUEST. The
servers that were not chosen see this message and place their offered addresses back
into their pool of available addresses.
The chosen DHCP server sends back a DHCPACK message, acknowledging that the
lease has been chosen and that the client is now allowed to use the lease. This message
is still being sent to the broadcast IP address, 255.255.255.255, because the client has
not yet initialized IP with the new address. After the client receives the DHCPACK
message, the client starts using the IP address and options that were in the lease.
The IPv6 lease process
One of the benefits of IPv6 is that network devices can configure themselves
automatically when you connect them to a routed IPv6 network. This ability is called
stateless autoconfiguration. When you first connect an IPv6 device to a network, the
device performs stateless address autoconfiguration, and then sends a link-local
multicast router solicitation request for its configuration parameters. The router
responds to the device request with a router advertisement packet, which contains
network configuration parameters.
The router advertisement message contains flags that tell the device how to configure
itself:
Managed Address Configuration Flag (also known as the M flag) When
set to 1, this flag tells the device to use a configuration protocol such as
DHCPv6 to obtain a stateful IPv6 address.
Other Stateful Configuration Flag (also known as the O flag) When set to
1, this flag instructs the host to use a configuration protocol such as DHCPv6 to
obtain other TCP/IP configuration settings.

When the M and O flag values are combined, a device is instructed to be configured as
follows:
Both M and O flags are 0 The network doesnt have a DHCPv6 server. A
device uses the router advertisement to obtain a non-link-local address, and uses
other methods, such as manual configuration, to configure other IPv6
configuration parameters. This stateless autoconfiguration is suitable for small
organizations and individuals.
Both M and O flags are 1 The devices should obtain both an IPv6 address
and other configuration parameters from a DHCPv6 server. This process is
known as DHCPv6 stateful addressing.
The M flag is 0 and the O flag is 1 The device should continue to use its
stateless autoconfiguration IPv6 address, but should retrieve other configuration
parameters from the DHCPv6 server. The DHCPv6 server isnt assigning
stateful addresses to IPv6 hosts, but is assigning stateless configuration settings.
This process is known as DHCPv6 stateless addressing.
The M flag is 1 and the O flag is 0 The device should obtain an IPv6
address, but no other configuration parameters, from a DHCPv6 server. This
combination is rarely used because IPv6 hosts usually need to be configured
with other settings, such as the IPv6 addresses of a DNS server.
A DHCPv6 client listens for DHCP messages on UDP port 546. DHCPv6 servers and
relay agents listen for DHCPv6 messages on UDP port 547.
Do it!
B-2:
1439
Discussing the DHCP lease process

1 What type of message is used during the DHCP leasing process?
A
Unicast
Multicast
Broadcast
None; it is all performed internally on the client
2 What message is first in the DHCP lease process?

A
DHCPACK
DHCPOFFER
DHCPDISCOVER
DHCPREQUEST
3 From an IPv6 router advertisement packet, how does the IPv6 device know where
to get its IPv6 address?
4 From an IPv6 router advertisement packet, how does the IPv6 device know where
to get its IPv6 configuration parameters?
5 When an IPv6 device automatically configures its IPv6 address, is it referred to as

a stateful or stateless address?
Wireless nodes on a network

Wireless communication is very popular these days. Some devices, such as laptops,
have infrared transceivers (IRs). These enable other computers or devices that conform
to the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) standards to communicate using IR. Laptops are
also often equipped with a wireless network adapter so they can connect to wireless
networks.
This feature can be useful if you have mobile employees who need to print when theyre
in the office. If a laptop IR port is within the range of a printer with an IR port available,
whether its connected to the network or not, the user can print without logging onto the
network or physically connecting the laptop to the printer. The range of an IR port is
usually under 10 feet and within about a 45 angle of the port. Straight on is usually the
most reliable position for an IR connection.
If you want to share information between two computers equipped with IR ports, you
can do that as well, without connecting any wires. If necessary, you can use the "Set up
a home or small office network wizard to configure the two computers to communicate
through the IR ports.

Most often, however, when people are referring to wireless networks, theyre referring
to the wireless access points found in coffee shops, homes, and many other locations.
The most widely used wireless technology at present are 802.11g and 802.11n.
Wireless LAN connection components

To establish a wireless LAN, you need a network card in the computer and a wireless
router or wireless access point device on the network. The router or WAP broadcasts
radio signals, and the wireless network cards pick up the broadcasts.
Wireless NICs
LAN network adapters of all current types (PCI, PC card, and USB, shown in Exhibit
14-8) come in wireless versions. Wireless capability is built into most newer laptops as
standard equipment and can easily be added to laptops via wireless PC Cards or USB
NICs. Desktops are also easily outfitted with wireless capabilities via PCI Cards or USB
wireless NICs. If wireless access is available, these cards can communicate with a
wireless access pointexamples are shown in Exhibit 14-9allowing you to access the
network without using cables. This is especially useful in places like libraries, where
wandering around with a laptop while maintaining network access can be very
convenient.
Exhibit 14-8: Wireless NICs

Wireless access points
A WAP connects a WLAN to a wired Ethernet network. The access point (AP) contains
the following: at least one interface for connecting to the wired network (this interface is
typically called the "WAN port); and transmitting equipment for connecting with the
wireless clients. For home users, this connection is often to a broadband router or
transceiver.
APs often integrate other networking functions. Many include Ethernet networking
ports for connecting wired devices and thus function as switches. Many APs include
routing capabilities, and such devices most often also include firewall functions. The
popular Linksys Wireless-G family of wireless routers is one such example of
multifunction APs. Two brands of wireless access points are shown in Exhibit 14-9.
1441
Exhibit 14-9: Wireless access points

Manufacturers of wireless LAN equipment will often promote access ranges of 550
meters. As shown in the following table, as you move farther away from an access
point, the data speed drops. Its important for you to realize that interference from your
buildings structure and environmental noise affects data throughput as well.
IEEE speed
Data speed
Distance from AP
High
4.3 Mbps
40 to 125 meters
Medium
2.6 Mbps
55 to 200 meters
Standard
1.4 Mbps
90 to 400 meters
Standard low
0.8 Mbps
115 to 550 meters
If the signal from your WAP or wireless router isnt strong enough with the built-in
antennas, you can add a more powerful antenna and sometimes add a signal booster.
The WAP or wireless router should be placed in a central location within 60 to 90
meters of users wholl be accessing it. As shown in the previous table, the closer the
users are to the device, the stronger the signal and the better the network speed.

When determining the number and placement of WAPs, you need to account for
obstructions in the floor plan. For example, in a large room with no walls, you could
centrally place one WAP to service up to 200 devices.
There are two methods for determining correct WAP placement: an informal site survey
and a formal site survey.
In an informal site survey, you temporarily set up the WAPs at the locations
youre considering for permanent placement. Then you use a wireless client to
test the signal strength of connections within the range that WAP will service,
preferably testing from actual client desk locations. If the connection signals are
strong where you need them to be, you go back and permanently mount and
install the WAPs. If not, you move the WAPs and retest.
In a formal site survey, you use field-strength measuring equipment. You install
a test antenna in each estimated WAP location and then use the field-strength
measuring equipment to determine the exact strength of a test signal at various
points within the WAPs range. You move the test antenna to obtain the best
possible signal for the wireless coverage area. Once youve determined the exact
locations for the WAPs, you can permanently mount and install them.
Do it!
B-3:
Examining wireless devices
Heres how
Heres why

replaces the wire?
2 Does your classroom have a
wireless access point visible?
3 If so, where is it placed in relation
to client computers?
4 Walk around the classroom with a
wireless client (such as a
notebook computer) and observe
the signal strength reported by
Windows Vista
(If the equipment is available.) An icon in the

system tray reports the signal strength for the
wireless connection.
1443
Wireless networking security

Wireless devices present a whole new set of threats that network administrators might
be unaware of. The most obvious risks concerning wireless networks are theft and rogue
devices. Most cell phones, text pagers, PDAs, and wireless NICs are small enough that
they can easily be lost or stolen. Because they are easy to conceal and contain valuable
information about a company, they have become favorite targets of intruders. Wireless
LANs can be subject to session hijacking and man-in-the-middle attacks. Additional
risks remain because anyone can purchase an access point and set it up.
Wireless access points, when set up right out of the box, have no security configured.
They broadcast their presencein essence saying, Hey, my name is xxx, here I am!
The free availability of 802.11 network audit tools, such as AirSnort and NetStumbler,
and even some PDAs, means that breaking into wireless networks configured with weak
security is quite easy. These tools can be used to check wireless security by identifying
unauthorized clients or access points and verifying encryption usage.
There are other tools, however, in the form of management software. To eliminate
802.11 shortcomings and to help improve the image of wireless technology on the
market, the Institute of Electronic and Electric Engineers (IEEE) and the Wi-Fi Alliance
proposed standards for significantly improved user authentication and media access
control mechanisms.
Additional risks associated with wireless networks include the following:
The 802.1x transmissions generate detectable radio-frequency traffic in all
directions. Persons wanting to intercept the data transmitted over the network
might use many solutions to increase the distance over which detection is
possible, including the use of metal tubes such as a Pringles can or a large
tomato juice can.
Without the use of an encryption standard of some type, data is passed in clear
text form. Even though technologies such as Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
encrypt the data, they still lack good security. A determined listener can easily
obtain enough traffic data to calculate the encryption key in use.
The authentication mechanism is one-way, so its easy for an intruder to wait
until authentication is completed and then generate a signal to the client to trick
it into thinking it has been disconnected from the access point. Meanwhile, the
intruder, pretending to be the original client, begins to send data traffic to the
server.
The client connection request is a one-way open broadcast. This gives an
intruder the opportunity to act as an access point to the client, and act as a client
to the real network access point. An intruder can watch all data transactions
between the client and access point, and then modify, insert, or delete packets at
will.
A popular pastime is war driving, which involves driving around with a laptop
system configured to listen for open wireless access points. Several Web sites
provide detailed information locating unsecured networks. These sites provide
locations, sometimes on city maps, for the convenience of others looking for
open access links to the Internet. This is an attractive method not only to capture
data from networks, but also to connect to someone elses network, use their
bandwidth, and pay nothing for it.
War chalking is the process of marking buildings, curbs, and other landmarks to
indicate the presence of an available access point and its connection details by
utilizing a set of symbols and shorthand.

WLAN security components
There are four components to security on a wireless network:
Access control
Encryption
Authentication
Isolation
For each security method you implement on the AP, you must also configure your
clients to match.
Access control
You can use various techniques to control which clients can access your AP. The
simplest, and least effective, is to simply turn off SSID broadcasts. Doing this hides the
presence your AP. You then configure your clients to connect to the appropriate AP by
manually entering its SSID. However, the SSID is also included in routine client-to-AP
traffic. Thus, its easy for appropriately configured devices to detect SSIDs that arent
explicitly broadcast.
A stronger means of access control is to enable a MAC filter on your AP. The MAC
address is the hardware-level address of a clients network adapter. On most APs, you
can enter a list of permitted MACs, or blocked MACs, to limit connections.
As with the SSID, valid MAC addresses are transmitted across the wireless network.
Thus, a malicious user could detect a valid MAC address and then configure his
computer to impersonate that MAC address and thus gain access to your AP.
Encryption
You can encrypt communications between your AP and clients. Various techniques
exist, with some more secure than others. To make a connection, clients must use the
same encryption scheme and possess the appropriate encryption key. After the
connection is made, a static or dynamically changing key provides ongoing encryption.
In theory, encryption blocks unapproved connections to your AP. Additionally, as long
as the encryption scheme is sufficiently strong, your data streams are kept private from
eavesdroppers. As you will see, however, not all wireless encryption systems are
sufficiently robust to actually provide these protections.
Authentication
Through RADIUS or other systems, you can enable client authentication over your
wireless network. Using a system essentially like the user name and password you use
when you log on, your AP could authenticate the identity of wireless networking clients.
Authentication provides much stronger access-control protection than does SSID hiding
or MAC and IP address filtering. You should still use encryption with authentication.
Without it, eavesdroppers could access the data that legitimate clients transmit once
those clients have connected to the AP.
Authentication typically requires the use of additional software or hardware devices,
such as a RADIUS server.
1445
Isolation
Isolation is a means of segregating network traffic. There are two types: wireless client
isolation and network isolation.
With wireless client isolation, also called AP isolation, wireless clients are put onto
individual VLANs so that they cannot access each other. This method is commonly
used in public wireless networks to prevent one user from accessing another users
computer. Imagine the risk you face in a library or coffee shop, where another user
might attempt to access your shared folders or even mount brute-force attacks on your
PC over the Wi-Fi (802.11 wireless) hotspot network.
You might also want to provide network isolation. For example, you might want to
permit wireless clients to access the Internet and your corporate mail server, which is on
your wired network. However, you might also want to prevent wireless clients from
accessing other wired nodes, such as your file servers.
Some APs offer network isolation through custom routing configurations. You can also
enable such isolation through your general network design and firewall configuration.
Transmission encryption
You should enable transmission encryption on your wireless routers unless you have a
very good reason not to. Transmission encryption both limits which clients can connect
to your AP and protects data from eavesdropping during transmission.
Products certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance as Wi-Fi compatible must support at least the
WPA Personal level of encryption. As of this writing, products dont have to support the
802.11i standard, but this requirement will soon take effect.

Encryption
method
Description
WEP (Wired
Equivalent
Privacy)
Was built into the 802.11 wireless connectivity standards that govern how
data can be encrypted while in transit on the wireless network.
WEP uses a 64-bit or 128-bit symmetric encryption cipher. For WEP to
work, a key is configured on both the WAP and the client. This key is used
to encrypt the data transmitted between the WAP and the client. There are
no standards for how the WEP key is to be placed on the clients and the
WAP. Most implementations require you to type in the key manually on
each client and the WAP.
Although WEP is an easy way to prevent casual hackers from viewing the
traffic transmitted on your wireless LAN, this method is the least secure
encryption technique. WEP has known design flaws that make it relatively
easy to crack. However, it is the only viable option for 802.11b and other
older wireless clients.
WPA Personal
(Wi-Fi Protected
Access Personal)
and WPA2
Personal
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) was developed to overcome the weaknesses

in WEP. It uses the RC4 symmetric cipher with a 128-bit key.
WPA Personal uses a pre-shared key (PSK), which simply means that
you must enter the same passphrase on both the AP and the clients. The
actual encryption key is built from this passphrase and various other data,
such as the sending nodes MAC address. With the Temporal Key Integrity
Protocol (TKIP) option, the full encryption key changes for each packet.
WPA authorizes and identifies users based on a secret key that changes
automatically at regular intervals. WPA uses TKIP to change the temporal
key every 10,000 packets. This ensures much greater security than does the
standard WEP.
WPA2
Builds on WPA by adding more features from the 802.11i standard.

Notably, WPA2 uses the Advanced Encryption System (AES) cipher for
stronger encryption (equivalent to IEEE 802.11i).
WPA/WPA2
Enterprise
Works in conjunction with an 802.1X authentication server (RADIUS or

TACACS), which autenticates unique keys to each individuals
username/password combination or digital certificate. Communications
between the client and AP are encrypted using the individuals key.
RADIUS
Uses a specialized server for authentication and uses WEP for data
encryption, as illustrated in Exhibit 14-10. The authentication server can
include keys as part of the accept message thats sent back to the WAP. In
addition, clients can usually request a key change. This feature ensures that
keys are changed regularly to limit the ability of hackers to view
information on the wireless network.
802.11i
Defines security mechanisms for wireless networks (equivalent to WPA2).

As of this writing, 802.11i-compatible devices are relatively rare. However,
the popularity of this new technology will grow as more people use
wireless technology as their primary means of connecting to a network.
Exhibit 14-10: The 802.1x standard protocol authentication process
1447

Do it!
B-4:
Identifying the technology used to implement WLANs

1 What are the two technologies you can use to secure your wireless networks?
2 Youve recently been hired as a consultant to evaluate Outlander Spices wireless

network security. What items should you check in evaluating their security
practices?
1449
Configuring a wireless access point

After youve connected your wireless access point to your wired network, you need to
configure it and your clients. When setting up your AP, you assign a service set
identifier (SSID), which is essentially a name for your wireless network. The default
name is usually the name of the router or WAP manufacturer. You should change this
name as part of the device configuration to make your WLAN more secure. However,
changing the name isnt really a method of securing the network, because the SSID is
sent in plain text over the network and can be found by anyone with the ability to read
network packets. Its possible, and sometimes likely, that multiple wireless networks are
accessible from a given location. In such cases, clients use the SSID to distinguish
between WLANs and connect to a particular network.
An AP typically broadcasts the SSID. In this way, clients can discover the presence of a
nearby AP. Such broadcasts identify the security mechanisms in place to enable clients
to auto-configure their connections. Exhibit 14-11 shows an example of the wireless
channel and SSID for a wireless router.
Exhibit 14-11: Channel and SSID settings for a wireless router

The SSID can be up to 32 characters long. All of the devices that need to connect to a
specific WLAN need to have the same SSID. If you want to establish separate WLANs,
each WLAN needs a unique SSID.

Securing your AP
Out of the box, your wireless access point isnt secure. To make your AP more secure,
you should complete the following configuration tasks:
Set the most secure transmission encryption method compatible with your
clients Options might include WEP, WPA Personal, WPA2, WPA
Enterprise, RADIUS, and 802.11i.
Update the access points firmware version Access the manufacturers
Web site and search for firmware updates for your access point. You can also
access third-party vendor sites and download open-source replacement
firmware. Download both the software and the installation (sometimes referred
to as flash) instructions. Be careful to select the appropriate firmware for your
particular AP model. Installing an incorrect firmware version can brick your
access pointmaking it nonfunctional. If a problem occurs during installation of
the new firmware, it can also brick the access point. You can prevent problems
by:
Making sure that the power to the access point and uploading computer
will remain on during the installation process. You can use a universal
power supply, if you have one.
Upgrading only through a wired connection, not through a wireless one.
On the computer that will upload the firmware update to the access point,
manually configuring an IP address instead of using DHCP.
Disabling any firewall software, such as Windows Firewall.
Following the installation instructions exactly.
Change default administrator accounts and passwords for the access
point Many devices dont have a default password set on the Administrator
account. Programs like AirSnort identify the manufacturer based on the MAC
address, so if you only change the SSID, an informed hacker can still easily gain
access. Also, changing the name of the widely available administrator accounts
presents an added barrier to anyone trying to connect to the AP.
Change the default SSIDs When you change the SSID, dont use anything
that reflects your companys main names, divisions, products, or address. Doing
so would make your organization an easy target. If an SSID name is enticing
enough, it might attract hackers.
Disable SSID broadcasts SSID broadcasting is enabled by default. When
you disable this feature, an SSID must be configured in the client to match the
SSID of the access point.
Separate the wireless network from the wired network Consider using an
additional level of authentication, such as RADIUS, before you permit an
association with your access points. RADIUS is an authentication, authorization,
and accounting protocol for network access. The wireless clients can be
separated so the connections not only use RADIUS authentication, but are also
logged.
Put the wireless network in an Internet-access-only zone or a demilitarized
zone (DMZ) Place your wireless access points in a DMZ, and have your
wireless users tunnel into your network through a VPN (virtual private network).
Setting up a VLAN for your DMZ requires extra effort on your part, but this
solution adds a layer of encryption and authentication that makes your wireless
network secure enough for sensitive data.
1451
Disable DHCP within the WLAN to keep a tighter control over users
Assign static IP addresses to your wireless clients. Doing this creates more
administrative overhead to manage, but makes it harder to access your network.
Enable MAC address filtering on access points to limit unauthorized
wireless NICs Many access points allow you to control access based on the
MAC address of the NIC attempting to associate with it. If the MAC address of
the wireless clients NIC isnt in the access points table, access is denied.
Although there are ways of spoofing a MAC address, it takes an additional level
of sophistication.
Enable 802.1x This is the recommended method of authentication and
encryption for enhanced security on computers running versions of Windows
later than Windows XP. The use of 802.1x offers an effective solution for
authenticating and controlling user traffic to a protected network, as well as
dynamically varying encryption keys. The 802.1x standard ties EAP to both the
wired and wireless LAN media and supports multiple authentication methods,
such as token cards, Kerberos, one-time passwords, certificates, and public key
authentication. You configure 802.1x encryption from the IEEE 802.1x tab of
the policy settings Properties dialog box.
A network administrator should periodically survey the site, by using a tool such as
NetStumbler or AirSnort, to see if any rogue access points are installed on the network.
In addition, the administrator can take a notebook equipped with a wireless sniffer and
an external antenna outside the office building to see what information inside the
building can be accessed by someone parked in the parking lot or across the street.

Do it!
B-5:
Configuring a wireless access point

(instructor demo)
Heres how
1 Open Internet Explorer and enter
the IP address of your WAP
Heres why
You are prompted for administrator credentials
on the WAP.
2 Enter the appropriate user name

and password for your WAP, and
click OK
3 Select the Wireless Settings tab
Edit the SSID box to read
123ABC567
Remember, one of the guidelines for creating a

more secure SSID is that it not reflect your
companys primary names, divisions, products,
or address.
For SSID broadcast, select

Disabled
For Security, select WEP and

record the WEP key
WEP key: ______________________________
Check Apply
The device restarts itself.
4 Select the Tools tab

In the New password and Confirm
password boxes, enter
!pass4321
Check Apply
5 Select the Advanced tab
Select MAC filters
Choose Only allow
computers with MAC
address listed below to
access the network
In the Name box, enter your

computers name
In the MAC address box, enter
your computers MAC address
Check Apply
1453
Wireless client configuration

The operating system that a client is running determines how you configure its
connection to a wireless network. Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP use
the Wireless Zero Configuration and Wireless Auto Configuration technologies to make
the connection process easier for end-users. You must configure Windows 2000
Professional clients manually.
Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP wireless clients
Wireless Auto Configuration dynamically selects the wireless network to which a
connection attempt is made, based on configured preferences or default settings.
Computers running Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP support Wireless
Zero Configuration, which enables computers to automatically connect to available
wireless networks. By default, Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP client
computers can choose from available wireless networks and connect automatically
without user action. Wireless Zero Configuration automatically configures items such as
TCP/IP settings and DNS server addresses.
The default settings used by Wireless Zero Configuration include:
"Infrastructure before ad hoc mode, and computer authentication before user
authentication.
Infrastructure mode uses an access point to connect the wireless network to the
wired network. It typically requires authentication in which the computer
identifies itself to the authenticating server before the user credentials are sent.
Ad hoc mode allows all wireless devices within range to discover and
communicate with one another without a central access point.
"WEP authentication attempts to perform an IEEE 802.11 shared key
authentication if the network adapter has been preconfigured with a WEP shared
key; otherwise, the network adapter reverts to the open system authentication.
Although the IEEE 802.1x security enhancements are available in Windows 7,
Windows Vista, and Windows XP, the network adapters and access points must also be
compatible with this standard for deployment.
You can change the default settings to allow guest access, which isnt enabled by
default. You shouldnt turn on guest access on a laptop using Wireless Zero
Configuration. An unauthorized user could establish an ad hoc connection to the laptop
and gain access to confidential information on it.
Windows 2000 Professional wireless clients
Computers running Windows 2000 Professional dont support Wireless Zero
Configuration. You can configure a wireless network card for connection by using
EAP-TLS or PEAP authentication, just as you can when configuring Windows 7,
Windows Vista, and Windows XP computers. Only Windows 7, Windows Vista, and
Windows XP computers natively support IEEE 802.1x authentication. Microsoft
provides an 802.1x Authentication Client download, which allows Windows 2000
computers to use the 802.1x standard. This download can be found at:
http://support.microsoft.com/kb/313664.

Windows CE wireless clients
Palmtop computers running Windows CE .NET include Wireless Zero Configuration
and manual configuration options similar to those in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and
Windows XP. They support 802.11a and Native Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi). You can
configure older Windows CE palmtop computers for wireless networking. The settings
are similar to those for Windows 2000 Professional.
RADIUS servers
When you implement an authenticating server, such as RADIUS, the wireless client
must submit its credentials to the authenticating server before wireless network access is
established. When the client computer is in range of the wireless AP, it tries to connect
to the WLAN that is active on the wireless AP. If the wireless AP is configured to allow
only secured or 802.1x-authenticated connections, it issues a challenge to the client. The
wireless AP then sets up a restricted channel that allows the client to communicate with
only the RADIUS server.
The RADIUS server accepts a connection only from only two sources: a trusted wireless
AP; or a WAP that has been configured as a RADIUS client on the Microsoft Internet
Authentication Service (IAS) server and that provides the shared secret key for that
RADIUS client.
The RADIUS server validates the client credentials against the directory. If the client is
successfully authenticated, the RADIUS server decides whether to authorize the client
to use the WLAN. If the client is granted access, the RADIUS server transmits the client
master key to the wireless AP. The client and wireless AP now share common key
information they can use to encrypt and decrypt the WLAN traffic passing between
them. How you configure clients to participate in this process depends on the operating
system.
Wireless network problems

For wireless connections, you need to determine the name of the network to which
youre trying to connect. The View Available Wireless Networks command on the
adapters context-sensitive menu lists all of the networks that the adapter can detect.
Remember that, if you disable SSID broadcasts, Windows clients cant detect the
wireless network and display it in this list. If you try to connect to the network and are
denied access, you need to determine whether it requires specific security
configurations, such as WEP or WPA. The administrator supporting the wireless access
point or wireless router can give you the information you need or let you know if you
arent authorized to access that wireless network.
Some notebook computers have a switch or software setting to turn off the power to the
wireless network adapter. This switch can be a toggle switch on the case of the
notebook, a touch button around the keyboard, or even a key on the keyboard. This
option is there so you dont consume extra power when youre using battery power and
are not connected to a wireless network. Be sure to turn this setting back on when you
do want to connect to a WLAN.
If youve determined that the network is accessible and that youve configured your
security settings appropriately for that WLAN, you should check whether your wireless
adapters antenna is up and pointing toward the signal. On Windows XP computers, you
can check the strength of the wireless signal by placing your mouse over the wirelessconnection icon in the system tray. A pop-up window displays a summary of your
wireless connection.
1455
If you click the icon, it opens the Wireless Connection Properties box (shown in Exhibit
14-12), which also gives you the summary information for your connection.
Exhibit 14-12: Wireless-connection summary information in Windows XP

On Windows 7 and Windows Vista computers, you can get this information by viewing
details of the connection in the Network and Sharing Center, as shown in Exhibit 14-13.
If the signal is nonexistent or weak, try moving closer to the WAP or router, if possible.
Some cards dont have an external antenna.
Exhibit 14-13: Wireless-connection details in Windows Vista

On laptops, network card functions are often on a chip on the motherboard. If this chip
has been damaged, you can get the same functionality by installing a PC Card or miniPCI card, whichever is appropriate for your laptop.
On desktop systems, wireless access is obtained either through a PCI card installed in
the system or via an external USB device. If you determine that one of these devices has
failed, replace it with another working component.

Do it!
B-6:
Configuring a wireless client (instructor demo)
Heres how
Heres why
1 If the computer with the wireless

NIC is also connected to the
network through a wired NIC,
unplug the cable from the NIC
2 On the computer with a wireless
NIC, click
Youll configure the client to connect by using

the settings on the wireless access point.

Sharing Center
Under Tasks, click Manage

wireless networks
3 Click Add
Click Manually create a
network profile
Because you disabled the broadcast of the SSID,

you must manually configure the connection.
4 In the Network name box, enter

123ABC567
In the Security type list, select WEP

5 In the Security Key/Passphrase
box, enter the WEP key you
recorded in the previous activity
6 Check Connect even if the
network is not broadcasting
Click Next
7 Click Connect to
Select 123ABC567
This item must match the SSID of the WAP you

want to connect to.
Click Connect
8 In the SSID name box, enter
123ABC567
9 In the Security key or passphrase

box, enter the WEP key you
recorded in the previous activity
10 Click Connect
If necessary.
12 Open the Network and Sharing
Center
1457
Under Connections, the new wireless connection

is listed, and the connections signal strength is
shown.

connectivity
By default, the WAP is handing out DHCP

addresses to its clients, so this wireless
connection has valid IP addressing information
assigned to it automatically.

16 Disconnect the wireless
connection
In the Network and Sharing Center, next to

Signal strength, click Disconnect.
Dial-up connection creation

Many home users use a dial-up networking (DUN) connection to connect to their Internet
service provider (ISP). Once youve installed a modem on your computer, you can
establish a connection to an ISPs dial-up server by using the "Set up a connection or
network wizard.
To create a dial-up connection in Windows 7:
1 Open the Network and Sharing Center.
2 Under Change your networking settings, click the "Set up a new connection or
network link to start the "Set up a connection or network wizard. (You find
this setting in the Tasks list in the left pane of the Network and Sharing Center in
Windows Vista.)
3 On the Choose a connection option page, select Set up a dial-up connection.
Click Next.
4 On the Type the information from your Internet service provider (ISP) page,
enter the telephone number, your user name and password, and a name for the
dial-up networking connection so that you can easily identify it in the Network
Connections window.
5 You can use the Show characters checkbox, shown in Exhibit 14-14, to show
the characters of your password as you enter it.
6 You can use the Remember this password checkbox to have the connection
remember your password so you dont have to enter it each time you connect.
7 If you want to make this connection object available to all users of the computer,
check Allow other people to use this connection. Then click Continue.
8 Click Connect.
9 If you dont want to immediately connect to the remote access server after you
define this connection, click Skip.
10 Click Create to create the dial-up connection object. Then click Close.
Exhibit 14-14: Creating a dial-up connection in Windows 7

After you create a dial-up connection object, you can establish a connection with the
dial-up server by double-clicking the object in the Network Connections window.
Connecting to a remote access server
Some organizations require users to connect to remote access servers via dial-up
networking connections in order to increase the security of their communications. You
can establish a dial-up networking connection to a companys remote access server by
using the Set up a connection or network wizard.
The steps for creating a dial-up networking connection and connecting to a remote
server are the same for both a desktop computer with a modem and a notebook
computer.
You can also create a VPN to your companys remote access server through your
existing Internet connection. In the "How do you want to connect? page, instead of
choosing Dial directly, choose Use my Internet connection (VPN). You enter the FQDN
or IP address of your companys remote access server. This server must have a valid,
externally routable IP address. All other options are the same as for creating a dial-up
networking connection to a remote server.
Do it!
B-7:
1459
Creating a dial-up connection
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open the Network and Sharing

Center
2 Click Set up a connection or
network
3 Select Set up a dial-up

connection
Click Next
To go to the "Type the information from your

Internet service provider (ISP) page.
4 In the "Dial-up phone number

box, type 555-555-5555
The classroom doesnt have a dial-up server

configured to accept connections from the
students modems. Youll create the connection,
but wont actually connect.
5 Click Dialing Rules
This is where you set the Location Information

for all modem connections.
6 Click Edit

7 Observe the other settings
You can change your country/region, specify a

carrier code, and specify a number to dial to get
an outside line (such as 9). You can switch
between tone and pulse dialing.
Click OK twice
8 In the User name box, type
MyUserName
9 In the Password box, type

MyPassword
10 Check Show characters and

Remember this password
"Show characters allows you to verify that you

entered your password correctly. "Remember
this password is handy for users, but isnt
especially secure.
11 In the Connection name box, type

Office Dial-up Connection
12 Leave Allow other people to use

this connection unchecked
Anyone who can log onto this computer wont

be able to connect to the dial-up server by using
this connection.
13 Click Connect
Windows uses your modem to dial the phone

number you entered. Because the modem isnt
plugged into a phone line and the phone number
you entered isnt for a real dial-up server, the
connection fails.
14 Click Skip
Click Close
15 In the Network and Sharing
Center, click Change adapter
settings
The dial-up connection you just created is listed.
1461
Managing dial-up connection objects

After you define a dial-up connection, whether on a desktop or notebook computer, you
can use the connections Properties dialog box to change its properties. To do so, rightclick the dial-up connection in the Network Connections window and choose Properties.
The following table describes the key properties you might configure for a dial-up
connection, along with the tabs containing them.
Tab
Property
Use to
General
Phone number
Specify the phone number of the remote access server.
Dialing rules
Set and enable dialing rules for the connection.
Dialing options
Specify prompts and display items for the connection.
Redial attempts
Configure the dial-up connection to retry connecting to

the dial-up server if the first connection attempt fails.
Security
Advanced
(custom settings)
Define the security protocols necessary for connecting to

the remote access server. By default, Windows Vista
configures the dial-up connection to use encryption only
if the remote access server requires it and to support
three authentication protocols. Youll need to change the
authentication protocol only if the remote access server
requires the use of the Extensible Authentication
Protocol (EAP).
Networking
Protocols and
services
Specify and configure the protocols and services the

connection uses.
Sharing
Internet connection
sharing
Allow other network users to connect to the Internet

through this computers dial-up connection.
Options

Do it!
B-8:
Examining a dial-up connection objects properties
Heres how
1 Right-click Office Dial-up
Connection and choose
Heres why
In the Network Connections window.
Properties
Click Continue
To open the connections Properties dialog box.
2 On the General tab, observe the

Phone number box
If the phone number for the remote access server

changes, use the Phone number box to change
the phone number stored in the dial-up
connection object.
3 Check Use dialing rules
The options for editing the dialing rules become

available.
4 Select the Options tab

5 Observe the Dialing options that
are checked by default
Windows will display its progress while making

the connection. Before making the connection, it
will display the Connection dialog box, where
you can enter user credentials and a different
phone number if youd like.
6 Observe the Redial attempts box
By default, Windows 7 configures the dial-up

connection to redial three times.
7 Select the Security tab
1463
8 In the Authentication box, observe

the default selected option
By default, Windows 7 configures a dial-up

connection to send the users password in plain
text (unencrypted). This setting is used because
its much more difficult for a hacker to
eavesdrop on a telephone connection than on a
VPN connection over the Internet.
9 Select the Networking tab
This connection is set up to use the IPv4 and

IPv6 protocols.
10 Active the Sharing tab
This computer is not sharing its dial-up

connection with other network computers.
11 Click Cancel
To close the Office Dial-up Connection

Properties dialog box.
12 Double-click Office Dial-up

Connection
These are the prompts that were checked on the

Options tab of the connections Properties
dialog box. To open it, you can click Properties
in the dialog box shown above.
13 Click Cancel
14 Select Office Dial-up
Connection and click Delete
this connection
Click Yes
Click Continue
To close the dialog box.
Unit summary: Networking computers

Topic A
In this topic, you learned how various types of addressesMAC addresses, IP

addresses and character-based namesare used to identify computers on a network.
You learned how the DNS service resolves character-based host names to IP addresses,
and how WINS resolves NetBIOS names to IP addresses. You also learned how port
addresses identify services.
Topic B
In this topic, you created wired and wireless network connections, including dial-up
networking (DUN) with a modem. You also learned how to secure wireless client
connections to your LAN.
Review questions
1 Which protocols used in Windows are routable? [Choose all that apply.]
A AppleTalk
B IPX/SPX
C NetBEUI
D TCP/IP
2 Which unique address is permanently embedded in a NIC by the manufacturer?
A Character-based
B IPv4
C IPv6
D MAC
E Port
3 Which unique address is a 128-bit address written in hexadecimal?
A Character-based
B IPv4
C IPv6
D MAC
E Port
4 Which address is a number between 0 and 65,535 that identifies a program running
on a computer?
A Character-based
B IPv4
C IPv6
D MAC
E Port
1465
5 How many addresses can IPv6 provide?

A 232
B 264
C 2128
D 2256
6 Which IPv6 address type is similar to an IPv4 APIPA address?
A Anycast
B Global unicast
C Link-local
D Multicast
E Site-local
7 Which IPv6 address type is similar to an IPv4 private address?
A Anycast
B Global unicast
C Link-local
D Multicast
E Site-local
8 What scheme enables many computers to be called "www without causing naming
conflicts?
A DHCP
B DNS
C TCP/IP
D WINS
9 True or false? NetBIOS names cant contain spaces.
True. NetBIOS names cant contain spaces or any of the following special characters:
\*+=|:;"?<>,
10 Which TCP/IP architecture layer defines the rules, commands, and procedures that
client software uses to talk to a service running on a server?
A Application
B Internet
C Network
D Transport

11 Which Application-layer protocol is the most common protocol used on the Internet
today?
A FTP
B HTTP
C SMTP
D Telnet
12 Which mail protocol is used to send and receive e-mail messages between e-mail
servers?
A IMAP4
B POP3
C SMTP
13 What service allows you to automatically assign IP addresses and configuration
information to clients?
A DHCP
B DNS
C TCP/IP
D WINS
14 How many UDP messages make up the DHCP lease exchange?
A One
B Two
C Four
D Eight
15 When you first connect an IPv6 device to a network, the device automatically
performs stateless address autoconfiguration and then sends what type of message
for its configuration parameters?
A Link-local multicast router solicitation request
B Managed Address Configuration Flag
C Other Stateful Configuration Flag
D Router advertisement packet
16 True or false? If your notebook computer doesnt have an integrated wireless NIC,
you cant connect to a wireless network.
False. Wireless capability can easily be added to a laptop by using a wireless PC Card or USB
NIC.
17 True or false? The distance you are from the wireless access point doesnt affect the
speed of your data transfers.
False. As you move farther away from an access point, the data speed drops.
1467
18 The name of a wireless network is referred to as which of the following?

A Domain name
B SSID
C WEP
D WLAN
19 What authentication method does Microsoft recommend for wireless networks?
A 802.1x
B MAC filtering
C WEP
D WPA
20 True or false? All Windows clients support Wireless Zero Configuration, which
enables computers to automatically connect to available wireless networks.
False. Only Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP client computers can choose from
available wireless networks and connect automatically without user action.
21 True or false? Its possible in Windows Vista to create a dial-up connection

accessible to only a single user of a computer.
True.
22 On what page of the dial-up connections Properties dialog box would you specify
the protocols you want to use to connect to a remote access server?
A General
B Networking
C Options
D Security

In this activity, youll practice identifying the unique addresses used by a computer.
1 Switch computers with another student. Identify the following information for the
computer:
MAC address:
IP version(s):
IP address(es):
Character-based names (type and name):
Gateway address:
DNS server address:
2 Go back to your computer and answer the following questions about its
configuration.
a What operating system are you running on your computer?
Windows 7.
b How does your computer connect to the Internet (for example, telephone line to
ISP, company LAN to ISP, cable modem)?
In the classroom, it will probably be a company LAN.
c If you use a telephone line to connect to the Internet, whats the telephone
number you dial to your ISP?
Answers will vary.
d Does your computer use a NIC to connect to the Internet? If so, whats the MAC
address of the NIC?
Answers will vary.
e What is your current IP address and subnet mask?

Answers will vary.
f What class of IP address does the computer use?

Answers will vary.
g Does your computer use static or dynamic IP addressing to connect to the

Internet? List the steps you used to determine this answer.
Answers will vary.
CompTIAA+
Certification:
Comprehensive, 2009
Edition, Revised
Student Manual
Volume Two
CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive,

2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two
President, Axzo Press:
Jon Winder
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1 2 3 4 5 GL 06 05 04 03
151
Unit 15

A Prepare toolkits for troubleshooting.
B Troubleshoot client-side connectivity
issues.
152
CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two
Topic A: Troubleshooting basics

objective.
#
Objective
1.4

Cable testers
The troubleshooting toolkit

Explanation
Support technicians need tools that perform a wide variety of functions. Repair toolkits
are available for amateurs and for professionals. These specialty hardware toolkits
contain versions of the tools appropriate for working with networking components. You
can also assemble your own toolkit with the following items:
A variety of screwdrivers You should have large and small versions of flatblade, Phillips, and Torx screwdrivers.
Small and large needle-nose pliers These are useful for grasping objects.
Tweezers Also used for grasping objects.
Three-pronged "grabber For picking up screws or other objects in areas
too small to get your fingers into.
Extension magnet For retrieving metal screws or other small metal objects
from areas too small to get your fingers into.
A small flashlight A small penlight or a light that can be clamped to the
computer case can prove quite useful.
Small containers For holding screws and small components that are easily
lost.
Antistatic bags To protect components that are sensitive to static electricity.
Never lay a component on the outside of an antistatic bag. The bag is
designed to collect static charges on the outside of it, so if you place a
component on the bag, the collected static charges might discharge onto the
component.
Grounding wrist straps and ESD antistatic mats To protect the equipment
from any static you might be carrying on your body.
A grounding wrist strap should never be worn when youre working on the
interior of a monitor, but in all other cases, this is a highly recommended ESD
protection tool.
Antistatic sprays Useful if your clothes are likely to generate static.
Compressed air For blowing dust and debris off of components.
Computer vacuum Designed with static protection features to clean
electronic components; some also have special filters designed to clean up toner
spills.
153
The following additional items are important for every toolkit.

Tool
Used to
Multimeter
Test equipment with readings of ohms, amps, and volts. Comparing the
readings with the appropriate values for a component helps you determine if
theres a problem with the component.
Nut driver
Remove hex-head nuts.
Cable stripper
Remove the outer insulation from network cables and expose the wires inside
them. Usually, this tool also includes wire cutters to cut the cable or wire.
You can also purchase a single cable tool that strips, cuts, and crimps all in
one.
Snips
Cut or trim cables.
Punchdown
tool
Connect wires to a punchdown block.
Crimper
Crimp a connector onto a network cable. It comes in varieties for RJ-11, RJ45, and coaxial cable.
Butt set
Test and verify telephone lines.
Time-domain
reflectometer
(TDR)
Locate problems in metallic wires, such as coaxial cable and twisted-pair

network cables.
Optical timedomain
reflectometer
(OTDR)
Locate faults in optical fiber.
Certifier
Test and verify network cable speeds by sending data packets across the
network. You can use certifiers to verify that network segments are operating
at optimal levels.
Temperature
monitor
Monitor temperature in various environments, especially in rooms containing

networking devices. High temperatures can damage some network devices,
including servers. Monitors can be configured to warn you when the
temperature has exceeded a specific limit, so you can take corrective action.
Voltage event
recorder
Measure electrical properties to determine whether theres an adequate power

supply and what the quality of that power supply is.
Toner probe
Locate hard-to-find cables, such as those hidden in floors, ceilings, and walls
and in bundles. Detect telephone and Ethernet service, indicate polarity and
active line numbers on voice circuits, and indicate active pair numbers on
Ethernet circuits. Available in both digital and analog versions.
Loopback plug
A connector used to diagnose port transmission problems. A loopback plug

tests outgoing signals by crossing over the transmit line to the receive line,
redirecting the signal. There are different types of loopback plugs, such as
serial, parallel, and network.
154
The software toolkit

Most people think of hardware tools when you speak of assembling a toolkit for a
network technician. However, there are several software tools youll need for a
complete troubleshooting toolkit, especially when youre troubleshooting clients and
servers and their network connections.
Tool
Description
Disc containing
common drivers
If your company has standardized a specific set of equipment with

common drivers, having a disk with you can make it easy to install the
drivers quickly if you have to remove them to fix a problem or if they
become corrupted. Many companies place the files on a central server
location, but if you cant access the server due to the problem youre
trying to fix, having the drivers on the server wont do you any good.
Antivirus
software
You should include a boot disc from which you can boot a system that has
been infected with a boot virus. Norton and McAfee are examples of
companies that make antivirus software you can use to create such a disk.
Follow the manufacturers directions to clean the virus from the system.
Sometimes you need to boot from the antivirus software CD when you
need to clean a system, so configure CMOS to be able to boot from CD.
Boot disc
A boot CD-ROM or bootable floppy disk is useful if you can no longer

boot from the hard drive. On this CD or floppy disk, you should have basic
commands that enable you to perform simple tasks.
Operating system
CD or DVD
Having a copy of the operating system CD enables you to get to the CAB
files that you might need when installing or repairing some piece of
hardware. Its also useful if you need to boot from the CD or if files or
drivers have been corrupted and need to be replaced.
Documentation
about common
problems
If you encounter a set of common problems and need documentation on

how to fix them, a CD or flash drive with that information can prove
valuable. If the documentation is in a searchable format, then you can
easily find the information you need to fix a problem youve encountered
in the past.
Web sites for the manufacturers of the equipment you support should be included
somewhere in your toolkit. A bookmark list, a paper list, or a document containing the
URLs is useful. Being able to access the support sites directly is beneficial when you
need to obtain updated drivers or look for solutions to problems. Another useful site is
drivers.com. You can download drivers for many components, including some from
companies no longer in operation.
A CD binder is useful for carrying these tools with you. CD binders come in a variety of
sizes. You can also copy the files to a USB flash drive instead of to a CD if you prefer.
Do it!
A-1:
155
Identifying common toolkit components
Heres how
1 Open a Web browser and go to a
search site
Heres why
Youll examine the components of a hardware
technicians toolkit.
2 Search for computer

maintenance toolkit
3 Compare your results with those

of other students
4 Which tools would you include in
your toolkit for your job?
5 When would you use a crimper?

When would you use a
punchdown tool?
6 What software tools would you
include in your troubleshooting
kit?
7 When would you use a certifier?
When would you use a
temperature monitor?
8 Search for diagnostic software.
What are some examples you
find?
9 In addition to the software
mentioned in the text, are there
any other tools you would
include?
Options range from small kits with a few tools

for a modest price, to comprehensive kits for a
facility specializing just in hardware repairs.
156
Topic B: Troubleshooting the network

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials exam version 2.0 objectives.
#
Objective
3.2

telnet
ping
ipconfig
4.1

protocols
Common ports: HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, TELNET, HTTPS
5.2

Software firewall
Port security
Exceptions
6.1
Outline the appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario,
apply them
EMI
This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam version 2.0
objectives.
#
Objective
1.4

Cable testers
2.1
PING (-t l)
TRACERT
NSLOOKUP
#
Objective
3.1

TCP/IP settings
Gateway
Subnet mask
DNS
NAT (private and public)
Loopback addresses
SMTP
IMAP
POP
FTP settings
Ports
IP addresses
Exceptions
Programs
Proxy settings
Ports
IP addresses
Exceptions
Programs
Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools (continued)
Ping
Tracert
Nslookup
Netstat
Ipconfig
telnet
SSH
SSH
HTTPS
Firewall settings
Open and closed ports
Program filters
157
158
Troubleshooting wired connections

Explanation
Problems with wired connections can have many sources. Some are physically based,
such as a bad network cable, and some are software-based, such as an invalid TCP/IP
address.
Electrical interference
Electrical interference is a common problem that occurs on networks and degrades data
signals. Network noise is any electrical signal on the network cable that isnt part of the
senders original signal. Noise is generated both internally and externally.
Internally, twisted-pair cables produce relatively little electrical interferencethe twists
cancel each other out. Any variation in the thickness of the wire, the cable insulation, or
the capacitance of wires or insulation causes a mismatch and creates noise between the
pairs. Good cables minimize the internally produced noise, but dont remove it
altogether.
Electrical interference can also come from many external sources. You should always
install cables in separate conduits, away from items such as electric motors (like those
in elevators), fluorescent lights, and air conditioners. In areas where theres an
abundance of electrical noise, you can use shielded cables or other technologies, such as
fiber optic cables, to avoid interference.
When a data signal travels down a conductor, it creates an electrical field, which
interferes with any wires close by. This kind of interference is called crosstalk.
Crosstalk increases at higher frequencies and with parallel wires. The twists in twistedpair cables cancel this effect; however, its important that the twists are symmetrical and
that adjacent pairs have different twists.
Other physical issues
In addition to crosstalk and interference, you should be aware of the additional issues
described in the following table.
Issue
Description
Attenuation
Attenuation is the decrease in signal strength along the length of a network

wire. The longer the wire, the greater the degree of attenuation. You can
solve this problem by shortening the cable or by inserting a device such as
a repeater. Attenuation is expressed in negative decibels (dB).
Collisions
On Ethernet networks, collisions are the result of multiple network hosts

transmitting data simultaneously. Some collisions are expected in any
network, but too many collisions can cause a bottleneck and prevent the
transmission of data.
Open impedance
mismatch (echo)
Line echo is typically the result of impedance mismatch, which is caused

by the termination or wiring conversion from four-wire telephone circuits
to two wires.
159
Cable testing devices

You can use a cable testing device, like the one shown in Exhibit 15-1, to test the
physical cables and network functions. For example, you can determine how a network
handles varying loads of data and whether the network throughput matches the cable
and device ratings. You can purchase cable testing devices for your particular LAN or
purchase one thats compatible with multiple network types. For example, testing
devices are available for 10- and 100Base-T networks.
Exhibit 15-1: A cable testing device

Your cable testing device might be able to perform the following physical cable tests:
Locating incorrectly wired cables, open cables, and shorts
Locating missing cables
Locating cables that dont support your network type (for example, 100Base-T)
Testing hub connections
Testing PC connections
Testing installed cables
Testing patch cables
Locating and tracing inactive cables
Network function tests that your cable testing device might be able to perform include:
Verifying that a PC or switch is powered on
Specifying whether a device is a network PC or a switch
Displaying the maximum network connection speed to the device
Verifying PC-to-switch speed, and data transmission and port speed or duplex
mismatch
Verifying switch-to-switch data transmission
Determining if a straight-through or crossover patch cable is required
Finding speed bottlenecks on LANs
Monitoring a LAN link between two devices
1510 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two

You can also install software on computers in your network to test for load and
throughput bottlenecks on the network. Some software is freely downloadable, and
some is available for purchase.
Network analyzers
A network analyzer, sometimes called a protocol analyzer, is a portable device that can
be hand-carried to a network location and set up to monitor and diagnose problems with
a network. A network analyzer, shown in Exhibit 15-2, can help you troubleshoot
difficulties that can occur because of problems with the hardware or software. A
network analyzer can identify problems with:
Cabling
Jacks
Network cards
Hubs
Other hardware that works at the lower levels of the OSI model
A network analyzer can also diagnose problems with TCP/IP, including TCP/IP packet
errors. It can analyze where a packet is coming from or going to, and whether the
protocols within the packet are used correctly. The packets can be captured and
analyzed at any point on the network, such as when the cabling is connected to a wall
jack. The analyzer can be attached between the cable and the jack, and can read and
analyze packets as they pass.
Exhibit 15-2: A portable network analyzer

One problem you might encounter when using a network analyzer is that it can capture
too much data, making it difficult to find the data that applies to the problem at hand.
Fortunately, you can specify filters that weed out data that isnt involved in the problem.
1511
A network analyzer can be a laptop computer with a proprietary operating system and
other software specifically designed to capture and analyze packets on a network.
Network optimization
Fixing network problems can be as easy as replacing a worn cable, but sometimes
network problems require bigger fixes. For example, some network communication
problems require a reconfiguration of the entire network, either for all network
communication or for specific types.
Many networks have servers that contain highly sensitive data that must be
available around the clock. To increase the amount of uptime for these servers
and provide a high level of availability, a network administrator must build in a
level of fault tolerance, which simply means that theres a way to recover
quickly from a server or network problem.
For example, a server farm provides a high level of fault tolerance by spreading
sensitive data and applications across a number of servers. If one server were to
fail, the remaining servers would still provide services to network users.
To decrease response times for Internet users and to reduce the load on gateway
servers, you can deploy proxy servers that use a caching engine to store
frequently requested Web addresses. These servers can store Web content that
users access frequently, and return that content to the users faster than they could
retrieve the content directly from the Web.
Many applications, such as Voice over IP (VoIP) and video applications, are
particularly prone to latency sensitivity, which is caused when the network
breaks the data into different-size packets that might be transmitted out of
sequence. The latency sensitivity can cause jitters in the video or voice
transmissions, severely reducing their quality and potentially rendering them
useless.
Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms and policies on the network can be used to
prioritize video and VoIP transmission to ensure that the packets receive priority
over other types of network traffic. The QoS mechanisms can help reduce and
eliminate jitters and other types of interference.
When troubleshooting network problems, you should be aware of these issues and
escalate them if necessary.
Duplex and speed mismatches
Traffic can travel in one direction at a time (half-duplex) or in both directions (fullduplex) on an Ethernet network. When the protocol fails to negotiate the traffic flow of
the connection, you have a duplex mismatch. This problem can cause the connection to
work at low speed and drop packets at high speed. Common mismatches occur in
switch-to switch or switch-to-computer connections. Most often, a mismatch is caused
by a configuration error with one port being set to auto-negotiate, half- or full-duplex,
and the other end not configured to the same setting. As the level of traffic increases,
youll notice errors, such as collisions, on the slower end of the link.

Do it!
B-1:
Testing the physical network
Heres how
1 Follow your instructors
directions to attach your cable
tester to your computers network
cable
Heres why
Youre going to test the section of cable
between your computer and the classroom hub.

directions to attach your cable
tester to the network cable ending
at the classroom hub
directions to test the section of
cable and read the testers display
directions to remove the cable
tester and reattach the cables
directions to connect the network
analyzer to the network
directions to conduct load testing
and throughput testing
7 Follow your instructors directions
to remove the network analyzer
Youre going to conduct load and throughput

testing.
1513
Troubleshooting wireless network connections

As with other types of troubleshooting, troubleshooting wireless network connections
begins with identifying the components that make up the wireless communication
process. These components include:
The Windows operating system and the network adapters driver
The wireless network adapter
The wireless radio frequency signal
The wireless access point
Isolating problems
Your task is to isolate the problem by asking various questions. Questions you should
ask include:
Is the wireless network adapter listed in Device Manager? If so, does Device
Manager report that the adapter is working properly?
If it doesnt, you should suspect a problem with the network adapter driver or
even the card itself. You should also verify whether the wireless network
adapters radio has been turned off.
If Device Manager reports that the network adapter is working properly, you
should suspect a problem with its configuration or the wireless access point.
Is the computers wireless network connection configured to use the appropriate
encryption method for the wireless access point? All wireless clients must be
configured with the same encryption method that youve set on the AP. If a
client doesnt have the correct encryption method selected and configured, it
wont be able to connect to the AP.
If it isnt, change the configuration of the wireless network connection to use the
correct security settings.
Are you using MAC filtering on the wireless access point? If so, is it configured
to allow access by the desired clients?
Is the computer detecting the wireless access point? If so, what is the strength of
the wireless signal? (You can determine the strength of the wireless signal by
using the "Connect to a wireless network wizard.)
If the wireless signal is weak, this is an indication that the computer might be too
far from the wireless access point. As the distance between the AP and the client
increases, the signal strength decreases. Signal strength can also be affected
negatively by obstructions or building materials, such as metals or concrete,
between the client and the AP.
The WAP might also be experiencing interference from the environment (such
as metal file cabinets). As you learned in the section on wireless standards, some
standards operate at 2.4 MHz, the same frequency as devices such as cordless
phones and microwaves. Using these devices near the client or AP can cause
performance or the entire connection to drop. If youre deploying 802.11b
networks, you can tune access points to channels that avoid the frequencies of
interfering signals. You might also try installing equipment designed to boost the
signal strength of the WAP.

Is the wireless access point configured correctly? Specifically, is it configured to
use the appropriate encryption algorithm for the network cards used in your
environment?
For WAPs configured to use WPA or WPA2 with a pre-shared key, has anyone
changed this key on the wireless access point? If so, you must enter the new key
in your profile for connecting to the network.
Are both the clients and the WAP configured to use the same channel and
frequency? In the U.S., IEEE 802.11 g and b wireless nodes communicate with
each other by using RF signals in the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical band of
2.42.5 GHz with 11 channels, 5 MHz apart. Most wireless routers default to
channel 6. This can cause two closely located wireless networks, using the same
or adjacent channels, to interfere with each other.
You can change the default channel on your wireless AP to decrease interference
from other devices using the 2.4 MHz band or from other APs using the same or
an adjacent channel. If you alter the channel information, make sure you apply it
to both the AP and its clients so they can communicate.
Are you using compatible standards for all your wireless components? You must
use the same or compatible 802.11 device standards for all of your wireless
devices. For example, you cant use an 802.11g wireless NIC to connect to an
802.11a wireless AP.
The following table describes some common problems you might encounter with
wireless connections.
Symptom
Probable cause
Suggested solution
Unable to connect to
infrared wireless
device
Out of range; obstructions

blocking ports; infrared
serial port disabled in
BIOS or operating system.
Move closer to the device. Remove obstructions

and gently clean the infrared port windows. Use
the BIOS setup utility and Device Manager to
confirm that the infrared port is enabled.
radio wireless device
Out of range; interference

from electrical motors or
equipment; drivers not
installed; wireless router
turned off; security settings
prevent connections.
Move closer to the device, and move away from

sources of interference. Use Device Manager to
confirm that the wireless device is installed and
that there are no conflicts. Confirm that your
router is turned on. Confirm that you have
sufficient permissions to connect to the wireless
device.
Bluetooth wireless
device
Out of range; interference

from electrical motors or
equipment; drivers not
installed; security settings
prevent connections.
Move closer to the device, and move away from

sources of interference. Use Device Manager to
confirm that the wireless device is installed and
that there are no conflicts. Confirm that you have
sufficient permissions to connect to the wireless
device.
Do it!
B-2:
1515
Troubleshooting wireless networking

1 A user reports that she doesnt see any wireless networks when she runs the
Connect to a wireless network wizard. What are some things you should check
on her computer?
2 Several users report this morning that they cannot connect to the network. These
users connect wirelessly via a wireless access point. What are two things you
should check to troubleshoot this problem?
3 Users report that they are intermittently losing their connections to the wireless
network. What should you check?

Troubleshooting TCP/IP
One of the most common complaints youll hear from users is that they cant get to
something on the network, or "the Internet is down. When you hear a complaint about
network connectivity, your first step should be to check the users network connection
and TCP/IP settings.
If you find a problem on the client computer, its your job to fix it, usually by correcting
TCP/IP properties. If you suspect a problem with the network as a whole or with a
particular server on the network, youll need to contact the appropriate individual,
typically the network administrator, to escalate the problem.
TCP/IP utilities
TCP/IP includes a group of utilities that can be used to troubleshoot problems with
TCP/IP. The following table lists the utilities and their purposes.
Utility
Purpose
IPCONFIG
Displays the hosts IP address and other configuration information.
FTP (File Transfer

Protocol)
Transfers files over a network.
NBTSTAT
Displays NetBIOS over TCP/IP statistics, NetBIOS name tables, and the
NetBIOS name cache. You can use this utility with switches to remove or
correct NetBIOS name cache entries.
NETSTAT
Displays a list of a computers active incoming and outgoing connections.
NSLOOKUP
Reports the IP address of an entered host name, or the host name of an entered
IP address.
Ping
Verifies a connection to a network between two hosts, using Internet Control

Message Protocol echo requests.
ROUTE
Allows you to manually control network routing tables.
Telnet
Allows you to communicate with another computer on the network remotely,

entering commands on the local computer that control the remote computer.
TRACERT (Trace
Route)
Traces and displays the route taken from the host to a remote destination;
TRACERT is one example of a trace-routing utility.
Most of these commands are entered from a command prompt. To open a Command
Prompt window in any version of Windows, run the cmd command. From the Command
Prompt, you can enter a Windows or DOS command, including any of those in the
previous table. Each of the commands includes switches and parameters. To view the
available switches and parameters, along with their descriptions, at the command
prompt, enter the desired command follow by a space and then /?.
Do it!
B-3:
1517
Identifying TCP/IP utilities used for troubleshooting

1 A user opens a browser window and tries to contact your intranet server at
www.domain.class. The user receives a message that the site cant be found.
Whats the first TCP/IP utility you should try?
2 Users in one location have complained that load time for the companys intranet
site is slow. No one in any other location is reporting a problem. What TCP/IP
utility can you use to diagnose the problem?

IPCONFIG
When a user complains of network problems, you should first check the TCP/IP settings
on the users computer. In any version of Windows, use IPCONFIG, as shown in
Exhibit 15-3, to display and modify the current TCP/IP configuration, including the IP
address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server address.
Several switches can be added to the ipconfig command to display the current IP. The
following table describes some common switches. Additional switches, parameters and
their descriptions can be viewed by entering ipconfig /? at the command prompt.
Switch
Use to
/all
Displays all information about the connection.
/release [adapter name]

/release6 [adapter name]
Release a leased IPv4 or IPv6 address (respectively) so that it

returns to the pool of available addresses on the DHCP server.
You can specify the name of the network connection for which
you want to release the leased address. If you dont specify a
connection name, Windows 7 and Windows Vista release the
leased IP addresses for all network connections.
You might use this option when a computer cannot obtain an
address from a DHCP server (typically when the server is
unavailable) or if you want to force the computer to obtain a
new lease (because the DHCP servers IP addressing
parameters have changed).
/renew [adapter name]

/renew6 [adapter name]
Renew a leased IPv4 or IPv6 address. As with the
/release parameter, you can specify the name of the
network connection for which you want to renew the IP

address lease. If you dont specify a network connection name,
Windows 7 and Windows Vista attempt to renew all leased IP
addresses for all network connections configured to use
DHCP.
Use this option to try to renew a computers IP address lease.
If the computer cant communicate with the DHCP server from
which it obtained its IP address, or you have disabled the scope
(pool) of IP addresses from which the computer obtained its IP
address, the DHCP server will deny the computers lease
renewal request. At this point, the computer will start over with
the IP address leasing process by broadcasting a DHCP request
packet.
/flushdns
Delete all name resolution information (host names and their

IP addresses) from the clients DNS Resolver cache. For
example, you might use this parameter to troubleshoot name
resolution problems that occur after you change a servers IP
address. If computers still have the servers name and old IP
address in the DNS Resolver cache, they wont be able to
communicate with the server until this cache is deleted.
/displaydns
Display the contents of the DNS Resolver cache.
/registerdns
Renew all IP address leases from DHCP servers, and reregister the computers host name and IP address on your
networks DNS servers.
1519
Check to see if the IP address and subnet mask are correct, and verify the default
gateway and DNS server addresses. When you do this, you might find that the computer
has no IP address configured or has configured itself with an automatic private address.
(Remember that IPv4 APIPA addresses are within the 169.254.x.x range, and that IPv6
link-local addresses begin with FE8, FE9, FEA, or FEB.) If so, this gives you a couple of
options:
If IP addressing information is assigned by a DHCP server, suspect a problem
with a DHCP server itself or with the network between the users computer and
the DHCP server. First, verify that the network card is working correctly and is
attached to the network cable, which is in turn plugged into the appropriate
network port on the wall or floor. Try to release and then renew the IP address
from the DHCP server. If you can verify these things, and you cant get an IP
address from the DHCP server, then escalate the call to the appropriate network
administrator.
If IP addressing is assigned manually, then assign the correct information, such
as IP address, default gateway, subnet mask, or DNS server address, and test to
see if connectivity is restored.
Exhibit 15-3: IPCONFIG on a Windows 7 computer with two NICs
Do it!
B-4:
1521
Using IPCONFIG to troubleshoot TCP/IP settings
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start and enter cmd
To open a Command Prompt window. Youre

going to use IPCONFIG to view your IP address
settings.
2 At the command prompt, enter
To display your current IP address, subnet mask,

and default gateway, as shown here.
ipconfig
This is a quick way to find a computers basic IP

address information.

ipconfig /all
To display extended IP addressing information,

as shown here.
It can be easier to view this information at the

Command Prompt than to click through a few
dialog boxes to find the same information in the
Windows GUI.
1523
Ping and basic TCP/IP connectivity

While youre in the MS-DOS Prompt or Command Prompt window, you can use
another tool to verify basic TCP/IP connectivity. Ping is a simple program that allows
one computer to send a test packet to another computer and then receive a reply. You
use ping to determine whether another computer is available for communication on a
TCP/IP network.
After you have verified that the computer has a valid IP address, you can use the ping
command to see if you can communicate with another computer on the network. You
need to know the NetBIOS name, DNS name, or IP address of the other computer
perhaps a router or server that you know is operational. At the MS-DOS or command
prompt, enter
ping computer
where computer is the other computers name or IP address.

When you issue the ping command from the command prompt, followed by an IP
address or a domain name, ping communicates over a TCP/IP network to another node
on the network. It sends an Internet Control Message Packet (ICMP) Echo Request and
expects to receive an ICMP Echo Reply in return. Packets are exchanged and then
reported on screen to verify connectivity on the network. ICMP is a software component
of the Network layer of the OSI model. If the ping is successful, you know that the two
nodes are communicating at the Network layer. If communication is happening at this
layer, you also know that all layers underneath the Network layer are working.
You can add the switches and parameters shown in Exhibit 15-4 to the ping command.
Exhibit 15-4: Ping switches and parameters

If you cant use ping successfully, try the following:
If you used ping with a domain name, use the IP address of the remote host
instead. If that works, the problem is with name resolution.
Try to ping a different computer. Can you communicate with any other
computer on the network? Ping the loopback address, 127.0.0.1, to see if you
have any connectivity on the network.
If you cant communicate with any other computer on the network, use
IPCONFIG to verify that the computer has been assigned an IP address.
Verify all network configuration settings, including IP address, subnet mask, and
default gateway.
Reboot the computer to verify that TCP/IP has been loaded.
Try removing TCP/IP and reinstalling it. Perhaps the initial installation was
corrupted.
In Windows XP or later, use NETSH to reset TCP/IP.
Check the physical connections. Is the network cable plugged in or is there a
telephone connection? Do you get a dial tone?
If all of these methods fail to produce results, you might need to escalate the issue.
Do it!
B-5:
1525
Testing TCP/IP connectivity
Heres how
1 In the Command Prompt window,
type ping 127.0.0.1
and press e
Heres why
(The window should still be open from the
previous activity.) This is the loopback address,
which verifies that TCP/IP is working on this
computer. Pinging the loopback address tests a
computers own basic network setup.

and press e
Record your IP address and your default

gateway address.
IP address: ____________________________
Default gateway address: _________________
3 Ping your IP address
To verify that TCP/IP communication can be

sent out on the network cable from your NIC
card and back in again.
4 Ping the instructors computer
To verify that you have connectivity to other

computers on your local subnet.
5 Ping the IP address of your

classrooms gateway
To verify that you can reach the gateway that

connects you to other subnets.
6 How does being able to successfully ping the IP address of your default gateway
help you when troubleshooting?
7 Users are complaining that they are unable to access one of your organizations
file and print servers (even though they had just been using this server). You
discover that another person in Desktop Support moved the server to a new
subnet. What might be the cause of users not being able to access this server?
How can you resolve the problem?

NSLOOKUP
When two computers communicate with each other by using TCP/IP across the
network, the Domain Name System (DNS) server is responsible for resolving the names
you specify to their associated IP addresses. Active Directory domains also use DNS to
provide users and computers with access to the networks resources.
To verify that your computer can communicate with its DNS server(s), enter
nslookup [host or FQDN]. Your computer succeeds in communicating with the
DNS server if the server responds with the IP address of one or more computers. Youll
sometimes see multiple IP addresses for a given fully qualified domain name (FQDN),
such as www.cnn.com. In this example, the Web site administrators have configured
multiple Web servers to host its content. DNS servers then use a technique referred to as
"round robin to balance the workload across those servers.
TRACERT
If a user is telling you that he or she cant access resources on the network, you should
verify that the users client software is configured properly. You should also verify that
File and Printer Sharing is installed and enabled on the computer the user is trying to
access.
You can perform an additional test on the network by using the tracert command to
check the network path between two computers. At an MS-DOS or command prompt,
enter tracert computer where computer is the name or IP address of a
destination.
Do it!
B-6:
1527
Using NSLOOKUP and TRACERT
Heres how
nslookup
To test your DNS configuration. In class, the

classroom DNS servers IP address will be
returned.
In other environments, depending on the
configuration, you might see a DNS server name
and IP address returned, or you might see just an
IP address and an error message telling you that
NSLookup cant find the server name. This is a
DNS server configuration issue.
2 Enter nslookup followed by a

Web address
Try www.yahoo.com. You should see DNS

addressing information for that domain.
3 Enter exit
To exit NSLookup.
4 Enter
tracert [IP_address of a classroom server]
To trace the path to a server in your network.
This is a short path, so the results are returned
promptly.
5 Enter
tracert www.yahoo.com
6 Close the Command Prompt

window
To trace the route to Yahoos Web server. This

takes a while longer.

Troubleshooting other client connection issues
Beyond the basic networking functionality of TCP/IP, there are other networking
settings you will likely have to troubleshoot. Before checking specific connection issues
such as those that follow, always verify basic network connectivity.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the most common protocol used on the Internet
today. This is the protocol used by Web browsers and Web servers. HTTP defines the
commands that Web browsers can send and the way Web servers can respond.
Secure Web servers use SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) to enable an encrypted
communication channel between themselves and users Web browsers. SSL is a publickey/private-key encryption protocol used to transmit data securely over the Internet,
using TCP/IP. The URLs of Web sites that require SSL begin with https:// instead of
http://. When you connect using SSL, the connection itself is secure, and so is any
data transferred across it.
Secure Shell (SSH) exchanges data between two network nodes over a secure channel.
It operates at the OSI Network layer. SSH was designed as a replacement for Telnet and
other insecure remote shells, which sent data (including passwords) in plain text. This
left the data open for interception. SSH encryption provides data confidentiality and
integrity over an insecure network, such as the Internet. Its primary use is to access shell
accounts on Linux and UNIX systems. Other uses include:
Executing a command on a remote host
Transferring files securely
Back up, copy and mirror files in conjunction (with rsync)
Forwarding or tunneling a port
Creating an encrypted VPN (only OpenSSH server and client)
Mounting a directory securely on a remote server (using SSHFS)
Automating remote monitoring and management of servers
When youre troubleshooting these connection protocols, verify that server addresses
are correct, and that the client computers support the version of the protocol that the
server requires.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a simple file-sharing protocol. It includes commands for
uploading and downloading files, as well as for requesting directory listings from
remote servers. This protocol has been around the Internet for a long time and was
originally implemented in UNIX during the 1980s. The first industry-distributed
document, or Request for Comment (RFC), describing FTP was created in 1985.
Web servers (using HTTP) and e-mail software (using SMTP) must encode data so it
appears as text when it travels over the Internet. FTP, however, offers an alternative.
FTP can transfer binary files over the Internet without the encoding-and-decoding
overhead, making it a popular protocol for moving files over the Internet.
Note: Although there are still FTP servers running on the Internet, there are fewer than
in previous years. FTP is slowly becoming obsolete because of its inherent lack of
security and because HTTP can upload and download files.
1529
FTP is implemented in standalone FTP clients as well as in Web browsers. It is safe to

say that most FTP users today are using Web browsers.
When troubleshooting FTP connections:
Verify that the IP address of the FTP server is correct and that the FTP client is
trying to access the correct port.
Make sure the user is entering ftp://ftp. in the address bar of the browser.
Verify that firewalls on both the client and server sides have port exceptions for
FTP traffic.
The client software should have an exception in any software firewall on the
client computer.
Some ftp sites are secured; some are not. Verify that the user is entering any
required logon correctly. Logon might be as simple as entering a valid e-mail
address for the username and a password or a blank password. The site could
require the user to have a user account and password for the site.
E-mail settings
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to send and receive e-mail messages
between e-mail servers. It is also used by e-mail client software, such as Outlook, to
send messages to the server. SMTP is never used by a client computer to retrieve e-mail
from a server. Other protocols control the retrieval of e-mail messages.
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is the most common protocol used for retrieving
e-mail messages. This protocol has commands to download and delete messages from
the mail server. POP3 does not support sending messages. By default, most e-mail client
software using POP3 copies all messages onto the local hard drive and then erases them
from the server. However, you can change the configuration so that messages can be left
on the server. POP3 supports only a single inbox and does not support multiple folders
for storage on the server.
Internet Message Access Protocol version 4 (IMAP4) is another common protocol used
to retrieve e-mail messages. The capabilities of IMAP4 are beyond those of POP3. For
example, IMAP can download message headers, which you can use to choose which
messages you want to download. In addition, IMAP4 allows the use of multiple folders
to store messages on the server side.
When youre troubleshooting SMTP, POP3, and IMAP in any e-mail client, be sure you
have the correct e-mail server addresses and the correct ports and security authentication
protocols and passwords. If theres a mismatch in any of this information, e-mail
transmission will fail.
Firewall ports
Programs use open ports to communicate with other computers on the Internet. For
example, Windows Internet Information Services opens three ports automaticallyport
21 for FTP traffic, port 25 for SMTP traffic, and port 80 for HTTP traffic.
Sometimes your firewall either blocks communication through a particular port or
allows communication through a port that isnt what you want to happen. Using the
configuration settings for your firewall, you can manually open or close desired ports to
resolve this problem.

If Windows Firewall in Windows 7 or Vista is blocking a program from communicating
through the firewall, you can add the program to the Allowed programs and features list
in Windows 7s software firewall and the Exceptions tab in Windows Vistas software
firewall:
In Windows 7:
1 Click Start and choose Control Panel.
2 Open System and Security, Windows Firewall.
3 Click Allow a program or feature through Windows Firewall.
4 Click Change settings.
5 Check to allow, or clear to deny, a program or feature the ability to communicate
through Windows Firewall, as shown in Exhibit 15-5.
6 If your program isnt listed, you can click Allow another program for a list of
additional programs you can add to the list. Select the desired program and click
Add.
7 Click OK.
Exhibit 15-5: Windows Firewall exceptions in Windows 7
1531
In Windows Vista:
2 Open Security, Windows Firewall.
3 Click Allow a program through Windows Firewall. Click Continue.
4 On the Exceptions tab, check a program or port in the list to allow
communication; clear the checkbox to block communication.
5 If your program isnt listed on the Exceptions tab, you can click Add Program
for a list of additional programs you can add to the Exceptions tab. Select the
desired program.
If desired, click Change scope. Using the dialog box, shown in Exhibit 15-6, you
can allow communication through the open port by all Internet computers, only
computers on your IP subnet, or specific computers designated by IPv4 or IPv6
address. Select your desired configuration and click OK.
Click OK.
6 Click OK.
Exhibit 15-6: The Change Scope dialog box

Windows XP with SP2 or later uses Internet Connection Firewall (ICF). To add a
program to the Exceptions list in ICF:
2 Click Security Center.
3 Under Manage security settings for, click Windows Firewall.
4 On the Exceptions tab, check a program or port in the list to allow
communication; clear the checkbox to block communication.
5 If your program isnt listed on the Exceptions tab, you can click "Add Program
for a list of additional programs you can add to the Exceptions tab. Select the
desired program.
If desired, click Change scope. Select to allow communication through the open
port by all Internet computers, only computers on your IP subnet, or specific
computers designated by IPv4 or IPv6 address and click OK.
6 Click OK.
7 Close Security Center and Control Panel.
Windows 2000 Professional doesnt have a firewall application built into the operating
system.
However, if the program isnt listed on the Exceptions tab or in the available programs
list, you might need to add a port. For example, if you want to allow communication for
a multiplayer game with other Internet users, you can open a port for the game. Its
important to note that, when you allow a program to communicate through Windows
Firewall, the program opens the port to communicate and then closes the port when its
finished communicating. When you open a port in Windows Firewall, it remains open
until you manually close it. To open a port in Windows Firewall:
2 Open Security, Windows Firewall.
3 Click Allow a program through Windows Firewall. Click Continue.
4 On the Exceptions tab, click Add port.
5 Enter a name for the port, a port number, and specify whether the protocol used
will be TCP or UDP.
6 If desired, click Change scope. Select to allow communication through the open
7 Click OK twice.
8 Close Windows Firewall and Control Panel
1533
To open a port manually in Internet Connection Firewall:

2 Click Security Center.
3 Under Manage security settings for, click Windows Firewall.
4 On the Exceptions tab, click Add port.
5 Enter a name for the port and a port number, then specify whether the protocol
used will be TCP or UDP.
6 If desired, click Change scope. Select to allow communication through the open
7 Click OK twice.
8 Close Security Center and Control Panel.
NAT and proxy servers
Most NAT devices consistently work well and dont require much maintenance or
troubleshooting. Typically, you will need to ensure that the device is powered on and
the TCP/IP settings are correct. Verify that it has Internet and local network
connectivity. Sometimes powering down the device will cause it to reset its connections.
Also verify that network clients using NAT have the correct TCP/IP configuration,
including the default gateway.
You can troubleshoot proxy servers in the same way as NAT devices. In addition, verify
that any software (including Web browsers) on the client computer has the correct
proxy server address and port number, and any authentication settings are correct.
Verify that the necessary firewall exceptions are in place to allow communication with
the proxy server. Also verify that the proxy server is configured to allow
communication from the requested port.

Do it!
B-7:
Troubleshooting client-side connectivity issues
Heres how
Heres why
1 A user reports that shes not able to send or receive e-mail. What steps should you
take?
2 If the user still reports problems after youve checked the settings on her
computer, whats a likely next step?
3 What are some reasons a user could have problems accessing an FTP server?
4 A user reports that hes having trouble accessing the Web. Youve verified that he
has local network connectivity. What other issues might be causing this problem?
1535
Windows Network Diagnostics

One of the tools built into Windows 7 and Windows Vista for troubleshooting network
problems is Windows Network Diagnostics. This utility automates many of the steps for
troubleshooting TCP/IP and network connectivity. You can access Windows Network
Diagnostics by using a number of methods. For example, Exhibit 15-7 shows the
Network and Sharing Center of a computer that cant connect to the Internet. You could
launch Windows Network Diagnostics on this computer by clicking the Troubleshoot
problems link on Windows 7 or the Diagnose and repair link in the Tasks pane on
Windows Vista, or clicking the red X displayed on the Internet connection.
Other methods for launching Windows Network Diagnostics include the following:
Right-click the Network icon in the system tray and choose Troubleshoot
problems in Windows 7, Diagnose and repair in Windows Vista.
In the Network Connections window, right-click the appropriate network
connection and choose Diagnose.
Exhibit 15-7: The Network and Sharing Center provides access to Windows Network
Diagnostics

Windows Network Diagnostics tasks
When you run Windows Network Diagnostics, it attempts to diagnose many of the
common problems encountered on TCP/IP networks. For example, it can typically
identify problems such as an incorrect subnet mask or default gateway address, a DNS
server that is down, a disabled network adapter, or a network adapter that you need to
reset, as shown in Exhibit 15-8. Click one of the options displayed to see if it solves the
problem.
Exhibit 15-8: Windows Network Diagnostics helps you resolve many common TCP/IP
problems
Wireless networks
Windows Network Diagnostics can help you resolve problems with wireless networks,
too. The utility will attempt to identify the cause of the problem youre experiencing,
and then walk you through the steps to correct the problem. In addition, information
about the problems the utility detects is recorded in the System log, with the Event ID of
6100. You can review these events to help identify the cause of the problem with the
wireless network.
Do it!
B-8:
1537
Troubleshooting with Windows Network Diagnostics
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click the network icon in the

system tray
Sharing Center
2 In the Tasks pane, click Change

adapter settings
3 In the Network Connections

window, right-click Local Area
To open the Properties dialog box for the local

area connection.
Properties
4 On the Networking tab, select
(Dont clear the checkbox.)
Internet Protocol Version

4 (TCP/IPv4)
Click Properties
5 Enter an invalid DNS server
address
Click OK
To open the Properties dialog box for the

TCP/IP protocol.
To deliberately misconfigure your computer so
that it cannot connect to the Internet. You will
troubleshoot the problem in upcoming steps.
To save your changes.
Click Close
Close the Network Connections
window
6 Open Network and Sharing Center
7 In the Network and Sharing
Center, click Troubleshoot
To open Windows Network Diagnostics so that

you can diagnose why your computer cant
access the Internet.
8 Click Internet Connections
Windows may or may not be able to identify the

problem or repair the problem automatically.
problems
Click Next
Click Troubleshoot my
connection to the Internet
9 Read the message box
Click Close
Windows cannot communicate with the Primary

DNS Server. It cant repair the problem
automatically.

10 In the Network Connections
window, right-click Local Area
Properties
On the Networking tab, select

Internet Protocol Version
4 (TCP/IPv4)
Click Properties
11 Enter a valid DNS server address
Click OK and Close
To open the Properties dialog box for the

TCP/IP protocol.
So that your computer can connect to the
Internet.
To save your changes.
12 Close Network Connections

13 Verify that you can connect to the
Internet
Use Internet Explorer or observe the connection

information reported in the Network and
Sharing Center.

15 You have just run Windows Network Diagnostics to identify a problem with a
computers wireless connection. You want to view the information reported by the
utility in the computers event logs. Which event log should you check?
1539
Unit summary: Network troubleshooting

Topic A
In this topic, you learned how to build hardware and software toolkits to help in your
troubleshooting practice.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned to troubleshoot the network. You learned to troubleshoot the
physical network by troubleshooting cables and wireless devices. Then you learned
how to troubleshoot the logical network by troubleshooting TCP/IP and client
connectivity issues.
Review questions
1 Which utility enables you to reset a computers network adapter?
A Network Map
B Windows Network Diagnostics
C IPCONFIG
D Local Area Connection
2 What steps can you take to minimize electrical interference on a wired LAN?
Install cables in separate conduits, away from items such as electric motors, fluorescent lights,
and air conditioners. In areas where theres an abundance of electrical noise, use shielded cables
or other technologies such as fiber optic cables to avoid interference.
3 What might be the cause if you cannot connect to a radio wireless device?
Answers include:
Out of range
Interference from electrical motors or equipment
Drivers not installed
Wireless router turned off
Security settings preventing connections
4 Which command displays the IP address of the host and other configuration
information?
A getmac
B ipconfig
C nslookup
D ping

5 List four physical cable tests you can perform with a cable testing device.
Answers include:
Locating miswired cables

Locating missing cables
Locating cables that dont support your network type (for example, 100 Base-T)
Testing hub connections
Testing PC connections
Testing installed cables
Testing patch cables
Locating and tracing inactive cables
6 A network analyzer can detect problems with what four pieces of hardware?
Cabling
Jacks
Network cards
Hubs
7 What information does the ipconfig command report?
Connection-specific DNS suffix

IP address
Subnet mask
Default gateway
8 What command should you enter to view the Host Name and DNS Server address?
ipconfig /all
9 Which command would you use to verify name resolution (DNS) settings?
A ipconfig
B ping
C nslookup
D tracert
10 What is the difference between SMTP and POP3?
SMTP is used primarily for sending e-mail, and POP3 is used for retrieving e-mail.
11 _________ is the decrease in signal strength along the length of a network wire.
Attenuation
12 True or false? QoS can be used to prioritize video and VoIP transmission to reduce
jitters.
True
13 Which ipconfig switch is used to delete all name resolution information from the
clients DNS Resolver cache?
/flushdns
1541

In this activity, you will discuss and apply various troubleshooting techniques.
Note: Form teams and discuss the following questions. There are no definite answers
for these questions.
1 A user is unable to access the network from his or her workstation. Role-play
troubleshooting this users problem.
2 On an IP network thats connected to the Internet through a router providing
network address translation, Jim reports that he cant browse the Internet. List the
steps to resolve the problem.
a Launch your Web browser and verify that you can browse.
b Ping Jims computer.
c If you receive a response that indicates that his host adapter is active, verify that the
appropriate name servers are defined.
d If they are, verify that the default gateway is specified to be the routers LAN IP address.
e If it isnt set, set the gateway address. Then reboot.
f
If you can browse the Web, inform Jim about the nature of the problem.
g Document the problem, the symptoms, and the resolution.
161
Unit 16
Portable computers

A Identify and install notebook components.
B Configure your mobile computer.
C Replace components in notebook
computers and handheld devices.

D Troubleshoot and maintain notebook
components.
162
Topic A: Notebook computers

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.3

AC adapter
1.10

Bluetooth
Infrared
Cellular WAN
Ethernet
Modem
Power and electrical input devices
Auto-switching
Fixed input power supplies
Batteries
Input devices
Stylus / digitizer
Function keys
Point devices (e.g., touchpad, point stick / track point)
Notebook computer components

Explanation
Notebook computers are small computers with all the necessary input and output
components contained in a portable unit. They typically weigh less than five pounds,
although some of the more powerful notebooks weigh closer to eight pounds.
Notebooks use standard client operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS,
or Linux. They contain all of the components a desktop computer needs to be a
functional computing device, although most components are modified to some extent
from their desktop versions. Exhibit 16-1 shows a notebook computer.
Portable computers
163
Monitor
Keyboard
Touchpad (pointing device)
Exhibit 16-1: A notebook computer

A typical notebook computer contains the following components:
CPU
Memory
Hard drive
CD or DVD drive
Keyboard
Monitor
Pointing device
Peripheral ports
Network adapter
Modem
One or more slots for expansion cards (However, the cards arent the same as
those used with desktop computers.)
Although notebook computers contain the same components as their desktop
counterparts, due to their smaller size and decreased capacity to dissipate the heat
generated by more powerful internal components, youll find that notebooks typically
arent as powerful or fast as desktop models.
Notebook computers arent nearly as easy to upgrade as their desktop counterparts.
Theres little compatibility between notebook computers within a manufacturers line,
and even less between notebooks from other companies. There arent extra slots and
bays awaiting the latest additions. Typically, notebooks are more expensive to begin
with because the components are specifically made for each model or line. When
pricing a notebook computer that contains components with comparable performance as
a desktop computer, youll pay more for the notebook computer.
Designers try to create notebooks that are as small, lightweight, and portable as
possible. This small size makes them prone to being stolen. For this reason, a security
cable slot is included somewhere on the outside of the case. The security cable has a
small plate that turns perpendicular to the slot when its locked, so if someone tries to
pull it out, it breaks the case. Locks come with either a key or a combination.
164

Netbooks
Theres a class of notebook computers called subcompact notebooks or netbooks. These
notebooks are much smaller than their regular counterparts, but also have an integrated
monitor. Netbooks can be as small as 5" across and weigh as little as two pounds. A
Sony Vaio P-class "Lifestyle PC is shown in Exhibit 16-2.
Netbooks are designed for wireless Internet useWeb browsing, e-mail, and cloud
computing (accessing remote-based applications). Therefore, they dont have the
processing power or storage capacity of a regular notebook computer running local
applications. A big advantage, however, is that netbooks are very easy to travel with
because of their small size. Currently, netbooks are available with these operating
systems: Linux, Mac OS X, Windows CE, Windows XP, Windows Vista Home
Premium or Business, and Windows 7 Starter and Home Premium. Microsoft has made
Windows 7 Home Premium, Windows 7 Professional, and Windows 7 Ultimate
netbook upgrades available for download from their online store.
Exhibit 16-2: Sony Vaio P class subcompact notebook
Power sources
Notebook computers contain a battery that provides anywhere from 30 minutes to 8
hours of power. Notebook batteries come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Theyre
designed to fit in around other notebook components, so they might be oddly shaped.
Usually, theyre rectangular or square with a connector on one edge. Exhibit 16-3 shows
a notebook battery.
Exhibit 16-3: A notebook battery
Portable computers
165
There are three basic types of batteries: nickel cadmium (NiCad), nickel metal-hydride
(NiMH), and lithium ion (Li-Ion). Most notebooks have Li-Ion batteries. Older systems
might still use Ni-Cad or NiMH batteries.
NiCad batteries often have a problem called memory effect. A NiCad battery
remembers how full it was during the last charge and doesnt charge past that
point.
Nickel metal-hydride batteries have two to three times the capacity of a similar
size NiCad battery. They also suffer from memory effect, but not as great as
NiCad batteries. However, NiMH batteries have a higher self-discharge rate than
both NiCad and Li-Ion batteries. NiMH batteries use hydrogen instead of
cadmium lead, making them a more environmentally friendly choice.
Li-Ion batteries are lightweight and have a long battery life. The liquid
electrolyte is contained within a steel structure to prevent leakage. Another
alternative is lithium polymer, which uses a jellied substance rather than a liquid
for the electrolyte material.
Zinc Air batteries are a new technology that uses a carbon membrane to absorb oxygen.
They also contain a zinc plate and use potassium hydroxide for the electrolyte.
However, this type of battery is not rechargeable and needs to be used quickly before
the chemicals dry out.
Fuel cells are predicted to be a popular battery choice in the future. These are still in
development, but they show great potential, not only for notebook computers, but also
for cars and other devices all around us.
Power adapters
Notebook computers also come with an external power cord and transformer (often
referred to as an "AC adapter or "fixed-input power supply), which you can use to
power the notebook when you arent mobile. Notebook computers automatically switch
power from the power outlet to the battery when you unplug them from the wall, and
they automatically switch power from the battery to the power outlet when plugged
back into the wall outlet. You also use the power cord to recharge the battery.
The power cord has a transformer between the outlet and the computer. Its a square or
rectangular box, so its often referred to as the power brick. Exhibit 16-4 shows a
notebook power cord. The power cords size and shape vary from notebook to notebook
but are similar to the one shown. If you need to replace either the power cord or the
battery, make sure you purchase one specifically designed for your notebook computer.
Transformer
Outlet plug
Computer plug
Exhibit 16-4: A notebook power cord
166

You can purchase a 12-volt power adapter that connects to the auxiliary power socket in
a vehicle or on an airplane. These adapters are available from the manufacturer or from
a third party with adapters to fit your notebook model. The 12-volt power adapters also
work in the cigarette-lighter socket of older automobiles.
Power states
The power button is usually located on the interior surface near the keyboard. This
location prevents the computer from accidentally turning on when youre transporting it
in a case or under your arm. In addition, there might be a switch that puts the notebook
in hibernation mode if you close the lid. Opening the lid is usually not enough to wake
the computer up from this mode; you need to press the power button to bring the
computer back to life.
The power lights color and state indicate how power is being supplied and used.
A solid light, typically green or blue, indicates that the notebook is being
powered from the outlet, and its battery is fully charged.
A solid alternate-color light, such as orange or yellow, indicates that the
notebook is being powered from the outlet, and its battery is being recharged.
A blinking light indicates that the notebook is in power-saving sleep mode. You
can press the power button to wake it up. The color of light varies. On some
models, its the same green or blue that indicates that the notebook is powered
from the outlet. On other models, the blinking light is orange, yellow, or another
color.
Check the documentation for your notebook to determine which colors and steadiness
modes it uses to indicate power use.
Auto-switching
Notebook computers have the ability to switch between the battery and the AC power
supply automatically. When the AC power supply is connected to the notebook and an
external power supply, the notebook computer runs on the power supplied by the
external source. When you unplug the AC power supply from the notebook computer or
from the external power source, the notebook computer automatically switches to
battery power. The notebook continues to run on battery power until the battery is fully
discharged or you reconnect the notebook to an external power supply. The operating
system on the notebook monitors the power remaining in the battery and displays
warnings as the power reaches low levels. This allows you either to save your work and
shut down the computer or to connect the notebook to an external power supply.
Processors
Notebook computers often use special CPUs that are engineered specifically to use less
power and generate less heat than typical desktop CPUs. Intel, AMD, and other
manufacturers are continually improving and updating their processors. For the most upto-date specifications, you should refer to the manufacturers Web sites.
AMD notebook processors:
http://www.amd.com/us/products/notebook/processors/Pages/no
tebook-processors.aspx
Intel notebook processors:

http://www.intel.com/products/laptop/processors/index.htm
Portable computers
167
The website "NOTEBOOKCHECK maintains a comparison of CPU benchmarks for

mobile processors. You can find the searchable list at:
http://www.notebookcheck.net/Mobile-ProcessorsBenchmarklist.2436.0.html
Heat dissipation
As processors work at faster speeds, they produce additional heat. Typically, desktop
computers dissipate this heat with a heat sink. Most notebook computers also use a heat
sink, but its not as large as that of a desktop computer. Notebook computers employ a
feature called thermal throttling, in which the processor senses that its getting too hot
and automatically reduces the clock speed to consume less power and produce less heat.
Thermal throttling reduces the notebooks power consumption enough to prevent heat
damage to the processor and other internal components.
Power management
Notebook computers also use power management features to help keep overheating in
check and manage battery usage. The processor runs at a low speed until it detects that
you have requested processor-intensive tasks. The processor speed increases to
accomplish the tasks.
If you do a lot of processor-intensive tasks, you might get better performance by
manually setting the power management options. You can set them in the system BIOS
or, in newer operating systems such as Windows Vista and Windows 7, from within the
GUI. You can use the power management options to set your own custom balance
among heat, performance, and battery life or to choose one of the operating systems
preset power schemes.
Most notebook computers now incorporate the Advanced Configuration and Power
Interface (ACPI) to control the amount of power drawn from the battery when the
notebook is not in use. ACPI is an open industry specification that was co-developed by
Compaq, Intel, Microsoft, Phoenix, and Toshiba to establish standard interfaces for
operating system configuration and power management on laptops, desktops, and
servers. In order to fully use all ACPI features, the computers hardware, system BIOS,
and operating system must support ACPI. Youre likely to encounter three power states
on notebook computersSleep, Hibernate, and Standby.
Newer notebook computers that are designed specifically for mobile computing
integrate wireless network adapters onto their motherboards to seamlessly connect to
Wi-Fi networks. Manufacturers use this integration to apply power management options
to network connectivity.
168
Memory
Memory modules for notebook computers are different from those found in desktop
computers. Notebook memory chips have a smaller form factor than desktop memory
chips in order to fit into the notebook memory sockets. Notebooks typically use lowprofile SODIMM chips. The SODIMM, which stands for "small outline dual inline
memory module" has become a standard for many notebook computers. The SODIMM
is approximately half the size of a regular DIMM, measuring 6.76 cm x 3.015 cm.
SODIMMs have 72, 100, 144, 200, or 204 pins.
Other notebooks might use MicroDIMM memory, which uses CSP architecture, grid
ball array, or other such technologies. MicroDIMM memory chips are smaller than
SODIMM chips, measuring 4.25 cm x 2.5 cm or 5.4 cm x 3.0 cm, and are typically used
in subnotebooks. Micro DIMM modules can have 144, 172 or 214 pins. The type of
memory your particular notebook uses depends on the motherboard installed. Exhibit
16-5 shows a notebook memory chip.
Exhibit 16-5: A notebook SODIMM
Drives
Notebook computers are equipped with a hard drive and a DVD or CD drive. Its
unusual to find a modern notebook with a floppy drive. The DVD or CD drive might or
might not be an RW drive. Hard drives in notebooks typically have a smaller capacity
than hard drives in desktop computers. A common drive size for a notebook computer,
at the time this course was written, was 320 GB.
The notebook hard drive has a small form factor; its usually a 2.5" drive. The hard
drive is designed to use less power than typical desktop drives. Its often slower than the
desktop hard drive as well.
Portable computers
169
Keyboards
The keyboard on a notebook computer is smaller than a standard desktop keyboard.
Several of the keys contain functions usually found on separate keys on a desktop
keyboard. To access the alternate functions, you press a function key, labeled "Fn,
along with the other key. As shown in Exhibit 16-6, the alternate functions are usually
written in smaller, light type, or in a different color, on the edge of the key.
Function keys have alternate functions as well. These are usually functions that, for a
desktop computer, would have separate physical buttons on the monitor or the
computer. Functions include adjusting the volume, switching between the built-in
monitor and an external monitor, changing the displays brightness, and using Num
Lock. Refer to your documentation for additional information on other alternate
functions that might be included on your keyboard.
The keys are placed close together on a notebook keyboard. For people with large
fingers, this can make it more difficult to type. Some notebooks have a PS2 port to
which you can connect an external keyboard. If your notebook doesnt, and you want an
external keyboard, youll need to find one that can be connected via a USB port.
Fn function
Exhibit 16-6: Notebook keyboards combine functions on keys
Monitors
The monitor is an integrated component of a notebook computer, just as the keyboard is.
The monitor forms the hinged cover for the laptop. Most notebook monitors are very
thin LCD devices. LCD technology is used in notebook computers because:
Less power is used.
Less heat is created.
Less space is used for an equivalent size viewable area compared to other
technologies.
The user experiences less glare.

LCD technologies
There are three types of LCD technologies used in notebooks:
Transmissive Illuminated by fluorescent backlighting; renders the greatest
color depth, sharpest text, and highest resolutions of the three LCD technologies.
However, it uses the most power from your notebooks battery, and the screen
image can be overpowered by external bright lighting.
Reflective Uses a mirror to reflect ambient light and illuminate the display.
This technology uses the least amount of power from your notebooks battery.
Reflective technology screens are ideal for use in bright sunlight, but are dim
when you view them indoors.
Transflective A hybrid between transmissive and reflective screen
technologies. When you use them indoors, transflective screens use backlighting
to render images. When you use them outdoors, transflective screens absorb the
suns rays to produce a brighter image. This technology is more expensive and is
typically reserved for specialty portable devices or laptops for specialty markets,
such as law enforcement.
Native resolutions
The native resolution is the number of individually addressable pixels in the screen
matrix. The common conventional 4:3 resolutions found in notebook monitors include:
XGA 1024768 pixels; 12.1" to 15" viewable area
SXGA 12801024 pixels; 14.1" viewable area
SXGA+ 14001050 pixels; 12.1" to 15" viewable area
UXGA 16001200 pixels; 15" viewable area
Widescreen 16:10 resolutions found in newer notebook monitors include:
WXGA 1280800 pixels; 12.1" to 17" widescreen viewable area
WXGA+ 1440900 pixels; 14.1" to 17" widescreen viewable area
WSXGA+ 16801050 pixels; 15.4" to 20.1" widescreen viewable area
WUXGA 19201200 pixels; 15.4" to 17" widescreen viewable area
Netbooks have smaller screens than notebook computers. Netbooks with a larger screen
size of approximately 10 inches, tend to use the WSVGA widescreen resolution of
1024600 pixels. Those with the smaller 7" screen use a VGA resolution of 800480
pixels.
LCD monitors produce the clearest picture when all pixels are used. Although you can
usually configure an LCD monitor for a lower resolution than the native resolution, the
image will be somewhat blurry because not all pixels will be illuminated. On a few
LCD monitors, you can set a higher resolution than the native resolution, but again, the
image might not be as clear as the image at the native resolution.
Active matrix technology
Modern notebook monitors are active matrix monitors that use TFT (thin-film
transistor) technology to provide the highest resolution available. The TFT layer of the
active matrix monitor stores the electrical state of each pixel as all of the pixels are
updated. This arrangement provides an exceptionally clear display. Older monitors use
passive matrix technology, in which the pixel states arent maintained as other pixels are
refreshed. These monitors are less expensive than active matrix monitors, but the
images are not as clear or bright.
Portable computers
1611
Contrast ratio
The contrast ratio of a monitor is the ratio between its brightest white and darkest black.
A minimum ratio for comfortable viewing is in the range of 400:1 to 600:1. Higher-end,
large LCD monitors can have contrast ratios of 80,000:1 to 100,000:1.
Pointing devices
Notebook computers have integrated pointing devices built into the middle of the
keyboard or below the keys. Some notebooks have a small pointer, much like a joystick,
thats located between the center keys of the keyboard; you push this pointer up, down,
left, and right to move the mouse. Separate buttons below the Spacebar are used as the
left and right mouse buttons.
Trackballs
You might encounter some notebook computers with an integrated trackball. Integrated
trackballs work like standard trackballs, except that you cant reposition them next to
the computer.
Touchpads
Other computers have a touch surface, also known as a glide pad or touchpad, below the
spacebar. You can tap the pad for a mouse click, or use the buttons below or beside the
pad as the left and right mouse buttons. Slide your finger in the direction you want the
mouse pointer to move, and then tap the touchpad or the button next to it to make
selections.
Some notebook cases arent very substantial, and resting your hands on the surface next
to the touchpad can result in the sensors perceiving that youve chosen to move the
mouse pointer. This can be bothersome, so advise users only to rest their hands lightly
on the surface to avoid this problem. An integrated touchpad is shown in Exhibit 16-7.
Glide surface
Right button
Left button
Exhibit 16-7: Touchpad integrated into a notebook computer

Handwriting technology
Technology has allowed manufacturers to incorporate the handwriting techniques used
on handheld devices into notebooks. With this technology, you can use a stylus to write
letters and numbers on the screen, and a program on the notebook interprets them for
use in applications, just as if youd used the keyboard. Tablet PCs incorporate this
technology.

Peripheral ports
Most notebook computers include one or more USB and IEEE 1394 ports. Some also
include a VGA or DVI port to connect an external monitor, and even an HDMI port for
connecting to an HD TV. An S-video port might also be included. Many notebook
computers include memory card readers to read flash memory cards. Flash memory
cards are used in consumer electronics, such as digital cameras, MP3 players, and cell
phones. You remove the memory card from your electronic device, slide the card into
the appropriate card reader port on the notebook, and then you can transfer information
between the card and the notebook.
Many people like to connect their notebooks to external peripherals while they arent
mobile. The notebook might or might not include a PS/2 port. If it does, you can
connect an external keyboard to it. If not, then you need a USB keyboard or a PS/2-toUSB adapter if you want to use an external keyboard.
If your notebook has a single PS/2 port, you can purchase a special adapter so that you
can plug in both an external mouse and a keyboard. The keyboard and mouse ports on
the adapter are labeled. With such Y-adapters, be sure to connect the keyboard and
mouse to the proper ports, or they wont work.
Line-in, line-out, and mic ports might be included as well. Speakers are usually built
into the notebook, with the speaker grilles located on the surface. Exhibit 16-8 shows
built-in line-out and mic ports, along with volume control buttons, on a notebook
computer.
Microphone port
Line out
Volume controls
Mute button
Exhibit 16-8: Built-in sound functions
Portable computers
Do it!
A-1:
1613
Identifying the components and integrated

peripherals in a notebook
Heres how
Heres why
1 If necessary, turn off your

computer
2 Locate the battery compartment
Its on the bottom of the computer.
Press the battery release
This is located near the battery compartment in

most cases.
Remove the battery
You might need to remove an access cover first.
Replace the battery
If necessary, lock the battery compartment.
3 Locate the power cord
It should have a transformer box either on a

separate segment of power cord or integrated
into a single power cord.
Plug the power cord into the

computer and an electrical outlet
4 Open the cover of the notebook
5 Locate the power button
Be sure you identify the power button and not a

Suspend or Sleep mode button.
Turn on the computer

6 Examine the keyboard
Locate the Fn key and see if you can figure out

what the symbols on the keyboard indicate.
Check your answers against the documentation
for the notebook computer.
7 Identify the peripheral ports on

your notebook

for your notebook computer. There are usually
USB, VGA, and parallel ports. Other ports
might also be included.
8 Determine if your notebook has

built-in Ethernet, wireless
network, and/or modem features

for your notebook computer.
If these features arent present,

how can you add these functions?
9 Log on to Windows 7

10 Run an application
Place your computer in Hibernate
mode
Wake your computer back up
Close the application
Portable computers
1615
Wireless communications
Wireless connections are a popular means of linking devices, such as PCs, handheld
computers, music players, and more. Wireless connections generally use one of the
following:
Infrared light
Radio waves
Bluetooth
Infrared
Infrared wireless technology uses pulses of invisible infrared light to transmit signals
between devices. It offers relatively low-speed, line-of-site connections between
devices. Infrared light cant pass through obstructions or around corners. Connection
speeds can be up to 16 Mbps, with a typical range of one meter. To make connections,
devices must aim their transceivers almost directly at each other. Devices that are more
than 30 degrees off to the side of a receiver are generally unable to connect.
Devices that use infrared include handheld computers, such as PDAs, and some wireless
keyboards, mice, and printers. Infrared connection technology standards are set forth by
the Infrared Data Association (IrDA).
Exhibit 16-9: An IrDA infrared port on a laptop

Radio waves
Radio-based wireless communications use signals sent over electromagnetic radio
waves to transmit data between devices. Radio transmissions can pass through most
nonmetallic obstructions and around corners. Thus, it isnt a line-of-site technology.
Radio offers moderate- to high-speed local and wide area connections.
Various radio networking technologies have been developed. Currently, the most
common of these include 802.11g and 802.11n. The 802.11n standard offers a
theoretical maximum of 300 Mbps for business or home networking and Internet
connectivity over modest distances. Intel is seeing real-world speeds of 100140 Mbps.
This range is in comparison with the 802.11g standards theoretical maximum speed of
54 Mbps, with real-world speeds of 2224 Mbps.

Radio networking technologies are sometimes called "RF technologies, where "RF
stands for "radio frequency. RF devices have antennae, which are sometimes hidden
inside the devices. For example, a laptops 802.11n wireless network adapter antenna is
typically hidden within the laptops case. A Linksys WRT160N 802.11n wireless router,
with additional wired Ethernet ports, is shown in Exhibit 16-10. The wireless antennas
are hidden inside the case.
Exhibit 16-10: An 802.11n wireless router

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-distance (up to 10 meters) radio communications technology,
developed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which includes over a thousand
companies. Chief among these are Siemens, Intel, Toshiba, Motorola, and Ericsson.
Bluetooth is designed to enable devicessuch as cellular telephones, PDAs, personal
audio players, PC peripherals, and PCsto discover the presence of other Bluetooth
devices within range. Once detected, these devices self-configure and begin
communicating. With Bluetooth devices, you shouldnt have to configure any
communications parameters, such as network addresses.
Bluetooth devices have antennae, which are usually hidden inside the devices. A cell
phone that supports Bluetooth probably has an external antenna for both cellular
telephone communications and Bluetooth connectivity.
Network connections
Most notebooks now include both a LAN interface and a wireless one. The LAN
interface is typically an RJ-45 port for an Ethernet network. Many notebook computers
also include a modem port. Wireless technology for network connectivity is becoming
increasingly popular for LANs, especially in buildings where it might be difficult to
install new wiring.
Portable computers
1617
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most popular form of LAN in use today. Its popular mainly because it
strikes a good balance between ease of setup and use, speed, and cost.
Three types of Ethernet architecture are available now. Each is distinguished primarily
by the speed at which it operates. Each version can be set up with various types of wire
or cable, but each versions speed and operating conditions might dictate what type of
connecting wire is used. Most current Ethernet installations use shielded twisted-pair
(STP) cable, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable, or fiber optic cable.
Wireless networks
As their name suggests, wireless LANs dont use wires to connect the nodes of the
network. The nodes arent physically connected to one another or to a central device.
Instead, they communicate with an access point or wireless hub by using a wireless
network interface card (NIC), which includes a transceiver and an antenna. The wireless
NIC allows the node to communicate over relatively short distances by using radio
waves, which it sends to the nearest hub and receives from the hub.
The major wireless technologies include:
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) The marketing name for IEEE 802.11b, IEEE
802.11g and IEEE 802.11n technologies. You find Wi-Fi in public places, such
as airports and coffee shops, that offer Internet access.
WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 Air Interface Standard) In wireless metropolitan area
networks.
Cellular WAN Uses cellular phone technology and equipment to link a
handheld PC to the Internet or another network.
Bluetooth Short-range wireless technology used to connect nodes in a single
room or in adjacent rooms.
802.11a Developed at the same time as 802.11b. Due to its higher cost, it was
used in business networks, while 802.11b dominated the home market.

Most notebook computers include a toggle switch to turn the wireless antenna on and
off. This switch can be electrical or mechanical, as shown in Exhibit 16-11. With
mechanical switches, many manufacturers also use an LED somewhere on the case
around the keyboard to indicate that wireless is turned on. One of the reasons you might
turn off the wireless antenna is to save power. Also, if youre in a wireless hotspot but
arent using the network connection, when you turn off the wireless, it removes your
computer from the public network, thus preventing hackers from accessing it remotely.
Electrical switch
Mechanical switch
Exhibit 16-11: Electrical and mechanical switches

Do it!
A-2:
Comparing wireless networking standards
Questions
replaces the wire?
2 List the major wireless
technologies
3 Which wireless standard is
typically used in airports and
coffee shops?
4 Whats the range of the Bluetooth
technology?
5 Which wireless technology
connects mobile users to the
Internet, using a well-established
network, but is relatively slow, at
speeds equivalent to dial-up (56
Kbps)?
Answers
Portable computers
1619
Topic B: Configuration
exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.10

Batteries
3.3
Configure power management
Suspend
Hibernate
Standby
Explanation
As with any Windows computer, there are many features you can configure on a
notebook computer to optimize it for the way you use it every day. The Windows
Mobility Center provides a central location for a variety of settings, including power
and display options, that you can access with just a few clicks, instead of opening
multiple windows in the Control Panel. In addition, optimizing power settings to
maximize usage and battery life is an important consideration on all notebook
computers.
The Windows Mobility Center

Both Windows 7 and Windows Vista provide a built-in utility for mobile computers
called Windows Mobility Center. As shown in Exhibit 16-12, this utility contains tiles
that link to different utilities, providing a central location from which you can configure
your mobile computer. You will find the Windows Mobility Center only on mobile
computers (which include tablet PCs), and the tiles might vary by computer
manufacturer. Not all computers display all of the same tiles.
Exhibit 16-12: The Windows Mobility Center on a notebook computer running Windows
7
To open the Windows Mobility Center:
1 Open the Control Panel.
2 In Windows 7, under Hardware and Sound, click Adjust commonly used
mobility settings.
In Windows Vista, click Mobile PC, and then click Windows Mobility Center.
You can also right-click the battery icon in the notification area in Windows 7 or click
the battery icon in Windows Vista and choose Windows Mobility Center. Typically,
Windows Mobility Center will contain tiles for the following:
Display brightness
Volume
Battery status
Wireless networking status
Screen orientation (important for tablet PCs)
External display
Sync Center
Presentation settings
Portable computers
Do it!
B-1:
1621
Using the Windows Mobility Center
Heres how
Heres why

directions to log on to the
notebook computer
2 Open the Control Panel
Click Adjust commonly
used mobility settings
3 Adjust the brightness of the

display
4 Adjust sound volume
5 Observe the battery status
You can see how much battery power you have

remaining. You can also select a different power
plan from the list.
6 Observe the Wireless Network

status
You may or may not be connected to a wireless

network at this point.
7 If you are using a tablet PC,

observe the orientation setting
You can switch between portrait and landscape

orientation.
8 Observe the External Display

setting
If you dont have an external display connected,

this tile will be grayed out and youll be given
the option to connect an external display.
9 Observe the Sync Center tile
You can use the Sync Center to synchronize

files between your notebook and other mobile
devices, such as PDAs, and between your
notebook and client computers and servers on
the network.
10 Observe the Presentation Settings

tile
You can use this tile to quickly set up your

computer for a presentation for which youll be
using a projector or other external display
device.
11 Close Windows Mobility Center
Leave the Control Panel open.

Power-saving modes
Computers use electricity as their source of power. They can use a considerable amount
of power even when they sit unused and idle. Power consumption, although a bit
expensive, is less of a concern with desktop computers than with portable computers
that get their power from rechargeable batteries.
Modern computers include support for power-saving measures, such as shutting off
unused components. Windows includes the software components required to take
advantage of these power management features. A Windows computer can be in one of
the following three power-saving modes:
Standby Standby is a user-configurable, power-saving mode thats activated
in order to conserve the battery. Some components are turned off or switched to
a power-saving mode. For example, you might configure the hard disk to turn
off, the display to turn down or off completely, and the processor to throttle
down to a lower-power mode. Programs continue to run while your computer is
in standby mode. Standby is a sleep power state that must be supported by a
computers hardware and operating system.
Computers enter standby mode on their own after a configurable interval of no
user interaction. Typically, to take a computer out of standby, you move the
mouse, press any key on the keyboard, or press the power button. Unlike
Suspend and Hibernate, nothing is saved in memory or on the hard disk.
Restoring full operations from Standby is faster than restoring from a shutdown
or from Hibernation or Sleep mode.
Sleep In ACPI sleep mode, the system enters a low-power state. System
configuration information, open applications, and files are stored in RAM, but
the screen and hard disk and most of the other notebook components are turned
off. The computer draws just enough power to preserve the contents of RAM.
Most components in the computer are turned off.
Computers typically enter sleep mode on their own after a configurable interval
with no user interaction. On many desktops, you can press a special sleep key on
the keyboard to put the computer to sleep. On many notebooks, closing the lid
puts the computer to sleep. Typically, you must press the power button, press the
sleep key, or open the laptops cover to wake the computer from sleep mode.
In Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home
Edition, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, notebooks enter this mode
automatically when you lower the notebook cover or press the Sleep or Suspend
key. Lifting the cover or pressing the Sleep or Suspend key again wakes up
the computer, and the battery refreshes the information stored in RAM.
Hibernation The computer takes all current applications running in RAM,
saves them in the swap partition on the hard disk, and then turns the notebooks
power off. All components of the computer are turned off. As a result, the
Hibernate power state requires zero power. When you wake the computer,
information stored on the hard disk is loaded back into RAM and appears in the
same state as before the hibernation. The contents of the temporary file are read
into memory, and programs are reactivated. The OS is restored faster from this
state than from a shutdown, but more slowly than from the Sleep power state.
Your computer might hibernate after a configurable period of inactivity.
Sometimes pressing the power button hibernates a computer, as is often the case
with notebook computers. You must press the power button to wake the
computer from hibernation.
Portable computers
1623
Your notebook might or might not be configured to support sleep and hibernate modes
the way you want. Many people find it most convenient to have their laptop go to sleep
when they close the cover, and have the computer hibernate when they press the power
button. You can configure these actions by following these steps in Windows Vista and
Windows 7:
2 Click Hardware and Sound.
3 Under Power Options, click "Change what the power buttons do.
4 Using the lists, select the action you want taken when you close the lid or press
the power button. You can specify different actions depending on whether the
computer is running from the battery or is plugged in.
5 Click Save changes.
Power options
You can configure which components are powered down and when with standby mode.
You can configure whether your computer goes to sleep and the interval after which it
will do so. You can also configure whether your computer supports hibernation and how
you hibernate your computer. You do all this through the Power Options window in the
Control Panel, shown in Exhibit 16-13.
Exhibit 16-13: Selecting a power plan in Windows 7

Power plans
By default, Windows 7 and Windows Vista offers three power plans, each of which
represents a set of power-saving options. You can customize the default plans or create
your own. The standard plans are:
Balanced Balances energy savings and performance. This plan is typically
used on desktop computers.
Power saver Favors energy savings over responsiveness. You might have to
wait while components power up, or wake your computer more often than with
another plan. This plan is typically used on notebook computers.
High performance Favors performance over energy savings. Fewer
components are turned off, so the computer is more responsive. This plan is
typically used with servers and computers that share their resources.
Your computer manufacturer might create power plans optimized for its specific
hardware and include them in the OEM version of Windows installed on your computer.
Do it!
B-2:
Putting a notebook into hibernate and sleep modes
Heres how
1 Configure your notebook computer to go to sleep when you close the lid, and
hibernate when you press the power button.
Put your computer to sleep. Move the mouse or press a key to wake your
computer.
Hibernate your computer. Wake your computer by pressing its power button
again.
2 Which is the faster power-saving mode to enter and resume from: sleep or
hibernate?
3 Close Power Options.
Portable computers
1625
Topic C: Component replacement

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.2
Explain motherboard components, type and features

Bus slots
PCMCIA
1.9

Communication
NIC
Modem
1.10

Expansion devices
PCMCIA cards
PCI Express cards
Docking station
Bluetooth
Infrared
Cellular WAN
Ethernet
Modem
Input devices
3.3
Demonstrate safe removal of peripherals

objectives.
#
Objective
1.3
Given a scenario, install, configure, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace laptop
components
Components of the LCD, including inverter, screen, and video card
Disassembly processes for proper reassembly
Document and label cable and screw locations
Organize parts
Refer to manufacturer documentation
Use appropriate hand tools
Recognize internal laptop expansion slot types
Upgrade wireless cards and video card
Replace keyboard, processor, plastics, pointer devices, heat sinks, fans, system board, CMOS
battery, speakers
Replacing components in notebooks

Explanation
When an internal component of a notebook computer needs replacing, most often youll
need to purchase the replacement from the manufacturer because most notebooks
contain custom devices. However, PC Cards, mini PCI cards, and some other
components, such as memory, are standardized so that you can purchase them from any
manufacturer. Some third-party manufacturers make replacement components so that
you have an alternative to the original equipment manufacturer.
Sometimes you can use a PC Card to replace a function that no longer works on the
built-in component. If you do this, you might need to disable the built-in component to
prevent a conflict between the two components.
When you need to replace an internal component, follow these general guidelines for the
disassembly process to ensure proper reassembly:
Refer to the manufacturers documentation to locate panels or slots through
which you can access internal components.
Document and label screw locations to ensure that the correct screws are
reinserted in their proper locations.
Organize and separate new parts and any parts you remove from inside the case.
Use hand tools appropriate for working with laptop computers.
Portable computers
1627
Hot-swappable components
Hot-swappable components are those components that you can add or remove without
turning the computer off. Technologies that support hot-swapping include:
PCMCIA
USB
IEEE 1394 (commonly referred to as the brand name FireWire)
Fibre Channel (used for enterprise storage)
Serial ATA (SATA)
Some computer components, such as the PC Card, require a simple hot-swap. In a
simple hot-swap, you shut down the component before removing it. In the Windows
operating systems, you accomplish this by clicking the Safely Remove Hardware icon
in the system tray and stopping the device.
PC Card cards
The expansion cards used in notebook computers are PC Cards. These are roughly the
size of a credit card, with varying thicknesses based on the type of card. There are three
types of PC Cards. They all have a 68-pin female connector that plugs into a connector
in the PC Card slot on the side of the computer. The Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association (PCMCIA) developed the standards for PC Card adapters.
However, the PCMCIA Association has been dissolved. The standards going forward
will be managed by the USB Implementers Forum.
PC Card types
The three types of PC Card adapters are:
Type I 3.3 mm thick
Type II 5 mm thick
Type III 10.5 mm thick
Most often, youll encounter Type II PC Card adapters. These are typically used for
network adapters and modems, for adding ports such as FireWire and SCSI, and
sometimes for memory. Some of the cards use a dongle to attach to a network cable or
to other cables. Other cards use a pop-out port for the connector to plug into. A Type II
PC Card is shown in Exhibit 16-14.
Exhibit 16-14: A Type II PC Card

Type I cards are typically used for memory, but arent very common because most
notebook computers use SODIMMs instead. Type III cards are typically used for
additional storage, such as for small hard drives. These arent very common, either.
There is also a Type IV PC card, which was introduced by Toshiba. However, this type
isnt part of the PCMCIA standards. These cards are 16 mm thick.
There are three types of bus connections that PC Cards might use. Theyre described in
the following table.
Bus type
Description
CardBus
Provides 32-bit bus mastering, which allows direct communication

between the card and other cards, without requiring access to the
computer CPU. Automatically uses Card and Socket Services to
allocate resources required by the add-on.
Zoomed Video (ZV)
Communicates directly between the PC card and the video

controller without accessing the system bus.
eXecute In Place (XIP)
Runs commands directly from code stored on the PC Card without

using system RAM.
The conventional PCI bus is a parallel bus. Depending on the version, the PCI bus
transfers either 32 or 64 bits of parallel data. A newer version of the PCI bus, called the
ExpressCard, is designed for notebooks. ExpressCard uses a differential serial bus
instead of a parallel bus. Compared to conventional PCI buses, the ExpressCard has
both a reduced cost and a higher bus speed.
The ExpressCard is the same size as a parallel PCI card; however, the ExpressCard isnt
compatible with the parallel PCI bus. Its connectors, signal voltage levels, and format
are different from those of a parallel PCI bus.
Inserting and removing PC Cards
You insert the PC Card straight into the slot, and it connects to the pins in the back of
the slot. Before removing a PC Card, you should stop its services by using the Safely
Remove Hardware icon in the system tray. Then you press the Eject button on the case
to pop the card out of the slot.
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Card and socket services

The PC Card specification includes specifications for software support of the physical
cards. This is a three-layer structure that provides plug-and-play functionality. The
following table describes the software layers.
Layer
Description
Metaformat, also
known as Card
Information
Structure (CIS)
Composed of the Basic Compatibility, Data Recording, Data Organization,

and System-Specific layers. The purpose of CIS is to provide a method of
data organization and data-recording-format compatibility for a variety of
PC Cards.
Card Services
An API that enables the sharing of device drivers and other software by PC
Cards and sockets. Card Services is designed to provide support for PC
Card devices to share device drivers, configuration utilities, and
applications. Its also designed to provide a single resource for functions
shared by the software.
Socket Services
Provides a common interface to the hardware that controls the socket in

which PC Cards are connected. This layer provides the upper layers with
information about the socket, including the number of sockets, the number
of windows, and the power needed for the PC Card.

Installing PC Cards
To install a PC Card, you simply slide it into the PC Card slot on the side of the
notebook. Be sure to install it with the correct side up so that you dont bend any of the
pins. Theres often an arrow or other indicator showing which way the card should be
inserted. Install any device drivers or software if youre prompted to do so.
In Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, after
youve installed a removable device, such as a PC Card, an icon appears in the
notification area. You can use the Safely Remove Hardware icon to open the Safely
Remove Hardware dialog box, which lists the removable hardware devices that are
installed. You can view the properties of a device or stop a device from this dialog box.
Exhibit 16-15 shows the icon and dialog box.
Exhibit 16-15: The Safely Remove Hardware icon and dialog box
Before removing a device, you should always stop the service first. This ensures that the
device isnt being accessed by any programs or services. If its a storage device,
stopping it ensures that it isnt in the middle of writing information. Data can become
corrupted if you remove the storage device while its being written to.
In Windows 7, when you click the Safely Remove Hardware icon, you receive a list of
hot-swappable devices as shown in Exhibit 16-16. Select the device, and Windows 7
automatically stops the services and prepares the device for removal.
Exhibit 16-16: Safely Remove Hardware menu

After stopping the device, you can press the eject button on the computer to release the
PC Card from the slot. The button is usually located next to the slot.
Portable computers
Do it!
C-1:
1631
Adding and removing hot-swappable components
Heres how
Heres why
1 If necessary, log on to the

notebook computer, using the
administrative credentials
provided by your instructor
2 Attach the USB device provided
by your instructor
Windows detects the device and places an icon

in the notification area.
If necessary, turn on power to the

device
If prompted, install any drivers for
the device
3 Test the device
Windows Vista doesnt ship with drivers for all

devices. Although it detects the device, you
might need to install manufacturer-provided
drivers for it to function correctly.
To verify that it is installed correctly and
functioning as expected.
4 In the notification area, click

Safely Remove Hardware
and Eject Media
Select your device

5 Detach the USB device
When it is safe to remove the device, Windows

7 displays a message in the notifications area.

Non-hot-swappable components
A component that isnt hot-swappable requires that you shut down the computer before
you add or remove the component. You might hear this process referred to as coldplug.
In notebook computers, internal components, such as the hard disk and memory, are
often coldplug devices.
If youre adding or removing a coldplug component in a notebook computer, you should
remove the battery in addition to unplugging the AC power. The battery continues to
supply power to the notebook even when the notebook is off. Replacing components
while the battery is still in the notebook might permanently damage the unit. Always
remember to follow proper ESD guidelines.
Notebook computers vary in how they are disassembled. The following sections provide
the general steps for replacing each type of internal component. Before attempting to
remove or replace any component, always refer to the manufacturers documentation for
your specific model.
Mini PCI cards
Another expansion card you might find in notebooks and other portable computer
equipment is the mini PCI card. This type of card has the same functionality as a
standard PCI card used in desktop computers, but in a smaller format. Its typically used
for communications that are integrated into the notebook, including modems, wired and
wireless network cards, and video cards. These cards are installed inside the notebook
case, rather than being installed externally like PCI Cards. Exhibit 16-17 shows a builtin modem and network adapter provided by a mini PCI card.
Exhibit 16-17: Built-in modem and network provided by mini PCI cards
Mini PCIe cards
The Mini PCIe card, shown in Exhibit 16-18, is replacing the Mini PCI card found on
many Mini-ITX system boards. Its smaller than the Mini PCI card by about halfwith
the Mini PCIe measuring 30 mm x 51 mm, and it has a 52-pin edge connector. The Mini
PCIe technology is essentially the same as ExpressCard. The Mini PCIe slot on the
system board must support both ExpressCard and USB 2.0, as the Mini PCIe card can
use both technologies for connectivity.
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1633
Exhibit 16-18: Mini PCIe card

Memory
The location of notebook memory modules varies greatly. In some notebooks, you
install memory by unscrewing a cover from a compartment on the underside of the case.
In others, you need to remove the keyboard from the case to access the memory area.
Memory has become more standardized for notebook computers than it was in the past.
Previously, each notebook used its own version of memory. Now, its easier to find a
notebook that uses a standard SODIMM or something similar.
When youre determining the amount of memory to put in a notebook computer, you
should be aware of a standard process called shared video memory. In this process, the
graphics card uses a portion of the computers RAM in addition to any on-board
memory of its own. Most often this happens when the graphics card is set to one of the
higher display modes. Shared video memory can leave you with less memory than you
expected for your applications.
For example, if you buy a notebook with 2 GB of memory and 512 MB of shared video
memory, and you set your display to a high pixel depth with a 32-bit color palette or
you use graphics-intensive applications, you might find that you have only 1.5 GB of
available memory (2048-512=1536).
To configure shared memory in the BIOS:
1 Enter the computers BIOS setup utility.
2 Access the Integrated Peripherals menu.
3 Select the AGP aperture size option.
4 Specify the amount of RAM to be used for shared video memory. Depending on
your computer, you can specify from 8 MB up to 128 MB.
5 Save changes and exit the BIOS setup utility.
To install additional memory in your computer, refer to the notebooks documentation
for instructions. As with all internal components, you shouldnt install memory until
you shut down the computer, unplug the power cord, and remove the battery. You dont
want to turn on the computer accidentally while youre installing or replacing the
memory.

Drives
The hard drive can be accessed from the bottom of the notebook computer. By
unscrewing one or more screws, you can remove an access cover and then slide out the
hard drive. Removing it might be necessary if the drive fails or if you want to replace it
with a higher-capacity drive. Exhibit 16-19 shows a notebook hard drive.
Text
Hard drive
Screws
Exhibit 16-19: Removing the hard drive from a notebook computer

Some notebook computers enable the user to exchange the CD or DVD drive with a
floppy or other drive. If the computer is equipped in this manner, you press a release
lever or button to eject the drive, and then insert the other drive in its space. If you need
to use both drives simultaneously, there might be an adapter you can use to connect the
floppy drive externally. If your notebook doesnt include such a feature, and you really
need a floppy drive, you can purchase a floppy drive that connects via the USB port of
any computer.
Keyboard
The general steps to replace a notebook keyboard are as follows:
1 Remove any screws holding the bottom cover in place.
2 Remove the cover.
3 Disconnect the connectors that connect the keyboard cables to the system board.
With a ZIF connector, first pull up on the connector, then remove the cable.
4 The keyboard might be held in place by plastic snaps or by screws. If held in by
screws, remove the screws. If held in by plastic snaps, gently pry up the edge of
the keyboard using a flat-head screwdriver. Lift the keyboard up and out.
5 Gently lift the keyboard out.
6 Gently place the new keyboard in the place of the old one.
7 Connect the keyboard cables to the system board.
8 Replace the bottom cover and reinsert any screws.
9 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power
source.
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LCD panel and video inverter card

LCD panels are fragile and can be easily damaged by mishandling. If the LCD display is
dim, you probably need to replace the video inverter card. The video inverter card is the
interface between the LCD panel and the system board. If the LCD is entirely black,
connect an external display to the notebook. If the external display works, but the LCD
does not, you need to replace the LCD panel assembly. If the external display doesnt
work either, you probably need to replace the video adapter card. Replacing a video
adapter card or video inverter card is a much less expensive repair than replacing the
LCD panel. In fact, sometimes the cost of a new LCD panel can exceed the price of a
new notebook.
For some models, you replace the entire assembly, which includes the LCD front bezel,
hinges, LCD panel, video inverter card, interface cables, and rear cover. In other cases,
you replace only the LCD panel and video inverter card. The general steps to
disassemble the LCD panel assembly are:
1 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the
battery.
2 If necessary for your notebook, remove the keyboard.
3 If necessary for your notebook, remove screws in the back of the notebook to
release the hinge assembly.
4 Remove the hinge covers. These are typically plastic, so be careful not to snap
them.
5 Lift the cover off the notebook. As you do so, disconnect any wires or cables
that connect the LCD panel to the system board. Be sure to note how these are
connected, so you can reconnect them later!
6 Remove the screws that hold the LCD panel in the notebooks top cover.
7 Remove the front bezel and rear cover from the LCD panel.
8 Remove the video inverter card.
9 Reverse the steps to reassemble and reattach the top with a new LCD panel,
video inverter card, or both.
source.
Other components
Other components you might need to replace on a notebook computer include:
The processor
Heat sink
Fan
The system board
The CMOS battery
Touchpad or other pointing device
Speakers
Web camera
Plastic components, such as internal brackets, wire harnesses, memory covers,
and support assemblies

Refer to the notebooks documentation to determine which parts can be replaced and
how to access them. In general, to access these components, you need to disassemble
the bottom of the case. Web cameras, and sometimes speakers, are found in the top
cover of the notebook and are accessed by disassembling a portion of the top cover.
Processor, heat sink, fan
The general steps to replace the processor, heat sink, or system fan are:
1 If replacing the processor, update the BIOS. Manufacturers often update their
firmware to support newer processors.
battery.
3 Follow the manufacturers directions to remove the hinges, bottom cover plate,
and keyboard.
4 Detach the LCD assembly from the bottom.
5 Remove the plate or shell covering the internal components. This is also referred
to as the motherboard cover.
6 In some notebook computers, you might need to remove another component,
such as the graphics card assembly, to gain access to the processor underneath.
7 Remove the heat sink. (Sometimes the fan and the heat sink are part of the same
cooling assembly.)
8 Unplug and detach the fan.
9 Following the manufacturers directions, remove the processor. Some processors
have a locking screw, some a locking bar.
10 Remove any thermal compound residue from the bottom of the heat sink and
processor (if not replacing the processor).
11 Apply a thin layer of thermal compound and insert the new processor.
12 Reattach and plug in the original or a new system fan.
13 Reattach the original or a new heat sink (if not part of the same cooling
assembly as the fan.)
14 Reassemble the notebook reversing the steps you took to disassemble it to this
point.
source.
System board
In order to replace the system board, you must disconnect all components from it. The
following are general steps to replacing a system board in a notebook:
battery.
2 Remove the hard drive, optical drive, and memory.
3 Follow the manufacturers directions to remove the hinges, bottom cover plate,
and keyboard.
4 Detach the LCD display assembly from the bottom.
5 Remove the plate or shell covering the internal components.
6 Carefully remove the internal components attached to the system board.
Components to remove might include the heat sink, fan, wireless networking
adapter, modem, touchpad or other pointing device, and processor.
Portable computers
1637
7 Carefully remove the system board from the notebook. It might be held in place
by plastic clips or screws.
8 Place the new system board into the computer, carefully lining up the cutouts for
side ports, such as USB.
9 Replace the processor, remembering to remove any old thermal compound and
to add new.
10 Replace the internal components that were attached to the system board.
11 Reassemble the notebook, reversing the steps you took to disassemble it to this
point.
source.
CMOS battery
The CMOS battery in notebook computers is typically located underneath the keyboard.
The general steps to replace a notebook CMOS battery are as follows:
battery.
2 Follow the steps to remove the keyboard.
3 Remove the plate or shell covering the internal components.
4 Locate the CMOS battery on the system board.
5 Remove the battery. In some notebook computers, it is held in place with clips.
In others, the battery is encased in plastic, connected to wires and a connector,
and then plugged into the motherboard. In the latter case, you would replace the
entire battery assembly, not just the battery itself.
6 Reassemble the notebook.
source.
8 Turn on the computer and enter the CMOS utility.
9 Enter the BIOS settings.
10 Save settings and restart.
Pointing device
Most notebook computers sold today use a touchpad. In general, the replacement steps
to follow are:
battery.
2 Follow the steps to disassemble the bottom of the notebook where the system
board is located.
3 Disconnect the pointing devices cables. Make sure to label the cables, so you
know where to reattach cables for the right and left mouse buttons.
4 Carefully remove the old pointing device.
5 Insert a new pointing device in its place.
6 Reattach the cables.
point.
source.

Speakers
What you must disassemble to replace the speakers depends on where they are mounted
in your notebook computer. Most speakers are located on the inside bottom of the
notebook, but some might be located in the frame around the LCD screen.
battery.
2 Follow the steps to disassemble either the top cover of the notebook, where the
LCD screen is located, or the bottom of the notebook, where the system board is
located.
3 Locate the speakers (in newer laptops that play stereo sound, there is typically a
right and a left speaker) and gently lift them out, disconnecting the cables.
4 Connect the cables for the new speakers and place the speakers in their proper
location.
point.
source.
Web camera
Web cameras are typically mounted inside the display panel above the LCD screen. In
order to replace the Web camera, you follow these general steps:
battery.
2 Remove the front bezel from the display panel. Refer to the manufacturers
documentation for the exact steps to do this.
3 Carefully remove the Web camera, disconnecting its cable.
4 Insert a new camera and connect its cable.
5 Replace the front bezel.
source.
Portable computers
Do it!
C-2:
1639
Replacing an internal component in a notebook
Heres how
Heres why
1 Shut down the notebook computer

Unplug the computer
From the electrical outlet.
Remove the battery
From the battery compartment.
2 Using the appropriate tools,

access the internal component
youll replace
Refer to your notebooks documentation for

instructions to access the given component.
3 Remove the old component from

the computer
Follow the directions in the documentation.
4 Install the new component
Again, refer to the documentation for your

notebook.
5 Using the appropriate tools, close

the compartment containing the
internal component you replaced
6 Start the computer and log on as
COMPADMIN##
To verify that the computer successfully boots

and finds the new component.

Peripherals
Most notebook computers include one or more USB ports. Other notebooks might
include parallel ports and a VGA port. Many people like to connect their notebooks to
external peripherals while they arent mobile. The notebook might or might not include
a PS/2 port. If it does, you can connect an external keyboard to it. If not, youll need a
USB keyboard if you want to use an external keyboard. An S-Video port might also be
included.
If your notebook features a single PS/2 port, you can purchase a Y-adapter so that you
can plug in both an external mouse and a keyboard. The keyboard and mouse ports on
the adapter are labeled. Take care to connect the keyboard and mouse to the proper
ports, or they wont work.
Do it!
C-3:
Adding peripherals
Heres how
1 Identify the peripheral ports on
your notebook
2 Determine which port should be
used to connect the given
peripheral device
3 Connect the device
If necessary, connect power to the
device
If necessary, turn the device on
4 Verify that the device works
Heres why
Check your answers against the notebooks
documentation. There are typically USB, VGA,
and parallel ports, but there might be others.
Portable computers
1641
Desktop features for notebooks

Notebook computers are convenient for people whose jobs require them to travel often.
However, if youre using a notebook full time, it can be a strain on your hands, arms,
and eyes always to have to use the built-in peripherals. Also, you might enjoy being
able to use a full-size keyboard, a separate mouse or other pointing device, and a larger
screen.
Notebook manufacturers offer a solution to enable you to enjoy these desktop
peripherals. For one thing, theres usually at least a monitor port on the notebook so that
you can connect it to a desktop monitor or a display projector. USB or PS/2 ports enable
you to connect keyboards or pointing devices. However, if you use the ports on the
notebook, then each time you want to become mobile again, youll have to disconnect
each of the peripherals. An easier solution is to use a port replicator or a docking station.
Port replicators
Each notebook has a specific solution for leaving desktop peripherals connected to a
device and then connecting the notebook to the device. Some of these devices are just
ports to which you connect the peripherals and the notebook. These are known as port
replicators because they simply replicate the ports.
Exhibit 16-20 shows the front and rear views of a port replicator. The top picture shows
the proprietary connection on the front that connects with the notebook. The bottom
picture shows the ports on the back of the port replicator. The peripherals can stay
connected to the port replicator, and you can undock the notebook from the connection
when you want to use the notebook elsewhere.
Front view
Notebook
connector
Rear view
Peripheral
ports
Exhibit 16-20: A port replicator

Docking stations
A more robust solution, known as a docking station, provides the same ports that a
replicator does. In addition, it has slots for full-size desktop PCI cards and might have
additional media/accessory bays, floppy drives, and CD drives. It can also act as a
platform stand for a desktop monitor. You slide the notebook into the docking station,
or the notebook might be automatically pulled in and connected when you place it in the
guides.

Do it!
C-4:
Docking and undocking a notebook
Heres how
Heres why
1 Locate the connector on your

notebook that connects it to the
docking device
Youll connect your notebook to the port

replicator or docking station thats compatible
with your laptop.
2 Determine how to connect your

notebook to your docking device
If it isnt obvious how to connect the notebook,

refer to the documentation.
3 Connect a monitor, keyboard, and

mouse to the docking device
4 Turn on the notebook
Use the external peripherals
5 Turn off your notebook
Eject the notebook from the
docking device
To interact with your notebook.

You should always turn it off before removing it
from the docking station or port replicator.
If it isnt obvious how to undock the notebook,
refer to the documentation.
Portable computers
1643
Topic D: Notebook issues

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.2
Excessive heat
2.4
Given a scenario, explain and interpret common laptop issues and determine the
appropriate basic troubleshooting method
Issues
Power conditions
Video
Keyboard
Pointer
Stylus
Wireless card issues
Methods
Verify power (e.g. LEDs, swap AC adapter)
Remove unneeded peripherals
Plug in external monitor
Toggle Fn keys or hardware switches
Check LCD cutoff switch
Verify backlight functionality and pixilation
Check switch for built-in WIFI antennas or external antennas

objectives.
#
Objective
1.3
Given a scenario, install, configure, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace laptop
components
Components of the LCD, including inverter, screen, and video card
Disassembly processes for proper reassembly
Organize parts
Replace keyboard, processor, plastics, pointer devices, heat sinks, fans, system board, CMOS
battery, speakers
Notebook computer problems

Explanation
Although notebook computers are designed to be rugged enough to endure the bumps
and tumbles that can occur during travel, theyre still electronic devices that can be
damaged relatively easily. You might encounter power-related problems, components
might be jarred loose, or components might be damaged and need to be replaced.
Some college dorm rooms tend to be a bit on the messy side, and a notebook computer
thats left under piles of papers and clothes and gets stepped on might end up with a
cracked screen, a damaged keyboard, or any other number of problems. Offices with
cups of coffee, birthday cakes, and lunches can lead to spills into the keyboard. The
keyboard on a notebook computer often covers other components, so a user wont be
damaging just the keyboard if things are spilled on it. These are just some of the
problems you might encounter when providing support to mobile users.
And as you troubleshoot notebook problems, remember than unexpected noises from the
notebook can indicate problems with the same components as desktop computer: hard
drive, floppy drive, cooling fan, and optical drives.
Keyboards
The keyboard on a notebook computer is smaller than a standard desktop keyboard.
Typically, notebook keyboards include the alphanumeric keys, function keys, and the
most important "system keys, such as Enter, Backspace, and so forth. Unlike desktop
keyboards, notebooks rarely contain dedicated numeric keypads, and some keys serve
dual purposes.
To access the alternate purpose of a dual-purpose key, you press the key while holding
down the Fn key. For example, to increase the brightness of your laptops screen, you
might press the F2 function key while holding down the Fn key. The alternate actions of
these dual-purpose keys are usually written in small, light type, or in an alternate color,
on the edge of the keys.
Portable computers
1645
Sometimes the function keys work as a toggle. If a user is typing and getting unexpected
results, such as trying to type a "j and getting the number "1 instead, perhaps a
function key was activated.
Pointing devices
Notebook computers have integrated pointing devices built into the middle of the
keyboard or placed below the keys. Some notebook keyboards have a small pointer,
much like a joystick, which can be pushed up, down, left, and right to move the mouse.
Separate buttons below the Spacebar are used as the left and right mouse buttons.
The cases of some notebook computers arent very substantial, and resting your hands
on the surface next to the touchpad can result in the sensors perceiving that youve
moved the mouse pointer. This can be bothersome, so youll want to advise users to rest
their hands lightly on the surface to avoid this problem.
The stylus
On tablet PCs, you access applications through the touch screen. Using a stylus or
sometimes your finger, you tap the application you want to use. You can then interact
with the computer through menus, handwriting recognition software, an external or onscreen keyboard, or icons within the application.
If a user is having problems entering or selecting information with the stylus, you might
need to recalibrate it through the operating system. To tell the tablet PC where the
boundaries of its screen are, youre prompted to tap the screen at the center and the four
corners. This gives the operating system the boundaries of the screen, and the OS can
then calculate where youre pointing when you tap the screen with the stylus. If
recalibration doesnt fix the problem, the screen might need to be replaced.
External peripherals not working
If a notebooks peripherals arent working, its possible that a port was damaged.
However, a more likely cause is that the function-key combination for using the internal
or external component was engaged. This happens easily on cramped notebook
keyboards. The Fn key is often located near the Ctrl and Alt keys and can easily be
pressed accidentally when users are trying to press Alt+F4, for example. On one
notebook computer, Fn+F4 switches the monitor output to laptop display only, external
monitor only, or both on at once.
Overheating
Although the components in a notebook computer are designed to run cooler than their
desktop counterparts, overheating can still be a big problem for notebook computers.
Some computers shut down when they detect that theyre running too hot. Others go
into Hibernation mode.
Notebook computers are often referred to as "laptop computers, but its better to place
them on a hard surface, such as a desk or table, rather than on your lap. The hard surface
allows proper air circulation around the computer to help prevent overheating.
Special cooling pads can be purchased and placed under a notebook computer. Some of
these are just louvered platforms that let air pass through. Others connect to the USB
port and have small fans to help cool the notebook. Some notebook computers include
built-in fans on the underside to help dissipate the heat buildup.

Added components not recognized
When you insert a PC Card or a memory module, it should be recognized by the system.
PC Cards might require that you install device drivers, but other than that, you shouldnt
need to do anything for them to be recognized. Memory modules should be recognized
automatically as well. If either of these components isnt found, or if the system doesnt
boot after theyre installed, chances are that they arent fully installed. Try removing the
component and reinstalling it.
PC Cards are hot-swappable and can be inserted while the notebook is running. Memory
modules, however, should be installed only while the system is turned off. In fact, on
some systems, the memory is installed under the keyboard so that you have to have the
computer turned off to install it.
Sometimes its helpful to remove any unnecessary peripheral devices. If removing
another peripheral device solves the problem, theres probably a system resource
conflict between the two devices. Most of the time, the operating system automatically
assigns appropriate system resources to devices. However, some older devices might
require specific I/O addresses that conflict with other devices on the system. In this
situation, you need to either manually assign the resources to avoid the conflict or
upgrade the component.
The display
The monitor is an integrated component of a notebook computer, just as the keyboard is.
The monitor forms the hinged cover for the laptop. The monitor is a very thin LCD
device. Modern notebook monitors are active-matrix monitors that use TFT technology
to provide the highest resolution available. The TFT layer of the active-matrix monitor
stores the electrical state of each pixel as all of the pixels are updated. This technology
provides an exceptionally clear display.
The video adapter in the computer converts data into the signals required to produce the
image you see on your screen. Todays video adapters create the signals needed to
display full-color images and video.
In LCD monitors, manufacturers use backlights to illuminate the LCD from the side or
back and to increase visibility in low-light situations. Backlight sources can be an
incandescent light bulb, one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs), an
electroluminescent panel (ELP), or a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL).
Incandescent backlighting might be used in notebook computers for which high
screen brightness is needed. However, incandescent bulbs have a limited life.
They also generate a large amount of heat, which requires the bulbs to be
mounted a certain distance from the screen.
LED backlighting is used in small, inexpensive LCD notebook monitors.
ELP backlighting is used in larger notebook displays. An inverter provides the
ELP with the relatively high-voltage AC it needs to function.
CCFL backlighting is also used in large displays. CCFLs use an inverter and a
diffuser.
Portable computers
1647
Many laptop display problems are caused by the Fn keys being set to the wrong
monitor settingfor example, its set to use an external monitor when one isnt
connected. If youre experiencing display problems, you should:
1 Press the monitor Fn key to switch between the settings.
2 Connect a known working external monitor if one isnt connected, or disconnect
it if it is.
3 Adjust the backlight or brightness setting of the display.
4 Verify that the LCD cutoff switch isnt stuck. It turns the display off when the
notebook lid is closed.
5 Reboot the computer in Safe mode, which loads standard VGA drivers. If the
display loads in Safe mode, you need to reset the display settings for a normal
boot.
Additional monitor problems can be caused by the users choosing incorrect resolution
settings. A monitors resolution is the number of pixels across and down that a video
adapter can create. Sometimes users select settings that are incompatible with their
monitor. Youll need to correct the settings, and you might need to boot into Safe mode
to do this. More complex monitor problems can be caused by a faulty LCD backlight
bulb, LCD inverter cable, LCD inverter, or motherboard.
The wireless antenna
In some laptops, the wireless antenna is in the lid. If the lid is tipped below or beyond a
90 angle, it can adversely affect the bandwidth available for the network connection.
Sometimes the connection is lost entirely. To correct the problem, you need to
reposition the notebook cover. Some notebook computers have a hardware switch you
can use to turn the wireless antenna on and off. You should verify that the switch is in
the correct position. If its a push-button switch, instead of a mechanical toggle switch,
theres usually an LED indicator light to tell you if the wireless is on or off.
Wireless ports
In addition to the network problems you might have with wireless devices, if a wireless
device is not responding the batteries might be run down. If the device uses alkaline
batteries, replace them. If the device uses rechargeable batteries, place the device or
batteries in the charger. (A mouse with rechargeable batteries is placed in the charger;
other devices might require the batteries to be removed and placed in a charger.)

Do it!
D-1:
Troubleshooting notebook problems
Heres how
1 One or more problems were introduced into your system, and you need to resolve
them. To start, determine whether you can use the built-in keyboard, monitor, and
pointing device.
2 Determine whether you can use the external keyboard, monitor, and pointing
device. These can be connected directly to ports on the notebook or to a port
replicator or docking station.
3 Determine whether the notebook can be used from battery power.
4 Document the problems you found:
5 Take the appropriate steps to resolve any problems you encountered.

6 Document the solution to the problems:
7 Test the system to verify that the problems were completely resolved.
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1649
Power problems
Even rechargeable notebook batteries eventually wear out. Most batteries can be
recharged about 500 times and still hold a charge. This duration usually works out to
about two or three years of life expectancy for battery power. When the battery no
longer takes or holds a charge, you need to replace it. Most often, you need to obtain
one from the notebooks manufacturer, although there are some third-party
manufacturers of replacement batteries. If you replace the battery with one that isnt
specifically designed for your laptop or isnt from a reputable manufacturer, be
carefulbatteries have been known to overheat, becoming a fire hazard.
The system tray usually contains a battery indicator that indicates how much battery
power remains. If you point to this icon, it displays the percentage of battery power
remaining and the estimated time it will last. Usually, if you right-click or double-click
the icon, you can configure settings to extend battery life by turning off components
after a period of inactivity.
There might also be predefined settings for specific needs, such as watching DVDs
under battery power or getting the most performance even if it means using up battery
power faster. Exhibit 16-21 shows an example of a notebook power management utility.
Exhibit 16-21: The power management utility for a Toshiba notebook

There are three power-related measurements you should know for the laptop you are
working on:
Voltage The rate at which power is drawn by the laptops power adapter
Amperage rating The strength of the current
Polarity Positive or negative
This information is often stamped on the transformer case of the laptops power cord.
Its also documented in the laptops operating manual.
Remember this formula: volts amps = watts. Youll find that many laptops run
on fewer than 100 watts of power.

The power connector in your laptop has two possible positions: the positive lead is on
either the inside pin or the outside connector. You need to match it up correctly with the
adapter; otherwise, you can burn out the laptops circuits. If a laptop arrives for service
and doesnt have its original power cord, you can substitute onejust make sure you
use one that has the correct power settings.
Replacing the battery
You can remove the battery from the battery compartment to insert a new one.
Replacement is necessary if youre mobile for long periods of time and must replace a
discharged battery with a fully charged one to continue working. Also, if the battery has
reached the end of its useful life, youll need to replace it.
The battery compartment is typically located on the bottom of the notebook. The
compartment has a slider or button that you press to eject the battery. Because
manufacturers expect this component to be changed by users, it isnt held in place with
screws or other holders that require tools.
Power issues with notebook computers
To determine how power is being supplied and used on a notebook computer, you
examine the color and state of the power light. Check the documentation for your
notebook to determine the colors and steadiness modes it uses to indicate power use.
Even rechargeable notebook batteries eventually wear out. Most batteries can be
recharged about 500 times and still hold a charge. This duration usually works out to
about two or three years of life expectancy for battery power. When the battery no
longer takes or holds a charge, you need to replace the battery. Most often, you need to
obtain one from the notebooks manufacturer, although there are some third-party
manufacturers of replacement batteries. Be careful if you replace the battery with one
that isnt specifically designed for your laptop or isnt from a reputable manufacturer.
Batteries have been known to overheat, becoming a fire hazard.
The notification area usually contains an icon that indicates how much battery power
remains. If you point to this icon, it displays the percentage of battery power remaining
and the estimated time it will last. Usually, if you right-click or double-click the icon,
you can configure settings to extend battery life by turning off components after a
period of inactivity. There might also be predefined settings for specific needs, such as
watching DVDs under battery power, or getting the most performance even if it means
using up battery power faster.
Some notebook computers dont work at all, even from AC power, if the battery is
depleted. If you remove the battery completely from these systems, you can power on
the system. Other systems require that you have the battery installed, even if it wont
hold a charge, because its used to complete the electrical circuit in the notebook.
When troubleshooting power problems in a laptop, you want to verify power. To do so:
Look at the notebooks power lights for an indication of its power source.
Use a multimeter to test whether the power cord is delivering power from the
wall outlet.
Try swapping the AC adapter with another thats known to work.
Try replacing the battery with another one.
Portable computers
1651
Power issues with handheld computers

Because handheld devices are battery-operated, the batteries need to be replaced or
recharged to keep the devices functioning properly. Most handheld devices have a flat,
round battery that helps prevent data loss if the main batteries are fully discharged.
However, if the handheld device is left uncharged long enough, even this battery cant
maintain your data forever.
Data can be lost if the device isnt recharged or the battery isnt replaced in a timely
manner.
Therefore, backing up your PDAs data to your desktop computer is a good practice.
Typically, youll have a backup from when you synchronized the data between the PDA
and the computer. If you lose power, you might also lose device settings. If this
happens, youll need to reset all of the calibrations and any other customized settings.
Do it!
D-2:
Identifying power problems
Heres how
Heres why
1 Try to power on your notebook,

using just battery power
What do the power indicator lights
show?
2 Identify the polarity of your
notebooks power cord
3 Connect the power cord to the notebook
Connect the power cord to the wall outlet
4 Try to power on your notebook,
using power from the wall outlet
What do the power indicator lights
show?
5 If the notebook doesnt power up,

test the power from the power
cord by using a multimeter
6 If your test shows that power
through the power cord is good,
what could the power problem be?
How might you solve that
problem?
7 Test your solution

Maintenance
The best defense against problems is preventative maintenance. This can be more
difficult for laptops and other portable computers than for desktop computers, because
theyre moved around so much and subjected to varying conditions that might not be
optimal for operation.
Here are some of the things you should do to maintain the notebook computers in your
organization:
1 Clean the exterior case with a water-dampened cotton cloth. Stubborn stains can
be spot-cleaned with alcohol.
2 If the notebook has a touchpad, use a water-dampened cotton cloth to clean it as
well.
3 Keep the fan openings and ventilation holes clear to help airflow and prevent the
notebook from overheating. If you use compressed air to blow out the fans,
place a toothpick or similar device between the fan blades to keep them from
spinningspraying air into the fan can cause it to overspin and get damaged.
You can purchase special notebook cooling units to rest the notebook on.
4 Use compressed-air canisters or computer-equipment vacuums to blow out dust
and other materials from sensitive components, such as component connections
and contacts. USB ports are especially susceptible to gathering dust and foreign
materials.
5 Clean the monitor with a soft dry cloth. An LCD or plastic screen requires
special care. Wipes designed for glass CRT screens shouldnt be used on these
surfaces; nor should you use a paper towel, which can scratch the screen.
6 Remove accumulated dust, crumbs, and dirt from between the keyboard keys.
Use a small paintbrush to move the debris to the end of a row of keys; then use
tweezers to remove it.
7 Use a video cleaning kit to clean the CD or DVD-ROM drive. A dirty optical
drive can cause read/write errors.
Operating environment
To provide the best operating environment for your notebooks, keep the humidity to
about 50%. Using the notebook in low-humidity environments (under 40%) can lead to
static electricity and potential ESD damage. High-humidity environments (over 60%)
can lead to moisture and condensation buildup on components.
Dont operate the notebook in very warm areas because the fan will have a hard time
keeping the internal components cool. If you must operate in warm environments, you
should invest in a cooling unit to place your laptop on when in use.
It can be very difficult to remove dust from the inside of a notebook computer, so its
best if you operate the unit in an environment that doesnt have an abnormal amount of
dust. For example, a construction site wouldnt have the best air quality to operate your
notebook in.
Transporting a notebook
Users should use a padded carrier designed for notebooks when transporting them from
location to location. These specially designed bags provide cushioning to absorb bumps
to the notebook. They also include adjustable straps to keep the notebook secured and
prevent it from sliding around in the bag. Users can purchase these bags in many styles,
including over-the-shoulder, backpack, and rolling.
Portable computers
1653
To ship a notebook, properly pack it. If you dont have the original packing material
from you manufacturer, you can follow these packing steps to help it arrive at its
destination undamaged:
1 Place bubble wrap around your laptop.
2 Choose a box with at least a 2" air gap between the laptop and the box on the
top, bottom, and sides.
3 Fill the air gap with packing popcorn, bubble wrap, or other protective material.
The packing material should fill the entire air gap.
4 Use strapping tape to secure the flaps on the box closed.
5 Ship through a carrier that offers insurance and delivery confirmation.

Do it!
D-3:
Maintaining a notebook
Heres how
Heres why
1 Clean the outside case of your

laptop
Use a water-dampened cotton cloth. For

stubborn stains, you can use a small amount of
rubbing alcohol.
2 If your laptop has a touchpad,

clean the touchpad
Use a water-dampened cloth.
3 Blow out the fans
Use compressed air. Place a toothpick or similar

device between the fan blades to prevent them
from spinning.
4 Remove dust and other materials

from component connections and
contacts
Use compressed air.
5 Clean the monitor
Use a soft dry cloth.
6 Remove accumulated dust,

crumbs, and dirt from between the
keyboard keys
Use a small paintbrush to move the debris to the

end of a row of keys; then use tweezers to
remove it.
7 Clean the CD or DVD-ROM drive
Use a commercial video cleaning kit.
8 Determine if the current

environment is a good operating
environment
Measure humidity and air temperature. Observe

the air quality for dust.
9 Place the notebook and its

components in a good carrier
Observe how your particular
carrier protects the notebook
Remove the notebook and its
components from the carrier
10 Pack the notebook for shipping
Remove the notebook from the
shipping package
Portable computers
1655
Unit summary: Portable computers

Topic A
In this topic, you learned how to identify notebook components. You also compared
the wireless networking standards used by notebook computers.
Topic B
In this topic, you configured a mobile computer. You examined the Windows Mobility
Center, and you learned how to configure power settings.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned how to replace the internal components of a notebook
computer. Internal components are categorized into hot-swappable and coldplug
devices. You also learned how to connect peripheral devices to a notebook computer to
add functionality.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned how to troubleshoot and maintain notebook components.
Notebooks take more bumps and abuse than desktops, so knowing how to support and
maintain them and their components is critical in todays business environment.
Review questions
1 Which of the following components are typically built into a notebook computer?
A Monitor
B Printer
C Scanner
D Pointing device
2 Which of these battery types isnt typically used to power a notebook computer?
A Lithium ion (Li-Ion)
B Alkaline
C Nickel metal-hydride (NiMH)
D Nickel cadmium (NiCad)
3 Which type of battery is used most often in notebook computers?
A Lithium ion (Li-Ion)
B Nickel cadmium (NiCad)
C Nickel metal-hydride (NiMH)
D Zinc Air
4 True or false? The power cord for a notebook is a standard cord, such as that used
for a desktop computer.
False. The power cord for a notebook computer has a transformer between the outlet and the
computer. Its a square or rectangular box, so its often called a "power brick.
5 True or false? Notebooks can be powered from a cars cigarette-lighter socket.

True, with the appropriate power adapter.

6 Which power light indicator shows that the notebook is being powered from the
outlet and its battery is fully charged?
A Blinking green or blue light
B Blinking orange or yellow light
C Solid green or blue light
D Solid orange or yellow light
7 True or false? Notebook computers always use the same CPUs as desktop
computers.
False. Notebook computers often use special CPUs that are engineered specifically to use less
power and generate less heat than typical desktop CPUs.
8 In which power state does the computer take all current applications running in
RAM, save them to the systems swap partition on the hard disk, and turn the
notebooks power off?
A Hibernate
B Sleep
C Shut down
D Standby
9 Which type of memory module package is typically used in notebook computers?
A DIMM
B MicroDIMM
C SIMM
D SODIMM
10 True or false? If your notebook doesnt support swapping a CD or DVD drive with
a floppy drive, you wont be able to use a floppy drive with the computer.
False. You can purchase an external floppy drive and connect it to the computer through one of
the peripheral ports, such as a USB port.
11 Which LCD technology uses the least amount of power from your notebooks
battery?
A Active matrix
B Passive matrix
C Reflective
D Transflective
E Transmissive
12 Which wireless connection technology uses pulses of invisible light to transmit
signals between devices?
A Bluetooth
B Infrared
C Radio
D WiMAX
Portable computers
1657
13 Which wireless connection technology is limited by line-of-sight?

A Bluetooth
B Infrared
C Radio
D WiMAX
14 Which PC Card type is typically used for network adapters and modems and for
adding FireWire and SCSI ports?
A Type I
B Type II
C Type III
D All types
15 Which type of bus communicates directly between the PC Card and the video
controller?
A CardBus
B ZV
C XIP
D Card and Socket Services
16 True or false? The PCI Express card is the same size as a parallel PCI card, and its
connectors, signal voltage levels, and format are identical.
False. The PCI Express card is the same size as a parallel PCI card; however, the PCI Express
card isnt compatible with the parallel PCI bus. Its connectors, signal voltage levels, and format
are different from those of the parallel PCI bus.
17 Which card and socket layer service is designed to provide support for PC Card
devices so they can share device drivers, configuration utilities, and application
programs?
A Card Services
B Metaformat
C Socket Services
18 True or false? A port replicator is a more robust solution than a docking station for
using a notebook computer while at the office.
False. The docking station is a more robust solution than a port replicator. A docking station
provides the same ports as a replicator, but it also has slots for full-size desktop PCI cards. It
might also have additional media/accessory bays, floppy drives, and CD drives. It acts as a
platform stand for a desktop monitor.
19 To access the alternate purpose of a dual-purpose key, you press the desired key
while holding down which key?
A Alt
B Ctrl
C Fn
D Shift

20 With which pointing device technology can resting your hands on the surface next
to it result in the sensors perceiving that youve chosen to move the mouse pointer?
A External PS/2 or USB mouse
B Joystick
C Trackball
D Touchpad
21 True or false? If a notebooks peripherals arent working, its likely that the port
was damaged.
False. Although its possible that the port is damaged, a more likely cause is that the function-key
combination for using the internal or external component was engaged.
22 True or false? To install PC Cards, you must shut down the computer first.
False. PC Cards are hot-swappable and can be inserted while the notebook is running.
23 If you incorrectly set the displays ______________ settings, the monitor might not
display information properly.
resolution
24 Some laptops have their wireless antenna in the lid. If the lid is tipped below or
beyond a __________-degree angle, it can adversely affect the bandwidth available
for the network connection.
90
25 Most notebook batteries can be recharged approximately how many times before
theyll no longer hold a charge and need to be replaced?
A 100
B 300
C 500
D 1000
26 Why can the wireless network adapter be turned off on some notebooks?
Usually, if youre mobile, you dont have access to a wireless network, so you can save the power
needed for the card to keep the notebook powered longer. You can also turn it off for security
purposes. If youre at a wireless hotspot and suspect suspicious activity, you can switch off the
wireless network card.
27 Which power-related measurement is the rate at which power is drawn?

A Amperage
B Polarity
C Voltage
28 If you use compressed air to blow out the fans in your notebook computer, what
should you place between the fan blades to keep them from spinning?
A Nozzle of the compressed air can
B Paper
C Toothpick
D Nothing; you want the blades to spin
Portable computers
1659

In this activity, youll practice working with the components of a notebook computer.
1 Connect an external monitor to a notebook computer. Set the display to the external
monitor only.
2 Use the external monitor to view output from the notebook.
3 Unplug the notebook computer from the AC power source.
4 Click the battery icon in the system tray.
5 View the batterys current charge status.
6 Modify the power settings to conserve battery power.
7 Add a hot-swappable device to your system.
8 Verify that the hot-swappable device is functional.
9 Properly remove the hot-swappable device from your system.
10 Plug in the notebook so that its no longer running on battery power.
171
Unit 17
Windows management

A Manage the operating system.
B Configure Task Scheduler.
C Manage resources on your computer.
D Participate in a Remote Assistance session,
and connect to another computer using

Remote Desktop.
172
Topic A: System management

exam objectives.
#
Objective
3.1
Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows 7
32-bit vs. 64-bit
Sidebar, Aero
3.3
Suspend
Wake on LAN
Sleep timers
Hibernate
Standby
objectives.
#
Objective
2.3
Regional and language settings
2.4

Error messages and conditions
System performance and optimization
Aero settings
Indexing settings
Sidebar settings
Regional and language settings

Explanation
Although regional and language settings are typically configured during Windows
installation and then never touched again, you can reconfigure the settings at any time in
the Control Panel. To access the settings in Windows 7 or Windows Vista, open the
Control Panel, click Clock, Language, and Region, and then click Region and Language
in Windows 7 or Regional and Language Options in Windows Vista. In Windows XP,
open the Control Panel and click Date, Time, Language, and Regional Options. Then
click Regional and Language Options. In Windows 2000 Professional, open the Control
Panel and double-click Regional Options.
Windows management
173
The following table describes the settings you can configure on each tab of the
Windows 7 and Windows Vista Regional and Language Options dialog box.
Tab
Settings
Formats
The display of numbers, currency, dates, and times. All formats have
default groups of settings, but all are customizable.
Location
Your computers location, which can affect some applications that provide
location-specific content.
Keyboards and
Languages
Keyboard input configuration based on language and region; language

settings.
Administrative
The language for non-Unicode applications, and user settings.
Windows XP Regional and Language Options dialog box.
Tab
Settings
Regional Options
Your computers standards and formats to control the display of numbers,

currency, dates, and times; your computers location, which can affect
some applications that provide location-specific content.
Languages
Keyboard input configuration based on language and region; supplemental

language support options.
Advanced
The language for non-Unicode applications; user settings.
Windows 2000 Professional Regional Options dialog box.
Tab
Settings
General
Your computers location, which can affect some applications that provide
location-specific content; your computers language settings.
Numbers
The display of numbers.
Currency
The display of currency.
Time
The display of time.
Date
The display of dates.
Input Locales
Keyboard input configuration based on language and region; hot keys.
174
Do it!
A-1:
Exploring regional and language settings
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open the Control Panel and click

Clock, Language, and
Region
Click Region and Language
To open the Regional and Language Options

dialog box.
2 Observe the Formats tab
You can use these settings to control the display

of currency, numbers, and dates and times. The
current format was set during the Windows
installation.
3 Open each of the dropdown lists

and observe the settings on the
various format settings
You can configure very specific display settings,

including decimal displays, currency formats,
hour and minute displays, and long and short
dates.
4 Activate and observe the Location

tab
Again, the location was set during installation.
Display the Current location

list
You can select any country in this list to specify

your current location.
Press g
To close the list.
5 Activate Keyboards and

Languages tab
Click Change keyboards and
click Add
You can change your keyboard input settings

and the language Windows uses. You can install
additional language packs to customize menus
and dialog boxes.
Click Cancel twice

6 Activate and observe the
Administrative tab
You can configure the language for nonUnicode programs, and you can copy regional
settings to new user accounts and specific
system accounts.
7 Click Cancel
To close the Regional and Language Options

dialog box.
Close the Control Panel window
Windows management
175
Indexing
Because its faster to search through an index than it is to search through every file on a
computer, Windows builds an index of files from specific folders in the directory
structure. The Indexing Service performs a comprehensive search operation during
indexing. It goes through each file, creating a catalog of detailed information on each
file. The service has filters for HTML files, text files, and all types of Microsoft Office
files. The Indexing Service is designed to perform its work when the computer is idle.
The service pauses whenever it senses activity from the keyboard or mouse. If you
regularly search for specific content in data files on large volumes, the Indexing Service
can save you a considerable amount of time. Some estimates state that searching for
content with the Indexing Service returns results hundreds of times faster than using a
standard search engine.
Windows 7
In Windows 7, the indexing service isnt installed by default. Windows Search has taken
over the tasks performed by the indexing service in previous versions of Windows.
Windows Search creates a system-level index for over 200 common types of files. The
system creates an initial scan of your computer, then as new files are created and new
emails received, theyre indexed during the computers idle time. By default, Windows
Search indexes the contents of all users Documents and Favorites folders, the Public
folders, and default mail stores. On Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise
computers, you can modify these settings using user- and computer-based group
policies.
Windows Vista
In Windows Vista, by default the index is built from the Offline Files, the Start Menu
folder, and the Users folder. Because most users will store their files in their Documents
or Pictures folders, the Users folder is a prime location for indexing. If users complain
that their files arent showing up when they search or that the search is slow, check to
see if the correct folders are being indexed. If necessary, reconfigure the index by
adding new folders, and then rebuild it.
To reconfigure or troubleshoot indexing in Windows Vista:
2 Click System and Maintenance.
3 Click Indexing Options.
You can add or remove folders in the index list, and you can control index settings such
as the index location and whether encrypted files are indexed. You can also rebuild the
index or restore index settings to their defaults.
176

Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional
In Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional, the Indexing Service default setting
searches through all files on your entire hard disk. You can make it more efficient by
customizing which types of files to search for and how to search them. To customize the
directories or file properties that are indexed, you use the Indexing Service MMC:
1 Click Start and choose Run.
2 Enter ciadv.msc.
3 Double-click System.
4 Display the contents of the Directories folder.
You can add new directories to this list by choosing Action, New Directory and
entering the required information in the Add Directory dialog box.
You can delete directories from this list by choosing Action, Delete.
If you dont use the built-in search function often, you can speed up your computer by
disabling indexing. To turn off indexing on individual volumes:
1 Open My Computer and right-click the volume that you dont want Windows to
index.
2 Clear Allow Indexing Service to index this disk for fast file searching and
click OK.
You can also disable the indexing service:
2 Enter service.msc.
3 Scroll to view Indexing Service and double-click it.
4 Click Stop and change the Startup Type to Disabled.
5 Click OK.
Windows Search continues to work, but more slowly than if indexing were enabled.
Windows management
Do it!
A-2:
177
Modifying indexing settings
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start
In the Search box, type
gpedit.msc and press e
To open the Local Group Policy Editor
2 Navigate to Computer
Configuration, Administrative
Templates, Windows Components
and select Search
Observe the settings in the details
pane
These are the settings you can enable and

configure for the Search service that will apply
to the computer no matter what user logs on.
3 Navigate to User Configuration,

Administrative Templates,
Windows Components and select
Search
Observe the settings in the details

pane
4 Close Local Group Policy Editor
These are the settings you can enable and

configure for the Search service that will apply
to individual users.
178
Windows Aero
Windows Aero is the name of the new graphical user interface (GUI) that Microsoft
introduced with Windows Vista. The Windows GUI had remained much the same from
the introduction of Windows 95 up through Windows XP in 2001. This new GUI
includes the following features:
Translucent windows, taskbar, and Start menu
Taskbar thumbnails, which provide a preview of the windows they represent
Three-dimensional Windows Flip, shown in Exhibit 17-1, which allows you to
flip between open windows while seeing whats in each window (Available in
Windows Vista)
Exhibit 17-1: 3D Windows Flip in the Windows Vista Aero interface

In Windows 7, Microsoft added several features to the desktop of the Aero interface.
Theyre described in the following table.
Desktop feature
Description
Aero Peek
Aero Peek works in two different ways:

When you place your mouse over an open applications Taskbar
icon, Windows displays a thumbnail of the window. Place your
mouse pointer on that thumbnail, and Windows 7 makes all open
windows transparent except the one youre pointing to.
By placing your mouse pointer over the small translucent
rectangle at the right edge of your task bar (shown in Exhibit 17-2),
it makes all open windows transparent, allowing you to view your
desktop. If you click the rectangle, youre able to access items on
the desktop with your mouse. This is similar to the Show Desktop
feature in previous versions of Windows. Click the rectangle
again, and the transparent windows are restored.
Aero Shake
When you have multiple windows open on your desktop, you can
press and hold your mouse pointer on the title bar of a single window,
then shake the mouse back and forth. This minimizes all other open
windows, leaving just the one you shook on the desktop.
Windows management
179
Desktop feature
Description
Aero Snap
Drag the title bar of a window to the top of the screen and the window
automatically maximizes. Drag the title bar back down and the
window goes back to its original size and position. Drag the title bar
to the left or right of your screen, and it snaps to one side and takes up
half the desktop.
Jump lists
When you right-click a taskbar icon (either an open application or a

pinned application), Windows 7 displays a pop-up menu that you can
use to select common tasks quickly for the application. Jump lists are
coded by the application developers, and if available, vary from
application to application. An example of the jump list for Internet
Explorer is shown in Exhibit 17-3.
Exhibit 17-2: Showing the desktop with Aero Peek
Exhibit 17-3: Internet Explorer jump list

Aero technical requirements
Windows Aero is available in Windows 7 and Vista Home Premium, Windows Vista
Business, Windows 7 Professional, Windows 7 and Vista Enterprise, and Windows 7
and Vista Ultimate. The Windows Aero GUI has several technical requirements:
1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor
1 GB of system memory
Windows Aero-compatible graphics card:
Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) driver support
Pixel Shader 2.0 in hardware
32 bits per pixel
128 MB of graphics memory
Although you can install and use Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a computer with a
slower processor, less memory, and a non-compatible graphics card and processor, you
wont be able to use the Windows Aero interface.
Personalizing the appearance of Windows
You can customize the appearance of Windows to suit your preferences by using the
Personalization settings in the Control Panel. To access these settings, right-click the
desktop and choose Personalize.
Exhibit 17-4: Personalization settings in Windows 7
Windows management
1711
The following table describes some of what you can do with the various settings.
Category
Use settings to
Window Color and

Appearance
Enable window transparency, and change the colors used for various window
components.
Desktop Background
Add wallpaper, a background pattern, or a color to the desktop.
Screen Saver
Activate and control screen savers.
Sounds
Choose sound effects you hear when working with Windows.
Mouse Pointers
Choose the shape and size of the mouse pointers.
Theme
Change the overall design of your system by using predefined combinations of

backgrounds, sounds, colors, and icons.
Display Settings
Set your monitors resolution, color depth, and refresh rate.
Changing the desktop background

You can modify the desktop background, setting it to a color, pattern, or wallpaper of
your choice. Wallpaper is a picture that appears on the desktop background. To change
the desktop background:
2 Click Appearance and Personalization. You can also right-click an empty area of
the desktop and choose Personalize to get to this step.
3 Click Desktop Background.
4 Select a picture category from the list, and then select the picture you want. You
can also browse to a picture file you have saved elsewhere.
Exhibit 17-5: Choosing a background in Windows 7

Do it!
A-3:
Personalizing the appearance of Windows
Heres how
Heres why
To open the Documents folder.
Documents
Click Start
2 Observe the Start menu, the edges
of the Documents folder window,
and the taskbar
To display the Start menu.

The right side of the Start menu, the edges of the
window, and most of the taskbar are translucent,
showing features and objects beneath them. This
is the Windows Aero interface.
3 Close Documents
4 Right-click the desktop and
choose Personalize
To open the Personalization window.
5 Click Window Color

Observe the settings
You can change the colors of the window and

configure window transparency.
Windows management
6 Select a new color and observe the
window
Experiment with the Color
intensity slider bar
7 Clear Enable transparency
Click Save changes
8 Click Desktop Background
From the Picture location list,
select Pictures Library
1713
You can see what the color would look like.
To lighten or darken the color you selected.
To see what the effect would be if window

transparency were disabled.
To save your settings.
To choose a new desktop background.
You can choose wallpaper images from your
Pictures folder, sample wallpapers included with
Windows, images from the Public Pictures
folder, or images from elsewhere.
9 From the Picture location list,

select Windows Desktop
Backgrounds
Select a new background
The desktop changes right away, so you can see

how it will look.
After you find a background you

like, click Save changes
To accept the new background and return to the

Appearance and Personalization settings.
10 Close the Personalization window

Troubleshooting Windows Aero
If you install the correct version of Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a computer that
meets the technical requirements, Windows Aero is the default GUI. If Windows Aero
isnt displayed, or if youre not seeing all of its effects, you can troubleshoot the
problem by using the suggestions in the following table.
Possible cause
Solution
Running Windows 7 Starter

or Windows Vista Home
Basic, which dont support
Windows Aero
Install, or upgrade to, Windows 7 Home Premium, Professional,

Enterprise or Ultimate, or Windows Vista Home Premium,
Business, Enterprise, or Ultimate.
Hardware doesnt support

Windows Aero
Check the computers hardware against the published

requirements, and install new hardware as necessary.
Video card driver out-of-date
Install a new driver for the video card.
Incorrect display settings
Verify that the color setting is 32-bit and the refresh rate is set to
at least 10 Hz.
Incorrect desktop theme
Set the desktop theme to Windows 7 or Windows Vista. In

Windows Vista, set the color scheme to Windows Aero. Verify
that Windows frame transparency is enabled.
Windows frame transparency

not enabled; power settings
on a mobile computer disable
transparency
Enable transparency. On a mobile computer, select a power plan

other than the power saver plan, and verify that Windows frame
transparency is enabled.
Application doesnt support

Windows Aero
Upgrade to a new version of the application, if possible.
Update not applied to

Windows Vista
Install the latest Windows updates.
If Windows Aero is displayed when you start the computer but turns off very shortly
after Windows starts, you might need to update your computers system BIOS software.
Do it!
A-4:
Troubleshooting Windows Aero settings
Heres how
1 True or false? All applications
support Windows Aero
2 If a computer doesnt display the
Windows Aero UI, whats the
first thing you should check?
Whats the second?
Heres why
Windows management
1715
Windows Desktop Gadgets and Windows Sidebar

The Windows Desktop Gadgets in Windows 7, shown in Exhibit 17-6, runs small
programs that Microsoft calls gadgets. Essentially, gadgets perform small, simple
functions that you might commonly need but that dont need your full attention.
Examples include a clock, a calculator, sticky notes, news feeds, and small games and
slide shows. This feature is called Windows Sidebar in Windows Vista.
Exhibit 17-6: Gadgets in the Windows Sidebar in Windows 7

In Windows 7, gadgets can be pinned anywhere on the desktop. In Windows Vista,
gadgets must be placed in the Sidebar. Gadgets can be added to, moved in, and removed
from as you wish. A few gadgets are present by default, but you can change these
easily.
To move a gadget, click its handle and drag it to where you want it. Gadgets in the
Windows Sidebar will automatically rearrange themselves when you move one of them.
When you drag a gadget, you need to grab its handle, because with some gadgets,
clicking directly on them means that you want to do something like write a new
reminder note or open a news article.

You add new gadgets from the Gadget Gallery, shown in Exhibit 17-7. To open it, click
the plus button at the top of the Sidebar. In Windows 7, right-click the Desktop and
choose Gadgets; in Windows Vista, right-click the Sidebar and choose Add Gadgets.
You can then right-click the gadget you want and choose Add, or just double-click the
gadget to add it. The gallery also has a link for getting gadgets online.
Exhibit 17-7: The Gadget Gallery in Windows 7

Configuring gadget settings
Many gadgets have properties you can set. For instance, you can choose different faces
for the clock or different colors for the sticky notes. When you hold the mouse pointer
over a gadget, its control buttons appear to the right. Click the button that looks like a
wrench to open the gadgets settings; Exhibit 17-8 shows an example. You can also
right-click the gadget and choose Options.
Exhibit 17-8: Changing the clock gadgets settings
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1717
Setting the Windows Sidebar properties

In Windows Vista, to open the Windows Sidebar Properties dialog box, shown in
Exhibit 17-9, right-click a blank area of the Windows Sidebar and choose Properties.
Here you can adjust whether the Windows Sidebar is always on top, when it starts, and
what side of the screen it starts on. For instance, to prevent the Sidebar from opening
when Windows starts, do this:
1 Right-click a blank area of the Sidebar and choose Properties.
2 Clear the Start Sidebar when Windows starts checkbox.
3 Click OK.
Exhibit 17-9: The Windows Sidebar Properties dialog box in Windows Vista
Removing gadgets
To remove a gadget, click the Close button (the X button) to the right of it. You can also
right-click the gadget and choose Close Gadget.
Hiding and exiting the Windows Sidebar
In Windows Vista, to hide the Windows Sidebar, right-click it and choose Close Sidebar
to minimize it to an icon in the notification area. When you hide Windows Sidebar, the
gadgets continue to run even though they are not visible. To display the Windows
Sidebar again, click its icon in the notification area.
To exit the Windows Sidebar, right-click the Sidebars icon in the notification area and
choose Exit. When you exit Windows Sidebar, the gadgets are closed, too.
Displaying the Windows Sidebar
If youve hidden the Windows Sidebar and want to display it again, click the Windows
Sidebar icon in the system tray. If youve closed the Windows Sidebar and it doesnt
reopen when Windows restarts, you can open it by clicking Start and choosing All
Programs, Accessories, and Windows Sidebar.

Do it!
A-5:
Configuring Windows Desktop Gadgets
Heres how
Heres why
1 Right-click the Desktop and

choose Gadgets
To open the Gadget gallery.
2 Observe the gadgets available
A default selection of gadgets is loaded,

including a clock and a slideshow. Theres also
a link to get more gadgets online.
3 Drag the clock to your desktop
You can click and hold anywhere on the clock

face. Notice how the other gadgets move when
you drop the clock at its new location.
4 Point to the clock and then, to its

right, click
The button that looks like a wrench will open

the clocks settings, shown in Error! Reference
source not found..
5 Change the clock face to one of

your choosing
Use the arrow buttons under the face in the

settings dialog box.
6 Click OK
To close the settings and change the clock.
7 Click Get more gadgets
This page shows you the featured gadgets, the

top downloaded gadgets, and the top-rated
gadgets.
online
8 Click Get more desktop

gadgets
9 Browse the gadgets available

10 When you find a free gadget that
interests you, click Download
11 Click Install
12 Click Open
Follow any additional prompts to
install your chosen gadget
13 Close Internet Explorer and the
Gadget Gallery
14 If your new gadget requires
configuration, click
This page allows you to browse gadgets by

category. You can sort by rating, title, publish
date, author, download frequency, and price.
Not all gadgets are free.
Windows management
15 Point to the Clock gadget
Click
(The red X.) To close the gadget.
1719

Power management
Computers use electricity as their source of power. Computers, particularly notebooks,
can use a considerable amount of power even when they sit unused and idle. Modern
computers include support for power-saving measures, such as shutting off unused
components.
As you learned in the portable computers unit, the Advanced Configuration and Power
Interface (ACPI) is an open industry specification that was co-developed by Compaq,
Intel, Microsoft, Phoenix, and Toshiba to establish standard interfaces for operating
system configuration and power management on laptops, desktops, and servers. In order
to use all ACPI features fully, the computers hardware, system BIOS, and operating
system must support ACPI. The three common ACPI defined states are: sleep,
hibernation, and standby.
Windows includes the software components required to take advantage of ACPI power
management features. Your Windows 7 or Windows Vista desktop computer can be in
one of the following two power-saving modes: sleep or hybrid sleep. Hybrid sleep
depends on motherboard compatibility. If your motherboard isnt compatible with
Windows 7/Vista hybrid sleep, this power state isnt available. Windows XP and
Windows 2000 Professional support sleep and hibernation states.
Configuring power options in Windows 7 and Windows Vista
Windows 7 and Windows Vistas power management settings are focused on sleep state
configuration settings. You can specify whether your computer goes to sleep and the
interval after which it would do so. You can specify which components are powered
down and when. You do all this through the Power Options page (shown in Exhibit 1710) in the Hardware and Sound component of the Control Panel.
Exhibit 17-10: Setting a power plan in Windows 7

Both Windows 7 and Windows Vista offer three power plans, each of which represents
Windows management
1721
a set of power-saving options. You can customize the default plans or create your own.
The sleep timer values include: 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 45 minutes, or 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5 hours. The standard plans are:
Balanced Balances energy savings and performance. This plan is typically
used with desktop computers.
Power saver Favors energy savings over responsiveness, meaning that you
may have to wait while components power up or wake your computer more
often than with another plan. This plan is typically used by notebook computers.
High performance Favors performance over energy savings. Fewer
components are turned off so that your computer is more responsive. This plan is
typically used with servers and computers that share their resources.
Advanced power settings
To access the advanced power settings for any of the predefined plans or a custom plan
youve created, under the desired power plan, click Change plan settings. In Windows
7, click Change advanced power settings. In Windows Vista, click Change advanced
settings to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit 17-11.
Exhibit 17-11: The Advanced settings tab for a Windows 7 power plan
If your desktop motherboard supports the hybrid sleep option, it appears on the
Advanced settings tab as shown in Exhibit 17-12.
Exhibit 17-12: The hybrid sleep option

Configuring power options in Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional
To configure power options in Windows XP, open Control Panel, Performance and
Maintenance, Power Options. In Windows 2000, open Control Panel, Power Options. In
the Power Options Properties dialog box, shown in Exhibit 17-13, the Power Schemes
tab allows you to choose a power scheme. The Advanced tab allows you to display a
power icon in the system tray and specify what the power button does. The Hibernate
tab allows you to enable hibernation. If you have a UPS attached to the computer, you
can use the UPS tab to configure options.
Exhibit 17-13: The Power Option Properties dialog box in Windows 2000 Professional
Windows management
Do it!
A-6:
1723
Configuring power settings
Heres how
Heres why

2 Click Hardware and Sound
3 Click Power Options
4 Select Power saver
This plan favors power savings over

performance and responsiveness.
5 Under Power saver, click
To configure power options for this plan.
Change plan settings
6 Next to Turn off the display,

select 1 minute
Click Save changes
To set an extremely short delay before the

monitor is turned off.
7 What color is your monitors

power indicator light?
With the monitor turned on, it is most likely a

solid green or blue.
8 Wait one minute
The monitor turns off.
9 What color is your monitors

power indicator light?
With the monitor turned off, it is most likely a

solid yellow or orange.
10 Move the mouse or press s
To turn the monitor back on.
11 What power-saving mode was

your computer in while the
monitor was off?
12 Under Power saver, click Change plan settings
13 Click Restore default settings for this plan
Click Yes
To reset the Power saver plan settings to their

defaults.
14 Click Cancel
To exit the Edit Plan Settings box.
15 Expand Show additional plans
If necessary.
Select High performance

16 Close the Power Options window
This plan favors performance over power

savings.

Sleep and Hibernate modes
The Sleep and Hibernate modes offer great opportunities for saving electricity when
youre not using your computer. These modes can be used for both desktop and
notebook computers.
For mobile users, putting your laptop to sleep during that walk to the conference room
(and the inevitable wait while the previous group takes their time leaving the room) will
preserve your battery so that it can keep your computer active during your entire
presentation. For longer tripssay, between clients business locationsyoull want to
hibernate your computer.
Sleeping and hibernating notebook computers
Your notebook might or might not be configured to support Sleep and Hibernate modes
the way you want. Many people find it most convenient that their notebook go to sleep
when they close the cover, and that the computer hibernates when they press the power
button. You can configure these actions by following these steps:
3 Under Power Options, click Choose what the power buttons do.
4 Using the lists shown in Exhibit 17-14, select the action to be taken when you
close the lid or press the power button. You can specify different actions
depending on whether your computer is running off the battery or is plugged in.
The action options are: Do nothing, Sleep, Hibernate, or Shut down.
Exhibit 17-14: Power options on a notebook computer running Windows 7
Windows management
1725
Sleeping and hibernating desktop computers

You have fewer power options with a desktop computer than with a notebook. You can
specify what happens when you press the power button, but you dont have lid or
battery-dependent options.
3 Under Power Options, click Choose what the power button does.
4 From the When I press the power button list shown in Exhibit 17-15, select
the action you want taken. Depending on your computer hardware and BIOS,
your choices could include: Do nothing, Sleep, Hibernate, or Shut down.
Exhibit 17-15: Power options on a desktop computer running Windows 7

Do it!
A-7:
Putting a desktop computer into Hibernate and Sleep

modes
Heres how
1 On your desktop computer, configure it to hibernate when you press the power
button.
If your computers keyboard has a Sleep button, press it to put your computer to
sleep. Then move the mouse or press a key to wake your computer.
again.
2 If you have a notebook computer available, configure it to go to sleep when you
close the lid, and hibernate when you press the power button.
Put your computer to sleep. Move the mouse or press a key to wake your
computer.
again.
3 Which is the faster power-saving mode to enter and resume from: Sleep or
Hibernate?
Windows management
1727
Wake on LAN
If you have a computer that you or other users connect to via the network, such as a
print server, you can configure the computer in a power saving mode and then specify
that it wakes up when the network card receives a connection request.
1 In the Control Panel, click Network and Internet, and then Network and Sharing
Center.
2 Click Change adapter settings in Windows 7 or Manage network
connections in Windows Vista.
3 Right-click your Local Area Connection and choose Properties.
4 In Windows Vista, click Continue.
5 Under Connect using, click Configure.
6 Select the Power Management tab. (On some computers, the power management
information might be on the Advanced tab.)
7 Check Allow the computer to turn off this device to save power and Allow
the device to wake the computer, or check the appropriate boxes under Wake
on LAN. The options vary based on the NIC and the manufacturer. An example
is shown in Exhibit 17-16.
8 Click OK.
The computer can go into a power-saving mode, but awaken at a network request.
Exhibit 17-16: Power Saver and Wake on LAN options

Do it!
A-8:
Configuring Wake on LAN
Heres how
Heres why

Click Network and Internet,
and then Network and
Sharing Center
2 Click Change adapter

settings
3 Right-click Local Area

Properties
4 Under Connect using, click

Configure
5 Activate the Power Management

tab
directions to select the appropriate
Wake on LAN options for your
specific NIC
7 Click OK
By default, in Windows 7, it should be

configured.
Windows management
1729
Topic B: Task Scheduler

objective.
#
Objective
2.3
Task Scheduler
Using Task Scheduler

Explanation
Task Scheduler, shown in Exhibit 17-17, is a utility you can use to schedule routine
maintenance tasks or to act on the occurrence of a specific event. Task Scheduler can
run behind the scenes with no user intervention, or it can accept input from the loggedon user.
Exhibit 17-17: Task Scheduler

To create a task manually:
1 Open Computer Management, and expand Task Scheduler in the tree pane.
2 Right-click Task Scheduler Library and choose Create Task.
3 Using the five tabs in the dialog box, configure general properties, triggers,
actions, conditions, and settings. (Well cover each of these tabs in the following
sections.)
If you want help with creating a task, you can have a wizard walk you through these
five tabs, but you wont have the same range of options. To start the wizard, right-click
Task Scheduler Library and choose Create Basic Task.

General properties
On this tab, you assign a name to the task, and you can enter an optional description.
You can also configure security options, including which user credentials the task uses
to run. By default, the task will run as the currently logged-on user. You can choose to
have the task run only when the user is logged on or run whether the user is logged on
or not. You can also choose to run the task with the highest privileges assigned to that
user account.
Triggers
The trigger is the event that prompts the task to run. Triggers include a scheduled start
time, a logon, startup, idle time, an event, and workstation locking and unlocking. To
configure a trigger:
1 On the Triggers tab, click New.
2 In the New Trigger dialog box, select a trigger type from the Begin the task
list.
3 Configure the settings for the trigger type, whether its a date and time or an
event from an event log.
4 Configure advanced settings, including delay and repeat intervals, timeouts, and
expiration dates.
Actions
The action is the task thats performed in response to the trigger. You can configure one
of three actions: start a program, send an e-mail message, or display a message. To
create an action:
1 On the Actions tab, click New.
2 From the Action list, select one of the three actions:
If the action is Start a program, select the program and add any additional
configuration parameters.
If the action is Send an e-mail, enter the sender and recipient e-mail
addresses, a subject line, the message text, any attachments, and an address
for a Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) server for the outgoing e-mail
message.
If the action is Display a message, type the title and body of the message.
Conditions
You can choose the conditions under which the task will run, in addition to any trigger
settings. The options are:
Idle You can choose to start or stop the task depending on whether the
computer is idle and how long the computer is idle.
Power You can configure the task to run only if the computer is connected to
an AC power source, and to stop if the computer switches to battery power. You
can also specify that the computer should wake up to run the task.
Network You can choose to run the task only if a specified network
connection is available or if any connection at all is available.
Windows management
1731
Settings
You can configure additional settings that will control the tasks behavior. These
settings include whether the task can be run on demand, when and how often to restart
the task if it fails, when to stop the task, and when to delete the task if its not run.
Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional
To create a task in Windows XP or Windows 2000 Professional, you use the Scheduled
Task Wizard. To start the wizard:
1 Click Start and choose All Programs (Programs in Windows 2000), Accessories,
System Tools, Scheduled Tasks.
2 Double-click Add Scheduled Task. The Scheduled Task Wizard starts.
3 Click Next.
4 Select the program you want Windows to run and click Next. You can select one
from the list or use the Browse button to find one that isnt listed.
5 Enter a name for the task and choose when to run the task. Choices include:
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
One time only
When my computer starts
When I log on
6 Click Next.
7 Depending on the choice you made, youre prompted to enter details about when
to run the task as shown in the following graphics.
Exhibit 17-18: Daily task settings
Exhibit 17-19: Weekly task settings
Exhibit 17-20: Monthly task settings
Exhibit 17-21: One time only task settings
Windows management
1733
Exhibit 17-22: When computer starts task and When I log on task
8 Click Next. Your task is created.
9 If you want to configure Advanced options for the task, check Open advanced
properties for this task when I click Finish.
10 Click Finish.

Do it!
B-1:
Creating a basic task
Heres how
1 Open Computer Management
Heres why
Youre going to create two tasks. In this activity,
youll create a weekly reminder. In the next
activity, youll create a task to run Windows
Defender when you lock your computer.
2 Expand Task Scheduler and select

Task Scheduler Library
In the Actions panel, click

Create Basic Task
3 Name the task Weekly Invoice

Reminder and click Next
4 Select Weekly and click Next
On the Weekly page, select
Friday, and change the time to
9:00:00 AM
Click Next
5 On the Action page, select
Display a message and click
Next
In the Title box, type REMINDER

In the Message box, type
REMEMBER THE WEEKLY
INVOICES
Click Next
6 On the Summary page, observe
the Open the Properties dialog
for this task when I click Finish
checkbox
You can access all of the options on the General,

Triggers, Alerts, Conditions, and Settings tabs in
the Properties dialog box.
7 Click Finish
Observe the new task in the
library list, and the five tabs from
its Properties dialog box displayed
below
8 Observe the History tab
You can select a task in the list and view its

settings on the five tabs. But to edit the tasks
settings, you need to open its Properties dialog
box.
The task was successfully registered.
Windows management
9 Right-click the task in the list and
choose Run
If necessary, select
10 Click OK
1735
To test the task.
The REMINDER taskbar button. To display the

message box.
To close the message box.
11 Right-click the task in the list and

choose Properties
Select each tab and observe its
contents
You can reconfigure the task by changing just

about any setting.
12 On the Triggers tab, select the

trigger and click Edit
Clear Friday and check
Monday instead
To reconfigure the task to run every Monday

morning.
Click OK
13 On the Actions tab, select the
action and click Edit
Edit the message to read
REMEMBER THIS WEEKS
INVOICES
Click OK
14 On the Conditions tab, check
Wake the computer to run
this task
15 On the Settings tab, check Run

task as soon as possible
after a scheduled start is
missed
Click OK
To close the dialog box and apply the new

settings.

Do it!
B-2:
Creating a task manually
Heres how
Heres why
1 Right-click Task Scheduler

Library and choose Create
Task
2 On the General tab, name the task

Windows Defender on
Lock
3 On the Triggers tab, click New

From the Begin the task list,
select On workstation lock
Under Advanced settings, check
Delay task for, and change the
time to 30 seconds
Click OK
4 On the Actions tab, click New
In the Action list, verify that
Start a program is selected
Click Browse and browse to
C:\Program Files\Windows
Defender
Select MpCmdRun and click
Open
This is the command-line version of Windows

Defender.
5 In the Add arguments box, type

scan -1
To perform a quick scan.
Click OK
6 In the Create Task dialog box,
click OK
To create the task.
7 Lock your computer and wait at

least one minute
To trigger the action. You might see or hear the

hard disk as the Windows Defender scan is
started.
8 Log back on and observe the task

list
The Windows Defender on Lock task ran when

you locked your computer.
Windows management
1737
Topic C: Resource management

exam objective.
#
Objective
3.2
Give a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces

Run line utilities
REGEDIT
Services
objectives.
#
Objective
2.1
NET
2.3
Services
3.1

Tools ( use and interpret results)
Net use
Net /?
The net command

Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 include a commandline utility that you can use to manage and monitor the operating system. The net
command provides a quick way to access specific information and perform several
functions at the command line. You can obtain the syntax of the net command, as
shown in Exhibit 17-23, by entering net /? at the command line.
Exhibit 17-23: Syntax of the net command

The following table describes some of the parameters that are available for this
command.
Parameter
Description
continue
Restarts a paused service.
pause
Pauses a service.
print
Displays print jobs and queues. (Not available in Windows 7.)
session
Lists or disconnects sessions between the computer and other computers.
share
Lists shares on the local computer, and shares local resources.
start
Lists running services, and starts a service.
stop
Stops services. The net command cant stop all services. Refer to
www.microsoft.com/resources/documentation/windows/
xp/all/proddocs/en-us/net_stop.mspx?mfr=true for a list
of stoppable services.
use
Connects and disconnects the computer from a network share.
view
Displays a list of computers in the workgroup, and lists shared resources

on a specific computer when used with a computer name.
Administrative command prompt

Some net command operations, such as starting and stopping services, require you to
use an administrative command prompt.
In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, to open an administrative command prompt, click
Start, All Programs, Accessories, right-click Command Prompt, and choose Run as
administrator.
In Windows XP, click Start, All Programs, Accessories, and right-click Command
Prompt. Choose Run as. You can then run the program as the current user, or you can
enter the credentials of a different user.
In Windows 2000 Professional, click Start, All Programs, and Accessories. Hold down
the shift key as you right-click Command Prompt. Holding down the shift key displays
the Run as command on the menu. Choose Run as. Similar to Windows XP, you can
then run the program as the current user, or you can enter the credentials of a different
user.
Windows management
Do it!
C-1:
1739
Using the net command
Heres how
All Programs, Accessories
Heres why
If Command Prompt is pinned to the Start menu,
you can right-click it from there instead of
navigating down to the Accessories menu.

Choose Run as
administrator and click Yes
To open the Command Prompt window with

administrative privileges.
2 Enter net view
To see a list of computers on the network.
3 Enter net share
To see a list of shared folders on your computer.
Do you have any shared folders?

4 Enter
net share Marketing=C:\Marketing
To share the Marketing folder.
5 Enter net share
To confirm that youve shared the folder and the

share name is Marketing.
6 Enter
net use \\computername\Marketing
To connect to the shared Users folder on another
computer in the classroom.
Enter a user name when prompted

Enter a password when prompted
7 Enter net use
To confirm that youve connected to the shared

folder.
8 Enter
net use \\computername\Marketing /delete
To remove the connection.
9 Enter net use
To confirm that youve removed the connection

to the shared Marketing folder on the other
computer.
10 Enter
net share marketing /delete
To stop sharing the Marketing folder.
11 Enter net share
To verify that the folder is no longer shared.

12 Enter net start
To display the list of services running on your

computer.
13 Enter net stop spooler
To stop the Print Spooler service.
Enter net start spooler

14 Enter exit
To start the service again.

Windows management
1741

Services and Applications is a Computer Management utility. It contains several tools
you can use to manage the services and applications running on the local computer or a
remote computer. These toolsServices, WMI Control, and Indexing Servicesare
Tool
Description
Services
A computer administrator can stop and start services and change the startup
properties of those services.
WMI
Control
Use this tool to configure and manage the Windows Management

Instrumentation (WMI) Control. A computer administrator can view and change
system properties on the local computer or a remote computer.
Indexing
Service
Use the Indexing Service to get fast and easy access to system information
through the Windows Search function. The Directories feature allows you to
view items that are being indexed in the Directories folder.
Services
When it comes to optimizing and securing a computer, one of the first things you can do
is disable any unnecessary components, such as services. When a service is
unnecessarily installed or is no longer used, you should disable it. Running unnecessary
services consumes resources, such as memory and the CPU, and adds overhead to the
system. If youre having a problem with a component on a computer, see if the service
is running.

The Services console
You use the Services console (part of the Microsoft Management Console, or MMC) is
shown in Exhibit 17-24. You can use it to configure a variety of settings related to how
services function and respond to potential problems.
Exhibit 17-24: The Services console in Windows 7 Professional

The properties of a service are set on four dialog-box tabs, as follows:
General Displays the services name and description, the path to the
executable file, the startup parameters, and buttons you can click to start, stop,
pause, and resume a service.
Log On Allows you to specify the user name that a service runs as, along
with the hardware profiles for which the service is enabled.
Recovery Allows you to configure the computers response when a service
fails, including various actions depending on the number of failures. You can
specify a program that the operating system should run when a service failure
occurs.
Dependencies Specifies the services that a service depends on to function
correctly, as well as the services that depend on this service in order to function.
Before you stop or disable a service, check to see if youre running any necessary
services that depend on the service you want to disable. To do this, you use the
Dependencies tab in the services Properties dialog box. Exhibit 17-25 shows the
Dependencies tab for the DHCP Client service.
Windows management
Exhibit 17-25: Dependencies for the DHCP Client service
1743

Do it!
C-2:
Managing services
Heres how
Heres why

Computer
Choose Manage
The Computer Management console opens. Its

showing system information about the local
computer.
2 In the console tree, expand

3 Select Services
(You can also access the Services console

through Control Panel, System and Security,
Administrative Tools.)
This utility shows the services that are installed
on your computer, along with brief descriptions
of the services. It also indicates if the service is
running (Started). When youre troubleshooting,
the startup type can be helpful to know. The four
types are Disabled, Manual, Automatic, and
Automatic (Delayed Start).
4 Double-click
Computer Browser
This service maintains an updated list of

computers on the network and supplies this list
to computers.
5 Observe the information on the

General page
This page displays the services name, a

description, the path to the executable file,
startup parameters, and buttons used to start,
stop, pause, and resume a service.
6 Activate the Log On tab
Use this page to specify the user name that a

service runs as, along with the hardware profiles
for which the service is enabled.
7 Activate the Recovery tab
This is where you configure the computers

response when a service fails.
8 Activate the Dependencies tab
This page shows you the services that this

service depends upon to function correctly, as
well as the services that depend on this service.
9 Close Computer Browser

Properties
Windows management
Do it!
C-3:
1745
Configuring Windows 7 services
Heres how
1 Right-click WLAN AutoConfig
Heres why
In the Services console.
Choose Properties
This service manages the autoconfiguration

feature of the WLAN adapters and connections.
The service stopped and wont start unless you
manually start it.
2 From the Startup type list, select

Automatic
This sets the WLAN AutoConfig service to start

automatically the next time the computer
restarts.
3 Click Apply
Click Start
This manually starts the WLAN AutoConfig

service.
4 Activate the Log On tab
This tab displays the properties of the account

under which the WLAN AutoConfig service
runs.
5 Activate the Recovery tab

6 In the First failure list, verify that
Restart the Service is selected
From the Second failure list,
select Run a Program
In the Program box, enter
cmd.exe
This setting causes the Command Prompt

program to start if the WLAN AutoConfig
service fails for a second time.
7 Activate the Dependencies tab

8 Observe the list of services that
the WLAN AutoConfig service
depends on
One of the components that the WLAN

AutoConfig service depends on is the Remote
Procedure Call (RPC) service. A problem with
RPC could cause problems with this service.
9 Observe the list of system

components that depend on this
service
No components depend on the WLAN

AutoConfig service, so the box is grayed out.
10 Click OK
To close the dialog box. The WLAN

AutoConfig service is now listed as Started.
Windows management
11 Right-click WLAN AutoConfig
and choose Stop
12 Set the WLAN AutoConfig

services Startup type back to
Manual
1747
To manually stop the WLAN AutoConfig

service. Remember that the startup type is set to
Automatic, so the service automatically starts
again the next time the computer restarts.

The Registry
The Registry is a hierarchical database created during the installation of Windows. The
Registry contains binary files that hold system configuration information about all
aspects of a Windows computer, including security settings, user profiles, installed
applications, attached hardware, and system properties.
In all versions of Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP, and in Windows 2000
Professional, the Registry is stored in files called hives in the
\%systemroot%\System32\Config folder. (The \%systemroot%\ folder is the folder in
which Windows is installed.
In Windows 2000 Professional, by default, this folder is C:\Winnt. In Windows 7,
Windows Vista and Windows XP, the folder is C:\Windows.)
Registry keys
The Registry is divided into sections called keys. Each key contains subkeys, which in
turn contain other subkeys and specific values, which define specific Windows settings.
The following table describes each Registry key.
Registry key
Description
HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT
Contains file association data that Windows uses to start the correct
program when you open a file from within Windows Explorer or
Computer (My Computer).
HKEY_CURRENT_USER
Holds the user data for the user whos logged onto the computer.
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE
Contains all non-user-specific configuration information.
HKEY_USERS
Holds user-specific configuration information for the user accounts on

the computer.
HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG
Maintains hardware profile data.
Registry editors
Registry files are binary files, so you cant edit them directly in a text editor, such as
Notepad. You can edit Registry files indirectly by using the Control Panel applets or
Device Manager. Changes made there, and in other Properties dialog boxes in Windows,
are kept in the Registry.
You can also edit the Registry directly by using one of the Registry editors: regedit.exe
or regedt32.exe. (Both tools are called Registry Editor.) Windows 9x/Me uses the
regedit.exe utility. Windows 2000 Professional provides both regedit.exe, for its
superior search capabilities, and regedt32.exe, a more powerful editing tool. All
versions of Windows 7, Windows Vista and Windows XP, combine the two tools into
one, shown in Exhibit 17-26, so you get Regedit whether you start Regedit or Regedt32.
If, for some reason, you have to edit the Registry in an operating system other than
Windows 7, Windows Vista or Windows XP, you might find yourself using Regedit to
find a particular key or value, and using Regedt32 to actually edit the settings.
Windows management
1749
Exhibit 17-26: Registry Editor in Windows 7 Professional

To open Regedit or Regedt32 in Windows 7 or Vista:
1 Click Start.
2 In the Search box, type regedit or regedt32.
3 Press Enter.
4 Click Continue.
In Windows XP or Windows 2000 Professional:
1 Click Start.
2 Choose Run.
3 Type regedit or regedt32.
4 Click OK.
In the left pane of the Registry Editor, you can select specific keys or subkeys to display
their contents in the right pane.
Although you can edit the Registry directly, you probably shouldnt, since it has no save
prompt or undo feature. If you make a mistake while editing the Registry, you could
find yourself with a computer that doesnt work the way you expect it to, or worse, a
computer that doesnt work at all. When youre configuring Windows operating
systems, youll find that theres very little reason to edit the Registry directly.

Do it!
C-4:
Viewing Registry information
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start
regedit and press e
Click Yes
To open the Registry Editor. Although you probably

wont need to directly edit the Registry very often, its
important to know what the Registry files look like and
how the data is arranged.
2 Observe the keys in the left

pane
The five Registry keys are listed.
3 Expand
HKEY_CURRENT_USER
To display its subkeys.
4 Expand Control Panel and select Desktop

Observe the settings in the right
pane
These are the same settings you could configure by

using the GUI utilities.
5 In the right pane, double-click

Wallpaper
To display the configuration data. If you have to edit

this setting manually, you can do it in this dialog box.
6 Click Cancel

Mouse
8 In the right pane, double-click

ActiveWindowTracking
To see another type of data. This value is a

hexadecimal value. The field is set to zero, which
means that this feature is turned off.
9 Click Cancel
Windows management
1751
Registry searches
To search for Registry entries, open the Registry Editor (Regedit.exe in Windows 2000
Professional) and choose Edit, Find. This opens the Find dialog box, shown in Exhibit
17-27. In the Find what box, enter the text string you want to search for. Then, under
Look at, check Keys, Values, Data, or any combination of the three. (All three are
selected by default.) To start the search, click Find Next.
Exhibit 17-27: The Registry Editors Find dialog box

Do it!
C-5:
Searching the Registry
Heres how
Heres why
1 In the Registry Editor, choose

Edit, Find
To open the Find dialog box. When you have to

edit the Registry directly, it can be difficult to
find the settings you need. You can use the Find
feature to easily find settings by using full
setting names or just keywords.
2 In the Find what box, type

mouse
To search for all occurrences of the keyword

mouse.
Leave the other options checked
To search through keys, values, and data.
3 Click Find Next
To find the first occurrence of mouse.
4 Press #
To find the next occurrence.
5 Continue pressing #
To find each occurrence of mouse. Youll see

this keyword appear in many different keys in
the Registry. You dont need to view all
instances.

Registry corruption and backups
Registry corruption is an uncommon but very real problem that can render a computer
inoperable. Registry corruption can happen for a number of reasons, including power
failures, corrupted Registry files, hard disk errors, or mistakes made while editing the
Registry directly. When the Registry is corrupted, youll usually see an error message
telling you that Windows cant start, and the message will point to one or more of the
files associated with the Registry. For example:
Windows XP could not start because the following file
is missing or corrupt: \WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\SYSTEM
A corrupted Registry usually means that you have to reinstall the operating system,
unless youve made a backup of the Registry or the Last Known Good startup option
can recover the system. Last Known Good is an advanced startup option that uses the
boot settings stored in the Registry from the last boot. If the previous system boot was
successful, you can use this option to reverse all system setting changes made after the
last successful boot. If the previous boot wasnt successful, Last Known Good wont be
able to recover the system settings for you. (Advanced startup options are discussed in
the Operating system troubleshooting unit.)
Exhibit 17-28: Exporting a Registry value
Windows management
1753
One of the fastest and easiest ways to create a backup of a single subkey or value is to
export it from the Registry Editor. (If you have to back up a full Registry key, its better
to back up the entire Registry.) To export a portion of the Registry or the entire
Registry:
1 Open the Registry Editor.
2 Choose File, Export to open the Export Registry File dialog box, shown in
Exhibit 17-28.
3 Under Export range, select either All (to back up all keys) or Selected branch.
4 Save the file with a suitable name, in a secure location. Keep in mind that a full
backup can run several megabytes.
To restore the Registry or the portion you backed up, double-click the .reg file you
created. This installs the information in the correct location in the Registry.
Recovery discs
In Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, you can
use system recovery utilities to create a system recovery disc that includes a copy of the
entire Registry. In Windows 2000 Professional, the system recovery disc is called an
Emergency Repair Disk (ERD). The ERD contains basic system configuration files that
you can use to restore your computer to a bootable state if your Registry is damaged or
if the operating system is on an NTFS partition that isnt booting. When you create an
ERD, basic system configuration information from the Registry is placed on the disk
and in the %systemroot%\Repair folder on the hard disk. In Windows Vista and
Windows XP, the system recovery is called Automated System Recovery (ASR). The
Automated System Recovery Wizard creates a backup of your system partition and
makes a floppy disk containing critical system settings. In Windows 7, you create a
system repair disc from Control Panel, Backup and Restore.
You can then use ASR to recover from a system failure caused by problems with the
system/boot volume, such as Registry corruption.
Additional details of the Emergency Repair Disk and Automated System Recovery
utilities are provided in the operating system troubleshooting unit.

Do it!
C-6:
Backing up Registry files
Heres how
Heres why
1 In the Registry Editor, under

HKEY_CURRENT_USER,
Control Panel, select Desktop
To prepare to export these settings. You can use

the Export feature to back up Registry settings
before you make any changes. You can then
restore the settings if you make any mistakes or
decide to undo your changes.
2 Choose File, Export
To open the Export Registry File dialog box.
3 In the File name box, enter
To name the backup file.
Desktop backup
4 Click Save
The file is saved in your Documents folder.

Documents
Change the View to Tiles
To verify that the backup file was created.
6 Close the Documents window and

the Registry Editor
Windows management
1755
Topic D: Remote management

objective.
#
Objective
2.3
Remote Desktop Protocol (Remote Desktop / Remote Assistance)
Remote Assistance
Explanation
Remote Assistance provides a way for a user to ask someone at another computer for
help with a computer problem. Remote Assistance allows the helping user to see the
other users desktop and, when permitted, to take control of that system temporarily to
resolve problems. Some organizations might have a network configuration that prevents
a second user from taking control of the first computers keyboard and mouse; this will
depend on your specific network setup. Theoretically, depending on network
configuration, you can ask for and receive help on just about any Windows 7 and
Windows Vista computer in the world.
The Remote Assistance session works like this:
1 You invite someone to help you by creating and making available an invitation.
You can send an e-mail message to the person youre asking for help, or you can
create an invitation file that you can put in a shared location, attach to an e-mail
message, or send through an instant messaging program. You must also give the
helper the password associated with the invitation.
2 The helper accepts your invitation and enters the password.
3 You show the helper the problems youre experiencing. He or she can then
answer your question or take control of your computer (if permitted) to fix the
problem.
4 Either you or the helper then ends the session.
In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, Remote Assistance is enabled by default. To
configure Remote Assistance settings, click Start, right-click Computer, and choose
Properties. Under Tasks, click Remote settings, and enter a password if prompted. On
the Remote tab, you can enable or disable Remote Assistance. Click Advanced to
enable or disable remote control of your computer and to set time limits for invitations.
To create an invitation, open Windows Help and Support, click Ask, and then click the
Windows Remote Assistance link. Click Invite someone you trust to help you; choose
to use e-mail to invite the friend or create an invitation; and then complete the wizard.

Do it!
D-1:
Requesting Remote Assistance
Heres how
Heres why
Youre going to configure Remote Assistance
and then request assistance from the instructor.
Properties
In the tasks list, click Remote

settings
2 Observe the Remote Assistance

section
Remote Assistance is currently enabled. You

can clear the checkbox to disable Remote
Assistance.
3 Click Advanced
Observe the Remote control
section
You can disable remote control by clearing this

checkbox. Currently its enabled, but your friend
will still need to request permission before
taking control.
Observe the Invitations section
You can set a time limit on invitations you

create.
4 In the number list, select 1

To set the time limit to 1 hour. After that time,
invitations will expire.
5 Click OK twice, and close the

System window
6 Open Windows Help and Support
Youre going to request help from your

instructor.
Click
Under Ask a person for help, click
Windows Remote
Assistance
7 Click Invite someone you
You can then send an e-mail message or save

the invitation as a file.
8 Click Save this invitation as

a file
If you had an open invitation that youd already

created, you could use that one by clicking it.
Navigate to select the Public

Documents folder
(C:\Users\Public\Public Documents.) This is an

easy location to put an invitation in.
trust to help you
Windows management
9 In the File name box, type
1757
Where firstname is your first name.
firstnames Invitation
Click Save
10 Observe the Windows Remote
Assistance window
You need to give this password to your helper so

he or she can accept the invitation.
Remote Assistance indicates that its waiting for
an incoming connection. At this point, youd
notify your helper that youve created an
invitation and put it in the Public Documents
folder on your computer. Youd also tell your
helper what the password is.
Do it!
D-2:
Participating in a Remote Assistance session
Heres how
1 Wait for your instructor to accept your invitation. Click Yes when asked whether
to accept the connection.
Instructor: You need to access the Public Documents folder on the students
computers.
2 Click Chat and explain to your instructor what the problem is. Open your
personal folder and Sticky Notes.
3 Instructor: Click Request control.
Allow your instructor to take control of your session. Watch as your instructor
opens and closes folder windows and programs.
4 End the session.
5 Access the remote settings and disable Remote Assistance.

Remote Desktop
You can use Remote Desktop and the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) to connect to
remote Windows 7 and Windows Vista computersremote meaning a computer that
is on another desk, in another building, across a campus, on a different floor in the same
building, or almost anywhere in the world. Using Remote Desktop, you can access any
program or folder, the Control Panel, network configuration tools, and just about any
other feature on the remote computer.
Exhibit 17-29: A remote connection

To enable Remote Desktop in Windows Vista, click Start, right-click Computer, and
choose Properties. Click Remote settings. In Windows Vista, enter an administrative
password or click Continue. In both Windows 7 and Windows Vista, select one of the
Allow connections options.
Not every user can connect remotely with Remote Desktop. By default, computer
administrators already have permission, but you can select other users and allow them to
make remote connections.
To allow users to connect, open the System Properties dialog box, select the Remote
tab, and click Select Users. Click Add, type the name of the user account, and click OK.
Comparing Remote Assistance and Remote Desktop

There is a design difference between the Remote Assistance and Remote Desktop
features. Remote Assistance allows you to display your computer to a remote user. If
you want the remote user to be able to work with your computer, you must grant
control. With Remote Desktop, once you allow a remote connection, the remote user
has the ability to work with your computer. You dont have to grant control.
Windows management
Do it!
D-3:
1759
Enabling Remote Desktop
Heres how
Heres why

Properties
2 Click Remote settings
You will enable Remote Desktop.
3 In the Remote Desktop section,

verify that Allow connections
from computer running any
version of Remote Desktop (less
secure) is selected
Only users with administrative privileges can

enable this feature.
4 Click Select Users and observe

the Remote Desktop Users dialog
box
Except for your COMPADMIN## account, no

users are permitted to access the computer
through Remote Desktop. You can add any
users to this list.
5 Click Cancel
To close the Remote Desktop Users dialog box.
6 Click OK
To close the System Properties dialog box.
Close the System window

Connecting remotely
You can connect to a a Windows 7, Windows Vista, or Windows XP computer that has
Remote Desktop enabled from any Windows computer with Remote Desktop
Connection, unless the remote computer is in sleep mode or hibernation. When you
connect to the remote computer, its console is locked, preventing anyone from working
on it while the remote connection is established. Although the Remote Desktop feature
redirects output to the remote computer, all programs and utilities run locally on the
remote computer.
To access Remote Desktop Connection in Windows 7 or Windows Vista, click Start and
choose All Programs, Accessories, Remote Desktop Connection.
Windows management
Do it!
D-4:
1761
Making a Remote Desktop connection
Heres how
Heres why
1 At one partners computer, click Start and choose

All Programs, Accessories, Remote Desktop Connection
2 In the Computer box, enter the
name of your partners computer
Get this information from your partner.
Click Options
To display more of the dialog box.
Observe the tabs
You can use the settings on these tabs to

configure the remote connection. You will be
prompted for a user name and password when
you connect.
3 In the User name box, type your

partners COMPADMIN## user
name
4 Click Connect
In the Password box, type
Or whatever your partners password is.
!pass1234
5 Click OK
Click Yes
To connect to your partners remote computer.

To acknowledge the identity of the remote
computer cant be verified.
6 Experiment with opening

programs and folders on the
remote computer
7 Observe the title bar
You can see the name of the computer youre

connected to, and there are Minimize, Restore
Down, and Close buttons.
8 Experiment with the Control

menu buttons
To see what its like to minimize, maximize, and

restore the Remote Desktop Connection
window.
9 Click Start and log off
To close the remote connection to your partners

computer.
On the remote computer, log back

on
10 Switch roles with your partner and
repeat the activity
Unit summary: Windows management

Topic A
In this topic, you learned how to configure regional and language settings, and you
configured indexing, Windows Aero, and the Windows Sidebar. You then learned how
to configure the power management options in Windows Vista to conserve energy on
both desktop and notebook computers.
Topic B
In this topic, you leaned how to use Task Scheduler to create and configure scheduled
tasks. You learned how to create a basic task by using a wizard, and how to create a task
manually.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned how to manage resources using the net command. You
learned how to control Windows services by using the Services console. You learned
how to start, stop, and change startup options for some services. You learned the
purpose of the Windows Registry. You learned about the differences between the two
Registry management toolsregedit.exe and regedt32.exe. You learned how to use
regedit.exe to manage the Registry. You learned how to search the Registry to find
information. In addition, you learned how to back up the Registry files in order to
recover from a Registry problem.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned how to manage and troubleshoot problems remotely by using
the Remote Desktop and Remote Assistance features.
Review questions
1 Which Registry key contains file association data for application startup?
A HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT
B HKEY_CURRENT_USER
C HKEY_DYN_DATA
D HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG
2 Which Registry key isnt found in Windows 7, Windows Vista or Windows XP?
A HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT
B HKEY_CURRENT_USER
C HKEY_DYN_DATA
D HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG
3 In Task Scheduler, a(n) __________ causes an action to be performed.
trigger
4 True or false? You can configure a pop-up message, a text message, and an e-mail
message as actions in Task Scheduler.
False. You cant configure a text message.
5 Which tab of a services Properties dialog box do you use to configure the operating
system response when the service fails?
A Dependencies
B General
C Log On
D Recovery
Windows management
1763
6 True or false? Power management features are beneficial for notebook computers
only.
False. Desktop computers use electricity and can use a considerable amount of power even
when they sit idle. Configuring power management features in desktops can decrease the power
consumption of a computer and its components when idle.
7 Which power plan is typically used with mobile computers?

A Balanced
B High performance
C Power saver
8 True or false? The Sleep and Hibernation options are the same in notebook and
desktop computers.
False. You have fewer power options with a desktop computer than with a notebook. You can
specify what happens when you press the power button, but you dont have lid or batterydependent options.
9 Which utility enables you to connect to a remote computer and work as if you were
sitting at that computer?
Remote Desktop
10 True or false? Remote Assistance is enabled by default.

True
11 True or false? By default, any user can offer assistance to another user by using the
Remote Assistance utility.
False
12 True or false? By default, any user can make a Remote Desktop connection.
False

In this activity, youll practice managing your Windows computer.
1 Add an application such as Notepad to your Startup group.
2 Log off and log back on to verify that your chosen application runs on startup.
3 Remove the application from the Startup group.
4 Log off and log back on to verify that your chosen application no longer runs on
startup.
5 Configure Windows Aero with a new, personalized look.
6 Use Registry Editor to create backups of each of the five keys in the Registry. Save
the files in the Documents folder.
7 Create a custom power plan called My Power Plan. Set the sleep timer for the
display to 10 minutes. Set the sleep timer for the computer to Never.
8 Work with another student in a Remote Assistance session. Choose who will be the
helper and who will ask for help. Create a scenario that your student partner can
help you answer.
9 Create a task to start Windows Calendar every weekday morning at 9:00 so you can
check your appointments for the day.
10 Run the new task to ensure that it works correctly.
181
Unit 18
Windows monitoring

A Monitor the operating system.
B Monitor system performance.
C Backup and restore operating system files
and data.
182
Topic A: System monitoring

exam objective.
#
Objective
3.2

Run line utilities
Msinfo32
Dxdiag
Event Viewer, Services, Computer Management
Task Manager
3.3
Explain the process and steps to install and configure the

Windows OS
Device Manager
Driver signing
objectives.
#
Objective
2.3
Event Viewer
Task Manager
Process list
Resource usage
Process priority
Termination
System Information
2.4

Error Messages and Conditions
Event Viewer (errors in the event log)
Tools for monitoring your system

Explanation
Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, include
tools that you can use to monitor a computer system. You can use the information that
you gather with these tools to optimize components or troubleshoot problems with the
operating system.
Windows monitoring
183
Windows Diagnostics
Windows Diagnostics is a utility that collects information about the configuration of a
specified computer and displays it in the System Information window, shown in Exhibit
18-1. In Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000
Professional you can open System Information by clicking Start and choosing All
Programs (or Programs), Accessories, System Tools. You can also enter msinfo32 at
the command prompt or in the Search or Run dialog box.
The System Information window displays system summary information, plus detailed
information in several categories, including:
Hardware Resources
Components
Software Environment
Internet Settings (not in Windows 7 or Windows Vista)
Exhibit 18-1: The System Information window in Windows 7 Professional
184

System information for remote computers
To display the statistics of a remote computer, choose View, Remote Computer and
enter the name of the computer. For you to run msinfo32 to report on a remote
computer, the remote computer must have Windows Management Instrumentation
(WMI) installed. This is a Windows component thats installed by default. You must
also have appropriate privileges to view system information on the remote computer.
Do it!
A-1:
Running Windows Diagnostics
Heres how
Heres why

as:
User: COMPADMIN##
Password: !pass1234
2 Click Start and in the Search
box, type
To open the System Information window.
msinfo32
Press e
Maximize the System Information
window
Observe the Summary information
The details pane shows general information

about the configuration of your computer.
3 Expand Hardware Resources
To display the categories listed.
Select each subcategory and

observe the information it reports
Windows monitoring
185
4 Expand Components

If necessary, expand any subcategories that

contain additional categories.
5 Expand Software Environment

6 Close the System Information
window
186
Command-line system information

To run msinfo32 at the command prompt or from the Run dialog box, enter:
path\msinfo32
To retain command-line functionality, you must enter the full path of the msinfo32
command. If you dont, it simply opens the default System Information window.
The following table describes the parameters and switches available for running
msinfo32 from the command line in Windows 7 and Windows Vista.
Parameter/switch
Description
/nfo Path
Exports the system information to an .nfo file (nfo stands

for information). Path includes the drive letter, folder
name, file name, and file extension. If you dont specify the
.nfo file extension, Windows adds it to the file name
automatically. You can view .nfo files with a text editor such
as Notepad or a dedicated NFO viewer.
/report Path
Sends the system information to the file specified in the path.

You must specify the extension as .txt. The .txt extension is
not added automatically to the file name, as it is with the /nfo
switch.
/computer ComputerName
Reports on the specified remote computer. You can specify

the remote computer by UNC name, IP address, or FQDN
(fully qualified domain name). Requires administrative
rights.
The following table describes the additional parameters and switches available for
running msinfo32 from the command line in Windows XP and Windows 2000
Professional.
Parameter/switch
Description
/pch
Opens System Information in History view.
/report:filename.txt
Sends the system information to the file specified in the

current directory. You must specify the extension as .txt.
/computer:computername
Reports on the specified remote computer. You can specify

the remote computer by UNC name, IP address, or FQDN
(fully qualified domain name). Requires administrative
rights.
/category:categoryname
Launches System Information with the specified category

selected.
/categories:categorylist
Displays information in only the specified category list.
/showcategories
Displays the list of categories.
/?
Shows command line options (Windows XP).
Windows monitoring
Do it!
A-2:
187
Running msinfo32 from a command line
Heres how
Heres why
1 What msinfo32 command would

you use to send a report to a file
called COMPADMIN##.txt, at the
root of C:\?
2 Click Start
and choose Run as
administrator
You need the proper administrative rights to

have the utility complete all of the tasks to
create the report.
Click Yes
3 Enter the command you recorded
in Step 1
Where ## is your student number.
The utility gathers the information it needs and

then writes it to a file. The System Information
window does not open.
4 Open Windows Explorer

Navigate to C:\
5 Open COMPADMIN##.txt
The command saved the file in the current

directory in the Command Prompt window.
It might take a minute or two for msinfo32 to
scan the system and create the file.
6 Choose Edit, Find

In the Find what box, enter
Protocol
Click Find Next

Click Find Next until all
instances of Protocol are found;
then click OK
Click Cancel and close all open
windows
You can use the Search feature to find

information within the file.
188
DirectX Diagnostic
In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, DirectX Diagnostic (dxdiag.exe) is a utility you can
use to see the status of your DirectX installation. In Windows 2000 Professional and
Windows XP, the DirectX Diagnostic tool is more robust and can be used to test and
troubleshoot video- or sound-related hardware problems. In Windows Vista, however,
DxDiag only displays information; you can no longer use it to test hardware and other
DirectX components.
To run DirectX Diagnostic in Windows 7 or Windows Vista:
1 Click Start.
2 In the Search box, type dxdiag.
3 Press Enter.
4 Click Yes to allow DxDiag to check whether your drivers are digitally signed, or
click No if you dont want the drivers checked.
The DirectX Diagnostic Tool window opens, as shown in Exhibit 18-2. In Windows
XP, you can also open DirectX Diagnostic from the Tools menu in Msinfo32.
Exhibit 18-2: The DirectX Diagnostic Tool in Windows Vista Business

To run DirectX Diagnostic in Windows 2000 Professional or Windows XP:
2 In the Open box, type dxdiag.
3 Click OK.
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189
The following table describes the pages of the DirectX Diagnostic Tool. All pages will
display a warning if the tool detects a problem with a file, driver, device, or setting.
Page
Description
System
Reports the following system information about your computer:

Current Date/Time
System Manufacturer
Memory
Computer Name
System Model
Page file
Operating System
BIOS
DirectX Version
Language
Processor
DirectX
Files
(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Lists the file name and version number for each
DirectX file installed on your computer. It also lists the file name and version
number of the common files used by games that run under DirectX.
Display
Displays your current video settings and your devices available memory.
Dxdiag.exe cant report memory that is in use when you start the utility,
however, so its not uncommon for the utility to report less memory than your
video card actually has. This page also reports whether your video driver has
passed Microsoft's Windows Hardware Quality Labs (WHQL) test. WHQL
Logod is set to Yes if your driver passed.
In Windows XP and 2000, you can disable DirectDraw, Direct3D, and AGP
Texture Acceleration from this page. You can also test DirectDraw and
Direct3D. If your computer passes these tests, it tells you that the DirectX
Graphics runtime files are installed and functioning correctly.
Sound
Displays your current sound settings. Similar to Display, the utility reports
whether your audio driver is signed, again indicating that it passed Microsofts
Windows Hardware Quality Labs tests.
In Windows XP and 2000, you can test DirectSound. Use the Hardware Sound
Acceleration Level slider to correct audio glitches that can be caused by some
audio drivers. The best way to troubleshoot DirectSound audio problems is to
reduce the acceleration by one notch and then retest. Be aware that if you lower
the Hardware Sound Acceleration Level from the default setting of full
acceleration, you can disable advanced audio processing techniques such as 3D
spatialization.
Music
(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Displays your current MIDI settings. You can
test DirectMusic, which is a component of DirectX 6.1 and later.
Input
Lists the input devices currently connected to your computer and the drivers
installed on your computer for those devices.
Network
(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Lists the registered DirectPlay Service Providers,
which are the connection methods DirectPlay operates across. If a Registry
problem is reported here, you can usually resolve it by reinstalling DirectX.
The DirectPlay test uses a chat window over DirectPlay to test a connection
between two computers. If your computer cant successfully chat with another
computer in this test, it probably wont be able to establish a network
connection within games.
More Help
(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Contains additional tools for troubleshooting any
DirectX issues you couldnt resolve by using the other pages in the utility.

Do it!
A-3:
Running the DirectX Diagnostic tool
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start
In the Search box, type dxdiag
and press e
To run the DirectX Diagnostic Tool.
Click Yes
To allow the utility to connect to the Internet

and check for digital signatures on the driver
files.
2 Observe the information reported

on the System page
Check for WHQL digital signatures is

enabled. You can disable it by clearing the
checkbox.
You can navigate by activating another tab
(page) or clicking the Next Page button.
3 Click Next Page
To go to the next page.

on the Display page
Your DirectX features are listed as enabled, and

there should be no problems found.
5 Click Next Page

on the Sound page
7 Click Next Page
on the Input page
Under Input Related Devices,
expand each category
Windows monitoring
9 Click Save All Information
10 Click Save
11 Click Exit
1811
You can save the information to either a .txt file

or an .xml file.
To save the information in a text file on your
desktop.

Task Manager
Task Manager is a Windows GUI utility that provides information about the
applications, processes, and services that are running on your computer. In Windows 7,
Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, Task Manager has
three tabs you can use to troubleshoot problems and monitor your system; theyre
Tab
Description
Application
Displays the status of applications running on your computer. You can end an
application, switch to a running application, or start an application.
Processes
Displays information about the processes that are running on your computer. Each
process entry shows the name of the executable file, the name of the account running
the application (it might be a system service account), the processs percentage of
CPU usage, and the amount of memory the process is using. You can end processes
from this tab.
Performance
Displays a dynamic representation of the most common performance indicators for

your computer. Youll see graphs for CPU and page file usage; summary totals for the
number of handles, threads, and processes running; and totals for physical, kernel, and
commit-charge memory. (The Performance tab is covered in the Memory systems
unit.)
In Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP, Task Manager has two additional
tabs, described in the following table.
Tab
Description
Networking
Displays a dynamic graphical representation of your current network utilization. For

each network adapter installed, Task Manager lists the percentage of network
utilization, the link speed of the connection, and the state of the connection.
Users
Displays the names and status of any users currently logged on. You can log users off
or disconnect them by using this tab. The Users tab is available on Windows XP
computers that arent members of a domain and that have Fast User Switching
enabled.
Windows 7 and Windows Vista also includes a Services tab. You can use it to view
running services quickly. Exhibit 18-3 shows all of the Task Manager tabs in Windows
7 and Windows Vista.
To open Task Manager:
Right-click the taskbar and choose Task Manager.
Press Ctrl+Shift+Esc.
Press Ctrl+Alt+Del and click Task Manager or Start Task Manager.
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1813
Exhibit 18-3: Task Manager in Windows Vista Business
The Applications tab

You can use the Applications tab in Task Manager to end a running application. This is
helpful when a general protection fault (GPF) occurs, indicated either by a pop-up
window or the immediate termination and closure of an application. To end a running
application:
1 In Task Manager, on the Applications tab, select the application you want to
end.
2 Click End Task.
3 If the application still isnt responding, Windows will display a dialog box
telling you that the application isnt responding. Click End Task.
You can also use the Applications tab to switch to another application. For example, if
an application is running, but is running in the background or doesnt have a taskbar
button displayed, you can use Task Manager to switch to the application.
1 On the Applications tab, select the application you want to switch to.
2 Click Switch To. This step minimizes Task Manager and places the selected
application on top of the desktop.

You can start a new instance of an application from within Task Manager. This is
helpful if the explorer.exe process has stopped and you have lost your Start menu,
taskbar, and desktop items. Creating a new task to start explorer.exe will fix the
problem. To do so:
1 On the Applications tab, click New Task.
2 In the Open box, type the desired executable file (or browse to navigate to it).
3 Click OK.
Do it!
A-4:
Monitoring applications
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open Documents and a Command

Prompt
Minimize both windows
2 Right-click an empty section of
the taskbar and choose Start
To open Task Manager.
Task Manager
3 If necessary, select the

Applications tab
4 Select Documents and click
Switch To
Task Manager minimizes to the taskbar, and the

Windows Explorer window, displaying the
Documents folder, is now active.
5 On the taskbar, click
The icon for Task Manager.
6 Select Command Prompt
If this application had experienced a GPF, its

status would be Not responding.
7 Click End Task
To end the Command Prompt application.
8 Click New Task

In the Open box, type notepad
and then click OK
An instance of Notepad runs, and its listed on

the Applications tab.
Windows monitoring
1815
The Processes tab

The Processes tab is helpful when you need to determine if a running process is
overwhelming the processor and slowing the system down. Heres how you do that:
1 In Windows Task Manager, select the Processes tab.
2 As you complete tasks on the computer, observe the CPU column. You should
see the number spike as each process takes processor time, and then the number
should return to normal.
If a process has a high percentage of CPU usage that doesnt return to normal,
you might have to end the process.
3 Select the name of the executable file for the process thats overwhelming the
CPU.
4 Click End Process.
5 A warning box states that terminating the process can cause undesirable results.
To end the process, click End Process (in Windows 7 and Windows Vista) or
Yes (in Windows 2000 and XP).
You can also use the Processes tab to end an application that wont end when you try to
do so on the Applications tab. Just find the applications process, and click End Process.
Do it!
A-5:
Ending a process
Heres how
Heres why
1 Select the Processes tab
In Task Manager.
2 Click Memory
(The column heading.) To sort the list of

processes by memory consumption.
3 Click Image Name
(The column heading.) To sort the list of

processes by name.
4 Select notepad.exe
Click End Process
Click End Process
The selected instance of Notepad closes, and its

executable file is removed from the list of
processes.

The Services tab
A unique feature on the Services tab is its tie to the Processes tab. When you right-click
a running service and select Go to Process, Task Manager switches to the Processes tab
and highlights the associated process. If there isnt a process highlighted, the process
isnt running under your user account. Click Show processes from all users on the
Processes tab.
This process also works in reverse. You can right-click a process and choose Go to
Services, and Task Manager will switch to the Services tab and highlight the associated
services.
Do it!
A-6:
Monitoring services
Heres how
1 On the Processes tab, click Show
Heres why
In Task Manager.
processes from all users
2 Select the Services tab
This tab shows the services on your computer

and their status: Stopped or Running.

for each service
4 Right-click
LanmanWorkstation and
choose Go to Process
Task Manager switches to the Processes tab and

highlights the appropriate svchost.exe process.
Windows monitoring
1817
The Networking tab

You can use the data displayed on the Networking tab in Task Manager to quickly see
how much of your computers network bandwidth youre using.
If you have multiple network interface cards (NICs) installed on the computer, the chart
displays a combination of the network traffic for all NICs. The bottom of the tab
displays information about multiple NICs individually, allowing you to compare the
traffic on each one.
You can change the columns displayed in the summary area for each NIC by choosing
View, Select Columns. Exhibit 18-4 shows the choices available.
Exhibit 18-4: Data types that can be displayed under the Networking graph.

Do it!
A-7:
Monitoring network utilization
Heres how
Heres why
1 Select the Networking tab
In Task Manager.
2 Move Task Manager to the lowerright corner of your screen
You will view network utilization data as you

work with Internet Explorer.

Switch to Task Manager
(If necessary.) Click its icon on the taskbar.
4 In Task Manager, observe the

Local Area Connection graph
There were small spikes in network traffic as

you accessed the Internet through the local
network.
5 Observe the box below the graph
It shows details about your NIC.
6 Close all open windows except

Task Manager
Right-click each button on the taskbar and

choose Close Window.
Windows monitoring
1819
The Users tab

You can use the Users tab in Task Manager to monitor the users logged on to the
computer and to disconnect them, log them off, or send them a message. The columns
on the Users tab include the items in the following table.
Item
Description
User
Lists the user names of people logged on to this computer.
ID
Shows a numeric ID assigned to identify the user session on the computer.
Status
Indicates the current status of the user session: Active or Disconnected.
Client Name
If applicable, indicates the name of the computer using the session.
Session
Displays the session name. (Youll need to scroll to the right to see this
column.)

Do it!
A-8:
Monitoring users
Heres how
1 Select the Users tab
Heres why
It shows that youre the only user logged onto
your computer.

Switch user
3 Log on as COMPUSER## with

4 Open Notepad
5 Switch back to your
COMPADMIN## account
(Click Start and choose Switch User.) Dont log

off your COMPUSER## account.
6 Observe the data on the Users tab
The user account you just switched from is

listed as Disconnected.
Select COMPUSER##
You can log off this user or send him a message.

Logging the user off could cause data to be lost
in files the user is working on but hasnt saved.
7 Click Send Message

In the Message box, enter Please
dont leave applications
running when you leave
the computer.
Click OK
8 Switch to COMPUSER##
Click OK
The message from COMPADMIN## is

displayed.
To clear the message box.
9 Close Notepad
10 Log off COMPUSER## and then
log on as COMPADMIN##
11 Close Windows Task Manager
COMPUSER## is no longer listed on the Users

tab.
Windows monitoring
1821
Computer Management
The Computer Management tool enables you to manage the local computer or a remote
computer. Administrative tasks you can complete from the Computer Management
console include:
Monitoring system events, such as application errors
Creating and managing shared resources
Determining which users are connected to the computer youre managing
Starting and stopping system services
Setting properties for storage devices
Viewing device configurations
Adding or changing device drivers
Managing applications and services
You can use Computer Management to determine the source of problems with a
computer. The Computer Management console contains three categories: System Tools;
Storage; and Services and Applications.
To open the Computer Management console, do either of the following:
Click Start; right-click Computer (or My Computer), and choose Manage. In
Windows Vista, click Continue.
Open the Control Panel:
In Windows 7, click System and Security
In Windows Vista, click System and Maintenance
In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, click Performance and Maintenance
Click Administrative Tools; and double-click Computer Management. In
Windows Vista, click Continue.
Event monitoring
Event Viewer is a Windows utility that enables you to monitor events that occur on your
system. The events that are recorded can help you determine the cause of problems
youre having with a particular application, a component of the operating system, or a
suspected security breach.
Console tree
Scope pane
Actions pane
Exhibit 18-5: Event Viewer in Windows 7

On workstation computers, Event Viewer events are divided into the following
categories (referred to as logs):
Application Events logged by individual applications. The types of errors an
application logs in Event Viewer are determined by the applications developers
and might vary considerably among applications and vendors.
Security Events relating to the security of your Windows 7, Windows Vista,
Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional computer. For security events to
be logged by Windows 2000 or Windows XP, you must establish an audit
policy.
System Events reported by Windows system components. The operating
system determines which components report errors to the Event Viewer log.
Windows 7 and Windows Vista has two additional categories:
Setup Events relating to the installation of each new application.
Forwarded Events Event IDs from other computers. You specify which
events to collect by using Subscriptions.
Additional categories are available in Microsofts Server operating systems.
Event Viewer is available in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows
2000 Professional. You can access it through the Administrative Tools in the Control
Panel. Event Viewer is also a System Tools component of the Computer Management
console.
Windows monitoring
1823
Event information
Each of the three event categories displays certain header information for each recorded
event. This information is described in the following table.
Item
Description
Level (7/Vista);
Type (XP/2000)
The type of event thats recorded: Error, Warning, Information, Success Audit
(Security Log only), or Failure Audit (Security Log only).
Date
The date the event was recorded.
Time
The time the event was recorded. Date and Time are combined in a single column
in Windows 7 and Windows Vista.
Source
The program, system component, or individual component of a large program that

recorded the event.
Task Category
(7/Vista); Category
(XP/2000)
Additional information about the component that logged the event.
Event ID (7/Vista);
Event (XP/2000)
An ID that identifies the type of event. Event IDs are coded into the operating
system and individual applications and can be used by product support personnel to
troubleshoot problems.
Computer
The name of the computer where the event occurred. In Windows 7 and Windows
Vista, the User and Computer information isnt listed in a column. You must look
at the General tab of the event details.
User
The name of the user who was logged on when the event was recorded. Many
components run under a system account, so you might see SYSTEM in this
column, even if a user was logged on when the event occurred.
OpCode
The point at which the event was recorded. . In Windows 7 and Windows Vista,
the OpCode information isnt listed in a column. You must look at the General tab
of the event details.
Logged
The date and time the event was logged. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the
Logged information isnt listed in a column. You must look at the General tab of
the event details.
Keywords
Words that you can use to search for more information about the event. .In
Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the Keywords information isnt listed in a column.
You must look at the General tab of the event details.

Event types
There are five types of events; they are described in the following table.
Event type
Description
Error
A significant problem; for example, a service fails to start.
Warning
An event that isnt a significant or immediate problem but could

become a significant problem in the future. For example, disk space is
running low.
Information
The successful operation of a task; for example, a network driver

loads successfully.
Success Audit
(Security Log only)
A successful security event; for example, a user logs on successfully.
Failure Audit
(Security Log only)
An unsuccessful security event; for example, a user attempts to log on

but fails to submit proper credentials.
Double-clicking an individual event opens an Event Properties dialog box, as shown in

Exhibit 18-6, with a description of the event. You can use the arrow buttons to view
information about the previous (up arrow) or next (down arrow) event.
Exhibit 18-6: An Event Properties dialog box in Windows Vista Business
Windows monitoring
Do it!
A-9:
Viewing the event logs
Heres how
Heres why

Computer
Choose Manage
Event Viewer is part of the Computer

Management console.
2 Under System Tools, expand

Event Viewer
Click the
Expand Windows Logs
The five categories are listed.
1825

3 Select Application
Observe the Level, Date and
Time, Source, Event ID, and Task
Category columns
The events are listed, by default, from the most

recent to the oldest. The first event is selected.
Observe the information listed on

the General tab for the event
The user and computer information is listed

here, along with the details from the columns
above.
4 Select the Details tab

Select Friendly View
(If necessary.) Microsoft technicians can use

this information to diagnose a problem.
Select XML View
To display the event information in an XML

view.
5 Select Security
Events related to system security are recorded in

this log.
6 Select Setup
If there havent been any problems installing

applications, you wont have any events listed
here.
7 Select System
To view the events recorded by the operating

system and its components.
8 Select Forwarded Events
You havent set up any subscriptions yet, so

there arent any events listed.
9 Observe Subscriptions
This area is where you set up subscriptions to

events on other computers.
Windows monitoring
1827
Changing the event display

Using the View menu, you can sort and filter the display of events in each event log,
and you can search for events that meet particular criteria. These features are helpful in
quickly narrowing down a full event log to only certain events.
Sorting events
By default, events are listed from the newest to the oldest, by date and time, but you
can easily change the sort order by clicking any column heading. A single click on the
column heading sorts the events in ascending order (an up-arrow appears in the column
heading, as shown in Exhibit 18-7). A second click sorts events in descending order (a
down-arrow appears in the column heading). You can also use the View, Sort By
command to sort by column heading. To return the view to the default, choose View,
Remove Sorting.
Up arrow shows that the log is
sorted in ascending order by Level
Exhibit 18-7: An Application log sorted by Level

Grouping events
In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, you can group events in a log by column heading.
Choose View, Group By, and choose a column heading by which to group the events.
You can then choose View, Collapse All Groups to see just the groups, and then expand
each group as necessary. Exhibit 18-8 shows the Application log grouped by Level. To
remove the grouping, choose View, Remove grouping of events.
Exhibit 18-8: Grouped events

Filtering events
To display only certain events in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, you can apply a filter
to the view. Heres how:
1 In the console tree, select the log where you want to filter events.
2 In the Actions pane, click Filter Current Log. (To show or hide the Actions pane,
click the Show/Hide Action Pane button on the toolbar.)
3 Check and clear event types as needed.
4 Select filter criteria as needed from each of the following areas:
Logged
Level (in Windows Vista)
Event sources or Source
Event ID
Task category
Keywords
User
Computer
5 Click OK.
To remove the filter, click Clear Filter in the Actions pane.
If you filter events instead of sorting them, you can use the Event Properties dialog box
to navigate between the details of only the events that meet your filtering criteria.
Exhibit 18-9: An Application log with a filter applied
Windows monitoring
1829
Managing event logs

Event logs can fill up pretty quickly, especially on computers that are used with great
frequency and on computers on which youve configured the security log to track
security events. Event logs in Windows Vista have a default size limit of 20,480 KB.
Logs in Windows XP and Windows 2000 have a default limit of 512 KB. You can
modify event log size by right-clicking the log, choosing properties, and increasing or
decreasing the size in KB.
When an event log is full, by default, it begins to overwrite events beginning with the
oldest event. You can configure the logs to overwrite events, never to overwrite events,
or to archive the logs when they reach capacity. To configure these settings, right-click
a log and choose Properties.
To clear a log manually, right-click it and choose Clear Log (Windows Vista) or Clear
All Events (Windows XP/2000). Youre prompted to save the log contents. You can
save the contents as an Event Log file, an XML file (Windows Vista only), a tabdelimited text file, or a comma-delimited file. You can always save a log without
clearing it by right-clicking and choosing Save Events As (Windows Vista) or Save Log
File As (Windows XP/2000).

Do it!
A-10: Controlling the display of an event log

Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Level
To sort the list of events in the Application log

alphabetically by level. The arrow in the column
heading is pointing up.
Click Level again
To reverse the sort order. The arrow is pointing

down.
2 Sort by the Source column

heading
3 Choose View,
To return the log to the default view.
4 In the Actions pane, click
To open the Filter Current Log dialog box, with the

Filter tab active.
Remove sorting
Filter Current Log
Under Event level, check

Error and Warning
5 Open the Event sources list
To display only warning and error messages.
You can choose to display events from just one

source.
Check Application
Click in a blank area of the
dialog box
6 Open the Task category list
To close the list.
With an event source selected, you can further

refine your filter to show events from specific
categories.
Close the Category list

Observe the Event ID,
Keywords, User, and
Computer(s) boxes
You can enter values in these boxes to further

refine your filter.
At the top of the dialog box, open

and observe the Logged list
You can show only events that occur within a

specified date range.
7 Click OK
To apply the filter.
Windows monitoring
8 Do any events match the filter
criteria?
9 Observe the top of the event list
10 In the Actions pane, click

Clear Filter
The filter criteria are displayed.
To remove the filter.
1831
Topic B: System performance

exam objective.
#
Objective
3.2
Give a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces

Performance Monitor
objectives.
#
Objective
2.3
System Monitor
Performance Monitor
Reliability Monitor
Explanation
In addition to knowing how well your system components are operating, youll also
want to know the overall reliability of your system, including the hardware components,
applications, and the Windows Vista operating system itself. Reliability Monitor is one
tool you can use to assess the stability of a system over a period of time and pinpoint
any components that might be causing system problems.
Reliability Monitor tracks the following events that affect system stability:
Software installs and uninstalls
Application failures
Hardware failures
Windows failures
Miscellaneous failures
Windows monitoring
1833
Exhibit 18-10: Reliability Monitor in Windows Vista

Reliability Monitor, shown in Exhibit 18-10, provides two features you can use to track
and troubleshoot system health:
System Stability Chart A calendar-based chart that tracks reliability and the
events that affect it over a 28-day period. Each day Reliability Monitor assigns a
number, called the Stability Index, to system stability. The Index ranges from 1.0
(least stable) to 10.0 (most stable). You can track the rise and fall of the index
and match that number to the logged events to help determine what exactly is
affecting system stability.
You can display specific date ranges and see a current average index. In Exhibit
18-10, you can see that several events began to affect the index and brought it
down from 10.0 to 6.76. Resolving the problems that caused those events will
increase system stability.
System Stability Report A report that provides details for the day you select
in the System Stability Chart. You can use the report to see details about the
events that affected the Stability Index that day.
To open Reliability Monitor, open the Control Panel, click System and Maintenance,
and click Performance Information and Tools. In the left pane, click Advanced tools,
and then click Open Reliability and Performance Monitor. In the tree pane, select
Reliability Monitor. You can also open Reliability Monitor in Computer Management.

Do it!
B-1:
Determining a systems Stability Index
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open Control Panel, System and

Security, Action Center
Expand Maintenance
2 Click View reliability
history
3 Observe the System Stability

Chart
The Stability Index is represented by a blue line

that rates your system stability on a scale of 1 to
10. 10 being the most stable and 1 being the
least stable. If there have been any events,
theyre logged as icons to indicate an
informational event, a warning, or an error.
4 If possible, select a day with an

icon and observe the Reliability
details
To see the event details for that day. Only event

categories that logged events will open in the
report. You can use this information to track
problems and increase system stability.
5 Select any other days with icons
To view the events on those days.
6 Whats your current Stability

Index? Is it trending up or down?
Why?
7 How might you increase the
Stability Index?
Windows monitoring
1835
Resource Overview
In Windows Vista, Reliability and Performance Monitor contains an important tool
called Resource Overview, which you can use to assess and maintain the health of your
system. As shown in Exhibit 18-11, Resource Overview is the first tool you see when
you open Reliability and Performance Monitor. It provides real-time graphs and detailed
information about four key components:
CPU Displays CPU utilization.
Hard disk Displays the disk input/output statistics.
Network Details network traffic.
Memory Displays memory statistics, including the percent of memory used
and the number of hard page faults.
Exhibit 18-11: Resource Overview

Under the graphs are corresponding sections that you can expand to see more detailed
information. Just click the associated graph to display the detailed information about
that components current performance, as shown in Exhibit 18-12.
Exhibit 18-12: Detail view of the CPU resource

To open Reliability and Performance Monitor and display Resource Overview:
1 In the Control Panel, click System and Maintenance.
2 Click Performance Information and Tools.
3 In the left pane, click Advanced tools.
4 Click Open Reliability and Performance Monitor.
5 Click Continue.
Or you can view Reliability and Performance information in the Computer Management
console.
Do it!
B-2:
Viewing real-time performance data in Resource

Overview (optional Instructor demonstration on
Windows Vista)
Heres how
Heres why
If your instructor has a Windows Vista computer

available, he or she might choose to demonstrate
this activity.)
2 Under System Tools, select
To display the Resource Overview.
Reliability and
Performance
3 Observe the four graphs
Each graph is scrolling to the left, showing you

the level of activity for each component.
4 Click the CPU graph
To display the details. You can see which

applications and processes are accessing the
CPU.
5 Click the CPU graph again
To close its details section.
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Performance Monitor
You use Performance Monitor (known also as System Monitor in Windows XP), shown
in Exhibit 18-13, to monitor computer performance in real time (in one-second
intervals), or in the form of saved reports of real-time data. Hundreds of computer
performance variables called counters are available for you to measure and assess a
computers performance. For example, you can:
Create a baseline to compare system performance over time.
Monitor system resource use.
Locate performance problems.
Identify performance bottlenecks.
Exhibit 18-13: A real-time graph in Performance Monitor in Windows Vista

The counters are categorized by performance object, which is any resource that you can
measure. Here are some of the commonly used performance objects:
Battery Status
Cache
Memory
Network Interface
Objects
Paging File
PhysicalDisk
Process
Processor
System
Thread
Bottlenecks
A bottleneck occurs when a shortage of a particular system resource causes a
performance problem. You can identify some common system-resource shortages by
using the following counters:
Counter
Description
Processor:
% Processor Time
Monitors how hard your processor is working. A number consistently

exceeding 75% indicates that your processor is being overworked. If
purchasing a new system with a more powerful processor is not an option, you
can try to take some of the burden off the processor by:
Adding more RAM to the system
Reducing the number of programs that run simultaneously
Verifying that an individual program is not taking control of the

processor and then not releasing it
Process:
Thread Count
Displays the numbers of threads active in a process. Threads are pieces of

software code that are loaded into memory. When an application opens, it can
take control of multiple memory threads to accomplish its tasks. When the
application closes, it should release the threads, thereby freeing them up for
other applications. When an application opens threads in memory but fails to
close them, this situation is called a memory leak. (Its typically caused by
poor application programming.) Monitoring the Thread Count can help you
identify memory leaks in applications.
Memory:
Pages/sec
Monitors the rate at which pages are read from or written to disk. This counter
can point to page faults that cause system delays. You might need to add RAM
if this number is increasing consistently or higher than your baseline.
PhysicalDisk:
Disk Transfers/sec
Records the rate of read and write operations on your disk. If the value
recorded exceeds 25 disk I/Os per second, you have poor disk-response time.
This can cause a bottleneck that affects response time for applications running
on your system. It might be time to upgrade your hardware to use faster disks
or scale out your application to better handle the load. (Scaling out an
application means adding one or more servers to your distributed software
application.)
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Counter
Description
Network Interface
Monitors network traffic. You can use counters to measure bandwidth and
packet errors to determine if slow performance is due to network problems
rather than local system issues.
Exhibit 18-14: Adding counters

Real-time monitoring
To monitor resources in real time, you add counters to the Performance Monitor graph.
Right-click the graph and choose Add Counters to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit
18-14. You can also click the Add button on the toolbarits a green plus sign. Then, in
the Add Counters dialog box:
1 Specify whether you want to monitor resources on the local computer or a
remote computer.
2 In the list of performance objects, expand the performance object that contains
the counter you want to add.
3 Select the desired counter.
4 Select an instance of the counter. Instances are unique copies of a performance
object (for example, a network card or hard disk).
5 Click Add.
6 When youve added all the counters you want, click OK.
To open Performance Monitor in Windows XP and Windows 2000, click Start, choose
Run, and enter perfmon.

Do it!
B-3:
Monitoring performance with Performance Monitor
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open Control Panel, System and

Security, Administrative Tools
2 Double-click Performance
Monitor
3 Under Monitoring Tools, select

Performance Monitor
4 Observe the graph
After you add counters, this is where the realtime data will be displayed. Under the graph is a
list of the counters it displays. By default, the
%ProcessorTime counter is displayed.
5 Right-click the empty graph and

choose Add Counters
6 Scroll the Available counters list
until you see Process
7 Click the down-arrow next to
Process
To expand that performance object and display

its associated counters.
8 Scroll through the Process list

Select Thread Count and
observe the list of instances
You can see a list of all the process threads. If

you need to monitor a specific thread, you can
select it from the list.
Verify that _Total is selected,

and click Add
9 Add Memory: Pages/sec and
PhysicalDisk: Disk
Transfers/sec to the Added
counters list
10 After youve added all three

counters, click OK
Repeat the procedure of expanding the

performance object, selecting the counter, and
clicking Add.
Windows monitoring
11 Observe the graph
Observe the list of counters
12 Open Internet Explorer, and then

open the Control Panel and the
Documents folder
1841
The real-time monitoring has begun. In a

moment, youll generate some activity to see
how the graph spikes when you use the
computer.
You can see the three counters you added, plus
the default %ProcessorTime. Each counter has
been assigned a different color. You can
uncheck one of the checkboxes to remove the
counters display on the graph. The counter will
be temporarily hidden, but not deleted.
To generate activity on the computer.
Switch to Computer Management

and observe the graph
The activity has generated some data, so you

might see counters you didnt see just a few
minutes ago.
13 Switch to Internet Explorer and

browse to a couple different Web
pages
To generate more activity and some network

traffic.
Switch to Computer Management

and observe the graph
14 Close all open windows except for

Performance Monitor
You can use this data to help determine where

there might be some performance bottlenecks on
your computer. Depending on the information
youre trying to find, you can add or remove
dozens of counters to measure a computers
performance.

Performance Monitor configuration
As with other Windows utilities, you can customize Performance Monitor to suit your
needs. The following table describes some of the more useful buttons on the toolbar
above the graph.
Button
Use to
Open saved log files and display them in Performance Monitor.
Change the Performance Monitor display from a line graph to a histogram to a
text-based report.
Add and delete counters.
Highlight counters so you can see their lines on the graph more easily.
Open the Performance Monitor Properties dialog box.
Pause and restart the real-time display.
Update data, one click at a time.
You can also use the Performance Monitor Properties dialog box to configure
Performance Monitor and the display of data. The following table describes the tabs and
the settings you can configure on them.
Tab
Use to configure
General
The display of components, such as the legend and the toolbar; how much data
is displayed in the histogram and report views; whether Performance Monitor
should collect samples automatically; how often samples should be collected;
and how long the samples should be displayed.
Source
Whether the data source to be displayed is real-time data or comes from a saved
log file.
Data
How data is displayed, including which counters should be displayed, and the
color, scale, width, and style of the line displayed for each counter.
Graph
Graph elements, such as the view, scroll style, title and vertical axis labels, and
scale.
Appearance
General appearance values, including colors and font.
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Customizing Performance Monitor
Heres how
Heres why
1 On the Performance Monitor

toolbar, click
To open the Performance Monitor Properties

dialog box.
2 Observe settings on the General

page
You can configure some display options and the

performance sample interval.
3 Change Sample every to 2, and

the Duration to 30
The data will now be updated every two

seconds, and the graph will display 30 seconds
worth of data.
Click OK and observe the changes

in the line graph
It updates more slowly and doesnt contain as

much data as it did before.
4 Open the Properties dialog box

Change the Sample every and
Duration settings back to 1 and
100, respectively
5 Select the Data tab
Select the Disk Transfer/sec
counter and change the line width
to the thickest setting
Select the %Processor Time
counter and change it to a dark
color
Change the counters line style to
the dash style, as shown
6 Select the Graph tab
Change the scroll style to Scroll
Change the vertical scale
maximum to 50
7 Click OK and observe the changes
More of the data is displayed, some of the lines

are different, and the data is scrolling right to
left.

8 On the Performance Monitor
toolbar, click
Click
again
To change the line graph to a histogram. A

histogram is another way to display the data
graphically.
To change the histogram to a text-based report.
The data is still presented in real time, but its
text-based rather than graphical.
Return the display to a line graph

9 In the list of counters, select the
Disk Transfers/sec counter,
and then click
Click the button again
To turn off highlighting.

To freeze the display.
10 Click
Click
To highlight the counter.
a few times
Click
11 In the list of counters, select the
Thread Count counter and
click
12 Delete the Pages/sec and
Disk Transfer/sec counters
13 Close Performance Monitor
To update the data manually.

To unfreeze the display.
To delete the counter.
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Performance Logs and Alerts

Another tool available within the Performance console in Windows XP/2000 is
Performance Logs and Alerts. This tool allows you to collect data automatically, on the
local computer or from another computer on the network, and then view it using System
Monitor.
The Performance Logs and Alerts tool allows you to perform the following tasks:
Collect data in a binary, comma-separated, tab-separated, or SQL Server
database format. The binary versions of the log files can be read with System
Monitor, but comma- and tab-separated data can easily be imported into another
program for analysis.
View data while it is being collected and after it has been collected.
Configure parameters, such as start and stop times for log generation, file names,
and file size.
Configure and manage multiple logging sessions from a single console window.
Set up alerts so a message is sent, a program is run, or a log file is started when a
specific operating system or hardware counter exceeds or drops below a
configured value.
You can access Performance Logs and Alerts through the Performance console. There
are three options available:
Counter Logs. Take the information that you view using System Monitor and
save it to a log file. One of the main advantages of using counter logs is that you
can configure logging to start and stop at different intervals.
Trace Logs. Similar to counter logs but are triggered to start when an event
occurs.
Alerts. Allow you to configure an event to occur when a counter meets a
predefined value. For example, you can choose to run a specific program or
utility automatically when an operating system or hardware threshold is reached
or to send a message to a network administrator.
Configuring Alerts
Logging does increase overhead on a computer, so it is generally not something you
want to have running all the time. Rather than running logs all the time, alerts can be set
up to notify you of a potential problem. For example, you can configure an alert to
monitor hardware, such the LogicalDisk object for %FreeDiskSpace < 20%. If free disk
space is below 20%, an alert notifies you of the problem.

The following table summarizes the options that can be set for generating alerts.
Action
Description
Log an entry in the application

event log
An entry is added to the application log when the event is triggered.
Send a network message to
Messenger service sends a message to the specified computer when

the alert is triggered.
Start performance data log
Counter log is run when the alert is triggered.
Run this program
Specified program is run when the alert is triggered. For example, a

paging program or e-mail utility.
Command Line Arguments
Specified command line arguments are copied when the Run this
program option is used.
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Topic C: Backup and restore

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.5

Backup procedures
3.4
Explain the basics of boot sequences, methods, and startup utilities

Boot options
Boot to restore point
objective.
#
Objective
2.3
NTBACKUP
System Restore
Backups
Explanation
Microsoft operating systems include a backup utility you can use to create copies of
your files so you can recover your data if a system failure occurs. On a bootable
computer, you should back up any critical data before you attempt to troubleshoot any
problems.
The archive bit
Files on a Windows system include a special attribute, called an archive bit, that is used
during backups, with the exception of daily backups. The archive bit is set to 1 when the
file needs to be backed up. Files need to be backed up if theyre new or if they have
changed since the last backup. In most cases, the bit is reset to 0 when the file is backed
up, and the bit remains that way until you or an application changes the file. Copy and
differential backups leave this bit at 1.

Windows Backup
The Backup utility is installed with Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP
Professional, and Windows 2000 Professional. You can use Windows Backup to:
Create automatic backups of your personal files.
Restore files that you previously backed up.
Create a Complete PC Backup.
Archive selected files and folders on your hard disk in another location,
including on removable storage devices.
Restore the archived files and folders to your hard disk.
Make a copy of your computers system state, which includes:
Registry
Boot files
COM+ class registration database
IIS metadirectory
Windows File Protection system files
Copy your computers system partition, the boot partition, and the files needed
to start up the system.
The most common use of the Backup utility is to back up critical data and operating
system files to ensure that recovery is possible if files are accidentally deleted or a
disaster occurs.
In Windows 7, you access the Backup and Restore utility through Control Panel, System
and Security. You access the Windows Backup utility through System Tools. The utility
can be used in two modes: Wizard mode and Advanced mode. Wizard mode walks you
step-by-step through the process of creating a backup or restoring files. Advanced mode
gives you complete control over the file and folder selection process.
Windows Backup in Windows 7 and Windows Vista

Backups can be saved on any removable media, on a directory on your hard disk, in a
shared folder on the network, or on another computer on the network. Because
Windows 7 and Windows Vista has CD and DVD writing built in, you can even back
up your files directly to one of those discs.
To perform any backup actions, you must be logged on as an administrator. You cannot
provide administrative credentials on demand to back up files with Windows Backup.
You can restore files as a standard user, but only to your personal folder or the Public
Documents folder.
Automatic backups
You can schedule automatic backups of your files by using Windows Backup. This
option is designed to make copies of your photos, documents, video files, and music
files. It does not back up system settings or installed programs. You can also manually
choose which files and folders are backed up. In Windows 7, when you choose the files,
you can select whether or not to include a system image of your drive in the backup. If
your computer stops working, you can use this image to restore Windows.
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Exhibit 18-15: Backup and Restore utility in Windows 7 Professional

To configure and enable automatic backups in Windows 7:
1 Log on as an administrator.
2 Click Start and choose All Program, Maintenance, Backup and Restore. If you
cant find it on your Start menu, you can start Backup and Restore from Control
Panel, System and Security.
3 The first time you use Windows Backup, click Set up backup.
4 Choose whether to have Windows select the files to back up or whether to
choose the files yourself. Click Next.
5 As needed, check or clear the options for each type of file you want the utility to
back up. Click Next.
6 Select a location for your backed-up files. (You can back up to any recordable
CD or DVD drives installed in your PC or to a network location.) Click Next.
7 Click Change schedule.
Using the How Often, When, and What time lists, specify when you want
automatic backups to be run. Click OK.
8 Click Save settings and start backup to save your backup schedule and to begin
backing up your files now. If youve selected an optical disc drive for your
backup files, Windows prompts you to insert a disc when its ready to write your
files.

To configure and enable automatic backups in Windows Vista:
1 Log on as an administrative user.
2 Choose Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Backup
Status and Configuration.
3 The first time you use Windows Backup, click Set up automatic file backup.
Click Continue to acknowledge that youre performing a system modification.
4 As needed, check or clear the options for each type of file you want the utility to
back up. Click Next.
5 Select a location for your backed-up files. Click Next.
6 Using the How Often, When, and What time lists, specify when you want
automatic backups to be run. Click Finish.
7 Click OK to save your backup schedule and to begin backing up your files now.
If you selected an optical disc drive for your backup files, Windows will prompt
you to insert a disc when it is ready to write your files.
The Windows XP backup utility
Windows XP includes a backup utility called NTBackup. You can use the GUI version
or the command-line version of the Windows XP backup utility. Here are the basics
steps to create a backup in the GUI version:
1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Backup.
2 Click Advanced Mode and select the Backup tab.
3 Choose Job, New. Check the folders you want to back up.
4 In the Backup media or file name box, specify where you want to save the
backup.
5 If youre using a tape, specify which tape to use.
6 Click Start Backup twice.
7 When the backup is finished, you can click Report to view a report of the
backup.
8 Click Close.
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Windows XP backup types

The Windows Backup utility supports five types of backups, described in the following
table.
Type
Backs up
Normal
All selected files. Clears the archive attribute. With a normal backup, you need
only the most recent copy of the backup file to restore from backup.
Copy
Selected files. Doesnt clear the archive attribute, which shows that the file has
been backed up.
Daily
All selected files that were modified the day of the daily backup. Doesnt clear
the archive attribute.
Differential
Selected files that have been created or modified since the last normal or
incremental backup. Doesnt clear the archive attribute. Differential backups
require that you have the most recent normal backup in addition to the
differential backup, if you want to restore files.
Incremental
Selected files that have been created or modified since the last normal or
incremental backup. Clears the archive attribute. Incremental backups require
that you have the most recent normal backup in addition to the incremental
backup, if you want to restore files.
Developing a backup strategy

There are several backup strategies you can employ. The most common is known as the
Grandfather-Father-Son (GFS) strategy, which is described below. Backup strategies
usually consist of some combination of full, incremental, and differential backups.
Developing a backup strategy involves not only determining when to perform backups,
but also testing the data with random and scheduled verification to make sure that tape
devices and other media are functioning properly. While most backup strategies apply to
servers, you can adapt them for desktops and laptops depending on the needs of your
organization.

The Grandfather-Father-Son backup strategy
There are several generally accepted backup strategies. Many of them are based on the
popular Grandfather-Father-Son (GFS) backup strategy (also known as the ChildParent-Grandparent method), illustrated in Exhibit 18-16. This strategy uses three sets
of media for daily, weekly, and monthly backup sets, and you implement it as follows:
1 Back up the Son Label four media as Monday through Thursday.
These Son media are used for daily incremental backups during the week. For
subsequent weeks, reuse these same media.
2 Back up the Father Label five media as Week 1 through Week 5.
These Father media are used for weekly full backups on Friday, the day you
dont perform a Son backup. Once you make the backup, store the media locally.
Reuse each media when its week arrives. Depending on your backup policy,
periodically duplicate a Father media for off-site storage. You can use another
drive to perform a simultaneous backup or use backup software that offers a
copy feature.
3 Back up the Grandfather No standard labeling scheme is stated, but
consider labeling three media as Month 1 through Month 3. The
Grandfather media are used for full backups performed on the last business day
of the month. The media are valid for three months and are reused every quarter.
At a minimum, the GFS strategy requires 12 media, assuming that no single backup
exceeds the capacity of a single medium.
Of course, you can modify this scheme as it suits your backup policy, but the GFS
strategy is a logical, reliable place to start. For example, if you want to keep a years
data archived at all times, instead of only a quarters, then for the Grandfather media
you would label 12 media Month 1 through Month 12 and reuse the media every
year.
Exhibit 18-16: The GFS rotation strategy
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C-1:
1853
Scheduling a backup
The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 18\Topic C.
Heres how
1 From the Student Data folder for
this topic, copy the Files folder
to your Documents folder
Heres why
Youll use these for the backup and restore
activities.
Close any open windows

All Programs,
To open the Backup and Restore window.
Maintenance, Backup and

Restore
3 Click Set up backup
Windows searches for a suitable backup device.

directions to select your
computers optical drive or a
network location
For the network location, you might need to

enter credentials.
Click Next
5 Click Let me choose
To choose which files you want to back up.
Click Next
6 Clear Backup data for newly created users
Expand COMPADMIN##s
Libraries
7 Clear checkboxes for all types
except Documents Library and
Pictures Library
Clear Include a system
image of drives: (C:)
Click Next
8 Click Change schedule
If youre backing up to an optical drive, you

wont need to clear this box. Optical drive
backup doesnt support the creation of system
images.
You are prompted to set the schedule for future
backups.

9 Configure the backup schedule as
shown
Click OK
10 Click Save settings and run
backup
11 If youre backing up to a CD or
DVD, youre prompted to insert a
blank CD or DVD into your
computer
Click OK, and when prompted to
format the disc, click Format
Youll be prompted to format the CD.
The backup begins. You could click Close now

and continue using your PC. The backup would
continue running.
If prompted, insert additional

discs and observe as the backup
progresses
12 If youre backing up to a network
location, observe the Backup
status box as the backup begins
13 Observe as the files are backed up
14 Leave Windows Backup open
Once you have enabled automatic backups, you

can perform subsequent backups by clicking
Backup now. Or you can wait, and Windows
Backup will run automatically on the schedule
you specified.
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Restoring files
Files can be restored to their original locations or to alternate locations. For example, if
you want to restore an earlier version of a file for comparison with the latest version,
you can restore the old version to a different location so that the newer version doesnt
get overwritten.
You can either restore all of the files and folders that were backed up or restore selected
files from the backup. Typically, you just need to restore specific files. Usually, you
need to perform a full restore only when a catastrophe has occurred, such as a hard drive
crash, the loss of a computer thats being replaced, or some other major problem.
Restoring files in Windows 7
To restore files from a backup in Windows 7:
1 Open Backup and Restore.
2 Click Restore my files.
3 Backup automatically restores all files from the latest backup, unless you specify
individual files and folders using the Browse for files and Browse for folders
buttons.
4 Click Next.
5 Specify the location to restore the files to. This can be the original location or a
new one.
6 Click Restore.
7 Click Finish.
Restoring files in Windows Vista
To restore files from a backup in Windows Vista:
1 Open Backup Status and Configuration.
2 Click Restore Files.
3 Select either Files from the latest backup or Files from an older backup.
Click Next.
4 Browse to locate the files you want to restore, or specify to restore all of the
files. Click Next.
5 Click Start Restore.
6 Click Finish.
The length of time it takes to restore data from a backup depends on the amount of data
and on the backup method used. For example, an incremental backup requires a full
backup plus every incremental tape applied in order, making it slower to restore than a
differential backup, which requires a full backup plus the most recent differential
backup.

Restoring files in Windows XP
To restore files from a Windows XP backup:
1 In the Backup Utility window, select the Restore and Manage Media tab.
2 Check the backup you want to restore from.
3 Under Restore files to, select the desired restore location. You can restore to
the original location or to an alternate one.
4 Click Start Restore.
5 Click OK.
6 If desired, click Report to view a report of the restore.
7 Click Close.
Do it!
C-2:
Restoring files from backup
Heres how
Heres why
1 Delete the Files folder from your

Documents folder
2 Minimize the Documents window
3 In the Backup and Restore
window, click Restore my
files
4 Click Browse for files

5 Double-click Backup of C:,
Users, COMPADMIN##,
Documents and Files
Select your two text files and click
Add files
6 Click Next
You are prompted to choose whether to restore

the files to their original location or to a new
location.
Click Restore
To restore the files to their original location. The

restore will take a few seconds.
Click Finish
To close the Restore Files Wizard.
7 Switch to the Documents window

and observe the folders contents
8 Close Backup and Restore and the
Documents window
The folder you deleted is back, along with the

files inside the folder.
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System Restore
The System Restore utility in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP creates
snapshots of your computers configuration. There are three types of snapshots:
System checkpoints Created automatically when Windows Vista or XP
detects the beginning of a request to make a system configuration change.
Manual restore points Manually created by a user, using the System Restore
utility.
Installation restore points Created automatically when certain programs are
installed.
Using the System Restore utility, you can restore your computer to a previous
configuration with the settings recorded in a system checkpoint, a manual restore point,
or an installation restore point. This is helpful in recovering a system thats not
functioning properly due to newly installed hardware or software or updated
configuration settings. The restore process might also help you recover from a virus or
worm that has infected your computer. Before you begin troubleshooting, you can
create a system restore point, so you can return the computer to its original state if your
troubleshooting solutions cause larger or additional problems. System Restore does not
affect user data files. You must back up those files and restore them using the Backup
utility.
Windows Vista automatically creates restore points every day and just before you make
certain system changes, such as installing new software. You can also manually create a
restore point at any time.
To manually create a restore point in Windows 7 or Windows Vista:
2 Click System and Maintenance, and then click System.
3 On the left, click System Protection.
4 In Windows Vista, click Continue, or enter the administrators password.
The System Protection tab of the System Properties dialog box is displayed, as
5 Click Create.
6 Type a brief description of the restore point in the text box.
7 Click Create.
Exhibit 18-17: The System Protection tab in Windows Vista

In Windows XP, to create a system restore point:
1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, System
Restore.
2 Select Create a restore point and click Next.
3 In the Restore point description box, enter a name for your restore point. Click
Create.
4 Close the System Restore utility.
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Creating a restore point
Heres how
Properties
Heres why
Youll create a restore point. Its a good idea to
create a restore point before you begin making
changes to troubleshoot a problem. If you
implement a change that makes the problem
worse, you can use System Restore to return the
computer to its pre-troubleshooting state.
2 Under Tasks, click

System Protection
3 Click Create
4 In the Create a restore point
box, enter My Restore Point
System Restore tags restore points with the date

and time, so you need to type only a brief
description.
5 Click Create
To create the restore point.
6 When the restore point has been

created, click Close
The restore point is created.
7 Click OK
To close the System Properties dialog box.

Restoring the system
Before you use System Restore to undo a change, if the change involved a hardware
device, first try using Driver Rollback. It reverses fewer system changes. If Driver
Rollback doesnt solve the problem, then revert the system to a restore point.
Using Driver Rollback
Using Driver Rollback, you can replace a newly installed driver that isnt working with
a previously installed one that was working. To do so:
1 Open Device Manager.
2 Open the Properties dialog box for the device thats no longer working correctly.
3 Select the Driver tab.
4 Click Rollback Driver (or Roll Back Driver in Windows Vista).
5 Click Yes to confirm.
Driver Rollback is available in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and
Using restore points
To use System Restore to restore data in Windows 7 and Windows Vista:
Restore.
2 In Windows 7, click Next. In Windows Vista, click Continue.
3 In Windows Vista, select Recommended restore, which is the most recent
system restore point, or Choose a different restore point. Click Next.
4 In Windows 7, or in Windows Vista if you selected Choose a different restore
point, select the desired restore point from the list and click Next. In Windows
7, you can display restore points older than five days by checking Show more
restore points, as shown in Error! Reference source not found.. In Windows
Vista, check Show restore points older than 5 days.
5 In Windows 7, click Next.
6 Click Finish to confirm your choice.
Exhibit 18-18: Additional restore points in Windows 7
Windows monitoring
1861
Windows reboots and restores the system state to the settings saved in the restore point.
Changes in user data arent affected, but any installation or configuration changes made
after the restore point are lost.
System Restore doesnt replace the process of uninstalling a program. To completely
remove the files installed by a program, Microsoft recommends that you remove the
program by using the Add or Remove Programs utility or the programs own uninstall
utility.
Windows 7 includes a feature that allows you to scan for programs and drivers that have
been changed since the selected restore point. Simply select a restore point and click
Scan for affected programs. Windows returns a report similar to the one shown in
Exhibit 18-19.
Exhibit 18-19: Affected programs and drivers

In Windows XP, to restore the system from a restore point:
Restore.
2 If necessary, select Restore my computer to an earlier time. Click Next.
3 Select the date and time and the specific restore point.
When selecting a restore point, select a point as close to the present as possible,
so as few changes as possible are lost.
4 Click Next twice.
Windows XP reboots and restores the system state to the settings saved in the restore
point. Changes in user data arent affected, but any installation or configuration changes
made after the restore point are lost.

Be aware that System Restore doesnt replace the process of uninstalling a program. To
remove the files installed by a program completely, Microsoft recommends that you
remove the program by using the Add or Remove Programs utility or the programs
own uninstall program.
Do it!
C-4:
Restoring a computer to a previous state
Heres how
Heres why

All Programs
2 Choose Accessories, System

Tools, System Restore
To open System Restore.
Click Next
3 Check Show more restore
points
4 In the list, select
(If necessary.) Youll restore to this point.
Manual: My Restore Point
Click Next
5 Click Finish
To begin the system restore. This process will

take a few minutes.
Click Yes
To confirm your intent to restore to the restore

point. System Restore begins restoring your
computer; it will restart your computer during
the process.
6 Log on to Windows
7 Click Close
To close the System Restore message box that

tells you your system has been restored.
Windows monitoring
1863
Unit summary: Windows monitoring

Topic A
In this topic, you learned how to use the Windows Diagnostics, DirectX Diagnostic,
Task Manager, and Event Viewer utilities to monitor your computer. You used
Windows Diagnostics to collect and display information about the configuration of your
computer. You ran Windows Diagnostics from both the GUI and command-line
interfaces. With DirectX Diagnostic, you viewed the status of your DirectX installation.
You used Task Manager to identify the applications, processes, and services running on
your computer, monitor network utilization, and manage logged-on users. You used
Event Viewer to view recorded problems.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned how to use Reliability and Performance Monitor to monitor
the performance of your computers components. You used the Resource Overview to
assess the health of your system and make decisions about its maintenance. You used
Performance Monitor to monitor your computer performance in one-second intervals,
and then save reports of the data you collected.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned how to back up and restore data, creating a system restore
point, and restoring to a restore point.
Review questions
1 Which of the following Windows Diagnostics categories isnt available in Windows
Vista?
A Components
B Hardware Resources
C Internet Settings
D Software Environment
2 Which of the following command-line switches for Windows Diagnostics isnt
available in Windows 7 and Windows Vista?
A /computer ComputerName
B /nfo Path
C /report Path
D /showcategories
3 True or false? In Windows 7, you can use DirectX Diagnostic to test and
troubleshoot video- or sound-related hardware problems.
False. In Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP, DirectX Diagnostic can be used to test
and troubleshoot video- or sound-related hardware problems. In Windows Vista, however,
DxDiag only displays information.
4 In Task Manager, you use the _______________ tab when an application has
crashed and isnt responding to keyboard or mouse input.
Applications
5 In Task Manager, you use the _______________ tab to determine if a running

process is overwhelming the processor and slowing the system down.
Processes

6 In Task Manager, you use the _______________ tab to monitor the users logged on
to the computer and to disconnect them, log them off, or send them a message.
Users
7 If you believed that an unauthorized person might be accessing a computer after

hours, you would monitor the Event Viewer _______________ log.
Security
8 Which event types are used only in the Security log? [Choose all that apply.]
A Error
B Warning
C Information
D Success Audit
E Failure Audit
9 Which graph in the Resource Overview utility will show you the number of hard
page faults?
A CPU
B Hard disk
C Memory
D Network
10 In Performance Monitor, hundreds of computer performance variables, called
_______________, are available for measuring and assessing a computers
performance.
counters
11 If you wanted to identify a memory leak, which performance variable would you
monitor?
A Memory: Pages/sec
B PhysicalDisk: Disk Transfers/sec
C Process: Thread Count
D Processor: % Processor Time
12 Which of the following display types can you use to display data in Performance
Monitor? [Choose all that apply.]
A Line graph
B Pie chart
C Histogram
D Pictogram
Windows monitoring
1865
13 When you use Windows Backup to back up the system state, which files are backed
up?
Registry
Boot files
COM+ class registration database
IIS metadirectory
Windows File Protection system files
14 What are the two modes you can run Windows Backup in?
Wizard mode and Advanced (manual) mode.
15 Which backup type requires that you have the most recent normal backup in
addition to this backup if you want to restore files? [Choose all that apply.]
A Copy
B Daily
C Differential
D Incremental
E Normal
16 For what intervals can you schedule backups?
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
At predefined times
On predefined days
17 When Windows detects the beginning of a request to make a system configuration
change, what type of restore point is created?
A System checkpoint
B Manual restore point
C Installation restore point
D Automatic checkpoint

In this activity, youll practice monitoring your Windows 7 computer.
1 Choose a partner. What msinfo32 command would you use to open the System
Information window, showing the information for your partners computer?
C:\Program Files\Common Files\Microsoft Shared\Msinfo|msinfo32.exe /computer
partner_computer_name
2 Can anyone enter the command and access a remote computer?

No; you must have administrative rights on the target computer.
3 Run Windows Diagnostics.

4 Export the computer configuration data to a text file. Close Windows Diagnostics
when finished.
5 Open the text file and review the information. Use the Search feature to find Kernel
Driver information.
6 View events recorded on your computer by the operating system.
7 Sort the events by type.
8 Create a filter to display just Warning and Error system events.
9 Return the display to all system events.
10 Run Notepad and Internet Explorer.
11 Open Task Manager.
12 Use the Applications tab to end Notepad.
13 Find the process for Internet Explorer and end it.
14 End the explorer.exe process.
15 Use the Applications tab to start a new task for explorer.exe.
16 Close Task Manager.
17 Create a system restore point.
191
Unit 19

A Identify the stages of the Windows startup
process.
B Identify operating system problems.
192
Topic A: Windows startup

exam objective.
#
Objective
3.4
Startup files
Explanation
Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional computers
use a set of files to start up. They are described in the following table and are listed in
the order in which they are used during the startup process. In the table, Windows
refers to all Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP and Windows 2000
Professionalversions, unless otherwise noted.
File
Description
BOOTMGR
A program in Windows 7 and Vista that displays the Microsoft Windows

startup menu, reads the BDC file, presents the boot menu, and loads
ntoskrnl.exe, hal.dll, and boot-start device drivers. (Replaces ntldr [or
boot.ini] from Windows XP and Windows 2000.)
NTLDR
A program in Windows XP and Windows 2000 that displays the Microsoft

Windows startup menu, reads the boot.ini file, presents the boot menu, and
loads ntoskrnl.exe, hal.dll, and boot-start device drivers.
Boot
Configuration
Data (BCD)
A file in Windows 7 and Vista that contains options for starting different
versions of Windows installed on the computer.
Boot.ini
A file in Windows XP and Windows 2000 that contains options for starting
different versions of Windows installed on the computer.
Bootsect.dos
A file that contains information about the boot sector of the operating
system that was on the hard drive before Windows was installed (for dualboot computers). NTLDR uses this file to boot to an operating system, such
as Windows 9x or DOS.
Ntdetect.com
A 16-bit real-mode program that queries the computer for basic device and
configuration information, such as:
Time and date information stored in CMOS

System bus types and device identifiers attached to the buses
Number, size, and types of disk drives
Types of mouse input devices
Number and types of parallel ports
Ntbootdd.sys
A copy of a storage-controller device driver. If either the boot or system

drive is SCSI-based, NTLDR loads this file and uses it instead of the bootcode functions for disk access.
Ntoskrnl.exe
A program that contains the majority of operating system instructions for

Windows.
193
File
Description
Hal.dll
An interface between a computers hardware and software. Hal.dll provides

a consistent hardware platform on which applications are run. Applications
dont access hardware directly but access the Hardware Abstraction Layer
(HAL). This setup allows applications to be device-independent and creates
a more stable operating system.
System Registry
hive
A Registry hive that controls the drivers and services loaded during startup
for Windows.
Smss.exe
A program responsible for handling sessions on your computer. This

program is initiated by the system thread and starts the user session,
including launching the Winlogon and Win32 (Csrss.exe) processes and
setting system variables.
Pagefile.sys
A file that contains memory data that Windows cant fit into physical
RAM. During startup, the Virtual Memory Manager moves data in and out
of the paging file to optimize the amount of physical memory available to
the operating system and applications.
Winlogon.exe
The Windows login manager, which is responsible for managing user logon
and logoff. Winlogon is needed for user authorization.
Lsass.exe
A program that handles local security and login policies; it authenticates

users for the Winlogon service. If the user credentials submitted are
successfully authenticated, lsass.exe generates the users access token,
which is used to launch the user shell.
The startup process

On x86-based computers, Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows
2000 all follow the same general startup process. The operating systems startup
processes might have slight variations, but they arent significant. (The process varies
slightly for RISC-based computers.)
Heres the general process:
1 The startup process begins with the ROM BIOS bootstrap process:
a POST (power-on self-test) routines run.
b The computer reads the master boot record (MBR) and partition table.
c The MBR reads the partition table to locate the boot partition.
d The MBR passes control to the boot sector in the boot partition.
e The boot sector loads NTLDR from the root directory into memory.
194

2 The process continues with the boot phase, using NTLDR:
a NTLDR switches the processor from real mode to 32-bit flat memory mode
(protected mode), supporting up to 4 GB of RAM (physically installed).
The page file is enabled.
b NTLDR starts the minimal file system drivers: either FAT, FAT32
(Windows 2000 Professional only), or NTFS.
c NTLDR reads boot.ini and displays the Boot Loader Menu.
d If you have a dual-boot system and you choose an OS other than Windows
7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, then
NTLDR loads bootsect.dos and passes control to it for booting.
e If you select Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows
2000 Professional, NTLDR runs ntdetect.com. This program scans the
computers hardware and passes this information back to NTLDR. (The
keyboard lights and modem lights flash as various ports are scanned.)
f NTLDR loads ntoskrnl.exe and passes the hardware information to it. This
step technically ends the boot phase and begins the load phase.
3 The process continues with the load phase:
a NTLDR loads hal.dll (the Hardware Abstraction Layer), which hides the
physical hardware from applications.
b NTLDR loads the SYSTEM hive from the Registry and then scans it for
device drivers and services that need to be loaded. These are organized into
groups under the ServiceGroupOrder subkey of the Registry. Theyre
loaded into memory but arent initialized yet.
4 The kernel-initialization phase begins:
a The screen display turns blue, and the kernel and the drivers that were
loaded during the kernel-load phase are initialized.
b The SYSTEM hive of the Registry is scanned again to determine which
drivers should be loaded, and theyre initialized.
c The registrys CurrentControlSet is saved.
d The Clone control set is created but not saved.
e The Registrys hardware list is created from the information gathered
during the boot phase.
5 The services-load phase begins:
a The Session Manager, smss.exe, is started.
b Ssms.exe starts the required subsystems and runs the programs listed in the
following Registry entry:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\
Session Manager: BootExecute
c Session Manager sets up the page file(s).

d The Clone control set is written to the Registry.
6 The Win32 subsystem start phase begins:
a The Win32 subsystem starts winlogon.exe.
b Winlogon.exe starts the Local Security Authority, lsass.exe.
c Lsass.exe displays either the Welcome screen or the Ctrl+Alt+Delete logon
dialog.
d The Service Controller (screg.exe) checks the Registry for services set to
load automatically and then loads them.
195
7 The user logs on. A boot isnt considered good until a user successfully logs on
to the operating system.
8 The Clone control set is copied to the Last Known Good control set.
Do it!
A-1:
Identifying phases in the startup process
Questions and Answers

1 At what point during the startup process is the Last Known Good control set built?
2 During what phase is the Hardware Abstraction Layer loaded? By which file?
3 Which phases of the startup process use the Registry?
4 Whats the purpose of bootsect.dos in the boot process for Windows 2000
Professional and Windows XP?
5 Which file contains the majority of operating system instructions for

Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP?
196
Topic B: System troubleshooting

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.2
OS related symptoms
Bluescreen
System lock-up
Input/output device
Application install
Start or load
2.5

Startup programs
3.2

Run line utilities
Msconfig
3.3
Installation methods
Recover CD
Factory recovery partition
Operating system installation options
Repair install
3.4

Boot options
Safe mode
Recovery options
Emergency Repair Disk (ERD)
Recovery console
197
objectives.
#
Objective
2.1
MSCONFIG
SFC
2.4

Operational Problems
Auto-restart errors
Bluescreen error
System lockup
Device drivers failure (input / output devices)
Application install, start or load failure
Service fails to start
Boot
Invalid boot disk
Inaccessible boot drive
Missing NTLDR
Startup
Device / service failed to start
Device / program in registry not found
System Performance and Optimization
Startup file maintenance
Background processes
Computer startup problems

Explanation
There are operating-system problems youll need to troubleshoot that manifest

themselves as symptoms during computer startup. These errors can be grouped into
three categories:
Boot errors The computer system doesnt boot successfully.
Operating system startup errors The computer system boots successfully,
but reports an error message when loading the operating system.
Operating system load errors The computer successfully boots, but the
operating system interface doesnt load properly.
198

Boot errors
To resolve boot errors, you need to have access to your computers system BIOS or
CMOS, a boot disk, and disk-based utilities.
To identify and resolve boot errors, use the troubleshooting techniques described in the
following table.
Boot error
Cause
Resolution
Invalid boot or
non-system disk
error
A floppy or CD-ROM that isnt

bootable is in a bootable drive.
Check that there isnt a disk in the floppy or

CD-ROM drive.
The system BIOS or CMOS isnt

configured properly to boot to the
hard disk.
Verify that system BIOS or CMOS boot-order

settings are correct.
The hard disk drive doesnt have

the Windows boot files on it.
Depending on the OS, boot from your

emergency repair disk, your Windows
installation CD-ROM, or your restore CD.
The hard disk drive isnt

connected properly.
If the computer was moved recently or if the

hard drive was just installed, check that the hard
disk is properly connected to the computer.
The hard disk is bad.
If the previous solutions fail to resolve the

problem, the hard disk might be bad and might
need to be replaced.

hard disk.


connected properly.

The motherboard was recently

changed, or you moved the
Windows system disk to another
computer with a different
motherboard.
Reinstall Windows to fix the Registry entries

and drivers for the mass storage controller
hardware. You might be able to use a Microsoft
generic driver until you can find the proper
driver.

Inaccessible boot
device
199
Boot error
Cause
Resolution
NTLDR is
missing, or
Couldnt find
NTLDR
The boot.ini file is configured

incorrectly.
View the contents of boot.ini. Edit, if necessary.
The Ntldr file is missing or

corrupt.
Copy the Ntldr file from the Windows

installation CD-ROM, a Windows boot disk, or
another computer. If other Windows files are
missing or corrupt, you might have to reinstall
the operating system to resolve the problem.


CD-ROM drive.

hard disk.


connected properly.

Theres a corrupt boot sector or

MBR.
There might be a virus. Use your virus removal

software.
Youre trying to upgrade from

FAT32 to a Windows version that
doesnt support FAT32.
Boot into the previous version of the operating

system, back up data, and complete a fresh
installation of the new operating system.



CD-ROM drive.

hard disk.

The command.com, msdos.sys,

io.sys, or drvspace file was
deleted, was renamed, or has
become corrupt.
Boot the computer by using a boot disk.

Replace the missing or corrupt file.

Bad or missing
Command
interpreter

Startup errors
To identify and resolve startup errors, you can use troubleshooting techniques described
Startup message
Cause
Resolution
Himem.sys not loaded
The himem.sys file is

missing or corrupt.
Copy a new version of himem.sys to

the hard disk. Verify that the reference
to himem.sys is correct in config.sys.
Theres a problem with

physical memory.
If the previous solution fails to solve

the problem, the physical memory
might be bad and might need to be
replaced. Himem.sys runs a check on
RAM and cant do so if a RAM chip is
bad.
The himem.sys file is

missing or corrupt.
Copy a new version of himem.sys to

the hard disk. Verify that the reference
to himem.sys is correct in config.sys.
Theres a problem with

physical memory.
If the previous solution fails to solve

the problem, the physical memory
might be bad and might need to be
replaced. Himem.sys runs a check on
RAM and cant do so if a RAM chip is
bad.
Windows is trying to load

a device or service that
wont load properly.
Check the Event Viewer logs to

determine which device or service
failed to load. Check the installation or
configuration of the device (by using
Device Manager) or service (by using
the Services console). Reinstall the
device or service if necessary.
Missing or corrupt
Himem.sys
Device/service has
failed to start;
Device/program in
Registry not found
Operating system load errors

Common operating system load errors and troubleshooting techniques are listed in the
following table.
Error
Cause
Resolution
Failure to start GUI
Explorer.exe is missing or
corrupt.
Copy Explorer.exe from the Windows

installation CD-ROM, a Windows boot
disk, or another computer. If other
Windows files are missing or corrupt,
you might have to reinstall the operating
system to resolve the problem.
Windows Protection
Errorillegal
operation
An application asks the

operating system to process
an operation that the OS
doesnt recognize.
Illegal-operation messages typically

have an error code or something else you
can use to research the exact cause and
resolution of the specific error.

Error
1911
Cause
Resolution
Outdated device drivers

need to be updated.
If the device driver is being loaded by

the operating system at Startup, try to
boot into Safe mode and roll back or
update the driver.
If the illegal operation causes a GPF,
you might need to reboot the computer.
If a Blue-screen error, you will need to
reboot the computer.
An incorrect or corrupt device driver can
cause an auto-restart error (the computer
reboots automatically when it tries to
load the driver). After you identify the
driver causing the problem, you need to
replace it.
User-modified
settings cause
improper operation
at startup
The user has changed a

system setting that causes
the computer to hang at
startup.
If available, boot using one of the safe

modes to reverse the changes. On
Windows 7, Windows Vista, and
Windows XP computers, roll back to a
system restore point.
Application install,
start, or load failure
Someone tries to install or

start an application that
isnt compatible with the
operating system.
Reboot the computer and restart the

application.
Delete and reinstall the application.

Research the application to see if a patch
is available that allows it to run on your
operating system. You might need to
upgrade the application to one whose
coding functions according to the
application rules of your OS.

After Windows Vista encounters a shutdown error, and you successfully boot up, the
operating system displays information about the error. A sample blue-screen error report
is shown in Exhibit 19-1. Sometimes you will be able to use this information to
troubleshoot a problem on your own. Many times, however, the information is useful
only to Microsoft Support Engineers.
Exhibit 19-1: A blue-screen error reported in Windows Vista Business
Startup messages
The first error messages you see when starting a computer are boot and startup
messages. These can give you good information about what might be wrong with a
computer.
With startup messages, the computer system boots successfully, but reports an error
message when loading the operating system. One of the more common messages youll
encounter is Device/service has failed to start. This message indicates that Windows
is trying to load a device or service, but it wont load properly. To resolve this issue:
1 Check the Event Viewer logs to determine which device or service failed to
load.
2 Check the installation or configuration of the device by using Device Manager,
or check the service by using the Services console.
3 Reinstall the device or service, if necessary.
Do it!
B-1:
Troubleshooting Windows startup errors

1 A user calls the Help desk and tells you that when she boots the computer,
Windows 7 wont start, and the screen goes blue and displays text she doesnt
understand. What do you suspect is the problem?
1913
2 Youre configuring a Windows 7 computer for a user. When you start Windows 7,
an error message tells you that a device or service has failed to start. The GUI
loads and everything appears okay. What should you check?
3 You recently installed a new hard disk in a users computer. You installed
Windows 7 Professional and the needed applications, and then copied the users
data to the new drive. The computer was functioning just fine in your office. You
delivered it to the users office, and when you started it up, you received the
message NTLDR is missing. What is the likely cause?
4 If your first solution doesnt resolve the problem, what is another likely cause of
the Missing NTLDR message?
5 Youre installing Windows 7 on a computer for a user. When you start Windows
7, it loads the desktop, but then you receive a Windows Protection Errorillegal
operation message. Each time you restart the computer, the same thing happens.
What do you think the problem is, and how can you resolve it?

Advanced startup options
Each Windows operating system includes alternative startup modes that you can use to
diagnose and fix problems startup problems. To access the menu for the startup modes,
boot the computer and press F8 after you hear your computers startup beep. You should
press F8 during the first few moments of the boot processbefore the Windows
logo/splash screen appears. The following table describes the various startup modes.
Startup mode
Description
Repair Your Computer
Available in Windows 7. This option presents a list of system recovery tools

that you can use to repair startup problems, run computer diagnostics, or
restore your system. In Windows Vista, this choice isnt available on the
advanced startup menu unless the system recovery tools have been installed
on your hard disk. If the tools havent been installed on your hard disk, this
utility is available from the Windows installation disc.
Safe Mode
Boots the computer with a minimum configuration, such as mouse, keyboard,

and standard VGA device drivers. Can be used to solve problems with a new
hardware installation or problems caused by user settings.
Safe Mode with

Networking
Boots the computer with a minimum configuration, plus networking devices

and drivers. Use this mode when the files you need for resolving problems,
such as your installation or driver files, are stored on the network.
Safe Mode with

Command Prompt
Boots to the command prompt. If Safe mode doesnt load the operating
system, you can try this startup mode. You can then use your MS-DOS-based
utilities to troubleshoot and resolve startup problems.
Enable Boot Logging
Loads the operating system normally. All files used during the boot process
are recorded in a file called Ntbtlog.txt. If youre having a problem with a
device, check Ntbtlog.txt to see which devices loaded successfully and which
didnt.
Enable low-resolution
video (640480)
(Windows 7/Vista); or
Enable VGA mode
(Windows XP/2000
Boots the operating system, using a generic VGA display driver. You can use
this mode to correct improper video or display settings or to fix a
nonfunctioning video driver.
Last Known Good

Configuration
Uses the boot settings stored in the Registry from the last successful boot. If
the system was configured incorrectly, you can use this option to reverse all
system setting changes made after the last successful boot.
Directory Services
Restore Mode
(Windows 7, Vista, and Server products) Restarts the domain controller and
takes it offline so that it isnt providing directory services to the domain.
Once the domain controller is offline, you can repair or recover the Active
Directory. Works with Windows 7 and Vista products running Remote Server
Administration Tools (RSAT).
Debugging Mode
Allows you to move system boot logs via a serial port from a failing
computer to another computer for evaluation. This option sends the boot
information to the serial port.
Disable automatic restart

on system failure
(Windows 7/Vista) Disables the automatic restart that the computer, by

default, attempts after a system failure.
1915
Startup mode
Description
Disable Driver Signature

Enforcement
(Windows 7/Vista) Disables the enforced validation of driver signatures that

prohibits unsigned drivers from being installed. Microsoft tests and approves
device drivers for the Windows 7 and Vista operating systems, and then
assigns each approved driver a signature. By default, Windows 7 and
Windows Vista verifies that all drivers being installed on the system have a
signature, and unsigned drivers are not allowed to be installed.
Start Windows Normally
Boots the computer as if you hadnt entered the Advanced Boot Options
menu.
Exhibit 19-2: The Advanced Boot Options menu in Windows 7 Professional

Although Safe mode is a good tool to help you figure out if the computer can start at all,
most of the other advanced startup options are available for experienced computer
administrators. Be careful when youre using advanced startup options to troubleshoot
operating system errors. Sometimes you should call for additional help from
experienced personnel.

Do it!
B-2:
Booting the computer in various startup modes
Heres how
Heres why
1 A user has changed display

settings, and now the screen is
blank. How can you fix the
problem?
2 Click Start and then click
Choose Restart
3 After the Windows shutdown

screen disappears and the black
startup screen appears, press *
You boot the computer into Safe mode for

troubleshooting problems like a bad display
setting.
Make sure you watch the computer screen
carefully, so you know when to press F8 in the
next step.
You might need to press it more than once to get
the correct timing to display the operating
system start menu.
If necessary, press * again
To display the Advanced Boot Options menu.
Observe the menu choices
Repair Your Computer is selected.
Arrow down to select Safe

Mode and press e
The system loads with a minimum

configuration, such as mouse, keyboard, and
standard VGA device drivers.
4 Click COMPADMIN##
In the Type your password box,
enter !pass1234 and
press e
5 Observe the desktop
It appears with a plain black background with

white Safe-mode text in all four corners.
Windows Help and Support is open, displaying
What is safe mode?
Close Windows Help and Support

6 Open Computer
You have access to local disks in Safe mode.
7 Select Network
Youre unable to browse the network because

Safe Mode doesnt load networking drivers. If
you need to access files on the network, you
need to boot into Safe Mode with Networking.
8 Close the Network window
You can make any changes on the local system

to solve your problem. If there were a display
problem, you could right-click the desktop,
choose Personalize, click Display Settings, make
the desired changes, and then reboot the
computer normally.

9 Restart the computer in Safe
Mode with Command Prompt
1917
If booting the computer into Safe mode didnt

load the GUI, you can use the Safe Mode with
Command Prompt and use command-line tools
to fix the problem.
Log on as COMPADMIN##
with a password of !pass1234
In this startup mode, you have access to a

Command Prompt window only.
Enter shutdown s
To shut down the computer from the command

prompt.
You receive a message that the system is
shutting down. The computer powers off.
10 Click Close
11 Turn the computer on, boot
Windows 7 normally, and log on
as COMPADMIN##
Where ## is your assigned user number.

The System Configuration utility
Using the System Configuration utility, also called Msconfig, you can view, disable, and
enable services and software that run at startup. Msconfig.exe is included with Windows
7, Vista and XP. (You can also use the Windows XP version of the utility on a Windows
2000 Professional computer.) To start the System Configuration utility, click Start,
choose Run, type msconfig, and click OK.
The System Configuration utility, shown in Exhibit 19-3, makes it easier to resolve
startup issues with your operating system and identify issues with background
processes. In this utility, you check and clear boxes to enable or disable startup
configuration options, as opposed to using a text editor to edit startup files manually.
Using the checkboxes, you can quickly make configuration changes to test solutions to a
startup or background process problem. Using the Startup page, you can troubleshoot
problems with programs that are configured to start when Windows starts up. You can
disable a program, reboot, and see if the problem is resolved. If it is, you can then
uninstall the program or look for updates. The options for Windows 7, Windows Vista,
and Windows XP are similar.
Exhibit 19-3: The Services tab in the System Configuration utility in Windows 7
Professional
Startup modes for troubleshooting
The General tab in the System Configuration utility allows you to start the computer in
any of three modes when troubleshooting:
Normal Startup Loads all device drivers and services.
Diagnostic Startup Loads only basic devices and services.
Selective Startup Loads only the files and services selected. The options are:

In Windows 7 and Vista
In Windows XP
Load system services
System.ini
Load startup items
Win.ini
Use original boot configuration
System services
Startup items
Choice of boot.ini file
1919
To prevent individual lines or items in a specific configuration file from loading, select
the tab for the desired configuration file and clear the checkbox next to the line or item
that you dont want to load.
When youre done troubleshooting, you need to verify that all of the configuration files
and all of the items that are listed in those files are loaded. Then select the General tab
and select Normal Startup.
Note: If youve installed a Windows Vista Service Pack, youll find that the behaviors
of the startup modes will have changed from their initial behaviors. At the time of this
writing, there were no Microsoft Knowledge Base articles explaining this discrepancy.

Do it!
B-3:
Using the System Configuration utility
Heres how
1 Click Start

msconfig and press e
Heres why
Youll see how you can use the System
Configuration utility to troubleshoot startup
problems with Windows 7.
To start the System Configuration utility.
2 Observe the General tab
You can use this tab to boot into a diagnostic

mode without pressing F8 during startup.
Select Diagnostic startup
To load just basic devices and services.
Click OK
3 Click Restart
Log on as COMPADMIN##
The computer boots directly into a diagnostic

mode.
Where ## is your assigned student number.
4 Observe the taskbar and system

tray
The Aero theme is not running, and many of
your startup programs are inactive or disabled.
5 Click Start
msconfig and press e
Click Yes
Youll return to normal startup mode.

6 Select Normal startup
1921
To load all device drivers and services.
Click OK
When prompted, restart the
computer and log on as
(Where ## is your assigned student number.)

The desktop is normal.
COMPADMIN##
7 Run msconfig
8 Activate the Boot tab
You use this tab to enable boot options such as

Safe boot.
9 Activate the Services tab
Here you can enable and disable individual

services. The status of each service is listed, so
you can see which services are running or
stopped, as shown here.

10 Activate the Startup tab
11 Close System Configuration
You can disable items in your Startup group.
1923
System File Checker

When you install some programs, they attempt to overwrite Windows system files,
which can cause problems down the line when the operating system or other programs
try to access those system files. Protecting system files prevents problems with
applications and the operating system. Fortunately, a feature called Windows File
Protection (WFP) prevents application installations from replacing critical Windows
system files.
To verify that you have the original protected system files, you can use the commandline tool called System File Checker to scan all protected files. If System File Checker
discovers that a protected file has been overwritten, it retrieves the correct version of the
file from the cache folder (the folder that holds needed system files) or the Windows
CD-ROM and replaces the incorrect file.
To use the System File Checker to scan all protected system files, open a Command
Prompt window and enter sfc /scannow. If prompted, insert the Windows CD-ROM
and complete the scan. In Windows XP, you can also use the /scanonce switch to scan
once at the next reboot, and use the /scanboot switch to scan at every boot. For help
with the System File Checker syntax, enter sfc /? at the command prompt.
Do it!
B-4:
Using System File Checker
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open an administrative Command

Prompt window
Click Start, choose Accessories, right-click

Command Prompt, and choose Run as
administrator.
2 Enter sfc /scannow
To verify that the protected operating system

files are the originals.
You might be prompted for the Windows
installation files if the service pack and hotfixes
youve installed have replaced some of the
original operating system files.
3 Exit the Command Prompt

window

The Recovery Console
The Recovery Console can help you recover when your Windows XP Professional or
Windows 2000 Professional computer doesnt start properly or wont start at all. Using
the Recovery Console, you can access FAT, FAT32, and NTFS volumes from a
command line without the Windows GUI. You can then:
Repair the boot sector.
Replace missing or corrupt operating system files.
Create and format partitions.
Enable or disable services or devices.
When youre working with the command line in the Recovery Console, you have access
to only these folders:
The root folder
The %systemroot% folder and the subfolders of the Windows XP Professional
or Windows 2000 Professional installation you selected when loading the
Recovery Console
The Cmdcons folder
Removable media drives, such as CD-ROM and DVD drives
To run the Recovery Console in Windows 2000 Professional:
1 Boot your computer, using your Windows 2000 Professional installation
CD-ROM.
2 When prompted to install Windows 2000 Professional, press Enter.
3 Press R and then press C.
4 Select the desired Windows 2000 installation.
5 Enter the administrator recovery password.
6 Use the command prompt to implement recovery solutions. (You can type Help
at the command prompt to display the available commands.)
7 When finished, remove the Windows 2000 Professional CD-ROM.
8 Type exit and press Enter. The system reboots normally.
Windows XP Professional
To run the Recovery Console in Windows XP Professional:
1 Boot your computer, using your Windows XP Professional installation
CD-ROM.
2 On the Welcome to Setup screen, press R.
3 If necessary, select the desired Windows installation.
4 Enter the administrator recovery password.
5 Use the command prompt to implement recovery solutions. (You can type help
at the command prompt to display the available commands.)
6 When finished, remove the Windows XP Professional CD-ROM.
7 Type exit and press Enter. The system reboots normally.
1925
System Recovery Options menu

In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the Recovery Console has been replaced with
several recovery tools, accessible from the Systems Recovery Options menu on the
Windows 7 or Windows Vista installation disc, or using the Restore Your Computer
choice off the Advanced Startup Menu. Using these tools, you can repair startup
problems, restore your system files from a restore point, test your computers RAM, and
in some editions of Windows 7 and Windows Vista, restore your entire computer and
system files from backups.
The following table describes the utilities on the System Recovery Options menu.
Utility
Use to
Startup Repair
Scan your computer for missing or damaged system files that might
be preventing Windows from starting correctly, and replace any
missing or damaged files with the originals from the installation disc.
System Restore
Restore your computers system files to an earlier point in time as

designated by a restore point.
Windows Complete
PC Restore
Restore the contents of your hard disk from a backup. The Windows
Complete PC Backup and Restore utility is not available in Windows
Vista Starter, Windows Vista Home Basic, or Windows Vista Home
Premium.
Windows Memory
Diagnostic Tool
Scan your computer for memory errors.
Command Prompt
Perform recovery-related operations and run command-line utilities to

diagnose and troubleshoot problems. Command Prompt replaces the
Recovery Console from earlier versions of Windows, giving you
access to all command-line utilities instead of the limited set available
through the Recovery Console.
Note: If any of the system files have been updated by Microsoft through a patch or
Service Pack, the system recovery options wont be providing you with the most recent
files. After youve done a system repair, you should reapply any patches and Service
Packs.
To use the System Recovery Options menu in Windows 7 or Windows Vista:
1 Insert the Windows installation disc.
2 Restart your computer.
3 When prompted, press any key to start Windows from the installation disc.
4 Choose your language settings and click Next.
5 Click Repair your computer.
6 Select the operating system you want to repair and click Next.
7 On the System Recovery Options menu, select the desired option.
If available you can also choose Restore Your Computer from the Advanced Startup
Menu.

Emergency Repair Disk
In Windows 2000, an Emergency Repair Disk (ERD) contains basic system
configuration files that you can use to restore your computer to a bootable state if your
Registry is damaged or if the operating system is on an NTFS partition that isnt
booting. When you create an ERD, basic system configuration information from the
Registry is placed on the disk and in the %systemroot%\Repair folder on the hard disk.
An ERD isnt bootable, but when its used with the Windows installation CD-ROM, it
allows you to boot a nonfunctioning computer and restore critical system files and
information from the Registry. An ERD can help you to:
Inspect and repair the boot sector.
Inspect and repair the startup environment.
Verify Windows 2000 Professional system files and replace missing or damaged
files.
Whenever you make configuration changes on your computersuch as installing new
software, changing software configurations, changing the network configuration,
changing hardware, or installing operating system updatesyou should update your
ERD and repair information. Note that the ERD is not a substitute for a full Registry
backup.
The ERD feature is available in Windows 2000 Professional Backup. (In Windows XP
Professional, the emergency repair feature is called Automated System Recovery, or
ASR.)
The Windows 2000 Professional ERD includes the following files:
Autoexec.nt Initializes the MS-DOS environment.
Config.nt Initializes the MS-DOS environment.
Setup.log Contains cyclical redundancy check information for core Windows
2000 Professional files.
The Windows 2000 Professional ERD doesnt include Registry information. If you
choose to back up the Registry also, the ERD creation process creates a
%systemroot%\Repair\RegBack directory on your hard disk and places the Registry
files there.
To use the Emergency Repair process:
1 Boot your computer, using your Windows 2000 Professional installation
CD-ROM.
2 When prompted to install Windows 2000 Professional, press Enter.
3 Press R twice.
4 Select the desired repair option: Fast or Manual.
The Fast option repairs system files, boot sector problems, and Registry hives
and does not involve user interaction.
The Manual option allows you to choose any of the following:
Inspect Setup Environment
Verify Windows 2000 System Files
Inspect Boot Sector
5 Press Enter to use the Emergency Repair Disk.
6 Insert the Emergency Repair Disk and press Enter.
7 If prompted, insert the Windows 2000 Professional installation CD-ROM.
1927
8 When prompted, remove the ERD.

9 After the files have been repaired, reboot the operating system.
Automated System Recovery

In Windows XP Professional, you can use the Automated System Recovery Wizard to
create a backup of your system partition and make a floppy disk containing critical
system settings. You can then use ASR to recover from a system failure caused by
problems with the system/boot volume, such as Registry corruption. If you dont have
an internal floppy disk drive in your computer, you might be able to use an external
USB floppy drive; however, not all external USB floppy drives are compatible with the
ASR process. Automated System Recovery isnt available in Windows XP Home
Edition or Windows XP Media Center Edition.
The ASR feature differs in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP. In Windows
7 and Windows XP, it is a component of Windows Backup (NTBACKUP). In Windows
Vista Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate, it uses the Volume Shadow Copy Service
(VSS) and an ASR writer. This feature isnt available in Windows Vista Home or
Windows Vista Home Premium. Windows Vista SP1 introduced additional features,
such as support for Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) partitions, tracing tool
integration, and a change in the way dynamic disks are treated when there is no change
in the disk layout since the last backup.
When you recover from a system failure by using ASR, it does the following:
1 Restores the disk configurations.
2 Formats your system and boot volumes.
3 Installs a bare-bones version of Windows.
4 Runs Backup to rebuild your system and boot volumes from your ASR backup
set.
ASR should be used as your last attempt to recover a system, after you try other
recovery methods, such as the Last Known Good Configuration. ASR formats your
system and boot volumes and doesnt restore user data.
In Windows Vista, youll use the backup you created with VSS and the ASR writer,
along with the System Recovery Options menu, to resolve a system failure.
In Windows XP, to use your ASR recovery set to resolve a system failure:
1 Boot the computer, using your Windows XP installation CD-ROM.
2 If you have a third-party driver for the backup storage device, press F6 to install
the driver.
3 When prompted to perform an ASR, press F2. (Watch the screen carefully for
this prompt; it doesnt stay on the screen very long.)
4 When prompted, insert the ASR floppy disk.
5 When prompted, specify the location of your ASR backup set.
6 When the ASR is complete, log on.

Do it!
B-5:
Explaining recovery option basics

1 In which operating systems is the Recovery Console available?
2 When would you use the Recovery Console?
3 In which operating systems is the System Recovery Options menu available?
4 When would you use the System Recovery Options menu?
5 What is the difference between ERD and ASR?
1929
Unit summary: Operating system troubleshooting

Topic A
In this topic, you learned how to identify the stages of the Windows startup process.
When you can identify each of the stages, you can troubleshoot problems that occur
during startup.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned how to troubleshoot problems with Windows 7, Windows
Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 computers. You identified common startup
problems, and you learned how to use various toolssuch as the System Configuration
Utility, the Recovery Console, the System Recovery Options menu, System File
Checker, Emergency Repair Disks, and Automated System Recoveryto recover from
these problems.
Review questions
1 Which file contains the majority of operating system instructions for Windows 2000
Professional or any version of Windows 7, Vista, or XP?
A Ntbootdd.sys
B Ntoskrnl.exe
C NTLDR
D Ntdetect.com
2 Which file controls the boot phase of the startup process for Windows 2000
Professional or any version of Windows 7, Vista or XP?
A Ntbootdd.sys
B Ntoskrnl.exe
C NTLDR
D SYSTEM Registry hive
3 If a computer successfully boots, but the operating system interface doesnt load
properly, what type of error has occurred?
A Startup error
B Boot error
C Operating system load error
4 What Windows 7 or Vista utility should you use if user-modified settings cause
improper operation at startup?
A Driver Rollback
B Recovery console
C System Configuration Utility
D System Recovery Options menu
E System Restore

5 Which type of error presents as the computer system booting successfully, but
reports an error message when loading the operating system?
A Boot error
B Operating system startup error
C Operating system load error
D Hardware error
6 A floppy or CD-ROM that isnt bootable in a bootable drive can cause which boot
errors? [Choose all that apply.]
A Invalid boot or non-system disk error
B Inaccessible boot device
C NTLDR is missing, or Couldnt find NTLDR
D Bad or missing Command interpreter
7 A problem with physical memory can cause which operating system startup errors?
A Error in CONFIG.SYS line ##
B Himem.sys not loaded
C Missing or corrupt Himem.sys
D Device/service has failed to start
8 An outdated device driver that needs to be updated can cause which operating
system load error?
A Failure to start GUI
B Windows Protection Errorillegal operation
C User-modified settings cause improper operation at startup
D Application install, start, or load failure
9 If youre having problems with a device, which startup mode can you use to record
all files used during the boot process in a file called ntbtlog.txt?
Enable boot logging
10 In the System Configuration utility, which mode can you use to load only basic
devices and services while troubleshooting a problem?
A Normal
B Diagnostic
C Selective
D Debug
11 Youre troubleshooting a device driver failure on a Windows 7 computer, and the
failure is preventing the operating system from loading properly. Current drivers are
stored in a network share. What startup mode should you use to resolve the
problem?
Safe Mode with Networking
1931
12 A user has installed a mobile-device docking station on her Windows 2000

Professional computer. When the user rebooted the computer, it wouldnt load
Windows 2000 Professional. What startup mode can you use to resolve the problem
in the simplest manner?
The user hasnt successfully booted and logged onto Windows 2000 Professional since she
made the change, so you can attempt to use the Last Known Good Configuration option.
13 Which Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP GUI utility allows you to
view, disable, and enable software and services that run at startup?
A ASR
B Boot.ini
C ERD
D Msconfig
E Recovery Console
F System Recovery Options menu
14 What are the four tasks performed by the ASR?
a Restores the disk configurations.
b Formats your system and boot volumes.
c Installs a bare-bones version of Windows.
d Runs Backup to rebuild your system and boot volumes from your ASR backup set.

In this activity, youll practice using startup options on your Windows 7 computer.
1 Restart the computer and use the advanced startup options to enable boot logging.
Log on and open the log file. Verify that there were no errors.
2 Boot the computer, using a diagnostic startup.
3 Reboot normally.
4 Boot the computer into Safe Mode with Networking. Verify you have network
connectivity.
5 Reboot normally.
201
Unit 20
Security

A Configure basic Windows user
authentication.
B Use Windows file encryption.
C Discuss biometric and other security
devices.
D Recognize and mitigate common security
threats.
E Manage the human aspects of computer
security.
202
Topic A: Operating system security

exam objectives.
#
Objective
3.1
Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs 64 bit
UAC
5.1

Authentication technologies
Username
Password
5.2

Password management / password complexity
Operating system
objectives.
#
Objective
2.4

System Performance and Optimization
UAC
4.2

Operating systems
Local users and groups: Administrator, Power Users, Guest, Users
Vista/Windows 7 User Access Control (UAC)
NTFS vs. Share permissions
Allow vs. deny
Difference between moving and copying folders and files
File attributes
Shared files and folders
Administrative shares vs. local shares
Permission propagation
Inheritance
System files and folders
User authentication
Security
203
Explanation
Operating system security begins with determining whos using a computer. There are
various ways to authenticate users. Some authentication methods are identity-based, for
example, the Windows security framework is based on user accounts. Others are
resource-based, where a service uses a fixed identity or impersonates a clients identify
to access services or resources. Others might be role-based, where roles are created for
various job functions and then permissions to perform certain actions are assigned to
those roles.
In Windows, once the user is identified, you can employ operating system features to
permit or deny access to resources. This basic authentication is enabled by user and
group accounts.
Windows user accounts

Like its predecessors, Windows 7 and Windows Vista include features that support
shared use of a single PC. More than one person can use a single PC while maintaining
separate sets of privileges (resources, such as files and folders, to which access is
permitted). Windows stores these settings in a user account.
User accounts
A user account is a collection of settings and privileges associated with a person (or
persons, if multiple people choose to share the same account). When you log on to
Windows Vista (even if it logs you on automatically without prompting you for a
username and password), the operating system loads the settings and privileges defined
in your user account. The information might include a first and last name, password,
group membership information, and other data. Your experience with the PC is tailored
to you, thanks to the user account.
Any person who needs to use the computer needs a user account. By creating user
accounts, you can administer and maintain the security of the computer. Through
accounts you can:
Require authentication for users connecting to the computer.
Control access to resources, such as shared folders and printers.
Monitor access to resources by auditing the actions performed by a user.
Usernames and passwords
Your username uniquely identifies you to a computer or network system when you log
in. The username you are given is often very simple and might even be based on your
name; other times, it is a complex string of characters that you need to memorize. When
you provide a valid username and password, the computer can authenticate you.
Your password is your secret code. In some cases, it can be very simple, but this is not a
good practice because someone else could easily guess your password. Usually, you
will be required to create a complex password that consists of letters, numbers, and
possibly special characters. A minimum password length is also typically specified.
Most of us need passwords to many different locations, such as our computer, servers,
and various Web sites. There is a strong temptation to use the same password for all of
the locations, but doing so would leave you vulnerable to having your password stolen
and used in any or all of the locations.
204

Both the username and password should be kept confidential. If someone knows your
username, a potential hacker has half of the information needed to impersonate you and
make use of the rights you have been granted to resources.
When youre creating user accounts, its important that your organization set standards
for the various elements of a user object. For example, you might want to establish a
user-account naming convention or a password complexity requirement:
Naming convention examples first initial with last name (TSmith), last name
with hire date (Smith103109), last name with department or department code
(Smith_HR).
Password complexity requirement examples mix of upper and lower case
letters, one or more numerical characters, at least X number of characters.
You can also establish other security conventions. For example, you might require users
to have password-protected screen savers: to wake an idle computer, the user has to
enter the password.
User account types
Windows supports multiple levels of user accounts that grant certain privileges on the
computer to the user. Windows 7 and Windows Vista supports two general types of user
accounts: computer administrator and standard user. Administrators have full control of
the computer, while standard user accounts can use programs but cannot make system
changes that affect other user accounts. The following table summarizes some of the
privileges allowed for each account type.
Administrator
User
Use programs.
Change account picture, and add, change, and delete account

password.
Privilege
Change account name or account type.
Add, delete, and change files in personal Documents and

Public Documents folders.
Add and delete files other than those in personal Documents

and Public Documents.
Add and delete user accounts and change other users

passwords.
Add programs.
Add hardware (other than printers).
Add a local printer.
Add a network printer.
Change system settings.
Security
205
These are the default privileges allowed. However, Administrators can delegate tasks to
normal user accounts as needed.
A Guest account is built in but is not active by default. The Guest account can use
installed programs, but has limited privileges and cannot even change the account
picture or password.
Windows XP and Windows 2000 also have Guest, Administrator, and Power User
accounts. Despite the name, Power Users dont really have any more administrative
control over the computer than standard users. However, they might have sufficient
permissions to run some applications that standard users cant.
Creating user accounts

Only an administrator account (or a standard user providing administrator credentials)
can create a user account. User accounts are managed through the Control Panel.
For Windows 7:
1 In the Control Panel, click User Accounts and Family Safety.
2 Click Add or remove user accounts.
3 Enter administrator credentials.
4 Click Create a new account.
5 Enter a name for the new user.
6 Select an account type.
7 Click Create Account.
For Windows Vista:
1 In the Control Panel, click User Accounts.
2 Click Add or remove user accounts.
3 If prompted, enter administrative-level credentials (password, or username and
password). In Windows Vista, you might be prompted to click Continue.
5 Enter a name for the new user. The name can contain spaces, but not any of the
following characters: /\ [ ] ; : < > + - , ? *
6 Select the account type: Standard user or Administrator.
206

For Windows XP:
1 In the Control Panel, click User Accounts.
3 Enter a name for the new user. The name can contain spaces, but not any of the
following characters: /\ [ ] ; : < > + - , ? *
4 Click Next.
5 Select the account type: Computer administrator or Limited.
For Windows 2000 Professional:
1 In the Control Panel, double-click Users and Passwords.
2 Verify Users must enter a username and password to use this computer is
checked.
3 Click Add.
4 Enter a username for the new user. The name can contain spaces, but not any of
the following characters: /\ [ ] ; : < > + - , ? *
5 If desired, enter the users full name and a description.
6 Click Next.
7 Enter a password in the Password and Confirm password boxes.
8 Click Next.
9 Select the account type: Standard user, Restricted user, or Other. If you choose
Other, select the type: Administrators, Backup Operators, Guests, Power Users,
Replicator, or Users.
10 Click Finish.
11 Click OK.
Groups
Trying to configure permissions or rights for multiple users within their individual
accounts can quickly become unmanageable, especially in large environments. For this
reason, operating systems, including Windows Vista Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate,
Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000, include the ability to aggregate user
accounts into entities known as groups.
When you use groups, you assign permissions to groups rather than to individual user
accounts. (Although you can still assign permissions to individual users when
appropriate, Microsoft recommends against it.) When you want to assign a certain set of
permissions to a user, you simply add his or her account to the appropriate group. For
example, you might add a new user to the West Coast Sales group in order to grant him
or her access to printers, storage, and other resources used by that team.
Windows supports multiple levels of groups and typically includes the following:
Users The standard group for regular users.
Administrators A group to which administrator users belong.
Power Users A group used to assign elevated permissions to a select set of
individuals.
Security
Do it!
A-1:
207
Creating local user accounts
Heres how
Heres why

Control Panel
View the Control Panel by

Category
(If necessary.)
2 Under User Accounts and Family

Safety, click Add or remove
user accounts
3 Click Create a new account

4 Enter Anne for the user name
A user name can contain spaces, but cannot

contain any of the following characters:
/\[];:<>+-,?*
5 Observe the types of user account
You can create a standard user or administrator

account from this window. The default is
standard user.
6 Click Create Account
To create a standard user account named Anne.
Observe the Manage Accounts

window
7 Create a standard user account
named Robert
The new account is listed with the other

accounts on your computer.
Use the same settings you did for the user
account Anne.
208
Passwords
You can easily improve security by requiring logon passwords. Windows provides tools
you can use to enable passwords, as well as set, change, and delete passwords.
Passwords require a user to enter a secret wordactually, any string of letters, numbers,
and charactersbefore he or she can log on or switch to another account. Standard
users can set and change their own passwords, and an administrator can set and change
passwords for any user on the system. You can add a password hint to remind yourself
of your password, but if a password is forgotten, an administrator must change the
password for you. Passwords are set in the User Accounts window.
Password rules
When using passwords, you must adhere to these Windows rules:
A password can contain letters, numbers, and characters, but it cannot start or
end with a space.
Passwords are case sensitive.
Passwords must be between 1 and 127 characters long.
In a business environment, the system or network administrator might have
implemented more restrictive rules. Check with him or her to determine the
complete set of rules that apply to you.
Password recommendations
Weak passwords are a major problem. Users need to create strong passwords and
protect them diligently in order to keep resources from being accessed or used by
unauthorized users. Although the preceding rules explain the limits, you should follow
these general guidelines when setting your passwords:
Match the strength of your password to your needs for security. For example,
home computer users can often use very simple passwords (or no password)
because there is little risk or potential for loss from unauthorized access to the
PC. (However, if that PC is connected to the Internet, its essential that you use a
strong password to help protect the computer from attack.) User accounts in a
business environment should be password-protected, but are likely to need less
secure passwords for standard users than for administrative users.
Set a password that is easy to remember, but hard to guess. It is not secure to use
your spouses name, kids names, pets names, and so forth as your password.
Create a password at least eight characters long. Longer passwords are more
secure than shorter passwords, with those more than 15 characters being the
most secure. Try using a phrase, such as DigitalPhotographyFan, to create an
easily remembered long password.
Use a mix of upper- and lowercase letters, numbers, and characters in your
password. Avoid common substitution schemes, such as replacing Os with zeros,
Es with threes, and so forth.
Memorize passwords rather than writing them down. Some security experts
suggest that writing down passwords is okay if you can store the written copy in
a secure place, such as a locked cabinet. Check with your corporate security
officer for the policy set by your company in this matter.
Use a different password for every account that requires a password.
Security
209
Change passwords frequently. Some organizations have security policies that

specify how often to change your password. A general rule of thumb is to
change it every 30 to 60 days.
Avoid using the same password again within a year. You can create a system
security policy that doesnt allow users to use a password more than once.
Strong passwords
When you create a password, you need to balance your ability to remember it with the
complexity of the password. If the password is so complex that the only way to
remember it is to write it down, then you are sacrificing security, because someone
could find the password you recorded.
Some people take the first letter of each word in a song title, book title, or phrase and
use it as the basis of a password. This kind of password is often referred to as a pass
phrase. Users make some of the letters uppercase and some lowercase, and then add
numbers and special characters to make the password more secure. This method has the
benefit of giving you something that is easily remembered, along with the more secure
password created with numbers and special characters.
Again, be sure not to include any personal information, such as your name or your pets
name. Also, you shouldnt use any word that can be found in the dictionary, because
hackers routinely perform dictionary-based attacks. If you choose to substitute numbers
for some of the letters, be aware that hackers check substitutions such as 2 for to,
4 for four, $ for s, ! for the letter I, and the number 0 for the letter O.
Multiple passwords
If you have multiple passwords for different systems and Web sites, it can be difficult to
remember all of the username and password combinations. It is very tempting to write
them down somewhere so that youll have them, especially for the ones you use
infrequently. Avoid this temptation if at all possible.
One way you can record them is to use a password management toola program that
stores your passwords in an encrypted format. Password Director by LastBit Software
and AnyPassword by RomanLab Company are two examples of software-based
password management tools. You just need to remember a single password to access the
file. Some password management tools will create complex passwords for you, using
rules that you define.
Creating a user password
In Windows 7 or Vista, to create a user password for an account that doesnt have one:
1 In the Manage Accounts window, click the user account for which you want to
set a password. If prompted, enter the administrators password.
2 Click Create a password to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit 20-1.
3 Type the password twice.
4 Enter a password hint. The hint is visible to all users, so it should be something
to remind the user of his or her password without giving it away to others.
5 Click Create password.
Exhibit 20-1: Creating a password

In Windows XP, to create a user password for an account that doesnt have one:
1 In Control Panel, User Accounts, click the account to which you want to add a
password.
2 Click Create a password. (Once a password is created for an account, this choice
changes to Change the password.)
3 In the Type a new password box, enter the desired password.
4 In the Type the new password again to confirm box, enter the desired
password again.
5 If desired, in the Type a word or phrase to use as a password hint box, enter a
hint to help the user remember the password.
6 Click Create Password. (If you are changing an existing password, this choice
changes to Change Password.)
In Windows 2000 Professional, to create a user password for an account that doesnt
have one or to change the current password:
1 In the Users and Passwords dialog box, on the Users tab, select the user for
whom you want to set the password.
2 Click Set Password.
3 In the New password and Confirm password boxes, enter the password.
4 Click OK twice.
Security
Do it!
A-2:
2011
Creating a password
Heres how
1 Click Anne
Heres why
In the Manage Accounts window. Youll add a
password to this account.
2 Click Create a password

3 In the New password box, enter
p@ssword
Passwords are case sensitive and should include

non-alphabetic characters.
4 In the Confirm new password box,

enter p@ssword
To confirm the password and guard against

typos.
5 In the Type a word or phrase to

use as a password hint box, enter
Remember that hints are visible to anyone. It

should jog your memory, but not be useful to
anyone else.
This is too easy!
6 Click Create password

Click
To return to the Manage Accounts window.
Observe the Anne user account
It shows that the account is password-protected.
7 Close the Manage Accounts

window
8 Log off your account and log on
as Anne
9 Log off Anne and log back on as
COMPADMIN##
10 Create a password of p@ssword

for the user account Robert
11 Test the new password for Robert
by logging on with that account
12 Log back on as
COMPADMIN##
To test the account. Use the password you just

created.

Requiring a new password
When you create a user account for someone who will use your computer, you know the
users password. She might not like the password you have chosen. Additionally, she
might not want you to know her password.
You can configure an account to require the user to change the password the first time
the user logs on. As youll see in the Account Policies section, you can set passwords to
expire and require periodic changing that follow password policies.
Exhibit 20-2: Requiring a user to supply a new password
Security
Do it!
A-3:
2013
Requiring a new password
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start
Right-click Computer and
choose Manage
2 In the navigation pane, expand

Local Users and Groups
Select the Users folder

3 Right-click Anne and choose
Properties
4 Clear Password never

expires
A list of user accounts on your computer is

displayed in the details pane.
To open the Properties dialog box for this user
account.
To make available the option to require a new
password. Its currently grayed out.
5 Check User must change

password at next logon
6 Click OK
Log off your account and log on
as Anne
Change the password to
Pa$$321
8 Log off Anne and log back on as

COMPADMIN##
To fulfill the change password requirement you

just implemented for user Anne.

Authentication
Authentication is the process by which your identity is validated against a database that
contains your account. That validation is subsequently used to grant or deny access to
resources.
The authentication process can be handled in several ways to produce various results,
depending on how the environment is structured. A workgroup environment is managed
differently than a domain environment, and authentication uses different methods and
produces different results in each environment.
Interactive authentication
Interactive authentication is the process by which a user enters his or her username and
password in the Log On to Windows dialog box. There are two types of logons:
Domain The username and password are compared to information stored on
a domain controller in its Active Directory database. Active Directory is a
management framework for networks of Windows computers under the
management of one or more Windows 2008, 2003, or 2000 servers. By using
Active Directory, administrators can manage all of the computers and
peripherals in an enterprise. Active Directory is built on a centralized database
of security settings and other information. Barring other restrictions, a user can
log onto any computer in the domain, because each computer can reference the
central database.
Local The username and password are validated by the SAM (Security
Accounts Manager) database located on the local computer, rather than by an
Active Directory domain controller. The user must have an account that resides
on the computer he or she is logging onto.
Network authentication
Network authentication is the process by which a network resource or service confirms
the identity of a user. For example, when you attempt to access the contents of a shared
folder on the network, your credentials must be validated. The manner in which network
authentication occurs is different if you logged onto a domain rather than onto a local
computer account.
Authentication protocol
Kerberos v5 is the primary authentication protocol used in Active Directory domain
environments. Microsoft operating systems that support Kerberos v5 include:
Windows 7
Windows Server 2008
Windows Vista
Windows Server 2003
Windows XP
Windows 2000
Security
Do it!
A-4:
Understanding authentication technologies
Questions
1 Logging on to a domain from the
console of a Windows 7 system is
which type of authentication?
Answers
A Interactive
B Network
C Domain
D Local
2 What is network authentication?

3 Authentication is vital to
maintaining the ________ of
network resources.
4 Which authentication protocol do
Windows NT 4.0 clients not
configured with the Active
Directory Client Extensions
software use when logging onto a
Windows Server 2008 domain?
A NTLM
B Kerberos
C RADIUS
2015

Security policies
Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise; Windows Vista Business, Ultimate,
and Enterprise; Windows XP Professional; and Windows 2000 Professional support
configurable security settings within Group Policy editor. With Group Policy editor, you
can define settings to secure the operating system and monitor security events.
Account policies
Account policies control how user accounts interact with the computer (or the domain).
Locally, the two security areas you can configure in account policies are Password and
Account Lockout.
Password policies
Password policies control the complexity and lifetime settings for passwords so that
users are forced to create more secure passwords. Your organizations security policy
should include the requirement to set password policies to reduce the likelihood of a
successful password attack. Here are the local password policies you can configure on
and Enterprise; Windows XP Professional; and Windows 2000 Professional computers:
Enforce password history Specifies the number of unique new user account
passwords a user must create before reusing an old password.
Note: If you specify a low number for this setting, users can use the same
passwords repeatedly, thereby increasing the chances that an attacker can
determine the password.
Minimum password age Specifies the number of days that a user must keep
a password before being allowed to change it. The minimum password age value
must be less than the maximum password age value.
Note: Setting the number of days to 0 allows immediate password changes,
and this isnt recommended. For a strong security policy, you need to configure
the Minimum password age policy setting in conjunction with the Enforce
password history policy setting to prevent users from changing their passwords
as many times in a row as necessary in order to reuse their original passwords.
Be aware, however, that the security risk associated with implementing a strong
Enforce password history and Minimum password age policy is an
increased risk of encountering users who write down their passwords so they
dont forget them.
Maximum password age Specifies the number of days users can keep a
password before the system requires them to change it.
Note: Requiring that users change their passwords frequently might reduce the
risk of passwords being cracked and the risk of stolen passwords being used.
However, just as with a strong Enforce password history and Minimum
password age account policy, if you set the Maximum password age value
too low, your users have to change their passwords often, and you introduce the
security risk of users writing down their passwords to avoid forgetting them. A
reasonable length of time for a maximum password age in most corporate
environments is every 60 or 90 days (2 or 3 months).
Security
2017
Minimum password length Specifies the lowest number of characters that

can be used in a user account password.
Note: In most environments, a six- to eight-character password is recommended
because its long enough to provide adequate security and short enough for users
to easily remember. In most business environments, this setting provides
adequate defense against a brute-force attack.
Passwords must meet complexity requirements Forces users passwords to
meet the following set of guidelines:
The password doesnt contain all or part of the users account name.
The password is at least six characters long.
The password contains characters from three of the following four
categories: English uppercase characters (A-Z); English lowercase
characters (a-z); Base 10 digits (0-9); and Non-alphanumeric (for example:
!, $, #, or %).
Store password using reverse encryption for all users in the domain
Specifies whether Microsoft Windows 7 and Windows Vista Business, Ultimate,
and Enterprise, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000 Professional
computers store passwords using reverse encryption.
Note: If you enable this policy, it makes your overall password security less
secure. Reversible encryption is essentially the same as storing the passwords in
plain text. You shouldnt enable this setting unless business requirements
outweigh the need to protect password information.
The following table lists each password policy setting, its default value, and its possible
and recommended values.
Setting
Default
Possible and recommended values
Enforce password history
0 passwords
remembered
0 to 24.
Set to 24 to limit password reuse.
Maximum password age
42 days
0 to 999.
Set to either 30 or 60 days.
Minimum password age
0 days
0 to 998.
Set to 2 days; this disallows immediate changes.
Minimum password length
0 characters
0 to 14.
Set to at least 6 to 8.
Password must meet

complexity requirements
Disabled
Enabled or disabled.
Set to enabled.
Store password using reverse

encryption
Disabled
Enabled or disabled.
Set to disabled.

Account lockout policy
You use the account lockout policy to secure the system against attacks by disabling any
user account after a certain number of failed logon attempts occur within a specified
period of time.
Setting
Default
Possible and recommended values
Account lockout duration
Not Applicable
0 to 99,999 minutes. A value of 0 indicates the

account is locked out until an administrator
unlocks it.
30 minutes when Account

lockout threshold is set
Set to at least 30 minutes.

If you attempt to set this value to less than the
Reset account lockout after value, Windows
presents a message indicating it is changing the
Reset account lockout counter after value to
be the same.
Account lockout threshold
0 invalid logon attempts
0 to 999 logon attempts.

Set to at least 3 to allow for typing mistakes or
the Cap Locks key being engaged.
Reset account lockout

counter after
Not Applicable
1 to 99,999 minutes. If you attempt to set this

value more than the Account lockout duration
value, Windows presents a message indicating
it is changing the Account lockout duration
value to be the same.
30 minutes when Account

lockout threshold is set
Set to at least 30 minutes.
Note: If you set the Reset account lockout counter after setting to a high value, it
presents an opportunity for a denial-of-service (DoS) attack. The purpose of a DoS
attack is to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. If you set the
Reset account lockout counter after setting to a low value, it opens up the computer to
brute-force attacks. A brute-force attack occurs when an attacker attempts to identify a
password by trying a large number of possibilities. You need to evaluate your risk and
select a value that creates a balance of risk for the two possibilities.
If you dont want user accounts to be locked out, set the Account lockout duration and
the Account lockout threshold policy settings to zero. The zero values in both policies
will prevent a DoS attack by locking out all or some accounts. Zero values in both of
these policies can help reduce help desk calls because users cant accidentally lock
themselves out of their accounts.
Computer vs. domain

If your computer participates in a domain, it might inherit security policy settings from
the domain. Settings at the domain level override those made at the local computer
level. There are additional policy settings you can apply to domain controller computers,
which override the other policies.
Security
Do it!
A-5:
2019
Using local security policies to set password

restrictions
Heres how
Heres why

Control Panel
Click
System and Security
Click Administrative Tools

Double-click
Local Security Policy
2 Expand Account Policies

3 Select Password Policy
The policies are displayed in the right pane.
4 Double-click Minimum
The current value is zero, indicating that no

minimum length is specified.
password length
5 In the characters box, enter 8
To specify that passwords must be at least eight

characters long.
Click OK

6 Switch to the Control Panel and
open User Accounts
You have to back up one level from System and

Security to Control Panel. Click User Accounts
and Family Safety to get to User Accounts.
Youll try to change a users password to test
your new password policy.
7 Click Manage another

account
8 Click Anne
9 Click Change the password
10 In the New password and
Confirmation boxes, type secret
Click Change password
A dialog box tells you that the password you

entered doesnt meet password policy
requirements.
11 Click OK
12 Click Cancel and close the User
Accounts window
13 In Local Security Policy, restore
the minimum password length to
zero
Click OK
Security
2021
Disabling user accounts

If you arent using an account but dont want to delete it, you can disable it to prevent
anyone else from logging on with that account. Windows preserves all of the settings,
files, and permissions associated with a disabled account. Later, you can enable the
account, and its settings will be intact. You disable and enable accounts by using the
Computer Management console.
Exhibit 20-3: Disabling an account

Deleting accounts
When you no longer need a user account, you can delete it. You must be logged in as an
administrator. You can delete administrator and standard user accounts, except for the
account you used to log on.
When you delete an account, Windows will prompt you to delete all files associated
with the account. Doing so is optional. You can keep the files associated with the
account. Administrators will have access to those files, but standard users wont.

Do it!
A-6:
Disabling local user accounts
Heres how
Heres why

Expand Local Users and Groups,
and then select the Users folder
2 Right-click Anne and choose
Properties
3 Check Account is disabled

4 Click OK
The down-pointing arrow on the accounts icon
indicates that its disabled.
Security
2023
User Account Control

Microsoft has recommended for years that administrative users log on and work with a
standard user-level account unless they actually need special administrative privileges
for certain tasks. This security scheme protects a computer in a number of ways,
including the following:
Administrators cant inadvertently change system settings, delete important files,
or do other system harm as they could if they logged on regularly as an
administrative user.
Unauthorized users cant walk up to an unattended administrator computer and
make system changes on it or on other computers on the network.
However, pre-Windows Vista versions have not made such a work style convenient.
System administrators had to frequently log off as the standard user and log back on as
an administrator to perform many duties. This meant closing applications, saving work
in progress, and interrupting their workflow.
User Account Control (UAC) in Windows 7 and Windows Vista is designed to make it
convenient to follow Microsofts security recommendation. You are permitted to make
more system changes than you could before when logged on as a standard user. More
important, whenever you attempt an action that requires administrative privileges, you
are prompted for credentials; this step helps protect against malware being installed or
making changes without your permission. If you supply appropriate administrative
credentials, you are permitted to perform the action. You dont need to log out and log
back in as an administrator.
Elevation prompts
Windows 7 and Windows Vista display different elevation prompts based on the
privileges of the user account that is logged on when an application needs administrative
privileges. When you are logged on to Windows Vista as a local administrator, it
displays a consent prompt, as shown in Exhibit 20-4, whenever a program needs
elevated privileges to accomplish a task. In Windows 7, when youre logged on as an
administrator, this prompt isnt displayed. You can identify the Windows Vista
commands or programs that need administrative privileges by looking for the shield
icon. For example, in Exhibit 20-4, you can see that Windows Vista requires
administrative privileges when you want to open one or more ports in Windows
Firewall to enable an application to communicate through the firewall.
Exhibit 20-4: The User Account Control consent prompt in Windows Vista

If youre logged on as a standard user and attempt to perform a task that requires
administrative privileges, youll see a credential prompt, as shown in Exhibit 20-5. This
prompt requires you to enter the username and password for a local or domain
administrator account before Windows 7 or Windows Vista will grant the necessary
privileges for the application to run.
Exhibit 20-5: The User Account Control credential prompt in Windows Vista
When elevated permissions are required in Windows Vista, UAC will present one of the
alerts in the following table. Youll need to provide the appropriate administrative
credentials or speak to a computer administrator to continue.
Alert
Youll see this alert when
Windows needs your

permission to continue
The operating system wants to perform a function that will modify the
computer or operating system settings.
A program needs your

permission to continue
A program with a valid digital signature wants to start.
An unidentified
program wants access
to your computer
A program without a valid digital signature wants to start. A program

without a valid digital signature is not necessarily a malicious program.
This program has been

blocked
The computer administrator has blocked you from starting the program
youre trying to start.
In Windows 7, the UAC prompts you receive are more descriptive. You see a prompts
such as Do you want to allow the following program to make changes to this
computer? with the name of the program and the publisher listed, as shown in Exhibit
20-6. If youre logged in as a standard user, the prompt includes fields for you to enter
administrative credentials to continue.
Security
2025
Exhibit 20-6: The User Account Control consent prompt in Windows 7
Tasks that require administrative privileges in Windows 7 and Windows Vista include:
Running an application as an Administrator
Installing and removing applications
Installing a device driver, Windows updates, or an ActiveX control
Configuring Windows Update
Configuring Windows Firewall
Creating, modifying, and deleting local user accounts
Configuring Parental Controls
Scheduling tasks
Restoring backups
Modifying the configuration of User Account Control (by editing the local group
policy)
Changing system-wide settings or files in %SystemRoot% or %ProgramFiles%
Viewing or changing another users folders and files
Running Disk Defragmenter
Administrator accounts
Even though UAC is helpful, you or your system administrator might still assign
administrator accounts to you and others who use your PC. Having separate accounts
for each administrator helps track system changes. Also, when an administrator-level
user no longer needs access to the PC, you can simply delete his or her user and
administrator accounts. You wont have to change and distribute passwords to all of the
other administrative-level users of the PC.

Run as administrator
You can also run an application as an administrator by right-clicking the shortcut or
program and choosing Run as administrator. In Windows 7, youre prompted for
credentials if you arent already logged in as an administrative level user. In Windows
Vista, youre then prompted to provide your credentials to log in as an administrator. If
you are logged in as an administrator and want to run a program as a standard user, you
can do that as well. To do this, open a Command Prompt window and enter runas
/username where username is the standard user account you want to log in with.
If you are logged in as a standard user, you can also use the Run as administrator
command to run the selected program as another standard user. When prompted for
your credentials, just enter the credentials of the desired user account.
UAC configuration
You can configure the behavior of UAC by using the Local Security Policy console
(part of the Microsoft Management Console, or MMC). This console, like Computer
Management, is a tool that administrators use to configure a Windows 7 and Windows
Vista computer. This console is used to modify the local security policy, which is a
collection of settings that cover all aspects of a computers security.
Exhibit 20-7: The Local Security Policy console

You must be very careful when making changes in the Local Security Policy console
because you could negatively affect the security of the computer. You must also consult
with the network administrator to determine which network-wide security policies are in
effect. Although you can configure UAC through the Local Security Policy console,
chances are, in many organizations you wont need to make any changes, and you might
even be prohibited from changing the local security policy.
Security
2027
You can configure the following UAC settings in the Local Security Policy console. To
open it, click Start and type secpol.msc.
UAC policy
settings
Description
Default
settings
Admin Approval Mode

for the Built-in
Administrator account
Determines how Admin

Approval mode operates for the
built-in Administrator user
account.
Disabled
Allow UIAccess
applications to prompt for
elevation without using
the secure desktop
(Windows 7)
Determines whether UIA

programs, such as Remote
Assistance, can disable the
secure desktop for elevation
prompts.
Disabled
Behavior of the elevation

prompt for administrators
in Admin Approval Mode
Determines how the elevation

prompt behaves for computer
administrators.
Prompt for
consent
Behavior of the elevation

prompt for standard users
Determines how the elevation

prompt behaves for standard
user accounts.
Prompt for
credentials
Detect application
installations and prompt
for elevation
Dictates how approval works

for program installations.
Enabled
Only elevate executables

that are signed and
validated
Requires a security key check

on certain applications.
Disabled
Only elevate UIAccess

applications that are
installed in secure
locations
Requires installation of certain

programs in specific secure
locations.
Disabled
Run all administrators in

Admin Approval Mode
Determines system-wide UAC

security policy behavior.
Enabled
Switch to the secure

desktop when prompting
for elevation
Determines which type of

desktop a user will see during
an elevation request.
Enabled
Virtualize file and

registry write failures to
per-user locations
Configures security on older

applications.
Enabled

Windows 7 notification levels
In Windows 7, you can set the notification level for UAC, as shown in Exhibit 20-8. To
access User Account Control Settings:
1 Open Control Panel, User Accounts and Family Safety, User Accounts.
2 Click Change User Account Control settings.
This setting applies to the computer, not to individual users.
Exhibit 20-8: The UAC levels in Windows 7

The levels from most restrictive to least restrictive are:
Level 4 The UAC always notifies you when programs attempt to install
software or make system or Windows setting changes.
Level 3 The UAC notifies you when programs attempt to make system or
Windows setting changes.
Level 2 The UAC notifies you when programs attempt to make system
changes.
Level 1 The UAC doesnt notify when programs attempt to install software
or make system or Windows setting changes. This level doesnt turn off UAC, it
simply stops the pop-up notifications.
Level 3 is the default setting for the UAC in Windows 7. The UAC displays
notifications for program-initiated changes but not changes that are user-initiated.
Security
2029
Disabling UAC
You can disable UAC altogether, but doing so would leave your computer exposed to a
variety of security threats. To disable UAC, in User Accounts, click Turn User
Account Control on or off. Provide the necessary administrative credentials or click
Continue. Clear the Use User Account Control (UAC) to help protect your computer
checkbox, and click OK.
Do it!
A-7:
Configuring UAC
Heres how
1 Click Start and enter
secpol.msc
Heres why
To open the Local Security Policy console.
Youre going to examine the UAC settings in
the local security policy.
If necessary, maximize the

window
2 In the navigation pane, doubleclick Local Policies
Select Security Options
To expand it.
To display the settings in the details pane.
3 Scroll to the bottom of the list

Observe the User Account Control
settings
The settings described previously are listed in

order.
4 Double-click Admin Approval

Mode for the Built-in
Administrator account
5 Observe the settings
You can choose between Enabled or Disabled to

turn this security setting on or off.
6 Select the Explain tab
To display an explanation of this policy setting

and the effects of the Enabled and the Disabled
settings. Sometimes configuring policies can be
confusing, so it helps to have the effects of each
setting explained explicitly.
7 Click Cancel
To close the dialog box without making any

changes.

8 Double-click Behavior of the
elevation prompt for
standard users
Click the drop-down arrow and

observe the settings
9 Select the Explain tab

10 Click Cancel
11 Close the Local Security Policy

console
12 Open Control Panel, User
Accounts and Family Safety, User
Accounts
13 Click Change User Account
Control settings
14 Drag the slider up

Observe the changes in the
notification description
15 Drag the slider to the other levels

and observe the notification
descriptions
16 Click Cancel
Close the User Accounts window
They are different from the Enabled and

Disabled settings you saw in the last dialog box.
To read the explanation for each setting.

To close the dialog box without making
changes. Always check with your network
administrator or other administrator before
configuring local security policy settings.
Security
2031
File system security

The access control list (ACL) for a folder allows or denies various permissions for
users. All of the permissions granted to the user either directly or through groups are
combined for the effective permissions the user has for the file or folder. Permissions
flow down through the file structure, with the file or folder inheriting the permissions
from the folders above. Implicit denial causes privileges to be denied unless there are
explicit permissions granted. For example, without having been explicitly granted
permission to open a file, a user cant open it.
For files in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000
Professional, you can specify the permissions described in the following table.
Permission
When set to Allow
Full control
Users can view folder and file contents, modify files and folders, create
files and folders, and run programs. This permission applies to the
current folder and all folders below it unless another permission is set
to prohibit inheritance of the permission into subfolders.
Modify
Users can modify files and folders, but cannot create them.
Read & execute
Users can view the contents of files and folders. They can also run
programs located in the folder.
Read
Users can view folder contents, and open files and folders.
Write
Users can create and modify files and folders.
Special permissions
Users can perform management tasks, such as managing documents.

(Not available in Windows 2000 Professional.)
Folders have an additional permissionList Folder Contents, which allows users to

view the contents of the folder.
To allow or deny various permissions on a file or folder, in Windows Explorer, rightclick the file or folder and choose Properties, then select the Security tab. On Windows
XP computers that arent part of a domain, in order to view the Security tab, you need to
clear the Use simple file sharing checkbox on the View tab of the Folder Options
dialog box.
You should always grant a user the least privileges necessary. In other words, if
someone needs only to read a file, grant the Read permission, not Write, Modify, and so
forth. This approach ensures that users wont make inadvertent or forbidden changes in
your data.

Moving versus copying
When troubleshooting folder access, you need to keep in mind some basic rules about
NTFS permissions and copying and moving files and folders.
Copied files inherit the permissions from the new location.
Moved files keep their original permissions, if they are moved to the same NTFS
partition.
Moved files inherit the permissions from the new location, if they are moved to
a different NTFS partition.
Copied or moved files lose their permissions, if the new location is a non-NTFS
partition.
The Effective Permissions tool
One of the tools you can use to troubleshoot an access-denied error is the Effective
Permissions tool. You use it to determine a given users effective NTFS permissions for
a particular folder or file. Note, however, that the Effective Permissions tool does not
consider share permissions when performing its calculations; it considers only NTFS
permissions.
Therefore, after using this tool, youll have additional footwork to do if you want to
determine the users effective share permissions.
The nice thing about the Effective Permissions tool is that it considers all inherited
permissions as well as NTFS permissions explicitly assigned to groups of which the
user is a member. So it does give you an accurate picture of a users NTFS permissions.
To determine a users NTFS permissions:
1 Access the computer that contains the shared file or folder the user is attempting
to access. Open Windows Explorer.
2 Right-click the file or folder and choose Properties.
3 Select the Security tab and click Advanced to open the Advanced Security
Settings dialog box.
4 Select the Effective Permissions tab.
5 Next to the Group or username box, click Select. Use the Select User,
Computer, or Group dialog box to define the user or group for which you want
to determine effective permissions. Click OK when youre done.
6 Review the selected checkboxes in the Effective permissions list, as shown in
Exhibit 20-9. These checkboxes represent the users effective NTFS permissions
for the folder or file.
7 Write down the users effective permissions. If the user does not have any
effective permissions, you must determine how the user is being denied access;
to do so, examine the NTFS permissions assignments on that folder or file.
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2033
Exhibit 20-9: The Effective Permissions tool in Windows Vista

Shared Folders in Computer Management
The Shared Folders node in Computer Management enables you to view a list of shares
and their permissions on the selected computer, including both local shares and
administrative shares. (Administrative shares are folders that are shared by default by
the operating system when its installed.) By examining the share permissions, you can
determine whether a user is being denied access as a result of NTFS permissions, share
permissions, or both.

To use Computer Management to review the share permissions for a shared folder,
follow these steps:
1 Click Start. Right-click Computer and choose Manage. In Windows Vista, click
Continue.
2 In the console tree, under System Tools, expand Shared Folders, and then select
the Shares folder. You now see a list of all shares on the computer, including the
hidden administrative shares. (You can hide any share by adding $ at the end of
the share name.)
3 Right-click the folder you want to examine and choose Properties.
4 Select the Share Permissions tab. Review the permissions assignments, as shown
in Exhibit 20-10. Keep in mind that you might see permissions assigned directly
to the user or to a group of which the user is a member.
Exhibit 20-10: Reviewing the share permissions for a folder

Calculating effective permissions
As you just saw, you can use the Effective Permissions tool to determine a users
effective NTFS permissions, and use Computer Management to access the Share
Permissions tab for a shared folder. You need the information you gain from both of
these tools to determine the users true effective permissions. By true effective
permissions, we mean what exactly the user can do when accessing the shared folder
across the network.
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2035
Here are the steps to determine a users total effective permissions:

1 Use the Effective Permissions tool to determine the users effective NTFS
permissions for a folder. Keep in mind that these permissions represent the
combination of:
NTFS permissions assigned directly to the user (if any).
NTFS permissions assigned to a group of which the user is a member.
Inherited permissions, which occur when the user has NTFS permissions
grantedeither directly or to a group the user belongs tofor a folder that
is higher in the folder hierarchy.
The only situation in which permissions are not cumulative occurs when an
administrator explicitly denies the user (or a group the user belongs to) access to
the folder. In this scenario, the Deny permission overrides all other permission
assignments, and the user is denied access.
2 Review the share permissions for the folder. As with NTFS permissions, share
permissions represent the combination of:
Share permissions assigned directly to the user (if any).
Share permissions assigned to a group of which the user is a member.
Inherited permissions, which occur when the user has share permissions
grantedeither directly or to a group the user belongs tofor a folder that
is higher in the folder hierarchy.
And just as with NTFS permissions, the only time that share permissions are not
cumulative occurs when an administrator explicitly denies the user (or a group
the user belongs to) share permissions for the folder.
3 Calculate the users effective permissions by comparing the users effective
NTFS permissions to the users share permissions. When the user connects to
the share, Windows grants the user whichever permissions are the most
restrictive.
4 If you calculate the users effective permissions and determine that the user
should be able to modify a file but is getting the Access Denied message, your
next step is to check the files attributes.
Lets look at an example. Say that you have a folder named AcctgData on your server.
You assign the NTFS permission of Allow Modify to the Accounting security group, of
which user FSmith is a member. You remove all other default permission assignments
from the folder, except for the Allow Full Control permission assignment to the built-in
Administrators group. At this point, user FSmiths effective NTFS permissions are
Allow Modify, which means that he can create, modify, and delete files in the folder.
Next, you share this folder as AcctgData without changing its default share permissions.
The key default share permissions are:
Administrators: Allow Full Control
Users: Allow Read
Because FSmith is a member of the Users group by default, he gets the share permission
of Allow Read. Now that we know that FSmiths NTFS permissions are Allow Modify
and his share permissions are Allow Read, Smiths effective permissions when he
connects to the AcctgData share are Allow Read. This is because the share permissions
assignment is more restrictive than the NTFS permissions.

At this point, you can see that this user will get an Access Denied error if he tries to
create or modify files in the AcctgData share. FSmith would be able to create or modify
the folder and its contents if he were sitting at the local computer. As a desktop support
technician, you need to know how to troubleshoot such errors by determining a users
true effective permissions.
Access Denied errors
One of the problems you can expect to troubleshoot as a desktop support technician
occurs when a user is denied access to a resource. Troubleshooting this problem
involves asking a typical series of questions, such as:
Is everyone denied access to the resource, or is only that user denied access? Use
this question to determine if the problem lies with the shared resource or the
configuration of a single user account.
If only one user is denied access, can this user access any shared resources on
the network? Use this question to determine if theres a problem with the users
networking components (network adapter, cabling, or configuration).
If your isolating questions lead you to determine that the problem is with only one user
and it isnt the users networking components, then you start troubleshooting the users
resource access to determine why the user is being denied access.
If a users inability to access a shared resource is due to the users configuration, there
are a number of factors that can cause this problem. For example:
The user doesnt have the necessary share permissions.
If the shared resource is a folder or file, the user might have NTFS permissions
that prevent access. (Remember, users receive the most restrictive permissions
when both NTFS and share permissions are applied to a folder.)
If the problem occurs when a user attempts to save a file he has modified,
someone has configured the file with the Read Only attribute.
There are a number of techniques you can use to research the potential causes of a user
being denied access.
File attributes
Files can have various attributes assigned to them. File attributes tell the operating
system and applications how files should be used. You can assign the attributes
Attribute
Description
Read-only
Prevents inadvertent changes in a file. MS-DOS commands dont allow you to change
a read-only file. Some Windows applications allow it, although they might prompt you
first, letting you know that youre changing a read-only file.
Hidden
Hides the file from view in the default list display of the MS-DOS dir command and
in Windows Explorer.
System
Indicates that the file is used by the operating system and shouldnt be altered or
removed.
Archive
Indicates whether the file has been modified since a backup.
System files and folders are hidden by default in Windows, but you can use Folder
Options to display them.
Security
Do it!
A-8:
2037
Determining effective permissions
Heres how
Heres why
1 On your C: drive, create a folder

named SalesData
2 Right-click SalesData and
select Properties
To open the folders Properties dialog box.
Select the Sharing tab

3 Click Share
Click Share
Click Done
To share the folder with the default share

permissions.
4 Click Advanced Sharing

Click Permissions
5 What are the default share
permissions?
Both the Administrators and Everyone groups

have full control.
6 With Everyone selected, clear the

Allow box under Full Control and
Change
Click OK twice
7 What are the Share permissions
now?
Select the Security tab
8 What are the default NTFS
permissions assigned to the Users
group for the C:\SalesData folder?
9 What are the default NTFS
permissions assigned to the
Administrators group for the
SalesData folder?
Members of the Administrators group still have

full control. Members of the Everyone group
can only read the contents of the folder.
To view the default NTFS permissions assigned
to the folder.

10 Your user, COMPADMIN##, is a member of the Administrators group. What will
your true effective permissions be when you access the SalesData share from
another computer?
11 On the Security tab, click

Advanced
To open the Advanced Security Settings dialog

box.
Select the Effective Permissions

tab
12 Next to the Group or user name
box, click Select
Type Robert and click OK
13 Observe the list
14 Determine the effective
permissions for your
COMPADMIN## account
15 What set of permissions do you
have? Why?
To determine Roberts effective permissions.

Robert has a no permissions for the folder.
Security
2039
Topic B: Windows Encrypting File System

exam objectives.
#
Objective
5.1

Encryption technologies
5.2

BIOS Security
TPM
objective.
#
Objective
4.2

Operating systems
Encryption (BitLocker, EFS)
System
BIOS security
TPM
Encryption
Explanation
Encryption is the scrambling of data so that only permitted people can unscramble and
read it. Encryption prevents data from being altered or replaced during transmission or
in storage.
Public key cryptography
Currently, the most powerful form of encryption is public key encryption. In public key
encryption, two keys are used to encrypt and decrypt data. These keys work in pairs: the
public key, which is typically used by the sender to encrypt data, and the private key,
which is used to decrypt it.
For example, with e-mail transmission, public key encryption works like this: Someone
wanting to send encrypted data to a user obtains the recipients public key, encrypts the
information, and sends it. By using the private key, the user can decrypt the message.
The public key cant be used to decrypt the message, so the message cannot be
decrypted by anyone other than the holder of the private key.

Encrypting File System
You can use the Encrypting File System (EFS) to protect files. Using EFS enhances the
security provided by NTFS permissions on files and folders. If an intruder gains access
to your computer, he or shell be unable to open any encrypted files or folders.
and Enterprise; Windows XP Professional; and Windows 2000 Professional support file
encryption. Encryption is transparent, meaning that you dont have to decrypt files
before using them. You can open and use them in your applications as you would use
any unencrypted file. Windows manages file decryption in the background.
In Windows, you can encrypt non-compressed folders or files. (Encryption and
compression are mutually exclusive.) You see encrypted folders and files displayed in
green text in Windows Explorer. If a non-administrative user attempts to access one of
your encrypted folders or files, that user receives an access denied message. There are
some rules regarding encryption:
If a folder is encrypted, all the files you create in, or copy to, the folder are
encrypted automatically.
An encrypted file remains encrypted if you move it from an encrypted folder to
an unencrypted folder on the same or another NTFS drive.
An encrypted folder remains encrypted if you move it to the same or another
NTFS drive.
If an encrypted folder or file is moved or copied to a FAT drive, the encryption
property is removed.
An administrative user can decrypt folders or files, if a user forgets the password
or is no longer with the company.
EFS isnt fully supported in Windows 7 and Windows Vista Starter, Home Basic, or
Home Premium. In these versions, you are limited to the following EFS tasks, if you
have the encryption key or certificate:
Decrypt files by running Cipher.exe in the Command Prompt window (advanced
users)
Modify an encrypted file
Copy an encrypted file as decrypted to a hard disk on your computer
Import EFS certificates and keys
Back up EFS certificates and keys by running Cipher.exe in the Command
prompt window (advanced users)
Microsoft designed EFS to give organizations an extra tool for protecting the hard disks
in laptops. In the past, if a laptop was stolen, a hacker could gain access to the users
files by booting the computer with another operating system or even installing an
additional operating system on the computer. EFS enables users to protect their files
even if their computers are stolen.
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2041
Folder encryption
You encrypt a folder or an individual file in Windows Explorer. To enable encryption:
1 Right-click the folder or file you want to encrypt and choose Properties.
2 On the General tab, click Advanced.
3 In the Advanced Attributes dialog box, check Encrypt contents to secure data,
as shown in Exhibit 20-11.
4 Click OK to close the Advanced Attributes dialog box, and then click OK to
close the folder or file Properties dialog box.
5 If you enabled encryption on a folder: In the Confirm Attribute Changes dialog
box, specify whether you want to encrypt only the files in the folder, or the
folder, its subfolders, and all files contained in them. Click OK.
If you enabled encryption on a file: In the Encryption Warning dialog box,
specify whether you want to encrypt the file and its parent folder, or only the
file. Microsoft recommends that you always encrypt the folder and not just the
file because its possible that Windows Vista might store an unencrypted
temporary version of the file when you open it. Click OK.
You can identify encrypted folders and files by color. Windows Explorer displays the
encrypted files and folders in green instead of the default black.
Exhibit 20-11: Encrypting a folder in Windows 7

Whole-disk encryption is offered in Windows 7 and Windows Vista Ultimate and
Enterprise through BitLocker Drive Encryption. With BitLocker, the entire system drive
is encrypted. This protects your system from hackers who want to access the system
files in an attempt to figure out your password. BitLocker works only on the drive on
which Windows is installed. For other drives, you will need to use EFS.
Files added to a drive that has BitLocker enabled are automatically encrypted. If a file is
copied from this drive to another drive, the files are decrypted.

At boot time, if BitLocker detects a potential security risk, it locks the drive. To unlock
the drive, you need a special BitLocker recovery password, which is set when you turn
on BitLocker for the first time. Conditions that might cause BitLocker to lock the drive
include disk errors, BIOS changes, or startup file changes.
Differences between BitLocker and EFS include the following:
You can use BitLocker to encrypt the entire system drive, including all user data
and settings, along with the operating system files themselves. You cant use
EFS to encrypt the Windows 7 and Windows Vista system files.
BitLocker is designed to protect the computer, not an individual user. As a
result, you might find that you need to use EFS in addition to BitLocker in order
to protect specific files for individual users of the computer.
BitLocker protects the operating system from the moment you turn the computer
on. This strategy helps prevent attackers from installing malware such as
rootkits.
In Windows Vista, you can use BitLocker on only the system drive. If you have
other drives (or partitions or volumes), you cant use BitLocker in Windows
Vista to protect them. Youll have to use EFS instead. The newer version of
BitLocker included with Windows 7 does support encrypting multiple volumes.
If BitLocker detects a problem that could indicate a security problem, it locks
the computers drive. To resume normal operation of the computer, you must
enter the BitLocker recovery password.
Hardware requirements for BitLocker
The optimal configuration of BitLocker requires computers to have Trusted Platform
Module (TPM) chips because BitLocker stores its encryption keys on each computers
TPM chip. A TPM chip supports advanced security features. If your computer has a
TPM chip, it must also have a Trusted Computing Group (TCG)-compliant BIOS.
If your computer doesnt have a version 1.2 or higher TPM chip, the key must be stored
on the flash drive and doesnt require a TCG-compliant BIOS.
If your computer has TPM, a TPM administration link appears in the left pane of the
BitLocker window. If you know your computer has TPM but the link doesnt show up,
check whether TPM is disabled in the computers BIOS settings.
If your organizations computers dont have TPM chips, you can still implement
BitLocker by configuring it to store its keys on a USB flash drive (UFD). The
disadvantage of using a UFD instead of a TPM chip is that you must make sure the
drive is inserted each time you boot the computer. In addition, BitLocker requires
access to the UFD, with its keys, each time the computer resumes after hibernation,
standby mode, or sleep mode. Finally, if a user loses the UFD that contains the
BitLocker keys (or the UFD fails), the user wont be able to access the C drive on his
computer. The advantage of implementing BitLocker in conjunction with TPM is that
doing so makes BitLocker and the encryption of the C drive completely transparent to
users.
BitLocker requires at least two partitions. The first partition must be the drive on which
Windows is installed; this is the partition that BitLocker encrypts. The second partition
is the active partition, at least 1.5 GB in size, and it must be unencrypted in order for the
computer to start up. The drive must be formatted as NTFS. The BIOS must support
TPM or support USB devices during startup.
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2043
You can also enable BitLocker from an administrative command prompt. Using this
command, you can specify that the encryption key be stored on a separate disk. The
command is:
cscript c:\Windows\System32\manage-bde.wsf on {volume}: -rp
rk {drive}:
Parameter
Description
-on
Encrypts the specified volume and turns on BitLocker encryption.
{volume}:
The volume to be encrypted.
-rp
Or RecoveryPassword. Adds a numerical password.

If used without specifying a password of exactly 48 digits, the system
generates a random password.
-rk
Or RecoveryKey. Creates a recover key and saves it on the specified drive.
{drive}:
Drive where recovery key is stored. Can be a floppy drive, USB drive, hard
drive, or network drive.
How BitLocker works

When you log on to a computer on which BitLocker is enabled, BitLocker retrieves its
keys from the TPM chip and then unlocks the computers hard drive (drive C). You
might find that a computer contains a TPM chip that isnt enabled in the computers
BIOS. Before you can enable BitLocker, you must enable the TPM chip by using the
computers CMOS setup utility.
BitLocker automatically initializes the TPM chip for you. If you later want to administer
the TPM chip, you can do so by opening an MMC and adding the TPM Management
snap-in. Note: After you enable the TPM chip and BitLocker initializes it, you can
disable the chip only by using the TPM Management snap-in.
You can circumvent the TPM requirement in BitLocker through a group policy. To do
so, select the Computer Configuration\Administrative Templates\Windows
Components\BitLocker Drive Encryption node in the MMC. Then double-click the
Control Panel Setup: Enable advanced startup options policy setting. Select Enabled
and leave all other settings configured with their default values. If you want to enforce
this setting immediately, force a group policy refresh. In Windows 7, you can also use
Group Policy to enforce a passphrase length and not allow files to be saved to
removable disks that arent BitLocker protected.
In Windows 7, the BitLocker To Go feature can be used with removable drives. It
doesnt require a TPM. You can use a passphrase or a smart card for encryption.
Windows 7 provides you with a 40-digit recovery key in case the passphrase or smart
card is forgotten or lost.
The BitLocker Drive Preparation Tool
To configure your hard drive to use BitLocker, you can use the BitLocker Drive
Preparation Tool. You can download this tool from Microsoft. For the tool to work, the
drive must be formatted as a basic disk, with simple volumes formatted as NTFS.

Authentication modes
Depending on the hardware in the computer and the preferred security level, BitLocker
uses one of four authentication modes in the boot sequence. These are:
TPM without any additional authentication factors
TPM with a PIN
TPM with a USB startup key
A USB startup key and no TPM
When the operating system starts up and BitLocker is enabled, the boot code goes
through several steps. The exact steps in the process depend on the volume protections
that were configured.
The steps might include system integrity checking or additional authentication steps,
such as entering a PIN or inserting a USB key before the volume is unlocked.
The BitLocker life cycle
The four stages in a BitLocker life cycle are described in the following table.
Stage
Description
Installation
Windows Vista Enterprise and Ultimate install BitLocker during the operating
system installation. For Windows Server 2008, BitLocker needs to be installed as an
option.
Initialization
If the computer contains a TPM, it must be initialized through the TPM

Initialization Wizard, through the BitLocker control panel, or through a script. A
member of the Administrators group must perform the BitLocker and TPM
initialization.
Daily use
Computers using only TPM authentication log on normally to the Windows

operating system. If additional authentication factors are used, the user will need to
enter a PIN or insert a USB startup key to start Windows.
Computer
decommissioned
and recycled or
redeployed
You can leave the data encrypted and remove the keys to reduce the risk of data
being available after the computer has been decommissioned or redeployed. The
keys can be removed by formatting the encrypted volume. The updated Format
command supports this operation.
Recovery
A recovery key is created and stored on a USB drive when the disk is first encrypted
with BitLocker. This key is needed when certain actions necessitate the recovery
process. To recover data from an encrypted volume on a damaged hard disk, you use the
BitLocker Repair Tool, versions of which Microsoft has available on its download site
for both x86-based and x64-based Windows Vista systems.
During recovery, the user is prompted to insert the flash drive containing the recovery
key. These actions include moving the protected drive to a different computer, installing
a replacement motherboard containing a new TPM, turning off or clearing the TPM,
updating the BIOS, performing boot component updates that cause integrity validation
to fail, forgetting a PIN, or losing the USB drive that holds the startup key.
The recovery key is a randomly generated 48-digit number created during BitLocker
setup. During recovery, the user must enter this password, using the F0 to F9 function
keys.
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2045
Domain administrators can create a Group Policy that automatically generates recovery
passwords that are transparently backed up to an Active Directory domain server when
BitLocker is enabled. The administrator can also configure BitLocker to prevent it from
encrypting a drive if the computer isnt connected to the network and the Active
Directory backup wasnt successful.
Recovery can also be used as an access control device when a computer is
decommissioned or redeployed. The drive can be locked down in this manner. The user
would then have to contact an administrator to get the BitLocker recovery information
needed to unlock the drive.
During recovery, the volume master key is decrypted via a cryptographic key created
from a recovery password or via a recovery key stored on a USB flash drive. Because
the TPM isnt used in the recovery, the recovery can still take place even if the TPM is
removed, no longer works properly, or fails validation during bootup.
Windows 7 BitLocker adds Data Recovery Agent (DRA) support for all protected
volumes.
The Microsoft knowledge base article, How to use the BitLocker Repair tool to help
recover data from an encrypted volume in Windows Vista or Windows Server 2008 at
support.microsoft.com/kb/928201, describes the preparation and steps you
follow to use the BitLocker Recovery Tool.
Other whole-disk encryption products

In addition to BitLocker, there are other third-party products available for whole-disk
encryption. One example is the PGP Whole Disk Encryption product from PGP (now
part of Symantec.) This can be used in conjunction with PGP Universal Server for
management of policies, users, keys, and configurations. It can also be used with other
PGP encryption products to offer additional layers of security. Other software products
include SecureStars DriveCrypt and free software such as Truecrypt.
Whole-disk encryption is also available in a hardware-based solution. This can be
implemented within the hard disk drive. The encryption and the associated key are
maintained separately from the CPU, preventing the computers memory from being a
route for potential attacks.

Do it!
B-1:
Encrypting a file
The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 20\Topic B.
Heres how
Heres why
1 From the Student Data folder for

this unit, copy the Encryption
folder to C:
2 Open the C:\Encryption folder
Right-click Encryption File
and choose Properties
On the General tab, click
Advanced
Under Compress or Encrypt

attributes, check Encrypt
contents to secure data
Click OK twice
3 In the Encryption Warning box,
select Encrypt the file only
Click OK
4 Observe the file name
It is green, indicating that the file is encrypted.
Security
Do it!
B-2:
2047
Testing encryption
Heres how
1 Open Encryption File
Heres why
To verify that you can open this file and read its
contents.
Close Notepad
2 Log off and log back on as
Robert with a password of
p@ssword
3 Open the C:\Encryption folder
The encrypted file is displayed with green text.
Double-click Encryption File
Access to the encrypted file is denied for Robert

because this user doesnt have the correct
encryption key.
4 Click OK
Close Notepad and Windows
Explorer

Do it!
B-3:
Encrypting a folder
Heres how
1 Log back on as your COMPADMIN## user, and encrypt the Encryption folder,
subfolders, and files.
2 From the Student Data folder for this unit, copy the file Encryption Copy Test.txt
to C:\Encryption.
3 Is the file encrypted or not?
4 Switch to Robert
5 As Robert, can you view the contents of the encrypted Encryption folder?

7 Log off as Robert and switch to COMPADMIN##.
8 Unencrypt the encrypted file.
Security
2049
Topic C: Security hardware

exam objectives.
#
Objective
1.8

Biometric devices
5.1

Biometrics
Smart cards
5.2

BIOS Security
Drive lock
Passwords
Intrusion detection
Biometrics
Fingerprint scanner
objective.
#
Objective
4.2

System
BIOS security
Hardware-based security
Explanation
In some applications, usernames and passwords provide insufficient security or are

unmanageable. For example, an ATM card provides a greater level of security than a
username and passwordyou must both possess the physical card and know the secret
PIN code. Biometric devices can provide an additional layer of security over and above
the authentication methods already discussed. You can also use the computer itself to
provide security by enabling BIOS security measures.

Biometrics
A biometric device authenticates (identifies) a user through the examination of a
biological trait, such as a fingerprint or a retinal vein pattern, and voice or facial
recognition. Fingerprint scanners, shown in Exhibit 20-12, are the most common
biometric device. With these devices, you place a finger over a sensor window. The
device scans your fingerprint and compares it to a user database. If a match is found,
youre logged into the computer, Web page, or application. With some scanners, youre
required to enter a PIN after the scan.
Exhibit 20-12: A fingerprint scanner

Microsoft, APC, and other vendors sell fingerprint scanners. Most are USB devices and
come with software for gathering, verifying, and storing fingerprints. The devices are
usually used in lieu of usernames and passwords that users enter on their keyboards.
Sometimes the devices are used instead of having users enter usernames and passwords.
Hand geometry scanners
Another biometric device is the hand geometry scanner, which scans the entire hand of
the user. This device measures the length and width of the fingers and hand. The
information scanned is compared to the data stored in a database. If it matches, the user
is granted access to the secured resource.
Eye scanners
A retina scanner scans the surface of the retina to obtain the blood vessel patterns found
there. This information is stored in a database, and when the user needs to gain access to
the secured resource, her retina is scanned and compared to the database. If a match is
found, then access is granted.
An iris scanner uses the same idea to capture and compare the color, shape, and texture
of the users iris. This information includes the rings and furrows found in the iris, along
with variations in the coloring.
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2051
Voice verification
A users speech patterns can also be used for authentication. A phrase is spoken by the
user and recorded, and it is archived in a database. The users intonation, pitch, and
inflection are used to identify him to the system. If the user has a cold that affects his
voice, he might not be granted access. If you foresee such problems, you might want to
provide an alternate access method.
Signature verification
Signature cards have long been used by banks when their customers open accounts. You
sign a card, which the bank stores in a file cabinet. When you come in to make a
transaction, a teller can pull out your signature card to compare the signature to the one
you signed for the transaction.
This process can be moved to the digital arena by storing user signatures in a database
and having the user sign in by using a stylus to write her signature on a pad connected to
the computer. The software needs to account for the variations in a persons signature
because people often do not use the exact same strokes when signing their names.
Instead, the software looks for general characteristics in the way a name is signed.
DNA scan
DNA scanning is a promising biometric authentication method. A DNA samples
analysis is stored in a database. The user requesting access provides another DNA
sample for comparison. Each person has a unique DNA structure.
Pros and cons
Biometrics can provide strong authentication because they are unique to an individual.
However, these devices have been prone to producing both false negatives and false
positives. They have gotten better over time, but as soon as they are strengthened,
attackers come up with ways of thwarting the systems.
Biometric access is being included on portable devices. When the biometric device is
enabled, if someone steals the device, such as a laptop or a removable drive, the data
cannot be accessed without the biometric authentication. However, if alternate access is
allowed through a username and password, the attacker could still access the secured
information.
Most biometric systems store the data as clear text because encryption would result in
the stored data not being identical to the original scan. The lack of encryption leaves the
database vulnerable. One method created by Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories
solves this problem by transforming the data into a binary vector, which is then
multiplied by the parity-check matrix of a publicly known parity-check code. Mitsubishi
refers to this data as the biometrics syndrome, which is compressed and scrambled. The
syndrome doesnt contain all of the information from the original scan, so if just the
syndrome is stolen (without the original scan), the original biometric scan cant be
recovered.
One way that fingerprint and hand scanners are deceived is through the use of clear tape
or gel-filled devices that can mimic a fingerprint. Just as a paper check can be forged, so
can a digital signature. If someone obtains a DNA sample from a valid user, that sample
can be presented to fool the system into giving the attacker access to the secured
resource.

Card readers
Smart cards are credit-card-sized plastic cards with embedded microprocessors. Smart
cards typically have RAM to store up to 8 KB of data. Additionally, these cards have a
small amount of ROM for storing programming code, which, among other things,
controls the encryption of data on the card.
When inserted into a reader, the card draws power from the reader and boots up its
embedded operating system. Then the cards processor establishes communication with
the PC. Typically, card readers interface with the PC over a USB or PC Card
(PCMCIA) interface. A card reader and smart card are shown in Exhibit 20-13.
Exhibit 20-13: A card reader and smart cards

A credit card or ATM card simply stores a unique identifier number on a magnetic strip.
All processing and intelligence must be built into the host PC and applications. In
comparison, smart cards can store data and code, such as health insurance records, bank
account data, security certificates, and so forth.
Smart cards are more popular in Europe than in the United States. These cards are most
commonly used in banking applications instead of the ATM cards used in the U.S.
According to HowStuffWorks.com, every person insured through the German
healthcare system has a smart card used for health insurance.
Components
To enable smart cardbased security, you need a card reader, a card, and a software host
application. Given the current state of the market for these devices, you typically have to
purchase each component separately.
SCM Microsystems, RSA Security, and CryptoCard all make smart-card readers.
Oberthur Card Systems, RSA Security, and Sharp Electronics make smart cards.
Software solutions range from the Java platform programming environments, such as
the Java Card Framework, to prepackaged security solutions, like the IdentiPHI Stand
Alone Client from IdentiPHI LLC.
Security
2053
Smart card use

Smart cards are a form of two-factor authentication. Such authentication methods
combine something you have with something you know.
With smart cards, you have the card. You also need to supply a PIN or password. With
the IdentiPHI software, your PIN can be any alphanumeric password with four to eight
characters.
To log on with a smart card and the IdentiPHI software, simply insert your card into the
reader and enter your PIN when prompted. To lock your workstation, simply remove
your smart card from the reader. You have to insert your card and re-enter your PIN or
enter your username and password to log back on.
Fobs
The typical fob is a key-chain-sized device, shown on the left in Exhibit 20-14, that
creates a continually changing, seemingly random number, which is called a rolling
code. Sometimes the user must log on with a username and password and then enter the
number created by the fob. Sometimes the user simply uses the fob to unlock a secure
area. For example, a cars keyless entry system, shown on the right in Exhibit 20-14,
and garage door openers use fobs with rolling number generators.
The generated number isnt random, but instead follows a secret progression started
with a random seed number. Both the fob and the secure system know the sequence of
numbers, or know how to generate the next valid number in the sequence. As long as
the receiver receives the code it expects, it opens your car, garage door, and so forth.
Exhibit 20-14: Examples of security fobs

Visit http://auto.howstuffworks.com/remote-entry2.htm for more
information about the way keyless entry systems work.

Do it!
C-1:
Identifying biometric authentication systems

1 What is different about using biometric authentication as compared to using other
authentication methods?
2 What is a benefit of a fingerprint scanner over a hand geometry scanner?
3 What types of scans can be used on eyes? What features do the scans measure and
record?
4 What voice features are analyzed in voice verification?
5 What vulnerabilities can be found in signature authentication?
6 Each persons DNA is unique, so why is DNA authentication vulnerable?
7 What type of memory is used to control the encryption of data on a smart card?
8 What components are necessary to enable smart cardbased security?
9 How does a fob work?
Security
2055
BIOS security
Many computer manufacturers build security features into their BIOS software. These
features can be helpful in securing the computers configuration data. For example, if
you are concerned about malicious software being introduced though a drive that
accepts external disks, you could use the BIOS to lock the drive or disable booting from
that drive. However, if the BIOS isnt secured with a password, anyone can simply boot
to the BIOS program and enable booting from the drive.
Some common BIOS security settings include:
Admin password Used to secure BIOS configuration settings. Without this
password, the computers BIOS settings cant be changed.
System password Used to prevent unauthorized users from booting the
computer.
Password changes Used to prevent the system password from being changed
without the correct administrative password.
The BIOS manufacturer for your specific computer might have provided additional
security settings. Many BIOS programs will alert you when an unsuccessful attempt is
made to access the BIOS. The next time the computer is booted, a warning is displayed.
Other systems will alert you if the cover was removed from the system. In order to clear
the warning messages, you must log into the BIOS as the administrator.
You must remember the administration password you set on a computers BIOS, or you
wont be able to make any changes, either. There are some ways to get around BIOS
security. One is to determine if the BIOS manufacturer has a backdoor password that
you can use to access the system. The second method is to remove the CMOS battery
until the power is drained and the BIOS settings reset to the manufacturers default
settings. Older systems sometimes have a set of physical jumpers on the motherboard
that you can move to reset the BIOS settings to the default.

Do it!
C-2:
Examining BIOS security measures
Heres how
Heres why
1 Click Start and choose Restart

Watch the screen carefully and
when youre prompted, press the
appropriate key to enter setup
2 Use the arrow keys to navigate to
the Security category
For example, F2.
The mouse driver isnt loaded, so youll need to

use your keyboard to navigate in the system
BIOS.
3 Expand the Security category

4 What settings are available from
your manufacture?
5 Press g
Use the arrow keys to select Exit
6 Log in as COMPADMIN##
(Do not save your settings.) To exit the BIOS

and boot the computer to Windows 7.
Security
2057
Topic D: Common security threats

exam objective.
#
Objective
5.2

Malicious software protection
Viruses
Trojans
Worms
Spam
Spyware
Adware
Grayware
objective.
#
Objective
4.1
Given a scenario, prevent, troubleshoot, and remove viruses and malware

Use antivirus software
Identify malware symptoms
Quarantine infected systems
Research malware types, symptoms, and solutions (virus encyclopedias)
Remediate infected systems
Update antivirus software
Signature and engine updates
Automatic vs. manual
Schedule scans
Repair boot blocks
Scan and removal techniques
Safe mode
Boot environment
Educate end user
Overview of security threats

Explanation
The goals of security are integrity, confidentiality, and availability. Threats to even the
most secure systems data challenge administrators and users every day. The cost of lost
assets must be balanced against the cost of securing the network; your company must
decide how much risk it is willing to take.

When data integrity is compromised, an organization must typically spend a lot of time
and money to correct the consequences of the attack. If data confidentiality is
compromised, the consequences arent always immediate, but they are usually costly.
Application availability can be compromised by network outages, causing organizations
to lose millions of dollars in just a few hours.
There are four primary causes of compromised security:
Technology weaknesses
Configuration weaknesses
Policy weaknesses
Human error or malice
Computer and network technologies have intrinsic security weaknesses in the following
areas:
TCP/IP This protocol suite was designed as an open standard to facilitate
communications. Due to its wide usage, there are plenty of experts and expert
tools that can compromise this open technology. It cannot guard a network
against message-modification attacks or protect connections against
unauthorized-access attacks.
Operating systems UNIX, Linux, and Microsoft Windows, for example,
need the latest patches, updates, and upgrades applied to protect users.
Network equipment Routers, firewalls, and switches must be protected
through the use of passwords, authentication, routing protocols, and firewalls.
Poor configuration of even the most secure technology is often caused by one of the
following weaknesses:
Unsecured accounts User account information transmitted unsecurely across
the network exposes usernames and passwords to programs used to monitor
network activity. These programs, such as packet sniffers, can capture and
analyze the data within IP packets on an Ethernet network or dial-up connection.
System accounts with weak passwords If no strong password policies are
defined on the network, users can create passwords that can be easily guessed or
cracked.
Poorly configured Internet services If Java and JavaScript are enabled in
Web browsers, attacks can be made using hostile Java applets. High-security
data should not be stored on a Web server; you should store data such as Social
Security numbers and credit card numbers behind a firewall that can be accessed
only through user authentication and authorization.
Unsecured default settings Many products have default settings that contain
security holes.
Poorly configured network equipment Incorrect configuration of network
devices can cause significant security problems. For example, incorrectly
configured access control lists, routing protocols, or Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP) community strings can open up large security
holes. A common example is using the default settings on a wireless router or
wireless access point.
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2059
Human error and malice

Human error and malice constitute a significant percentage of breaches in network
security. Even well-trained and conscientious users can cause great harm to security
systems, often without knowing it.
Users can unwittingly contribute to security breaches in several ways:
Accident The mistaken destruction, modification, disclosure, or incorrect
classification of information.
Ignorance Inadequate security awareness, lack of security guidelines, lack of
proper documentation, lack of knowledge. Users might inadvertently give
information on security weaknesses to attackers. This includes employees who
are trying to be helpful and unwittingly give out information.
Workload Too many or too few system administrators.
Conversely, ill-willed employees or professional hackers and criminals can access
valuable assets through:
Dishonesty Dishonesty encompasses fraud, theft, embezzlement, and the
selling of confidential corporate information.
Impersonation Attackers might impersonate employees over the phone in an
attempt to persuade users or administrators to give out usernames, passwords,
and so on.
Disgruntled employees Employees who were fired, laid off, or given a
reprimand might infect the network with a virus or delete files. These people
know the network and the value of the information on it and thus are often a
huge security threat.
Snoops Individuals take part in corporate espionage by gaining unauthorized
access to confidential data and providing this information to competitors.
Trojan horses These programs contain destructive code but appear to be
harmless; they are enemies in disguise. They can delete data, mail copies of
themselves to e-mail address lists, steal personal information, and open up other
computers for attack.
Viruses Viruses have become possibly the single largest threat to network
security. They replicate themselves and infect computers when triggered by a
specific event. The effect can be minimal and only an inconvenience or more
destructive and cause major problems, such as deleting or corrupting files,
stealing personal information, or slowing down entire systems.
Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks These attacks swamp network equipment
such as Web servers or routers with useless service requests, causing the systems
to become sluggish in responding to valid requests or even to crash.
Identity theft An attacker gains access to someones personal information
and uses it to commit fraud. Identity theft often takes the form of financial
abuse, but it can also be used to obtain accounts that are then used to attack
networks.

Do it!
D-1:
Identifying common security threats

1 Which of the following computer and network technologies have intrinsic security
weaknesses?
A
TCP/IP
Operating systems
Network equipment
All of the above
2 What is a crime called in which one person masquerades under the identity of
another?
A
Identity theft
Confidentiality
Integrity
All of the above
3 Which of the following is not a primary cause of network security threats?

A
Encryption algorithm
Policy weaknesses
Human error
4 True or false? Trojan horses are destructive programs that masquerade as benign
applications.
5 Which of the following is not considered a configuration weakness?

A
Unsecured accounts
Poorly configured Internet services
Viruses
Human ignorance
Security
2061
Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses

Viruses constitute one of the biggest threats to network security. Network administrators
need to keep a constant lookout for them and prevent their spread. They are designed to
replicate and infect computers when triggered by a specific event. The effect of some
viruses is minimal and only an inconvenience, but others are more destructive and cause
major problems, such as stealing personal information, deleting files, or slowing down
entire systems.
Worms
Worms are programs that replicate themselves over the network. The replication is done
without a users intervention. A worm attaches itself to a file or a packet on the network
and travels of its own accord. It can copy itself to multiple computers, bringing the
entire network down. One method worms use to spread themselves is to send
themselves to everyone in a users e-mail address book. The intent of a worm
infiltration is to cause a malicious attack. Such an attack often uses up computer
resources to the point that the system, or even the entire network, can no longer function
or is shut down.
Trojan horses
Trojan horses are delivery vehicles for destructive code. They appear to be harmless
programs but are enemies in disguise. They can delete data, mail copies of themselves to
e-mail address lists, steal personal information, and open up other computers for attack.
Trojan horses are often distributed via spama great reason to block spamor through
compromised Web sites.
A logic bomb is code that is hidden within a program and designed to run when some
condition is met. For example, the code might run on a particular date. Or perhaps the
bombs author sets some sort of condition that would be met after he or she is fired, at
which time the code would run. Because a logic bomb is contained within another,
presumably useful, program, you could consider it a type of Trojan horse.

Malicious software
In addition to viruses, worms, and Trojan horses, you might have to deal with other
types of malicious software. Additional common types of malicious software are
Type
Description
Propagation method
Spam
Junk e-mail, officially known as unsolicited

commercial e-mail (UCE).
E-mail.
Spyware
Software that monitors and gathers information

without the users knowledge. For example,
spyware might log your Web surfing history and
send the data to an advertiser who then targets you
with junk e-mail.
E-mail attachments, Web page

downloads, or automatic ActiveX
component installation when you
visit a Web page or open an e-mail
message.
Adware
Software that displays advertisements, which

might or might not be targeted to your interests.
E-mail attachments, Web page

downloads, or automatic ActiveX
component installation when you
visit a Web page or open an e-mail
message.
Grayware
A general name for software that has annoying,

undisclosed, or undesirable behaviors. Trojan
horses are a specific type of grayware.
E-mail attachments or Web page

downloads.
Antivirus software
To stop viruses and worms, you should install antivirus software on individual
computers, servers, and other network devices, such as firewalls. Most antivirus
software runs a real-time antivirus scanner. A real-time antivirus scanner is software
thats designed to scan every file accessed on a computer and thereby catch viruses and
worms before they can infect the computer. This software runs each time a computer is
turned on.
The real-time scanner helps antivirus software stop infections from different sources,
including Web browsers, e-mail attachments, storage media, or local area networks.
You can also boot into Safe mode to gain access to files that might normally be locked
during normal Windows operation.
Most antivirus software works by using a checksum, a value that is calculated by
applying a mathematical formula to data. When the data is transmitted, the checksum is
recalculated. If the checksums dont match, the data has been altered, possibly by a
virus or worm. The process of calculating and recording checksums to protect against
viruses and worms is called inoculation.
Definition files
Antivirus software must be updated to keep up with new viruses and worms. The
software can find only those threats that it knows to look for; therefore, the
manufacturer constantly provides software updates, called virus definitions, as new
viruses and worms are discovered. Its important to use antivirus software that
automatically checks and updates its virus definitions, as well as the software engine
itself, from the manufacturers Web site. Having outdated virus definitions is the
number-one cause of virus or worm infection. Most programs allow you to configure
automatic downloads of new definition files on a schedule.
Security
2063
You can also check for and retrieve any updates manually. Its important to note that
antivirus software is reactive. It cant catch a virus or worm until the latter is discovered
and then its code added to the softwares definition files.
Antivirus products
The following table lists several antivirus software products and their manufacturers
Web sites. Most of these sites offer detailed information about common viruses and
worms. The sites even offer removal tools you can download for free and use to remove
worms and viruses from infected computers. One of the best ways to protect your
computers against viruses and worms is to stay informed. Web sites like
www.datafellows.com and www.symantec.com provide descriptions of the latest
threats.
Software
Web address
Norton AntiVirus by Symantec, Inc.
www.symantec.com
ESET Smart Security
www.eset.com
McAfee AntiVirus for consumers and McAfee

Active Virus Defense for small businesses by
McAfee Associates, Inc.
www.mcafee.com
ESafe by Aladdin Knowledge Systems, Ltd
www.aladdin.com
F-Prot by FRISK Software International
www.f-prot.com
AntiVirus + AntiSpyware by Trend Micro (for

home use); Worry-Free Business Security
Services by Trend Micro (for networks)
www.trendmicro.com
avast! by ALWIL Software
www.avast.com
E-mail servers should also have antivirus software installed to protect computers on
your local area network. Microsoft Forefront is an example of network antivirus
software that scans all inbound and outbound e-mail, filters e-mail based on attachment
type, and blocks spam.
Protecting systems from malicious software
Most large companies mandate the use of antivirus software on employee computers,
including home computers that connect to the company network. Typically, these
companies centrally manage updates to this software. Security policies typically
prohibit tampering with or disabling this software. Small companies should follow this
practice to safeguard their systems.

To protect your computers from malicious software, you should have your users follow
these guidelines:
Never open e-mail attachments, even from known sources, without scanning the
attachment with antivirus software first. Some antivirus software can be
configured to scan e-mail as its downloaded to the local computer from the mail
server.
Dont click Web links in e-mail messages. The link address you see and the
actual address behind the link could be different. Users might believe they are
accessing a legitimate Web siteand the site might look very convincingbut
they could be directed to a site that includes scripts designed to harm their
computers.
Security
Do it!
D-2:
2065
Installing antivirus software
Heres how
Heres why
1 Use Internet Explorer to download

the free version of avast! from the
avast.com Web site
If prompted, select Ask me
later and click OK
2 Install the avast! antivirus
software
(In the Phishing Filter dialog box.) To delay

setting the Phishing filter.
Follow the prompts to complete a default
installation of the software.
3 In the system tray, click the avast!

Antivirus icon
Schedule a normal boot-time scan
of all hard disks
4 Restart your computer
Note the name and location of the
report file
Your computer scans when you reboot.

When the scan is complete, avast! briefly
displays a summary report of files scanned and
infections found.
5 Log on to Windows
6 Open the avast! report file
Observe its contents
The Program Data folder is hidden. If you arent

displaying hidden files and folders, you need to
change the view.
If no infections were found, it displays the same
summary report shown at the end of the boot
scan. If problems were found, more details are
provided in this file.
Close the file and any open

windows
7 Click the avast! On-Access
Scanner icon in the system tray
Click Show Details
Close the avast! window
8 Compare and contrast Trojan
horses and logic bombs
Its the orange icon with an a on it. The status

should show your system is secure.
To view the details of the avast! program.

Spyware
Spyware is software that gets installed on your system without your knowledge. It can
cause a lot of problems for the user, including gathering personal or other sensitive
information. Spyware can also change the computers configuration. For example, it
might change the home page in your browser. In addition, it often displays
advertisements, earning this type of spyware the name adware. All of this can slow
down your computers performance, and the pop-ups can be so frequent that you cant
really do any work.
Spyware is often installed when you are installing another application, especially free
applications that you download from the Internet. For this reason, you need to be sure
that you know exactly what you are installing. Sometimes the license agreement and
privacy statement state that a particular program will be installed, but most people tend
not to read those documents very closely or dont recognize the program as spyware.
Spyware is often found on peer-to-peer and file-sharing networks. Spyware can also
integrate itself into Internet Explorer, causing frequent browser crashes.
One way to reduce the amount of spyware on your system is to use a good pop-up
blocker. Windows 7 and Windows Vista include pop-up blocker and anti-spyware
software called Windows Defender. This real-time protection software makes
recommendations to the user when it detects spyware. You can also schedule the
software to perform scans.
When Windows Defender detects spyware on a computer, it displays information about
the threat, including the location on the computer, a rating of the risk it poses to you and
your information, and its recommendation as to what action you should take. The alert
levels are described in the following table.
Alert level
Description
Severe
Especially malicious programs that will affect the privacy and security of your
computer and can damage your system. Windows Defender recommends that you
remove such software immediately.
High
Spyware programs that might affect the privacy and security of your computer and
could damage your system. The changes the program makes on your computer are
usually done without your consent. Windows Defender recommends that you remove
such software immediately.
Medium
Spyware programs that could potentially gather personal information or make system
changes and have a negative impact on your computers performance. The software
will not be automatically deleted. You will need to evaluate the way the software
operates and determine whether it poses a threat to your system. If the publisher of the
software is unfamiliar to you or is an untrusted publisher, you should block or remove
the software.
Low
This software was typically installed with your knowledge and according to the
licensing terms you agreed to, but it still might collect information or change the
configuration of the computer. If the software was installed without your knowledge,
review the alert details and determine whether you want to remove it.
Not yet
classified
These programs typically do no harm unless they were installed without your
knowledge. If a program is something you recognize and trust, go ahead and allow it
to be run. If you dont recognize the publisher or the software, evaluate the alert details
to determine your course of action.
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2067
If clients are running Windows XP with SP2, you can download Windows Defender
from Microsoft and install it on those systems to protect them. Windows Defender is
integrated into Windows 7 and Windows Vista. Microsoft no longer supports Windows
Defender on Windows 2000 Professional, as the company ended mainstream support of
Windows 2000 Professional in June 2005.
Another free product that is available for spyware removal is Spybot Search & Destroy.
It is available from www.safer-networking.org. Each time you want to scan and
remove spyware from your system with Spybot, you need to update the spyware
definitions first. You might want to consider running both Spybot and Windows
Defender; what one program might miss, the other might catch. It is often difficult for a
single product to find all of the spyware on a system.

Do it!
D-3:
Scanning your system for spyware
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open Control Panel

From the View by list, select
Small icons
2 Click Windows Defender

3 Click Tools
Click Options
4 Verify that Automatically scan
my computer (recommended)
is checked
Verify that Check for updated
definitions before scanning
is checked
Verify that Apply default actions
to items detected during a scan
is checked
5 Click Default actions
Open and observe the various
alert items lists
The default setting is to perform the action

based on the definition for the items detected.
Close the lists

6 Click Cancel
7 Click Scan
To perform a quick scan. If you want to do a full

scan, you need to click the button next to Scan
and choose Full scan.
8 After the scan is complete,

click
The Help button.
Scroll to the bottom of the window

and click Understanding
Windows Defender alert levels
9 Review the alert levels

10 Close Windows Help and Support,
and leave Windows Defender open
The chart indicates the actions that are taken

when items for each alert level are detected.
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2069
Operating and configuring Windows Defender

With any spyware protection software, you must regularly update signatures, which
identify spyware programs. Windows Defender is integrated with Windows, which
means that new signatures will be downloaded and installed automatically by Windows
Update (assuming you have Windows Update enabled).
Windows Defender configuration
The default configuration of Windows Defender is sufficient for most users. Depending
on how you use your computer, you might want to increase or decrease the frequency at
which Windows Defender scans it for spyware. You should scan your computer for
spyware regularly. Just how often you scan depends on your Internet usage: heavily
used computers are much more likely to gather spyware than are infrequently used PCs.
You should probably scan at least once a week.
History
The History list displays actions that Windows Defender has taken in the past. This
information can include the dates and times of system scans, the spyware programs
detected, and the actions taken with those programs.
Quarantined programs
Windows Defender disables or removes spyware programs from your computers.
Disabled programs are said to be quarantined. Like an infectious person who is kept
apart from other people, quarantined programs are rendered inactive so they cannot
infect or further harm your computer. The Quarantined programs list in Windows
Defender displays the names of any programs that have been quarantined.
Blocking, disabling, and removing malware

Windows Defender will automatically stop some forms of malware from running when
your PC starts. For example, a virus might install itself onto your computer and try to
run when you turn on your PC. Windows Defender will block programs like that,
particularly those that attempt some action that would typically require you to enter the
administrators password.
After your computer has started up, Windows Defender will display a list of blocked
programsyou will see an icon in the notification area of the taskbar. Right-click the
Windows Defender icon and choose Blocked startup programs to see the list.

Running a blocked program
In Windows 7, when you receive a Windows Defender Alert, as shown in Exhibit 2015, you can choose to allow the blocked program to run. From the Action list, select
Allow.
Exhibit 20-15: A Windows Defender Alert in Windows 7

If later you decide that you want the program to be scanned by Windows Defender, you
can remove it from the Allowed list. In Windows Defender, click Tools, Allowed items.
Select the desired program and remove it from the list.
In Windows Vista, if Windows Defender has blocked a program that you think should
have run, you can run it from the blocked-programs list. Point to Run blocked
program and click the program you want to run. You might need to enter the
administrators password to proceed.
Disabling a blocked program
In Windows Vista, you can disable a program so that it cannot run at startup. You might
do this if you think a program is a virus but it has not been removed by your antivirus
software. To disable a program:
1 Open Windows Defender.
2 On the toolbar, click Tools.
3 Click Software Explorer.
4 From the Category list, select Startup Programs (if necessary).
5 Locate and select the program you want to disable.
6 Click Disable.
Removing a blocked program
In Windows Vista, you can remove a program entirely. This is the surest way to prevent
a program from running on your computer at startup. To remove a program:
1 On the Windows Defender toolbar, click Tools.
2 Click Software Explorer.
3 From the Category list, select Startup Programs (if necessary).
4 Locate and select the program you want to remove.
5 Click Remove.
Security
Do it!
D-4:
2071
Working with software in Windows Defender
Heres how
Heres why
1 Observe the status section of the

Windows Defender window
It displays the date and time of the last scan and

last update, and indicates whether real-time
protection is enabled.
2 Click
To display the list of spyware programs detected

on your computer and the actions taken with
them.
3 Click Quarantined items
To display the list of programs that Windows

Defender has disabled on your PC.
4 Click
To open the Tools and Settings page. You can

access the list of quarantined programs from this
page or configure program options.
5 Click Allowed items
Windows Defender displays a list of programs

that Windows Defender has flagged, but you
have specifically allowed to run.
Topic E: The human aspects of security

exam objective.
#
Objective
5.1

Data wiping / hard drive destruction / hard drive recycling
Software firewall
Port security
Exceptions
Basics of data sensitivity and data security
Compliance
Classification
Social engineering
This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application (2009 Edition)
version 2.0 exam objectives.
#
Objective
3.2
Install and configure a small office / home (SOHO) network

4.1
Given a scenario, prevent, troubleshoot, and remove viruses and malware

Educate end user
Reducing security risks

Explanation
Security experts agree that the best approach to protecting computers is to apply security
measures in layers. To reduce some of the security risk, you can do the following:
Restrict physical access to sensitive systems and data.
Physically secure hardware.
Establish a firewall.
Manage data destruction.
Create a corporate security policy.
Manage social engineering attacks.
Security
2073
Physical access restrictions

An inexperienced user could inadvertently shut down your main corporate server if it
were simply sitting in a cubicle where anybody could access it. A determined attacker
could reboot your server by using a floppy disk or CD-ROM in order to attempt to
bypass operating systembased security. He or she might simply steal the entire server
or external storage device in order to gain access to your corporate data. Someone bent
on sabotage could simply damage your servers and equipment to hurt your company.
By restricting physical access to a computer, you eliminate a very large potential for
security breach. Restrictions you might consider include:
Lock server rooms with key or key card locks. Use separate rooms for lowsecurity computers and high-security systems, and carefully manage who has
keys to the various locations.
Lock PC cases (available with some models) to limit access to the systems to
those who have the keys.
Install a physical locking mechanism, similar to the one shown in Exhibit 20-16,
so the computer cant be moved from the desk.
Lock the operating system by logging off or using the Lock choice in
Windows. You can also set Windows so that when the screen saver starts after a
set time of inactivity, Windows requires the user to enter their credentials to gain
access to the system.
Use cameras or motion-sensor alarms to monitor spaces during non-business
hours.
Station guards near ultra-sensitive systems.
Exhibit 20-16: Laptop lock with cable

Do it!
E-1:
Discussing physical access restrictions

1 Describe the physical access restrictions in place at your company or companies
where youve worked
2 Were those access restrictions effective? If not, why not?
3 What physical access restrictions that youve seen in spy movies would be
practical for a real business environment (if they werent too expensive)?
Security
2075
Firewalls
If your computer has an Internet connection, it is vulnerable to hackers, viruses, worms,
and other destructive intrusions. One of the most important things to do when setting up
a computer, server, or LAN is to install a firewall. A firewall is software, hardware, or a
combination of both, used to control information thats sent and received from outside
the network. The firewall resides on the networks gateway, which is the connection
point between the internal network and outside communication. The firewall ensures
that all communication received from outside users and computers is legitimate. A
firewall can be installed on several types of gateways, including routers, servers, and
computers. Firewalls can be used to help prevent denial-of-service (DoS) attacks and to
prevent infections from viruses, worms, or Trojan horses.
Various types of firewalls can function in several ways:
Firewalls can filter data packets, examining the destination IP address or source
IP address, or the type of protocol used by the packet, such as TCP or UDP.
Firewalls can filter ports so that outside clients cant communicate with inside
services listening at these ports.
Firewalls can filter applications, such as FTP, so that users inside the firewall
cant use this service over the Internet.
Some firewalls can filter information, such as inappropriate Web content for
children or employees.
Several variations of firewalls are available, from personal firewalls to protect a single
computer to expensive firewall solutions for large corporations. Windows Vista
provides a firewall to help protect your computer from these problems. When youre
selecting a firewall, know whats being filtered, how its filtered, and what options the
firewall offers. Your company should run firewalls in two locations to block attacks. At
the network level, where your network connects to the Internet or WAN, a firewall
blocks outside attackers. At the PC level, software firewalls block internal attacks.
You can configure some firewalls to trigger alarms when suspicious activities happen
and to track this activity in log files. Other firewalls allow you more control and can
shut down traffic to stop an attack.

Hardware firewalls
A good firewall solution is a hardware firewall that stands between a LAN and the
Internet, as illustrated in Exhibit 20-17. A hardware firewall is ideal for a home network
consisting of two or more computers because it protects the entire network. For most
home and small-office LANs that connect to the Internet through a single cable modem
or DSL converter, a broadband router is used as a hardware firewall. You can buy a
broadband router with enough ports to connect several computers and perhaps a network
printer to it. Some broadband routers also serve double duty as wireless access points for
the network, DHCP server, and proxy server. The broadband router connects directly to
the cable modem or DSL converter. Note that some DSL devices are also broadband
routers and include embedded firewall firmware.
Exhibit 20-17: A hardware firewall

Software firewalls
When a home or business computer has an always on connection to the Internet, as
with a cable modem or DSL, its a good idea to install a software firewall in addition to
a hardware firewall. Firewall software can be installed on a computer connected directly
to the Internet. For a LAN, you can install firewall software on each computer on the
LAN. The firewall also requests permission from the user before allowing any programs
to access the Internet. All open ports are blocked, as are any probes from Web sites.
Starting with Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, Microsoft includes Windows Firewall
with its client operating systems. Unlike most firewalls, Windows Firewall can be
configured to block only incoming network traffic on your computer. All outgoing
network traffic is allowed to travel, unrestricted, from your computer to its destination.
Windows Firewall offers new features, such as allowing incoming network connections
based on software or services running on a users computer, and blocking network
connections based on the source (the Internet, your local area network, or a specific
range of IP addresses). By default, Windows Firewall is turned on.
Software firewalls include those bundled with Windows Vista and XP, as well as thirdparty applications, such as Zone Alarm. A software firewall on a local PC can also
prevent the spread of worms that transmit themselves to open ports on other PCs.
Security
2077
Proxy servers
A proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary between computers on a network
and the Internet. In the corporate environment, the main purpose of a proxy server is to
provide Web access for computers that are located behind a corporate firewall, as
illustrated in Exhibit 20-18.
Exhibit 20-18: A proxy server used as a firewall

When a proxy server is acting as a firewall, it can filter traffic in both directions. It can
filter traffic thats coming into the network from outside computers, and it can filter
traffic thats leaving the network. One way to filter incoming traffic is to limit
communication from the outside to specific ports on the inside of the private network.
Some firewalls maintain a list of ports to which they prevent access.
Firewalls filter outgoing traffic through a variety of methods. One method is to compare
the IP address of the destination Web site against an access control list (ACL) of either
allowed addresses or forbidden addresses.
Port and packet filters
A popular form of attack is port scanning. Ports are communication channels used by
TCP/IP applications that are appended to a computers network address. Attackers set
up computers to scan the ports available at random network addresses, hoping to find
unguarded ports. Once these are found, operating system vulnerabilities can be
exploited, permitting the attackers to gain access to the PC or network.
When a firewall filters ports, it prevents software on the inside or outside from using
certain ports on the network, even though those ports have services listening to them.
For example, if you have an intranet Web site thats to be used only by your employees
inside the network, you can set your firewall to filter the HTTP port 80. Those on the
intranet can access your Web server, using port 80 as usual, but those outside cant
reach your Web server.

Port forwarding
With port forwarding, when your firewall receives a request for communication from
the Internet for a specific port (for example 80 for HTTP traffic), the firewall forwards
the communication to a specified computer. This allows remote computers to connect to
a specific computer within your private LAN, for example, a Web server set up on your
LAN to which you want to allow public connections to. The internal computer must
have a static IP address, as the firewall uses the computers IP address to forward
communication.
Port triggering
With port triggering, when an internal client makes an outgoing communication request
to a specified port on a server, it triggers a port to open, allowing inbound
communication back to the client. Port triggering is more secure than port forwarding,
as the incoming ports arent open all the time. They are open only when the client has an
application actively using the trigger port. An advantage of port triggering is that it
doesnt require service-providing computers to have static IP addresses if they are
behind a network address translation (NAT)-enabled router.
The Windows Security Center and Action Center

In Windows Vista, the Windows Security Center, shown in Exhibit 20-19, is a
collection of utilities designed to help you view your computers security settings in one
convenient location. To configure the individual security components displayed in the
Security Center, you must use the Control Panel Links within the Windows Security
Center.
The Security Center provides access to the following utilities:
Firewall
Automatic updates
Malware protection
Other security settings
Security
2079
Exhibit 20-19: The Windows Security Center in Windows Vista Business

To open the Security Center in Windows Vista, click Start, choose Control Panel, click
Security, and click Security Center. If youre working in Windows XP, click Start and
choose Security Center.

In Windows 7, the Action Center, shown in Exhibit 20-20, provides an interface where
you can view the status of security and maintenance utilities on your computer. If
theres a problem with your computer, the Action Center displays a message, along with
a link to resolve the problem. In Exhibit 20-21, Windows has found a security problem
where Windows Update isnt enabled. A link is provided so that you can easily fix the
problem. Youll find the Action Center in Control Panel, System and Security.
Exhibit 20-20: The Windows 7 Action Center displaying Security status information
Security
2081
Exhibit 20-21: The Windows 7 Action Center indicating a problem with security in the
Windows Update utility

Windows Firewall
Windows Firewall, shown in Exhibit 20-22, is a software firewall. Its installed and
turned on by default. To view the status of Windows Firewall:
2 Click System and Security in Windows 7; click Security in Windows Vista.
3 Click Windows Firewall.
Exhibit 20-22: The Windows Firewall Settings dialog box

Do it!
E-2:
Displaying the status of Windows Firewall
Heres how
Heres why

2 Click System and Security
3 Click Windows Firewall
4 Observe the state of the firewall
It should be turned on.
Security
2083
Firewall configuration
Windows Firewall (known as Internet Connection Firewall before Windows XP SP2) is
turned on by default. Unless your computer is protected by another firewall, you should
leave Windows Firewall enabled. You can check with the network administrator about
the need for Windows Firewall inside a corporate network, but threats can come from
other computers inside your network, not just computers on the Internet.
Windows Firewall is automatically configured to block most rogue programs and to
pass requests by legitimate programs. You probably wont have to change many
settings. However, if a user is experiencing problems sending or receiving data, the
problem could be that the current firewall settings are preventing the communication
from passing through.
You might need to allow a specific type of communicationthats prohibited by
defaultto pass through the firewall. When you need to configure Windows Firewall,
open the Windows Security Center. Click Windows Firewall and then click Change
settings to open the Windows Firewall settings window. You can use this dialog box to
turn the firewall on and off, and you can use the Exceptions tab to allow or deny
specific types of network communication. Use the Advanced tab to configure firewall
protection for multiple network connections, manage the log file, and configure Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP) settings.
To configure Windows Firewall:
2 Click Security
3 Click Windows Firewall.
4 Click Change Settings.
5 If prompted, enter the administrators password and click OK.
In Windows Vista, click Continue (if youre logged on as an administrator).
Select to turn the firewall on or off. You can also block all incoming programs
for an even more secure connection.
6 On the Exceptions tab, specify firewall exceptions.
7 On the Advanced tab, control which network connections are protected by the
firewall.
8 Click OK.
Exceptions
To configure an exception for a specific program, select the program in the list of
exceptions. If the program isnt listed on the Exceptions tab, click Add Program, select
the program you want to add to the list, and click OK.
Some applications might require that you open a numbered port, which is a specific
channel through which the application communicates, using TCP/IP. For example, Web
page communication through HTTP uses port 80. To create an exception for a specific
port, select the Exceptions tab and click Add port. Enter the name and port number, and
specify whether its the TCP or UDP protocol. (You can obtain protocol information
from the programs documentation or from a network administrator.)

Windows Firewall with Advanced Security
To configure more advanced firewall settings in Windows Vista, you must use
Windows Firewall with Advanced Security. Youll find this utility in the Control Panel,
Administrative Tools.
Exhibit 20-23: Windows Firewall with Advanced Security in Windows Vista Business
Troubleshooting
Remember, when youre troubleshooting a network connection, its important to check
the status of the firewall and the list of exceptions. You might find that you cant
connect to a shared resource or a program isnt functioning properly because of a
missing or incorrectly configured firewall exception.
Security
Do it!
E-3:
2085
Configuring Windows Firewall
Heres how
1 Click Change notification
settings
Heres why
To open the Windows Firewall Customize
Settings window. This is the same as clicking
Turn Windows Firewall on or off.
Youre going to configure the firewall to allow

communication through Windows Meeting
Space.
Observe the choices

2 Click the Back button
You can enable and disable Windows Firewall

from this window.
To return to the Windows Firewall window.

4 Expand Monitoring and select
This is the list of active firewall rules.
Firewall
5 Scroll down to view Skype

Observe the following fields:
Profile
Action
Direction
Remote Address
Protocol
Allowed Users
Allowed Computers
Inbound Rules
Double-click Skype
You can see this rule is enabled. Using this

dialog box, you can alter the properties of the
rule.

7 Select each tab and observe the
customizable settings
Click Cancel
8 Right-click Inbound Rules
and choose New Rule
You can choose what type of rule you want to

create.
Select Custom and click Next
Youll be creating a rule to allow inbound

network traffic to the RPC Endpoint Mapper
service.
9 Select This program path and

click Browse
10 Navigate to select
C:\Windows\System32\svchost.exe
Click Open
11 Click Customize
Select Apply to this service,
then select Remote
Procedure Call (RPC) from
the list
Security
2087
12 Click OK
Click Next
13 Click Yes
14 From the Protocol type list, select
TCP
From the Local port list, select

RPC Endpoint Mapper
Click Next
15 Observe the Scope page
You can specify that the rule applies to all

network traffic or from specific IP addresses.
Click Next
To apply the rule to all network traffic.
16 Observe the Action page
You can allow this type of connection, allow

them only if theyre secure, or block these
connections.
Click Next
To allow RPC connections.

17 Observe the Profile page
You can apply this rule to different network

locations.
Click Next
18 In the Name box type Custom
RPC
19 Click Finish
To allow TCP RPC connections from all

network locations.
Security
2089
Social engineering
Social engineering is the equivalent of hacking vulnerabilities in computer systems to
gain accessexcept that it occurs in the world of people. Social engineering exploits
trust between people to gain information that attackers can then use to gain access to
computer systems. These trust exploits usually, though not always, involve a verbal
trick, a hoax, or a believable lie. The goals of social engineering techniques include
fraud, network intrusion, industrial espionage, identity theft, and a desire to disrupt a
system or network.
Targets for social engineering techniques tend to be large organizations, where it is
common for employees who have never actually met to communicate with each other.
Other targets include employees who have information desired by attackers:
industrial/military secrets, personal information about specific individuals, or resources
such as long-distance or network access.
Social engineering techniques are often used when the attacker cannot find a way to
penetrate the victims systems with other methods. For example, when strong perimeter
security and encryption foil an attackers efforts to penetrate the network, social
engineering might be the only avenue left. A slip of words is all the attacker needs to
gain access to your well-defended systems.
Shoulder surfing
Shoulder surfing is a social engineering attack in which someone attempts to observe
secret information by looking over your shoulder (or using other methods, described
next). Imagine someone standing behind you as you log onto your workstation. By
watching your fingers, the person can determine your password, and then later log on as
you.
Shoulder surfing has forms that dont directly involve PCs. Consider the old longdistance calling-card attackbefore cheap long distance and cell phones, people often
subscribed to calling-card plans. By entering a long code number before dialing a phone
number, you could get cheaper rates or bill the call to a third party. Spies would
reportedly watch public telephones from afar through a telescope to watch as you
entered the number, hoping to record your calling-card number. Theyd then use that
number to place long-distance calls.
A modern version of the calling-card attack involves learning your credit or debit card
number and your PIN (personal identification number). With these numbers, an attacker
could bill catalog or online purchases to your card. Cases have been reported of thieves
using digital cameras to snap photos of the front and back of cards as people pay for
merchandise in a store.
Phishing
Phishing, a growing problem on the Internet, is an example of a social engineering
attack. In phishing, hackers send e-mail messages or create Web sites that mimic a
legitimate site to gather usernames and passwords. For example, an e-mail message
might purport to come from a persons bank and request the user to log onto a Web site
to perform account maintenance. In reality, the Web site would simply collect the
persons username and password and present fake messages about the account
maintenance. Later, the hackers would drain the persons account by logging into the
banks real Web site.

Dumpster diving
Digging useful information out of an organizations trash bin is another form of attack,
one that exploits the implicit trust people have that once something is in the trash, its
gone forever. Experience shows that this is a very bad assumption, because dumpster
diving is an incredible source of information for those who need to penetrate an
organization in order to learn its secrets. The following table lists the useful types of
information that can be obtained from trash or recycling bins:
Item
Description
Internal phone directories
Provide names and numbers of people to target and impersonate. Many

usernames are based on legal names.
Organizational charts
Provide information about people who are in positions of authority within

the organization.
Policy manuals
Indicate how secure (or insecure) the company really is.
Calendars
Identify which employees are out of town at a particular time.
Outdated hardware
Provides all sorts of useful information; for example, hard drives might be
restored, with data still accessible.
System manuals, network

diagrams, and other sources
of technical information
Include the exact information that attackers might seek, including the IP
addresses of key assets, network topologies, locations of firewalls and
intrusion detection systems, operating systems, applications in use, and
more.
Online attacks
Online attacks use instant-messaging chat and e-mail venues to exploit trust
relationships. Attackers might try to induce their victims to execute a piece of code by
convincing them that they need it (We have detected a virus, and you have to run this
program to remove itif you dont run it, you wont be able to use our service) or
because it is something interesting, such as a game. While users are online, they tend to
be more aware of hackers, and are careful about revealing personal information in chat
sessions and e-mail. If a user installs the attacking program from a link, the attackers
code tricks the user into entering a username and password in a pop-up window.
Security
2091
Social engineering countermeasures

There are a number of steps that organizations can take to protect themselves against
social engineering attacks. At the heart of all of these countermeasures is a solid
organizational policy that dictates expected behaviors and communicates security needs
to every person in the company.
1 Take proper care of trash and other discarded items.
For all types of sensitive information on paper, use a paper shredder or
locked recycle box instead of a trash can.
Ensure that all magnetic media are bulk-erased before they are discarded.
Keep trash dumpsters in secured areas so that no one has access to their
contents.
2 User education and awareness training are critical. Ensure that all system users
have periodic training about network security.
Make employees aware of social engineering scams and how they work.
Inform users about your organizations password policy (for example,
never give your password out to anybody at all, by any means at all).
Give recognition to people who have avoided making mistakes or who
have caught real mistakes in a situation that might have been a social
engineering attack.
Ensure that people know what to do if they spot a social engineering attack.

Do it!
E-4:
Discussing social engineering

1 Which of the following are the best ways to protect your organization against
revealing sensitive information to dumpster divers?
A
Use a paper shredder or locked recycle box.
Teach employees to construct strong passwords.
Add a firewall.
Keep trash dumpsters in secured areas.
2 How can you help system users avoid social engineering attacks?
3 Give examples of shoulder surfing in the context of both corporate and individual
security.
4 List some items that might be found in a companys trash that would be useful to
a hacker
5 If you were a hacker planning to call someone to convince them to divulge their
password, whom would you impersonate? (Give a job title or role.)
6 Have you ever been the victim of a social engineering attack? If so, describe the
experience.
Security
2093
Data security
Providing for data security extends beyond the measures you might take with user
accounts, file system permissions, and so forth. You must remember that your data is
stored on a physical device. If you no longer need a device, you must consider how to
destroy those bits and bytes permanently so no one can recover the information.
Data destruction
Data stored on magnetic media presents a serious security risk. For example, a 2003
study by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology found 5000 credit card numbers and
other sensitive data on discarded hard drives.
Erasing or formatting the drive isnt sufficient to destroy data. Unerasing and
unformatting utilities abound, and services exist that recover old data from the traces
left over, even after new files are written to the disk. The conspiracy-minded are
probably not that far off base in thinking that government and law enforcement agencies
have even greater capabilities at recovering data.
To truly destroy data, you need to use a utility designed to repeatedly write random data
to the medium. Only by writing data several times, or perhaps hundreds of times, can
you be sure that all traces of the old data are destroyed. Here are some utilities that
include this capability:
OnTrack Eraser, www.ontrack.com, commercial
Norton System Works, www.symantec.com, commercial
Eraser, eraser.heidi.ie/, open source
Wipe, sourceforge.net/projects/wipe, open source for Linux and UNIX
platforms
Removable media
Sensitive data stored on removable media, such as USB drives, tapes, or CDs, is a
serious security risk. These items are small and easily spirited out of a building or
secure area. When the data is no longer needed, the media should be destroyed. The
following table describes ways to destroy various media.
Item
Destruction method
Tapes
Tapes should be erased with a bulk eraser, a large powerful magnet that removes
all traces of magnetic encoding, or you can shred the cartridges to destroy the
tape within.
Floppies
Like tapes, floppies should be bulk erased or shredded. Many office shredders
can handle shredding floppies and optical media.
CDs and DVDs
Optical media should be shredded. Bending and breaking or cutting into multiple
pieces with scissors is probably sufficient unless your data is ultra-sensitive.
USB, cartridge,
removable, and
external hard drives
Smashing these devices is probably the surest way to destroy their contents. Short
of that, file destruction applications are sufficient for most data destruction needs.

Paper records
Sensitive paper records should be burned or shredded by a professional shredding
service. Standard office shredderseven crosscut modelsleave pieces that can be too
easily pasted back together. If you do use an office shredder, make sure its a crosscut
model, not a strip cutter.
Data migration
You must manage archival data, such as business records that you must keep to comply
with IRS requirements. Such data must be kept available but doesnt need to be
regularly accessible. You should consider migrating such data off of your network or
out of your office.
Paper records should be stored at a records storage company. Such companies offer
secure, climate-controlled vaults and keep your records for the period you specify. Most
of these companies pick up such records at your site and return them if you need access.
Digital records should be migrated to tape or optical storage. Then the media should be
stored by a records storage company skilled in handling digital media.
Do it!
E-5:
Examining data destruction techniques

1 What types of sensitive data do you store on your own PC?
2 What sensitive data does your company store?
3 What method does your company use to destroy expired data?
4 What should your company do differently to ensure that old data isnt
recoverable?
5 Does your company use a records storage company to store archived data?
Security
2095
Corporate security policies

A corporate security policy is a contract between a company and its employees that
states how company technology resources can be used. Although a document outlining
your companys policy regarding security cant actually prevent a security breach, it can
support any legal or human-resources actions that you decide to take after such a
breach.
Awareness and training are the best ways to prevent social engineering attacks. A
security policy heightens security awareness among company personnel. It also
demonstrates the companys commitment to security and the protection of vital
information assets.
Security policy contents
A corporate security policy should define the guidelines and practices for using
computing resources, as well as for configuring and managing computer security in your
company. A security policy should clearly list the acceptable and unacceptable uses of
your company computing resources. It should be written so it can serve as a binding
agreement between the company and employees. You should regularly review and
update your corporate security policy.
A security policy should include the following:
A description of physical access restrictions, and a list of whos permitted into
restricted areas and when such access is permitted.
A description of acceptable uses of company computing resources. List specific
examples of acceptable uses.
A description of unacceptable uses of company computing resources. List
specific examples of unacceptable and prohibited uses.
Password requirements, including complexity, change frequency, and reuse
policies.
A description of the actions that might be taken against any employee who
violates the security policy. For example, some violations might lead to a simple
reprimand, while others could lead to immediate termination and legal action.
A plan for handling major security breaches and incidents, such as virus
intrusions.
Your plan for updating the security policy document.
Your corporate security policy should clearly prohibit divulging passwords and other
sensitive information, whether over the telephone, by e-mail, or in person. Your security
policy should also clearly state how employees should handle file attachments in e-mail.
Many companies prohibit opening attachments; such companies typically use software
to filter e-mail and scan or simply delete file attachments.

The policy might state that users should lock their computers when leaving them. As a
result, the IT department would then configure password-based screen savers and teach
users how to lock their computers. In Windows Vista, users can lock their computers
through the Start menu, as shown in Exhibit 20-24. Such policies and practices help
prevent both intentional breaches, such as shoulder surfing, and opportunistic breaches,
such as someone finding an unlocked, logged-in computer.
Exhibit 20-24: Two choices for locking a Windows Vista computer
Security classifications
The United States Department of Defense issued a security evaluation specification
called the Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC). You might also
hear this referred to as the orange book. The DoD document defines four broad
categories of security:
D Minimal Security
C Discretionary; includes two subclasses: C1 Discretionary Security
Protection and C2 Controlled Access Protection
B Mandatory Protection; includes three subclasses: B1 Labeled Security
protection, B2 Structured Protection, and B3 Security Domain
A Verified protection
In 2005, this specification was replaced with an international standard called the
Common Criteria. This standard has three components:
Specifications Users specify their security requirements.
Implementation Vendors implement the security attributes in their products.
Testing Laboratories test the security features of vendor products to
determine if they meet the claims.
Evaluation Assurance Levels (EALs) of the Common Criteria range from 1 to 7, with
EAL 7 being the most secure and EAL 4 about the highest level that a complex,
commercially developed product can achieve. However, if a product is Common
Criteriacertified, that doesnt mean that its completely secure. For example, six
versions of Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Windows XP Professional with Service
Pack 2, and Windows XP Embedded with Service Pack 2, Windows Vista Enterprise,
Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition, Enterprise Edition and Datacenter Edition, all
meet EAL 4+ of the Common Criteria, but security patches for security vulnerabilities
are regularly published by Microsoft for these operating systems.
Security
2097
To view the full list of products meeting EAL criteria, go to

www.commoncriteriaportal.org/products.html.
Do it!
E-6:
Considering corporate security policies

1 Does your company have a security policy?
2 If so, when did you sign it and have you had to sign it again?
3 List at least three specific unacceptable uses of your companys computing

resources
4 For each of those unacceptable uses, list the appropriate repercussions
5 Are you required to use a password-protected screen saver or lock your PC when
you leave your desk?
Unit summary: Security

Topic A
In this topic, you learned that operating system security depends on authenticating users,
that is, determining who they are. You learned how users and groups are used in
Windows basic authentication to control access and to permit or deny access to
resources. You also learned how to use local security policies to control aspects of user
authentication, such as password length, expiration, and reuse.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned how to use Windows file encryption to secure the files on
your computer. You learned how to encrypt individual files or entire folders and their
contents.
Topic C
In this topic, you learned about hardware security devices, such as fingerprint scanner,
smart-card readers, and fobs. You identified how these devices add another layer of
security to the user authentication process, making your system more secure.
Topic D
In this topic, you learned about common security threats. You learned about the areas
of weakness that can give rise to security threats, and you learned about viruses, Trojan
horses, worms, and social engineering. You also learned how to combat these problems
by installing antivirus software and scanning your computer with Windows Defender.
Topic E
In this topic, you learned how to manage the human aspects of computer security. This
process includes implementing physical access restrictions to keep unauthorized
people out of sensitive areas and physically securing computers and peripherals. You
learned why a corporate security policy is an effective tool for ensuring security
within your organization. You also examined various social engineering attacks, which
are used to gain access to systems or secure areas.
Review questions
1 Which of the following items does a user account not include?
A Account type
C First and last name
B Account policies
D Password
2 A complex password consists of letters, numbers, and special ________________.

Characters
3 True or false? Its a good idea to use the same password wherever you need one so
that you can remember it without writing it down.
False. There is a strong temptation to use the same password for all locations, but doing so
leaves you vulnerable to having your password stolen and used in any or all of the locations.
4 Whats the general rule for when you should change your password?
A Less than 30 days
C Between 60 and 90 days
B Between 30 to 60 days
D At 180 days
5 Most of the user accounts in your Windows environment will be which type?
A Administrator
B Guest
C User
Security
2099
6 When performing day-to-day activities, you should log on with a ___-level account.
User
7 The _______ Users group is used to assign elevated permissions to a select set of
individuals.
Power
8 _________________ authentication is the process by which a user provides his or

her username and password in the Log On to Windows dialog box.
Interactive
9 ____________ is the primary authentication protocol used in Active Directory

domain environments?
Kerberos version 5 (Kerberos v5)
10 Which password policy forces users to include special characters in their

passwords?
A Account lockout
B Enforce password history
C Minimum password length
D Passwords must meet complexity requirements
11 True or false? If your computer is a member of an Active Directory domain, the
local account policies you set might not be active.
True. If your computer participates in a domain, it might inherit security policy settings from the
domain. Settings at the domain level override those at the local computer level.
12 In public key encryption, how many keys are used to encrypt and decrypt data?
A One
C Three
B Two
D Four
13 True or false? If you encrypt a file using EFS, anyone who logs onto your computer
can see the file on the drive, but cant open it.
True.
14 A biometric security device can log you into which of the following?
A An application
C A Web page
B The operating system
D All of the above
15 True or false? Biometric security hardware is always used in place of basic user
authentication (username and password).
False. Biometric devices can be used in combination with usernames and passwords. Sometimes
they are used in place of the user entering a username and password.
16 True or false? Your ATM card is an example of a smart card.

False. Your ATM card simply stores a unique identifier number on a magnetic strip. All processing
and intelligence must be built into the host PC and applications. Smart cards store data and code
on an embedded microprocessor.

17 True or false? The typical fob is a key-chain-sized device that creates a continually
changing, random number called a rolling code.
False. The generated number isnt random, but instead follows a secret progression started with
a random seed number.
18 By restricting _______________ access to a computer, you eliminate a very large

potential for security breach.
Physical
19 A ________________ is software or hardware used to control information thats

sent to and received from outside the network.
Firewall
20 Windows Vista comes with a built-in software firewall called _______________.

Windows Firewall
21 In which type of social engineering attack do hackers send e-mail messages or

create Web sites that mimic a legitimate site in order to gather usernames and
passwords?
A Dumpster diving
D Spam
B Phishing
E Trojan horse
C Shoulder surfing
22 Which type of malicious software is a self-propagating program meant to disrupt the
operation of a PC?
A Adware
D Virus
B Spam
E Worm
C Spyware
23 Which type of storage media presents the greatest security risk?
A Hard drives
B Tapes
C USB flash drives
24 True or false? Youve completed your corporate security policy and had all
employees read and sign it. You are now finished with the security policy.
False. You should regularly review and update your corporate security policy, as well as provide
user training.
25 What are the Evaluation Assurance Levels (EALs) of the Common Criteria?
A 0 to 6
C 1 to 7
B 1 to 5
D 1 to 10
Security 20101
26 Which is the most secure EAL?
A 0
D 7
B 1
E 10
C 5
27 List some of the items that a dumpster diver looks for.
Internal phone directories, organizational charts, policy manuals, calendars, outdated hardware,
systems manuals, network diagrams, and other technical information sources.
28 What kind of program poses as something else, causing the user to willingly
inflict the attack on himself or herself?
A Trojan horse
29 List at least three primary causes of compromised security.

Technology weaknesses, configuration weaknesses, policy weaknesses, and human error or
malice.
30 How do you keep your antivirus software updated to recognize new viruses and
worms?
You download updated virus definitions
31 What is the Windows Vista built-in spyware protection function called?

Windows Defender
32 Name the components of the Windows Security Center.

Windows Firewall, Automatic updates, Malware protection (virus protection monitoring, spyware
protection monitoring), and Other security settings (general security monitoring).
33 ____________ is a term used to describe any type of malicious software.

Malware
34 A firewall is hardware or software that:

Prevents access to your computer by unauthorized Internet users or prevents internal users from
accessing external information.
35 Why might you set a firewall exception?

To enable a program, such as Windows Meeting Space, to communicate with your computer
when that programs communications would typically be blocked.
36 The ____________ security feature prompts you to click Continue or enter

administrative credentials to perform some administrative tasks.
UAC
37 True or false? Passwords for Windows user accounts arent case sensitive.
False
38 True or false? Spyware is a computer program designed to destroy data, damage

your computers operations, and distribute itself without your involvement.
False. Thats the definition of a virus. Spyware is a program that gathers information about you
and your Internet activities. Typically, spyware gathers this information so that you can be shown
more targeted advertising.

39 True or false? You must manually update spyware signatures.
False. Windows Defender downloads and installs new spyware signatures automatically
(although you can turn off that feature).
40 Which console can you use to configure security settings on a computer?

Local Security Policy
41 What is a quarantined program?

A quarantined program is an application that Windows Defender has disabled or removed from
your system.

The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 20\Unit summary.
In this activity, youll practice applying security on your Windows 7 Professional
computer. Youll also research different types of malware, their symptoms, and how to
resolve them.
1 Create a user named PSmith with the password p@ssword.
2 Add PSmith to the Administrators group.
3 From the Student Data folder for this unit, copy the Budget Analysis.txt file to the
root folder (C:\).
4 Encrypt the Budget Analysis.txt file.
5 Log on as PSmith.
6 Attempt to access the Budget Analysis file. PSmith cant open the encrypted file.
7 Log off. Log back on as COMPADMIN##.
8 Create a password policy that requires a minimum number of characters and
enforces complexity requirements.
9 Log on as Robert and try to change your password to one that is less than the
minimum required number of characters, but includes a number and a special
character.
10 Try to change your password to one that meets the minimum character requirement,
but doesnt include a special character or number.
11 Change your password to one that meets the password policy.
12 Log off. Log back on as COMPADMIN##.
13 Reset your password policy to its original form.
14 Delete the Robert and PSmith user accounts.
15 Delete C:\Budget Analysis.txt.
16 Use your favorite search engine to find multiple virus encyclopedias. Bookmark
them in your browser.
17 Use these resources to investigate the latest security threats. Document the names,
the symptoms, and how to resolve the threats if you encounter them.
211
Unit 21

A Install a Windows operating system.
B Upgrade from one version of Windows to
another.
212
Topic A: Windows installation

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.5

Updates
Driver
OS
Security
3.1
Compare and contrast the different operating systems and their features
Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows 7
32-bit vs. 64-bit
Minimum system requirements, system limits
Windows 2000 and newer upgrade paths and requirements
Windows OS Upgrade Advisor
3.3
File systems
FAT32 vs. NTFS
Verification of hardware compatibility and minimum requirements
Boot media such as DVD, CD, floppy, or USB
Network installation
Install from image
File system type
Network configuration
Disk preparation order
Format drive
Partition
Start installation
Device Manager
Verify
Install and update device drivers
Driver signing
User data migration User State Migration Tool (USMT)
213
objective.
#
Objective
2.3
Device Manager
Enable
Disable
Warnings
Indicators
Installing Windows operating systems

Explanation
Windows installations and upgrades arent necessarily something youll do every day,
but knowing how to do them correctly will prevent a lot of headaches later when you
have a properly installed and configured operating system.
The process of moving from one operating system to a new operating system is called
migrating or migration. When migrating from a previous version of Windows to
Windows 7, for example, you have three options:
Upgrade Installation of Windows 7 over a previous Windows operating
system. This method updates system files and retains user accounts,
applications, and most (if not all) system settings.
Custom Installation of Window 7 by replacing the previous operating
system. It doesnt retain any user accounts, applications, or system settings.
Multibooting Installation of your chosen version of Windows, along with
another operating system or version of Windows
When migrating from a previous version of Windows to Windows Vista, for example,
you have three options:
In-place upgrade Installation of a new operating system over a previous
operating system, updating system files and retaining user accounts,
applications, and most (if not all) system settings.
Clean install Installation on a computer where none of the current settings
and files are retained.
Multibooting Installation of your chosen version of Windows, along with
another operating system or version of Windows
Most of your new installations will be a version of Windows 7 or Windows Vista. You
arent likely to complete any new installations of earlier operating systems, especially
on new computers, unless your company has a corporate policy that all computers run
an earlier operating system, such as Windows XP. However, you might be asked to
reinstall an older operating system, such as Windows XP or Windows 2000
Professional, to fix configuration problems. When youre installing these operating
systems, you have two options: a clean install or an upgrade.
214

Clean installation versus upgrade
A clean installation is the kind you perform when you install Windows on a computer
that has no operating system or that already has a version of DOS or Windows installed.
During a clean installation, Windows Setup overwrites all system settings and data files
on the computer. On pre-Windows Vista operating systems, nothing of the old operating
system remains after you complete the installation, and none of the data files on the hard
drive are accessible anymore, unless you use a third-party utility to try to recover them.
You would perform a clean installation for a number of reasons:
The computer has no operating system at all.
You want to redeploy a computer that hasnt been used recently to a new user or
a new department, and you dont need to save any of the old settings or data
files.
A computer has so many configuration errors that you decide to reinstall
Windows and start from scratch.
With a clean installation, its recommended that you format the hard drive during the
installation process.
An upgrade is done when you install a new version of Windows on a computer and you
retain most of the system settings from the older version and all of the user data files on
the hard disk. Upgrades are a completely separate process from clean installations.
During upgrades, Setup preserves many Windows settings, transferring as many of them
as possible to the newer version of Windows. You perform upgrades when you want to
take advantage of some new features, but you dont want to start from scratch on the
computer. Upgrade licenses are usually cheaper than licenses for new Windows
installations.
Although the upgrade sounds like the most tempting path, some experts believe that
upgrades introduce too much instability into the system. They believe clean installs are
the only way to migrate to a new operating system. However, most users appreciate inplace upgrades because they tend to make the migration to a new operating system less
painful.
Multibooting
A less common installation option is to install your chosen version of Windows, along
with another operating system or version of Windows, allowing the computer to be
booted into either operating system. As a general rule, you install the operating systems
oldest to newest. For example, you would install Windows XP before Windows 7,
Windows Vista, or Windows 2000 Professional. Each operating system must be placed
in a separate hard disk partition on a non-dynamic disk.
215
Pre-installation tasks
Once youve chosen the appropriate Windows operating system for your needs and
decided whether youre going to do a clean installation or an upgrade, you cant just pop
the installation disc in the computer and start. Before you start the actual operating
system installation, there are several steps you must take to gather necessary
information and make decisions. Pre-installation tasks you should complete include:
Backing up files
Verifying that hardware requirements are met
Checking for hardware compatibility with the new operating system
Identifying the appropriate partition size and file system format
Choosing an installation method
File backup and transfer

Before you perform a clean installation, if there are any data files you want to save, you
should back them up to a secure location. When the clean installation is complete, you
can restore user data files back to the computer.
Before performing an upgrade, back up user data files; even though an upgrade is meant
to preserve data files, you want to be sure you have a backup in case anything goes
wrong. If you lose data files, or if you decide you need to stop the upgrade and perform
a clean installation, you can restore user data files afterward.
There are several tools for backing up and transferring files:
In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, you can use Windows Easy Transfer to
automatically copy all of your files and settings to an extra hard drive or other
storage device before doing a clean install. After the installation is complete, you
can use Windows Easy Transfer to reload your files and settings on your
upgraded PC. You then need to reinstall your applications.
In Windows XP, you can use the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard to transfer
files from one computer to a Windows XP computer. This GUI utility is
designed for end-users.
Windows XP Professional and the Resource Kit for Windows 2000 Professional
include a tool called the User State Migration Tool (USMT). You can use it to
migrate a users data, application settings, and operating system settings from an
old computer to a new computer. This tool is a command-line utility designed
for administrators, and it works only if the computer is a member of a Windows
domain. The scanstate command copies the users information from the old
computer to a network server or a removable drive. The loadstate command
copies the information from the server or removable drive to the new computer.
The USMT is designed for large migrations and can be a bit cumbersome to use
for single computer migrations or upgrades.
Hardware requirements
Not all computers can run all Windows operating systems. As you might expect, each
edition of Windows has different hardware requirements. This makes sense because, for
example, most Vista Home Basic users wouldnt necessarily need the processing power
that an Vista Ultimate user might need to run a complex computer-aided design (CAD)
application. You need to match the computers hardware capabilities with the hardware
requirements of the Windows operating system youve chosen to install.
216

The following tables list the minimum and recommended hardware configurations for
the various versions and editions of Windows. If you want to have a satisfactory
Windows computing experience, you typically need more resources than the bare
minimum.
Windows 7, all versions
Component
Minimum
Processor
1 GHz 32-bit or 64-bit
Memory
1 GB 32-bit
2 GB 64-bit
Hard disk
16 GB available space 32-bit

20 GB available space 64-bit
Graphics
DirectX 9 support; Windows Display Driver

Model (WDDM) 1.0
Unlike previous versions of Windows, Microsoft has not issued Recommended

hardware requirements for Windows 7. They believe their minimum requirements are
generous enough to cover most situations.
Windows Vista Home Basic
Component
Minimum
Recommended
Processor
800 MHz 32-bit or 64-bit
Memory
512 MB
512 MB
Hard disk
20 GB with 15 GB
available
20 GB with 15 GB available
Graphics
Super VGA
DirectX 9 support and 32 MB of graphics

memory
Optical drive
Internal or external
DVD-ROM
Internal or external DVD-ROM
217
Windows Vista Home Premium/Business/Ultimate/Enterprise

Component
Minimum
Recommended
Processor
Memory
1 GB
1 GB
Hard disk
40 GB with 15 GB
available
40 GB with 15 GB available
Graphics
Super VGA
Aero-compatible graphics card:

DirectX 9 support;
Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM);
128 MB graphics memory;
Pixel Shader 2.0 (hardware);
32 bits per pixel
CD/DVD drives
Internal or external
DVD-ROM
Internal or external DVD-ROM
Windows XP Professional and Windows XP Home Edition

Component
Minimum
Recommended
Processor
Pentium 233 MHz
300 MHz
Memory
64 MB
128 MB
Hard disk space
1.5 GB
Graphics
Super VGA
Optical drive
CD- or DVD-ROM drive
SVGA with 8 MB video RAM

Component
Minimum
Recommended
Processor
Pentium 133 MHz
Memory
64 MB
Hard disk space
2 GB with 650 MB free
1 GB free space
Graphics
VGA
SVGA
Optical device
CD- or DVD-ROM drive
Windows and netbooks

There are maximum hardware specifications that Windows can handle on netbooks. The
218

following table lists these.
Hardware
Windows XP/Vista
Screen size
No larger than 12.1 inches
Memory
1 GB RAM
Storage
160 GB HDD or 32 GB SDD
Graphics
No greater than DX9
Touch
Resistive touch only
CPU
Single core processors that dont exceed 1 GHz

Do it!
A-1:
219
Identifying hardware requirements

1 You have a computer with 1 GB of RAM and a 1.5 GHz 32-bit processor, and you
use the computer mostly for Internet access and e-mail. Can you run Windows 7?
2 You have a computer with 512 MB of RAM and a 1.5 GHz processor, and you
use the computer mostly for Internet access and e-mail. Which edition of
Windows Vista might you recommend? Why?
3 Which of the following doesnt meet minimum requirements for Windows 7 on a

64-bit processor?
A
2 GHz processor
1 GB of memory
DVD-ROM drive
40 GB hard disk with 20 GB of free space
4 Which of the following doesnt meet minimum requirements for Windows Vista
Business?
A
2 GHz processor
256 MB of memory
DVD-ROM drive
5 Which of the following doesnt meet minimum requirements for Windows Vista
Ultimate?
A
1 GHz processor
2 GB of memory
DVD-ROM
6 Whats the minimum required free disk space for a Windows XP installation?
A
1 GB
1.5 GB
2.0 GB
2.5 GB

Hardware compatibility
Not only must your computers hardware meet the minimum requirements, but it must
also be compatible with the version of Windows youre going to install. Most systems
today designate which version of Windows theyre designed for. If youre adding more
hardware, be sure it has a logo indicating that its approved for the Windows version
youre installing. You can also check the Windows Catalog, previously known as the
HCL (Hardware Compatibility List) on Microsofts Web site at
http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/hcl and select the correct compatibility center.
The Upgrade Advisor
Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP include a free tool called the Upgrade
Advisor that you can use to determine if Windows 7, Vista or XP supports your
hardware and software. Shown in Exhibit 21-1, the Windows Upgrade Advisor scans
your computer to determine if there are any issues that might prevent a successful
upgrade. It gives you a report for system requirements, device compatibility, and
program compatibility. Most of the issues youll encounter are related to incompatible
hardware, and the Advisor helps you determine which hardware devices might cause
problems.
You can run the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor on any 32-bit or 64-bit Windows 7,
Windows Vista, or Windows XP with SP2 and .NET Framework 2.0, or higher
computer.
You can run Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor on almost all 32-bit Windows XP and
Windows Vista computersthe latter if youre planning to upgrade from one version of
Windows Vista to another (for example, from Windows Vista Business to Windows
Vista Ultimate). You cant run the Advisor in Windows Vista Enterprise Edition or 64bit versions of Windows XP or Vista.
2111
Exhibit 21-1: Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor

Running the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor
To install and run Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor:
1 Download the installation file from the Microsoft Download Center at
http://www.microsoft.com/downloads.
2 Double-click Windows7UpgradeAdvisorSetup.exe and then click Yes.
3 Accept the license agreement and click Install. Click Close.
4 Double-click the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor icon on your desktop.
4 In the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor, click Start check.
Running the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor
To run the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor, you must have the Windows .NET
Framework 2.0 and MSXML version 6 (MSXML6) installed on your computer. If these
arent installed, Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor Setup detects their absence and
prompts you to download and install them. On Windows XP systems, you need Service
Pack 2 installed. Finally, you need Administrator privileges, 20 MB of free hard disk
space, and an Internet connection.

To install and run Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor:
1 Download the installation file from the Microsoft Download Center at
http://www.microsoft.com/downloads. You can also insert the Windows
Vista DVD, and on the splash screen, click Check compatibility online to find
the Windows Upgrade Advisor download.
2 Double-click WindowsVistaUpgradeAdvisor.msi and then click Run.
3 Click Next. Accept the license agreement and click Next. Click Next twice.
Verify that Launch Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor is checked, and click
Close.
4 In the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor, click Start Scan. When the scan is
complete, click See Details.
To read about potential issues, click See Details under each category, including System,
Devices, and Programs. In a new window, youll see tabs for each category, as well as a
tab labeled Task List. This is a to-do list you should follow before the upgrade and a list
of recommended post-upgrade tasks to help optimize your Windows Vista experience.
The tabs are tailored for the version of Windows Vista that Microsoft recommends. You
can select a different version on the previous screen to see a new set of tabs.
Running the Windows XP Upgrade Advisor
The Windows XP Upgrade Advisor runs automatically during the early stages of
Windows XP Setup, but you can run it before you start setup to determine if you have
any issues before an upgrade. To run the Upgrade Advisor in Windows XP:
1 Insert the Windows XP installation disc or access the installation files.
2 Start Setup.
3 Click Check System Compatibility.

Do it!
A-2:
2113
Running the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor
Heres how
Heres why

directions for accessing
Windows7UpgradeAdvisorSetup.exe
2 Double-click the file
To start the installation. You must install the

Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor before you use it
to scan your computer.
3 Click Yes
4 Select I accept the license
terms and click Install
To accept the license agreement.
5 Click Close
To close the wizard. A shortcut is on your

desktop.
6 On your desktop, double-click the

Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor
shortcut
Click Yes
7 In the Windows 7 Upgrade
Advisor, click Start check
The utility begins to scan your system.
8 Observe the results

The Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor confirms that
your computer can run Windows 7.
9 Scroll down to see if there are any

potential issues
The Advisor briefly explains any issues and lists

the number of issues in different categories.

10 Click See all system
requirements
11 Click
12 Click Close
Any potential issues are explained. Components

that were scanned but present no possible issues
are also listed.
2115
Partitions and formatting

Before beginning the installation, you must decide which file system youre going to
use: FAT, FAT32, or NTFS. NTFS is the recommended file system for Windows 7 and
Windows Vista. If youre upgrading from Windows XP to Windows 7 or Windows
Vista, Windows XP must be on an NTFS partition. If Windows XP is on a FAT32
partition, you have to convert it to NTFS before upgrading to Windows 7 or Windows
Vista. The command syntax for convert and its parameters is shown in Exhibit 21-2.
Exhibit 21-2: The convert command

To convert a drive to NTFS, you enter drive: /fs:ntfs.
If the hard disk doesnt already have an appropriately formatted partition, you must
prepare the hard disk before you can install the operating system. Use Windows Setup
on your installation disc to create, delete, and format partitions on the hard disk. To use
Windows Setup, insert the bootable Windows CD- or DVD-ROM and start the
installation. When prompted, partition the hard disk and format the drive where you
plan to install Windows.
Its important to note that Windows XP originally didnt support 48-bit Logical Block
Addressing (LBA) for ATA Packet Interface (ATAPI) disk drives, giving it a 137 GB
partition limit. So, if you try to install Windows XP on a 500 GB hard drive, youll end
up with a 137 GB system partition and the remainder as free space. This particular issue
was fixed with Windows XP SP1 and in Windows Vista. If you are installing Windows
XP on computers with larger hard disks, youll want to consider getting a copy of
Windows XP with SP1 or later slip-streamed (included).

Do it!
A-3:
Discussing installation partition and file system

requirements

1 Youre running Windows XP Professional on a FAT32 partition. What should you
do before upgrading to Windows Vista Business?
2 You have a computer with a 1 TB hard drive. Can you create and format one
single partition by using Windows 7 Setup?
3 What is the largest installation partition you can create by using Windows Setup
in Windows XP prior to SP1?
2117
Several methods are available for installing Windows, depending on which operating
system, if any, is already on the computer.
Windows 7 and Vista installation
The easiest way to install Windows 7 or Windows Vista is from the installation DVD.
When you insert the DVD into a computer, a window opens and presents you with a
variety of options, including checking for compatibility, installing Windows 7 or Vista,
and transferring files and settings from one computer to another. When you click Install
now, Setup begins, and you can either upgrade to Windows 7 or Vista (if an upgrade is
supported) or perform a clean installation.
You can also access the Windows 7 or Vista installation files from a network share. To
start Setup from across the network, access the network share that contains the
installation files, and double-click Setup.exe.
Windows 2000 and Windows XP installation
To install Windows 2000 Professional or any version of Windows XP, use one of the
following methods:
If the installation CD- or DVD-ROM is bootable, then when you insert it,
Windows Setup starts automatically. You can use this method regardless of the
operating system installed.
If the computer has DOS installed, insert the CD-ROM (assuming youve
installed appropriate optical drivers), access the CD-ROM, and double-click
Winnt.exe.
If the computer is running Windows 9x, Windows Me, Windows NT
Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, or Windows XP, insert the CD-ROM
and double-click Winnt32.exe to start setup for Windows 2000 Professional or
Windows XP.
You can also boot a computer from a USB device and start the installation that
way.
You can also perform a network installation of Windows. You copy the contents of the
installation disc to a network server or place the disc in an optical drive on the network
server, and then share the folder or drive. From the client, you access the share and run
the appropriate setup file: Winnt.exe or Winnt32.exe for Windows XP or Windows
2000, and setup.exe for Windows 7 or Vista. The appropriate files are copied to the
local computer, just like they would be if you had the installation disc in a local optical
drive. Because the client needs network drivers installed for this method to work, its
most useful for upgrades.
Note that a network installation is not the same as a remote installation using
Microsofts Remote Installation Services from a Windows server or a third-party
cloning application. These programs use an image of the original cloned computer and
copy it down to the client. This image contains the hardware drivers of the original
system, so the image must be installed on similar computers. For example, you cant use
an image created from a computer with an Intel Pentium Extreme Edition processor on
one with an AMD Athlon processor.

Unattended installations
All of the options discussed so far are options for an attended installation, where a
person must be present to respond to the prompts presented on screen. Performing an
automated or unattended installation is another option. Using the Windows System
Image Manager in Windows 7 and Vista, the Setup Manager utility in Windows
XP/2000, or even Notepad, you can create an answer file, which is a text file used to
provide answers to some or all of the prompts displayed during installation. Start
Windows Setup and point it to the answer file, which will provide answers to the
prompts, such as computer name, product key, and network settings. Unattended
installations require little or no input to be completed successfully.
You can also use disk-imaging software, such as Norton Ghost, to create and deploy
operating system images. There are many requirements you have to meet to use disk
images, so be sure to investigate and fulfill all requirements before you begin to clone
computers and distribute images. The image distribution process includes making a
clone or image of a computer that has a version of Windows installed.
You can configure this computer with hardware similar to that of the computers on
which you install Windows, and you can install common applications that you want to
distribute with Windows. After the image is created, its stored on a network server and
used to install Windows on computers across the network.
Windows installation
After youve installed one version of Windows, you can make your way through the
installation of any other version. Setup takes care of just about everything and presents
you with an operational computer when its done.
Installing Windows 7 and Vista
To perform a clean installation of Windows 7 or Windows Vista by booting from the
DVD:
1 Back up any files and folders you want to save from the computer on which
youre installing Windows 7 or Windows Vista. (This wont be necessary if its
a new computer.)
2 If necessary, save user system settings by running the User State Migration Tool
(USMT) and saving them to a network location. Alternatively, you can use the
Windows Easy Transfer Wizard to save your user system settings to a network
location, a local optical medium (such as a DVD), or a removable hard disk or
flash drive. For more information about USMT and the Windows Easy Transfer
Wizard, see Windows 7 or Windows Vista Help and Support. Back up any
important data.
3 If necessary, obtain a product key. Youll need to enter it during setup.
4 Verify that you have Internet access if you plan to download and install updates
to Windows 7 or Windows Vista later.
5 Insert the installation DVD and restart the computer. When prompted, press any
key to boot from the DVD.
6 In Windows Vista setup, select a language, time and currency format, and
keyboard or input method.
7 Click Install now.
8 Click Go online to get the latest updates for installation (recommended) or Do
not get the latest updates for installation.
2119
9 In Windows Vista, if necessary, enter your product key. Choose whether to

automatically activate Windows when youre online. (Clear the checkbox if you
dont want to activate automatically.)
10 Accept the license agreement and click Next.
11 Click Custom.
12 Choose the partition on which to install Windows 7 or Windows Vista. If
necessary, click Load Driver to load a hard disk driver. You can click Drive
options to delete, create, and format partitions. Configure the partitions as
necessary, select the partition on which you want to install Windows 7 or
Windows Vista, and click Next.
If you had a previous version of Windows XP installed and are completing a
custom installation of Windows 7 or Windows Vista, click OK to acknowledge
those files will be moved to a Windows.old folder.
Windows Setup will copy and expand files, and install the operating system.
Youll be prompted for more information after at least one restart.
13 In Windows 7 setup, select a Country or region, time and currency format, and
keyboard layout.
14 Create a new user account, and in Windows Vista choose a picture to associate
with that user account.
15 Name the computer and in Windows Vista, choose a desktop background.
16 In Windows 7, enter a password and a password hint.
17 In Windows 7, if necessary, enter your product key. Choose whether to activate
Windows automatically when youre online. (Clear the checkbox if you dont
want to activate automatically.)
18 Choose how you want to handle automatic updates.
19 Configure time zone, time, and date settings.
20 Select a network type, and in Windows Vista, click Start.
21 Install any necessary device drivers that werent installed during the Windows 7
or Windows Vista installation.
22 If necessary, activate Windows 7 or Windows Vista.
23 Use USMT to load user settings back onto the upgraded system.
If you are completing a custom install of Windows 7 or Windows Vista onto a partition
with a previous Windows XP installation, the previous installation will be moved to a
folder named Windows.old. This folder will contain the old Program Files, Users, and
Windows folders. Youll be able to access these folders, but you wont be able to use
the previous version of the operating system.

Product keys and activation
Product keys and activation are two methods Microsoft uses to combat software piracy.
Product keys are 25-character codes that unlock the software for use. You typically
enter the Windows Vista product key during installation. You obtain the product key
from a label on the Windows 7 or Windows Vista DVD packaging or from an
administrator who obtains it from the packaging or from a list provided through a
volume license agreement. If you dont have a product key, you can click Next on the
Type your product key for activation page. Then, when youre prompted as to
whether you want to enter your product key now, click No. Be aware that you must
enter a product key for the Windows Vista installation within 30 days or you wont be
able to boot the computer.
Activation is the process in which Windows 7 or Windows Vista registers itself with
Microsoft as being installed on your computer. Windows 7 or Windows Vista takes a
snapshot of the hardware in your computer, and using an algorithm, produces a value
that it sends to Microsoft. Activation ensures that you use one copy of Windows 7 or
Windows Vista on a single computer. If you try to activate the same copy of Windows 7
or Windows Vista on a different computer, unless you have a volume license copy, the
activation will fail.
If you dont activate Windows 7 or Windows Vista within 30 days of installation, it will
begin to operate in whats called Reduced Functionality Mode. In this mode, you can
use Windows 7 or Windows Vista for only one hour at a time. After you activate it, you
can use it normally.
Any major changes to your hardware configuration might require another activation.
You can activate the same copy multiple times if necessary, and you can reinstall the
same copy of Windows Vista on the same computer as often as necessary.
Activation is not the same as registration, which you do so youre eligible to obtain
updates and upgrade pricing for the next version of Windows. Activation is mandatory;
registration is voluntary.
Windows Update
You can configure Windows 7 or Windows Vista to download and install operating
system updates. These include updates to enhance features, correct problems, and
bolster security. Youll be prompted to download updates during setup, and when setup
is complete, you can choose how you want to handle updates. Its highly recommended
that you enable Windows Update. You can always configure updates in the Control
Panel at any time after installation is complete.
Near the end of the upgrade, youll be prompted to select one of these options:
Use recommended settings: Install important and recommended updates
Install important updates only: Only security and other important updates
Ask me later: Configure options later
2121
Network locations
When installing Windows 7 or Windows Vista, you are prompted to choose the location
of the network to which the computer is connected. Depending on your choice,
Windows Vista will apply a predetermined collection of settings to help secure your
computer on that network. You have three options:
Home The computer is discoverable (that is, other computers can find it on
the network), and you can see other computers.
Work The computer is discoverable and you can see other computers.
Public location There is limited discovery and tighter security.
To change the network location setting (if the computer is not a member of a domain),
open the Control Panel and click Network and Internet. Then click Network and Sharing
Center. Next to Network, click Customize, and select either Public or Private.
Installing Windows XP and Windows 2000
The installation process for Windows XP and Windows 2000 generally follows these
steps:
1 Insert the installation CD-ROM.
2 Access and run the appropriate installation file (Winnt or Winnt32). The textmode Setup begins. (Winnt.exe is for 16-bit operating systems; Winnt32.exe is
for 32-bit operating systems.)
3 f necessary, partition and format the hard disk during text mode. Setup then
copies necessary files to the hard disk.
4 fter the text-mode part of the process, Setup reboots the computer and starts the
GUI portion of Setup. During this portion, youre prompted for some or all of
the following:
a Language and locale settings
b Product key
c Installation directory
d Administrator password
e Floppy disk to create a Startup Disk
f Networking configuration (DHCP or custom configuration)
Setup incorporates your input, copies the necessary files from the CD-ROM,
configures the files, detects hardware and installs drivers, and configures
networking. When Setup is complete, youre ready to log on and complete the
post-installation tasks.

Troubleshooting an installation
Generally, as long as you meet the minimum hardware requirements, and run the
Windows Upgrade Advisor and resolve any issues it reports, you shouldnt encounter
any problems during the upgrade. However, there are some common issues, described
Issue
Possible cause
Resolution
CD or DVD wont
launch
Defective CD or DVD;
autoplay not configured on
CD or DVD drive
Replace the CD or DVD; reinsert into

the CD or DVD drive. Access the CD or
DVD through Windows Explorer or
Computer (My Computer).
Hardware error
messages
Incompatible hardware
Replace the hardware and try the

upgrade again.
System isnt booting

to the optical drive
Optical drive port not

enabled in BIOS or drive
boot order is incorrect in
BIOS
Enter the computer BIOS and verify that

the motherboard port for the optical
drive is enabled and that it is first in the
boot order.
Error message that

Windows XP SP 2
is missing
Windows XP Service Pack

2 is required
Install Service Pack 2 for Windows XP

and try the upgrade again.
Setup cant
download updates
The computer isnt

connected to the network,
or there are network errors
Continue with the upgrade. You can

install updates later.
Disk space
Setup hasnt found enough

free hard disk space to
continue with installation
Free up some hard disk space or upgrade

the hard drive, and restart Setup.
CD or DVD errors
Computer cant read the

CD or DVD
Verify that the CD or DVD drive is

installed and working properly. Check
the CD or DVD itself to ensure that its
clean and free of scratches or chips. Try
a new CD or DVD if necessary.
Setup hangs during

GUI portion;
Windows wont start
after installation
Most likely a hardware

compatibility problem.
Be sure that all of your hardware is

compatible.
Blue screen
Hardware or BIOS error
Note the type of error, and research the

cause and solution on Microsofts Web
site. Verify that all hardware is
compatible with your version of
Windows. Update the system BIOS.

Do it!
A-4:
2123
Installing Windows 7 Professional
Heres how
Heres why
1 Insert the Windows 7 DVD into

your computer, or access the
installation files on the network
2 Click Run setup.exe
To start the setup program
Click Yes
3 Click Install Now
Setup copies temporary files to your computer.
4 Click Go online to get the

latest update for
installation
(recommended)
5 Check I accept the license

terms
Click Next
6 Click Custom (advanced)
To install a clean copy of Windows, select

where you want to install it, or make disk or
partition changes. This option does not keep
your files, settings, and programs.
7 Verify that the C: partition is

selected
Click Next
8 Click OK
To acknowledge that any files from the previous

Windows installation will be moved to a
Windows.old folder. Once youre satisfied with
the installation, youll want to delete this folder
and remove it from the Recycle Bin to get the
space back.
The installation program copies Windows files,
expands them, installs features, installs updates,
and then completes the installation.

9 Select the appropriate Country or
region, Time and currency, and
Keyboard layout for your
locations
If necessary.
Click Next
10 In the Type a user name box,
type MYCOMPADMIN##
Where ## matches the number you were

assigned for your COMPADMIN user.
11 In the Type a computer name

box, type COMP-PC##
Where ## matches the number in your user

account.
Click Next
12 In the Type a password box, type
!pass1234
In the Retype your password box,

type !pass1234
In the Type a password hint
(required) box, type hint
Click Next
13 If you have a product key, enter it
when prompted
Click Next
14 Click Use recommended
To enable Automatic Updates.
settings
15 Set the correct Time zone, Date,

and Time for your location
16 Click Next
17 Click Work
To set your computers current location
18 Remove the DVD from the

computer
19 Open Windows Explorer and view
the contents of your C: drive
There is now a Windows.old folder.
20 Right-click the Windows.old

folder and choose Properties
Observe the size of the folder
It is very large. When you are sure you dont

need the information from the previous
installation anymore, you should delete this
folder to regain the disk space.
2125
21 Click Cancel
22 View the contents of the
Windows.old folder
23 Delete the Windows.old folder
When prompted, click Continue
24 Close Windows Explorer
It contains the Program Files and User

information from the previous installation, plus
all of the Windows files.

Post-installation tasks
After you complete the installation, there are a few tasks you need to perform to
complete the process and verify the installation.
Verify that all devices are working properly. Update drivers or install new
drivers as necessary.
Add any needed Windows components that you didnt install during Setup.
Install the latest service pack and hotfixes. You can get them from
download.microsoft.com or update.microsoft.com. There might be
updates stored locally on a server on your networks LANcheck with your
network administrator.
Restore user data files if you backed them up before the installation.
After you complete these steps, the computer is ready to go.
Devices and drivers

After you install Windows, youre probably going to have to install drivers for at least
one device, especially for devices that are newer than the operating system youre
installing. You should also obtain the latest drivers for any installed hardware or any
hardware you plan to install, usually obtained from the hardware manufacturers Web
site. Windows Setup loads the default drivers from the Windows installation CD-ROM.
After the installation is complete, you might discover that certain devices arent
functioning properly. Its a good idea to find updated drivers and have them available to
save time after the installation is complete.
Device Manager
The primary tool you can use to view whether or not installed hardware is functioning
correctly is Device Manager. Windows uses icons to indicate if there is a problem with a
device and its driver:
A black exclamation point within a yellow circle indicates the device is not
functioning properly.
A red X indicates the device has been disabled.
A blue i within a white circle indicates the device has been manually configured.
A green question mark indicates that a compatible driver has been installed, but
the driver might not be providing full functionality. Many times, this is the case
when Windows uses a generic driver for a device.
Adequate permissions
Not all users have adequate permissions for installing hardware and device drivers on a
Windows computer. Most Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional, and
Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise computers require a user to have
some sort of administrative permissions to install additional hardware drivers, mainly as
a security measure. Before you attempt to install drivers, be sure you have adequate
permissions. Sometimes you need to log onto a computer by using an account other than
your usual one.
2127
Searching for device drivers

Although most devices are packaged with drivers, some of the drivers might not be the
most up-to-date. Windows might not install the best drivers for your new device if the
device is installed during installation. At some point, you might need to find additional
drivers on the Web, most likely from a manufacturers Web site.
Most manufacturers offer free downloads of drivers and utilities for their devices. Find
the name of the manufacturer and visit the appropriate Web site. Look for a link that
offers drivers, support, or downloads. Then download the driver, which is often zipped,
to a local hard disk.
After youve found an updated device driver, you can install it. Use the installation file
provided with the device. If you have the device driver file without an installation
program, use Device Manager. In Device Manager, choose to update the driver for a
device, and then point the wizard to the location of the new driver.

Do it!
A-5:
Installing device drivers and Windows updates
Heres how
Heres why
1 Open Device Manager

2 Note the devices that need drivers,
or pick a device you want to
update
Write down the manufacturers name and the

model of the device, if available.
3 Visit the manufacturers Web site
(Use a search engine if you have to.) If the

drivers for your network card need to be
installed, your instructor will provide them on a
disc.
On the Web site, find the link for

support, downloads, or drivers
4 Find the drivers for the device you
chose
Download them to your computer
and save them in the Downloads
folder
5 Install any needed device drivers
by using an executable file or
from within Device Manager
6 Use Device Manager to verify that
each device is working properly
7 Close any open windows

8 Use Windows Update to install
important updates
Reboot, if necessary, to install all
updates
9 Right-click the desktop and
choose Personalize
10 Change your desktop wallpaper
11 Change your user account picture
You might need to provide configuration data

for the device to get it up and running. For
example, if you install NIC drivers and there
isnt a DHCP server on the network, youll need
to configure IP address information manually.
2129
Driver signing
Microsoft introduced the concept of driver signing in Windows 2000. Device drivers
that have been tested and approved by the Windows Hardware Quality Lab are issued
digital signatures to advertise their suitability for installation on a Windows system.
You can configure Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP computers to accept
only signed drivers to help protect your computers from untested drivers that could
cause significant system disruption. Unsigned drivers arent necessarily bad; just be
aware that some drivers are signed and some are unsigned.
To configure driver signing in Windows 2000 Professional or Windows XP:
1 Right-click My Computer and choose Properties.
2 Select the Hardware tab.
3 Click Driver Signing to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit 21-3.
4 Choose one of three actions:
Ignore Install the software anyway and dont ask for my approval
Warn Prompt me each time to choose an action
Block Never install unsigned driver software
5 Click OK twice.
Exhibit 21-3: Driver Signing Options

In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, driver signing is controlled by group policies. To
change the configuration of driver signing, you have to use the Group Policy Object
Editor. The setting for driver signing is found in User Configuration\Administrative
Templates\System\Driver Installation. After you enable the Code signing for device
drivers policy, you have the same three actions available as with Windows 2000
Professional and Windows XP Professional systems:

Ignore Install the software anyway and dont ask for my approval
Warn Prompt me each time to choose an action
Block Never install unsigned driver software
To configure driver signing in Windows 7 or Windows Vista:
1 Click Start and choose Accessories, Run.
2 Type gpedit.msc in the Open box and click OK.
3 Click Continue.
4 In the navigation pane, under User Configuration, expand Administrative
Templates, System, and select Driver Installation.
5 In the details pane, double-click Code signing for device drivers.
6 Select Not Configured, Enabled, or Disabled.
7 If you selected Enabled, then from the When Windows detects a driver file
without a digital signature list, select Ignore, Warn, or Block, as shown in
Exhibit 21-4.
8 Click OK.
Exhibit 21-4: Configuring the driver-signing group policy setting in Windows 7

Professional

Do it!
A-6:
2131
Configuring driver signing
Heres how
Heres why

Accessories, Run
In the Open box, enter
gpedit.msc
2 In the navigation pane, under User

Configuration, expand
Administrative Templates, System
Select Driver Installation
3 In the details pane, double-click
Code signing for device
drivers
4 Select Enabled
5 From the When Windows detects
a driver file without a digital
signature list, select Block
6 Click OK
7 Close the Local Group Policy
Editor
To open the Group Policy Object Editor.
Topic B: Upgrades
exam objective.
#
Objective
3.1
Compare and contrast the different operating systems and their features
Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit
Windows 2000 and newer upgrade paths and requirements
Microsoft Assessment and Planning Toolkit
Application compatibility, installed program locations (32-bit vs. 64-bit), Windows
compatibility mode
Windows upgrade paths

Explanation
You cant just upgrade any Windows operating system to any other Windows operating
system. The new operating system must support an upgrade from the older operating
system. The tables in this section show supported Windows upgrade paths. If an
upgrade isnt supported, you have to perform a clean installation. Make sure you have
any necessary service packs installed on the previous operating system before you start
the upgrade.
Windows 7 upgrade paths
The following table outlines Windows 7 upgrade options, indicating Install when a
clean installation is required, and Upgrade when an upgrade is possible.
Previous Windows version
Home
Basic
Home
Premium
Professional
Ultimate
Windows 2000
Install
Install
Install
Install
Windows Vista Home Basic
Upgrade
Upgrade
Install
Upgrade
Windows Vista Home Premium
Install
Upgrade
Install
Upgrade
Windows Vista Business
Install
Install
Upgrade
Upgrade
Windows Vista Ultimate
Install
Install
Install
Upgrade
In addition to the information presented in the table, you cant complete:

Windows XP to Windows 7
Cross-architecture upgradesfor example, 32-bit to 64-bit and vice-versa
Cross-language upgradesfor example, English to Japanese
Cross-SKU upgradesfor example, Windows 7 N to Windows 7 K
Windows Vista to Windows N, Windows K, Windows KN, or Windows E
2133
Upgrades between Windows 7 editions

You can also upgrade from one edition of Windows 7 to another if you want to increase
the feature set you have on your computer. The following table describes your options
for performing an in-place upgrade. If an in-place upgrade isnt supported, you can
always perform a clean installation of any other version of Windows 7.
Current Windows 7 edition
Can be upgraded to
Home Basic
Home Premium, Professional, or Ultimate
Home Premium
Professional or Ultimate
Professional
Ultimate
Windows Vista upgrade paths

The following table outlines Windows Vista upgrade options, indicating Install when
a clean installation is required, and Upgrade when an in-place upgrade is possible.
Note that although Windows 2000 is eligible for an upgrade version (lower-priced
version) of Windows Vista, an actual in-place upgrade is not possible.
Previous Windows version
Home
Basic
Home
Premium
Business
Ultimate
Windows 2000
Install
Install
Install
Install
Windows XP Home
Upgrade
Upgrade
Upgrade
Upgrade
Install
Install
Upgrade
Upgrade
Windows XP Media Center
Install
Upgrade
Install
Upgrade
Windows XP Tablet PC
Install
Install
Upgrade
Upgrade
Windows XP Professional 64-bit (x64)
Install
Install
Install
Install
In addition to the limitations on the upgrades mentioned in the previous table, you cant
upgrade some foreign-language versions of Windows XP, Windows XP Media Center
Edition, or Windows XP Tablet PC Edition to Windows Vista. Microsoft Windows XP
Media Center Edition is available only on Media Center PCs. With the special hardware
requirements, Windows XP Media Center Edition PCs are available only from
Microsoft PC Manufacturer partners, so you wont be upgrading any existing Windows
systems to Windows XP Media Center Edition. Windows Vista Enterprise has its own
unique requirements for installation and licensing. If you need to upgrade to Vista
Enterprise, youll need to contact a Microsoft Volume Licensing Specialist.

Upgrades between Windows Vista editions
You can also upgrade from one edition of Windows Vista to another if you want to
increase the feature set you have on your computer. The following table describes your
options for performing an in-place upgrade. If an in-place upgrade isnt supported, you
can always perform a clean installation of any other version of Windows Vista.
Current Vista edition
Can be upgraded to
Home Basic
Home Premium or Ultimate
Home Premium
Ultimate
Business
Ultimate or Enterprise
Enterprise
Ultimate
Upgrade requirements for pre-Vista versions of Windows

Although you probably wont be upgrading computers to versions of Windows earlier
than Vista, the following table lists the upgrade paths available for earlier versions of
Windows operating systems.
Current OS
Upgrades supported
Windows 95
Windows 98, Windows 2000 Professional
Windows 98
Windows Me, Windows 2000 Professional,

Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition
Windows Me
Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition
Windows NT Workstation 4.0
Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional

Do it!
B-1:
2135
Identifying upgrade paths

1 Why would you perform a clean install instead of an upgrade?
2 True or false? You can upgrade from Windows Home Premium to Windows Vista
Ultimate.
3 Youve been using Windows Vista Home Basic, but would like to upgrade to get
more Vista features. This computer is not used for work. What would be the best
upgrade choice?
4 Your company is running Windows 2000 Professional on its client computers.

You need to upgrade to Windows Vista. To which version of Vista can you
migrate by using the upgrade feature?
5 You have a Windows XP Business computer that youd like to upgrade to

Windows 7 Professional. How might you accomplish that?
6 Which Windows Vista versions can be upgraded to Windows 7 Professional?

Pre-upgrade tasks
You want the upgrade process to go smoothly, so before you start it, you can complete
some tasks that can help prevent problems:
1 Run the Upgrade Advisor and fix any reported issues.
The Windows Upgrade Advisor programs for Windows 7 and Windows Vista
can help you to determine if your Windows XPbased PC can run Windows 7 or
Windows Vista. You can also run the Windows Upgrade Advisor to determine if
your existing Windows Vistabased PC can run Windows 7 or an edition of
Windows Vista with more features.
2 Verify hardware compatibility.
3 Verify software compatibility. Uninstall software or install software updates as
needed to resolve compatibility issues.
4 Uninstall any unused applications and delete any unused files to free up as much
disk space as possible and remove any potential compatibility issues.
5 Disable virus checking and compression software.
6 Back up user data files.
Hardware and software compatibility
Any time you install a Windows operating system, you must ensure that all hardware on
the computer supports the version of Windows youre installing. This is as true for
upgrades as it is for clean installations. Remove any hardware that isnt used or isnt
necessary, and consider updating the system BIOS.
When upgrading, because all your system settings and applications are retained, you
must make sure the applications on the computer are compatible with the new version of
Windows. You can check with your software vendors to verify support for a particular
Windows operating system. If you find that the software isnt compatible with the new
Windows version, you might need to rethink the upgrade or figure out another solution,
such as finding or developing new applications. Remove any applications that arent
used, and dont forget to back up user data files before you start the upgrade. One way
to check for compatibility for upgrading is to run the Upgrade Advisor.
The upgrade process

If youve prepared ahead of time by ensuring that your computers hardware and any
installed programs are compatible with Windows 7 or Windows Vista, the upgrade
process itself should run smoothly. To upgrade to Windows 7 or Windows Vista, follow
these steps:
1 Disable any antivirus program you have running on your computer. It could
interfere with the Windows 7 or Windows Vista Setup program.
2 Back up any important data.
3 Verify that the existing version of Windows is on an NTFS partition. If it isnt,
youll have to convert the partition to NTFS.
4 Verify that you have all service packs and updates installed on your existing
Windows operating system. If not, install them by using Windows Update
before proceeding.
5 If necessary, obtain a Windows 7 or Windows Vista product key. Youll need to
enter it during setup.
6 Verify that you have Internet access if you plan to download and install updates
to Windows 7 or Windows Vista as part of the upgrade process.
2137
7 Insert the DVD, and in the Install Windows window, click Install now.
Or access the installation files over the network, double-click Setup.exe. In
Windows 7, click Yes. In the Install Windows window, click Install now.
8 Choose whether to connect to the Internet to get installation updates.
9 In Windows Vista, if necessary, enter your product key. Choose whether to
automatically activate Windows when youre online. (Clear the checkbox if you
dont want to activate automatically.)
10 Accept the license agreement.
11 Click Upgrade.
12 If Setup detects compatibility issues, click Click here for more information to
see what issues were discovered. (These may be the same issues you saw in the
Windows 7 or Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor.)
Setup takes over and completes the upgrade. Setup will restart the computer at
least twice.
13 Choose how you want to handle automatic updates, and then confirm time zone
settings.
14 In Windows 7, enter your product key.
15 Select a network type, and in Windows Vista, click Start.
16 Install any necessary device drivers that werent installed during the Windows 7
or Vista installation.
17 If necessary, activate Windows 7 or Windows Vista.
Upgrades within Windows 7
To upgrade from one version of Windows 7 to another you use the Windows Anytime
Upgrade utility. The Windows Anytime Upgrade utility in Windows 7 doesnt require
physical media or access to the original installation files, but you must purchase an
upgrade key, which you can purchase using the Windows Anytime Upgrade utility at
the beginning of the upgrade process. Windows Anytime Upgrade installs components
from the Component-based servicing (CBS) store located on the local computer. Total
time for an upgrade is approximately 10 minutes.
1 Click Start and choose Windows Anytime Upgrade. (If you dont see it on your
Start menu, you can search for it.)
2 Choose either to go online to purchase an upgrade or to enter an upgrade key.
3 Accept the license agreement.
4 Click Upgrade.
Upgrades within Windows Vista
The upgrade process is very similar, and if youre already running Windows Vista, you
know that your devices and applications are already supported. If you have Windows
Vista Home Basic installed, you should verify that your computer meets the hardware
requirements for Windows Vista Home Premium or Ultimate.

To upgrade from one edition of Windows Vista to another:
1 Disable any antivirus program you have running on your computer.
2 Back up any important data.
3 Insert the DVD of the edition to which you want to upgrade. If prompted, run
Setup.exe.
4 Click Install now.
5 Choose to go online for the latest updates.
6 If necessary, enter the product key. Choose whether to activate automatically.
7 Accept the license agreement, and click Upgrade.
8 Choose how to configure updates.
9 Verify date and time settings.
10 Click Start.
The Windows Anytime Upgrade feature is available in Windows Vista as well. It works
a bit differently there, since it requires your original Windows Vista installation disc or
access to the installation files.
Troubleshooting an upgrade to Windows 7 or Windows Vista
Usually, the upgrade to Windows 7 or Windows Vista should run smoothly. However,
sometimes there are problems. The following table lists some of the common issues you
might encounter when attempting to complete an upgrade.
Issue
Possible cause
Resolution
Upgrade option not

available, or message
Upgrade has been
disabled
The computer was booted

from the DVD.
You must boot the computer normally to

Windows XP and then insert the DVD. Upgrade
in Windows Vista isnt available when you boot
the computer from the DVD.
Upgrade disabled with

message Partition
must be formatted
NTFS
Youre trying to upgrade

Windows XP on a FAT32
partition.
Convert the FAT32 partition to NTFS.
Error message that

upgrade is not
supported
Youre trying to perform an

in-place upgrade on an
unsupported OS.
Verify in-place upgrade requirements.
The appropriate service

pack isnt installed.
Some upgrades require that service packs be

installed on the original OS before you can start
the upgrade. Download and install the necessary
service pack.

Do it!
B-2:
2139
Upgrading to Windows 7 Ultimate
Heres how
Heres why

Windows Anytime Upgrade
2 Click Enter an upgrade key

3 Click I accept
To accept the license agreement.
4 Click Upgrade
5 Log in as your
MYCOMPADMIN## user with
6 Close the Windows Anytime

Upgrade window
The upgrade preserved the user account,

password, and all settings. After you installed
Windows 7 Professional, you chose a unique
icon for your user account and a desktop
wallpaper different from the default. These are
preserved in the upgrade.

Application compatibility
When you upgrade from one version of Windows, such as Windows XP, to another
version, such as Windows 7 or Windows Vista, applications written to work under the
earlier operating system (legacy applications) might or might not work correctly when
run under the more recent Windows operating system. The best option is to upgrade the
legacy application to a version written specifically for the new operating system.
Sometimes, however, this is not an option; a new version might be too expensive or
might not exist yet.
If youve successfully installed a legacy application in the new version of Windows, but
it wont start or wont work properly, there are a few things you can try:
Check the Microsoft Update Web site for updates to the operating system or
legacy application (if its a Microsoft application).
If its not a Microsoft application, check the manufacturers Web site for
software updates or technical notes on how to run the legacy application under
the new operating system.
Use the Windows Program Compatibility feature.
Microsoft doesnt recommend that you use a legacy antivirus, backup, or system
application. For these types of applications, you should upgrade.
Running the Windows 7 Program Compatibility Wizard
To run the Windows 7 Program Compatibility Wizard:
1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. Click Programs.
2 Under Programs and Features, click Run programs made for previous versions
of Windows. Click Next.
3 Select the legacy application. Click Next.
4 Click Try recommended settings and then click Start the program. Click
Yes.
a If the program runs correctly, click Next and click Save these settings for
this program.
b If the program doesnt run correctly, click Next and choose either No, try
again using different settings or No, report the problem to Microsoft and
check online for a solution.
5 Click Close.
6 Close the legacy application.
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Running the Windows Vista Program Compatibility Wizard

To run the Windows Vista Program Compatibility Wizard:
1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. Click Programs.
2 Under Programs and Features, click Use an older program with this version of
Windows. Click Next.
3 Select a method for specifying the location of the legacy application: you can
choose it from a list of programs; use it in the optical drive; or specify it
manually. Click Next.
4 Select the legacy application. Click Next.
6 Select the version of Windows the legacy application was written for, as shown
in Exhibit 21-5. Click Next.
7 Check the display settings you want to apply to the legacy application. You can
choose more than one. Options are:
256 colors Uses a limited set of colors in the legacy application. (Some
older applications are designed to use fewer colors.)
640 x 480 screen resolution Runs the legacy application in a smaller
window. (For problems where the GUI appears jagged or is rendered
improperly.)
Disable visual themes Disables Windows themes in the legacy
application. (For problems with menus or title bar buttons in the legacy
applications.)
Disable desktop composition Disables transparency and other
advanced display features. (For display problems in which movement
appears erratic in the legacy application.)
9
10
11
12
13
14
Disable display scale on high DPI settings Disables automatic resizing

of the legacy application if youre using a large-scale font size. (For
problems with the legacy applications display when youre running high
DPI settings.)
Click Next.
If the program wont run at all and you are logged on as an administrator, check
Run this program as an administrator. (This setting is not available if you run
the Program Compatibility Wizard under the user credentials of a nonadministrative user.) Click Next.
Review the settings youve chosen. If you want to make a change, click the Back
button; otherwise, click Next.
Attempt to run the legacy application.
If it runs successfully, select Yes, set this program to always use these
compatibility settings.
If it doesnt run and you want to try different settings, choose No, try different
settings.
If it doesnt run and you are done trying settings in the Program Compatibility
Wizard, choose No, I am finished trying compatibility settings.
Click Next.
Specify whether or not to send the information to Microsoft.
Click Next. Click Finish.
Exhibit 21-5: Windows Vista compatibility mode options

The Windows XP Program Compatibility Wizard
The Windows XP Program Compatibility Wizard is similar to the Windows Vista
wizard described previously. Youll find the wizard on the All Programs, Accessories
menu. In the Windows XP version, you can run modes for Windows Me, Windows NT,
and Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 application compatibility
With Windows 2000 SP2 and SP3, Microsoft added application compatibility-mode
technology to Windows 2000 Professional. However, the feature isnt enabled by
default when you install the service pack. To enable the Application CompatibilityMode feature:
3 In the Open box, type
regsvr32 %systemroot%\apppatch\slayerui.dll
where %SystemRoot% is the drive and folder in which Windows is installed.

4 Click OK.
After youve enabled Windows 2000 Application Compatibility Mode, you can set
application-compatibility settings on a legacy application. Heres how:
2 Right-click the legacy applications shortcut and choose Properties.
3 Select the Compatibility tab. This tab appears only if youve enabled the
Compatibility-mode interface on the computer.
4 Check Run in Compatibility Mode.
5 Select either Windows 95 or Windows NT 4.0 compatibility mode from the list.
6 Click OK.
7 Double-click the legacy applications shortcut to run the application and verify
the settings.
2143
Program locations
Most 32-bit applications will run on 64-bit versions of Windows operating systems. The
64-bit versions of Windows 7 and Windows Vista run 32-bit applications in a 32-bit
operating system emulation environment called Windows on Windows 64 (WOW64).
For each 32-bit operating system call the application makes, WOW64 generates a
corresponding 64-bit operating system call to pass on to the OS kernel. WOW64 then
converts the 64-bit OS response back into a 32-bit data structure that the application
understands.
WOW64 runs in user mode, because all 32-bit application code must run in user mode
under Windows 7 and Windows Vista. Because WOW64 runs in user mode, 32-bit
kernel mode device driver and applications that rely on those 32-bit device drivers
wont run on the 64-bit version of Windows 7 and Windows Vista.
WOW64 also ensures that files for 32-bit applications are separate from 64-bit
applications by using File Redirection. The 32-bit folders are:
Application files C:\Program Files(x86)
System files C:\Windows\SysWOW64
The 64-bit folders are:
Application files C:\Program Files
System files C:\Windows\System32
WOW64 uses Registry Redirection to keep 32-bit application Registry settings separate
from 64-bit application Registry settings. The Registry location for 32-bit applications
is:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\WOW6432Node
The corresponding 64-bit application Registry key is:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software
Occasionally, you might see 32-bit application Registry entries under
HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\WOW6432Node.
This configuration allows both the 32- and 64-bit versions of a particular application to
be installed on the same 64-bit operating system without overwriting each others
settings.
Microsoft Assessment and Planning (MAP) toolkit

If youre looking to implement an enterprise-wide Windows 7 upgrade rather than
upgrading individual computers, you can use the Microsoft Assessment and Planning
(MAP) toolkit to generate a network-wide inventory report with hardware and device
compatibility details. The MAP toolkit identifies the following operating systems and
software technologies in your environment, including those run in virtual environments:
Windows 7
Windows Vista
Office 2010 and earlier
Windows Server 2008 and 2003, including the R2 versions
VMware ESX and ESXi

Linux
LAMP application stack discovery
SQL Server 2008
The readiness reports are provided in Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word formats, and
contain the following information:
Windows client operating systems, including system hardware inventory, and
recommendations for migrating to Windows 7.
Antivirus and anti-malware programs installed on individual computers, and
whether or not the Windows Firewall is enabled.
Installed Microsoft Office software and recommendations for migrating to
Microsoft Office 2010.
Windows Server operating systems, including system hardware and devices, and
recommendations for migrating to Windows Server 2008 R2.
Currently installed Linux operating systems, including system hardware
inventory for virtualization on Hyper-V or management by System Center
Operations Manager R2.
Assessment report of server utilization, and recommendations for server
consolidation and virtual machine placement using Hyper-V or Virtual Server
2005 R2.
Microsoft SQL Server databases, instances, and selected characteristics.
SQL Server host computers and SQL Server components.
Virtual machines running on both Hyper-V and VMware, their hosts, and details
about hosts and guests.
Assessment of Windows 2000 Servers and system hardware inventory.
The MAP toolkit isnt limited to evaluating Windows 7 readiness. It can also be used for
Microsoft Office 2010, Windows Server 2008, and SQL Server 2008 migrations.
If your company is a Microsoft Volume Licensing customer, the MAP toolkit can also
provide you with software usage and client access reports for the following Microsoft
server products:
Windows Server
Exchange Server
SharePoint Server
SQL Server
System Center Configuration Manager
The MAP toolkit is available for download from Microsofts TechNet at:
http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb977556.aspx
or from the Microsoft Partner Network at:

https://partner.microsoft.com/40079927?msp_id=SAAssessment

Do it!
B-3:
2145
Using the Windows 7 Program Compatibility Wizard
Heres how
1 Install the Windows XP
application
Heres why
Your instructor will provide you with an
application written for Windows XP that you
will install on your Windows 7 Ultimate
computer.
2 After the application has installed,

click Start and choose
Control Panel
3 Click Programs
4 Under Programs and Features,
click Run programs made
To start the Program Compatibility Wizard.
for previous versions of

Windows
5 Click Next
6 Select the application you just
installed and click Next
7 Click Try recommended
settings
Click Start the program
You need to open the program to test it.
Click Yes
If necessary, in the User Account Control dialog

box.
Click Next
In the Program Compatibility dialog box.
8 Click Yes, save these

settings for this program
Click Close
9 Close the legacy application
10 Close Control Panel
Unit summary: Windows installation and

upgrades
Topic A
In this topic, you learned how to perform a clean installation of a Windows operating
system. You learned which pre-installation tasks to perform to make the installation
easier. You also learned about what you need to do after the installation, and you
learned how to troubleshoot installation problems.
Topic B
In this topic, you learned how to upgrade from one Windows version to another. You
learned how to verify software and hardware compatibility with the Upgrade Advisor.
You also learned how to change compatibility settings to run legacy applications on
your Windows 7 or Windows Vista computer.
Review questions
1 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, what utility do you use to copy all your files and
settings to an extra hard drive or other storage device, before doing a clean install?
A Files and Settings Transfer Wizard
C User State Migration Tool
B Upgrade Advisor
D Windows Easy Transfer
2 Which Windows operating systems will run on a Pentium 233 processor? [Choose
all that apply.]
E Windows Vista Home Premium
B Windows XP Home Edition
F Windows Vista Business
G Windows 7 32-bit
D Windows Vista Home Basic
H Windows 7 64-bit
3 For which Windows operating systems is 1 GB of memory recommended? [Choose

all that apply.]
E Windows Vista Business
B Windows XP Professional
G Windows 7 32-bit
H Windows 7 64-bit
4 True or false? To run the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor, you must have the
Windows .NET Framework 2.0 and MSXML version 6 (MSXML6) installed on
your computer.
True. If these arent installed, Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor Setup detects their absence and
prompts you to download and install them.
5 True or false? The Windows XP Upgrade Advisor is available for all versions of
Windows XP.
False. On Windows XP systems, you need Service Pack 2 installed.
2147
6 What is the partition size limit on Windows XP computers without SP1 or later?
A 128 GB
D 500 GB
B 137 GB
E 1 TB
C 256 GB
7 True or false? You can install Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP from a
network share, but not Windows 2000 Professional.
False. You can install all four Windows operating systems from a network share.
8 Which network location is configured for limited discovery and tighter security?
A Home
C Public
B Office
D Work
9 When youre installing Windows 7 or Windows Vista, if Setup cant download

updates, what is the resolution?
A Continue with the install. You can install updates later.
B Install the most recent service pack.
C Note the type of error, and research the cause and solution on Microsofts Web
site.
D Replace the NIC with a Vista-compatible NIC and try the install again.
10 Most Window 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise, Windows Vista Business,
Ultimate, and Enterprise, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000
Professional, computers require a user to have some sort of
__________________________ permissions to install additional hardware drivers.
administrative
11 In which versions of Windows is driver signing controlled by a group policy?

B Windows XP
C Windows Vista
D Windows 7
12 Which Windows operating system cant be upgraded to any edition of Windows
Vista?
B Windows XP Home
D Windows XP Media Center
13 Which is the only version of Windows Vista that can be upgraded to Vista
Enterprise?
A Windows Vista Home Basic
C Windows Vista Business
B Windows Vista Home Premium
D Windows Vista Ultimate

14 To complete an upgrade from one version of Windows 7 to another, what utility do
you use?
Windows Anytime Upgrade
15 An application written for an older operating system is called a(n) _____________

application.
legacy

In this practice activity, youll perform a clean installation of Windows Vista Business
and then upgrade to Windows 7 Professional.
1 Obtain a Windows Vista Business DVD-ROM or access the installation files on the
network. Verify that you have enough free space to complete the install. Perform a
clean installation of the operating system on the C drive.
2 Complete Windows Setup, providing answers to the prompts. Enter a user name of
MYCOMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234. Enter a computer name of
COMP-PC##. Choose the settings appropriate for your computer and network.
3 After installation is complete, determine whether any devices need updated drivers.
Download and install updates as needed by using Device Manager.
4 Install the latest service pack and hotfixes. The upgrade from Windows Vista to
Windows 7 requires Windows Vista SP1 or greater.
5 Upgrade your Windows Vista Business computer to Windows 7 Professional.
6 After installation is complete, determine if any devices need updated drivers.
Download and install updates as needed by using Device Manager.
7 Install the latest service pack and hotfixes.
221
Unit 22

A Examine safety issues and hazards in the
computer environment.
B Identify preventative maintenance tasks for
personal computers.
C Identify ways to avoid injury and strain
when working with computers.

D Examine proper methods for disposing of
computer equipment.
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Topic A: Safety and hazards

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.5

Physical inspection
Ensuring proper environment
6.1
ESD
EMI
RFI
Microwaves
Electrical safety
CRT
Power supply
Laser printers
Cable management
Avoiding trip hazards
Physical safety
Heavy devices
Hot components
Office hazards
Explanation
Part of keeping your computers safe is making sure that the environment in which
theyre used is free of potential hazards and operationally safe. Most of the time, this
involves a simple physical inspection of the work area. Lets take a look at some of the
factors you should consider when examining office hazards.
Floor surfaces
The following guidelines will help you maintain a safe floor surface:
Floors should be level and dry.
Carpets should be secured to the floor.
Cables and power cords should not cross walkways.
Equipment should be protected from static electricity. Use antistatic floor mats,
and if necessary, place antistatic mats under the users keyboard and/or
computer.
223
Exhibit 22-1 shows an antistatic mat.
Exhibit 22-1: An antistatic mat

Fire safety
For fire safety, follow these guidelines:
Keep papers orderly so that if a fire does break out, loose papers dont catch fire
easily. Its best to store papers in metal file cabinets whenever possible.
If coffee makers, hot plates, personal heaters, and other such small appliances
are used, keep combustibles away from them and be sure theyre used properly.
Not only do these appliances produce heat that can ignite materials, but they can
also catch fire themselves if left on for prolonged periods of time.
Keep working smoke detectors in all areas of the building.
Keep fire extinguishers readily available for each type of equipment you have.
Some fire extinguishers use chemicals that shouldnt be used on certain types of
equipment. Each fire extinguisher lists the types of combustible materials its designed
to handle. Newer fire extinguishers have pictures on them to indicate the types of fires
theyre designed to put out, as shown in Exhibit 22-2. Older ones use color-coded
shapes with letters to designate which types of fires theyre for.
Exhibit 22-2: Fire extinguisher label
224

Some fire extinguishers are made to put out fires on multiple types of flammable
materials. The following table describes them.
Class
Used for
Description
Ordinary
combustibles
Puts out fires involving wood or paper. The label shows either a green
triangle with an A inside it or a wastebasket and a pile of logs on fire.
Flammable
liquids
Puts out fires involving grease, oil, gasoline, or similar liquids. The label
shows a red square with a B in it or a gas can on fire.
Electrical
equipment
Puts out fires involving electrical equipment. The label shows a blue circle
with a C in it or a plug and cord on fire.
Flammable
metals
Designed specifically for certain types of flammable metals. The label

shows a yellow star with a D inside it. Theres no picture label for this
class of extinguisher.
Fire extinguishers are filled with one of four substances for putting out fires. These
substances are described in the following table.
Type
Description
Dry
chemicals
These are designed for putting out fires from multiple types of flammable materials by
using an extinguishing chemical along with a non-flammable gas propellant.
Halon
Halon gas interrupts the chemical reaction of burning materials. Its designed for use on
electrical equipment.
Water
Class A fire extinguishers use water, along with compressed gas, as a propellant.
CO2
Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are designed for Class B and Class C fire extinguishers.
CO2 cools the item and the surrounding air.
More information about fire extinguishers, including how to use them, can be found at
www.hanford.gov/fire/safety/extingrs.htm.
Electrical safety
To keep your work area free from electrical hazards, follow these guidelines:
Avoid overloading electrical circuits, which can lead to tripped breakers and
fires.
Label the breakers in the electrical box so you know which outlets are serviced
by which breakers.
Use surge protectors and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) to protect
computer equipment from surges and spikes. The delicate connections in a
computer circuit board can easily be damaged by the surges and spikes produced
by inadequate electric circuits.
Avoid stringing together or overloading power strips, as shown in Exhibit 22-3.
Dont run electrical cords or network cables across walkways. If the wires inside
the cable or cord become frayed, power cords wont work properly and network
cables will fail.
225
If theres no alternative, and power cords must be run across a walkway, they
should be encased in cord protectors. These are most often made of a rubber or
plastic strip through which the cords and cables can be easily inserted. The top
of the strip is slightly domed so that people wont trip over it, and it contains
ample room for the cords and cables to be protected.
Provide good ventilation for computer equipment so it doesnt overheat.
Overheating can lead to melted components.
Phone cords, network cables, and electrical lines should be secured out of the
way. You can use cable ties, which are commonly available in nylon and Velcro.
Some cable ties include a small tag that you can use to label the cables youve
secured together.
Exhibit 22-3: Overloaded circuits
226

Air quality
Computers like clear, clean air, but theyre often used in less than ideal conditions, such
as on factory floors and in other locations where dust, dirt, and particulate matter
abound. To maintain air quality, follow these guidelines:
If necessary, use fans to keep the air as clear as possible.
Avoid smoking around computers. The pollutants from cigarette smoke adhere
to computer components and can cause them to fail.
Periodically clean computer fans to remove dust and debris.
Place working carbon monoxide detectors throughout the building. This
precaution is more important for users than for computer equipment, but its still
important. A carbon monoxide detector is shown in Exhibit 22-4.
Exhibit 22-4: A carbon monoxide detector
Computer hazards
Computers can be hazardous to your health. The two major types of hazards are
physical and electrical. In addition, toner and ozone emissions from laser printers and
photocopiers can be hazardous.
Physical hazards
Computer equipmentespecially laser printers, servers, and large CRT monitorscan
be heavy and bulky. Use care when lifting and moving equipment, not only for the sake
of the equipment, but also for the sake of your back and other muscles. When lifting
equipment, take a balanced stance. If the item is on the floor, squat close to it and use
your leg muscles to lift it as you stand up. Keep your back straight with your chin
tucked in. Grip the equipment, using your entire hand rather than just your fingers, and
bring the equipment close to your body, keeping your elbows close to your body as
well. With CRT monitors, keep the glass face towards your body. It is the heaviest part
of the monitor and is easier to carry when placed closer to your center of gravity. Also,
make sure that you can see where youre going with the equipment! Crashing into
another person, a wall, or other equipment can also be hazardous.
Its also important to restrain or remove neckties, loose clothing, dangling jewelry, and
long hair so that such things dont become entangled with components.
The electronic components of computers generate heat. Many times the heat generated
by these components is enough to cause a serious burn if theyre touched. For example,
while a notebook computer is often referred to as a laptop, if placed on your lap
covering the bottom air vents, youll find that, after a while, the heat becomes quite
uncomfortable and can actually burn your skin. If youll be working with a notebook
computer on your lap, its best to purchase a lap desk. These allow air to circulate
through the air vents on the bottom of the notebook as if on a desk.
227
They also protect your skin from the hot air moving away from the components. You
should exercise caution working on the internal components of a computer, as they can
retain heat. Even if you arent working on a component that generates heat itself, you
are working in close quarters and can accidently brush up against a component that is
hot.
Electrical hazards
Some componentsnotably CRTs, power supplies, and laser printerscontain highvoltage components. When working around these pieces of equipment, take special care
by following these guidelines:
Always use care when working with any electrical equipment. Be sure that its
turned off and unplugged before you begin to make repairs, unless you dont
have an ESD strap. Without an ESD strap, you need to leave it plugged in for the
electrical ground. Otherwise, you could fry internal components.
Visually inspect the equipments wiring for defects, such as faulty insulation or
loose connections, before each use.
Dont use damaged or frayed electrical cords.
Remove metal jewelry, watches, rings, etc., before working on computer
components.
Dont place containers of liquid, including beverages, on or near computer
equipment.
Always know the electrical ratings of the computers and other equipment in your
work area so that you dont overload electrical circuits.
Only specially trained technicians should attempt to repair a CRT or the high-voltage
components in a laser printer. Such training is beyond the scope of this course.
Laser printer and copier toner
The toner used in laser printers and photocopiers is usually a mixture of plastic resin,
iron powder, and carbon black. The particles are about 10 microns or smaller. Toner
dust can irritate your respiratory tract, causing you to cough or sneeze. To protect
yourself from inhaling airborne dust, wear a protective face mask.
In addition, the components in toner can cause an allergic reaction if they come in
repeated contact with your skin. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include rashes on
your skin and burning sensations in your eyes. To prevent exposure, you should handle
toner cartridges with disposable gloves and face masks, and always wash your hands
after you handle a toner cartridge or work on a photocopier or laser printer.
Clean up spilled toner with a vacuum specially designed to clean up material this small.
Other vacuums can let the toner through the bag onto the motor, where the toner can
melt onto it or put the dust particles into the air.
Always send used toner cartridges to a recycler for proper disposal. Never send them to
the landfill. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the environment.
Youll remember that the charged corona wire in a laser printer creates ozone, an air
pollutant capable of causing respiratory illness. To keep the concentrations of ozone
below the currently regulated standard, many newer laser printers employ replaceable
ozone filters. Make sure you follow the manufacturers instructions for replacing the
ozone filter at proper intervals to protect against unsafe levels of ozone emissions.
228
Incident reporting
An organization should have policies in place for handling accidents. The policy should
include the procedure for reporting incidents. Proper documentation in a timely manner
is necessary for OSHA, workers compensation claims, and insurance purposes.
Do it!
A-1:
Identifying typical office and computer-related

hazards

Youve been called in to repair a printer in a small office. When you arrive, you
can barely get to the printer due to the piles of papers surrounding it, along with
the network and power cords crossing from desk to desk across the walkway.
You find that toner has been spilled inside the printer. That happened when the
table holding the printer collapsed under the weight of the printer and papers. You
find that the printer is plugged into a power strip, along with a scanner, a fax
machine, a lamp, and a portable heater. The power strip is plugged into another
power strip. There is a fire extinguisher in the office behind the printer table.
1 What physical hazards are present in the office?
2 What computer hazards are present in this scenario?
3 What changes need to be made in this office?
4 If a physical injury were sustained during the service call, what would your
companys policy be for reporting the incident?
229
High-voltage interference
High-voltage interference in a LAN can originate from a number of sources and affect
several parts of a network.
Outside interference
Outside interference can be caused by lightning and the atmospheric conditions that
produce it. Wind can also generate static electricity, either by the friction of air moving
over stationary objects or by the motion that wind pressure produces in everything from
tree leaves and flags to tumbleweeds and windmill blades. Other sources of interference
from outside the building include radio stations, citizens band (CB) radios, and police
radios.
Inside interference
Inside interference is mainly produced by differences in electrical potential in various
parts of the building or between objects in the building. These differences cause electric
currents to flow for very short periods of time and with differing potential between some
of the points. The brief electrical flows tend to neutralize the potential between the
various points, but the current flow often passes through wires, metal components, and
other conductors that form part of the network structure. When this happens, the high
voltage of the current flow disrupts the low-voltage flow of data in the network or may
even entirely obliterate it for a time.
Interference can also be caused by the operation of pieces of electrical equipment that
create electromagnetic fields around themselves. Imperfectly wired electrical
connections can produce tiny current arcs. These arcs generate interference around the
circuit.
Inside the building, sources of interference include fluorescent lights, any item with a
motorfor example, fans, refrigerators, generators, microwaves, and other household
appliances.
Finally, almost any movement of an object through the air or while in contact with
another object can generate a static electric charge on the object, which produces
interference when discharged. This movement can be anything from feet walking on a
nylon carpet (and discharging with a painful spark when the walker touches a metal
object) to clothes tumbling in the drum of an automatic dryer.
Static electricity is the buildup of an electrical charge on the surface of an object.
Typically, objects that arent good conductors of electricity, such as rubber, plastic, or
glass, are good at holding the surface charge. This static charge remains on the object
until it bleeds off to ground or is neutralized by a discharge, termed electrostatic
discharge (ESD).
With ESD, when two objects of different electrical charge touch, there is a brief and
sudden electrical current which flows between them. Static discharges can attain very
high voltages. If you touch a metal object and feel an electrical discharge, the static
charge (that is, the voltage difference between you and the object) was 3,000 volts or
more. If you saw a spark when the discharge occurred, the voltage difference was at
least 8,000 volts.
Such voltage discharges can produce high levels of interference and can damage or
destroy low-voltage electrical circuits and parts that normally function in a range of five
volts or less. Even a mild static discharge of a few hundred volts can wipe out a data
packet running in a low-voltage wire or completely fry a millivolt-rated capacitor or
other electronic part.

Static charges can also be produced by high-voltage devices. All cathode ray tubes
(computer monitors, television screens) contain high-voltage electron beams and create
static on the faces of their screens and on surrounding objects. Laser printers, copiers,
and power supplies in computers, as well as in many types of electronic equipment, all
produce static charges as part of their normal functions. These static charges can remain
for long periods on the equipment, even after the power is shut off.
The charge can also transfer to other objects or people, creating interference as it does
so, and forming a new voltage difference on the object or person. This new voltage can
then create more interference when it discharges.
Electromagnetic interference
Fluorescent lights produce interference through a phenomenon called electromagnetic
interference (EMI). A fluorescent light contains a high-voltage transformer called a
ballast. When an electrical current passes through the ballast, an electromagnetic field is
generated around it. This field is what causes a fluorescent light to glow. It induces a
current to flow through the fluorescent tube, causing the phosphorus inside the tube to
emit light.
The electromagnetic field can also induce a similar current in other nearby objects,
including network cables and electronic equipment. This is why network cables (and
other low-voltage wiring) must never pass close to fluorescent lights or other highvoltage devices. Induction currents in the network wiring can destroy data and damage
equipment if the discharge reaches it.
Minimizing high-voltage interference

How much the interference generated in and around a building affects a LAN depends
on several factors: climatic conditions in the area (dry, windy conditions produce more
static electricity and, hence, more interference); the LANs location (proximity to radio
stations, power lines, industrial plants); and how well the building is constructed to deal
with the causes of interference. Most interference cant be prevented, but it can be
minimized and the danger to the LANs functioning can be almost entirely eliminated
by careful wiring, good grounding, and perhaps a few filters.
Maintenance
The first defense against interference is to create as little of it as possible. Clean,
securely connected wires and adequate separation of low-voltage lines from highvoltage equipment and circuits reduce interference. So does good maintenance of
electrical equipment. Devices with electrically connected moving parts, such as motors,
relays, switches, solenoids, and sensors, all produce interference if their parts are worn
or dirty. Keeping all of the buildings electrical systems, not just the network-connected
devices, in top working order minimizes interference, which must be dealt with after the
fact.
Install ground wires
The next step to zero interference is to ground everything electrical. Again, this
principle applies to all electrical devices in the building, not just to those connected to
the network. You might even need to ground a few non-electrical objects if you suspect
that static charges are being generated on their surfaces. A carefully installed ground
wire wont harm any object and might reduce interference on the network by
eliminating a source that cant easily be filtered because it isnt part of a circuit.
2211
Use antistatic devices

Floor surfaces, furniture, and glass dont ground well, but they all take a static charge
quite readily. If these surfaces are near network wiring or devices, they can bleed
interference into the network. Antistatic sprays, grounding mats, and removal of the
objects, when possible, are all methods of eliminating this type of interference. You
must determine, on a case-by-case basis, whether its easier to eliminate a source of
interference or to filter out the interference after its created.
Shielding and filtering

For the interference that remains in a building after as many sources as possible have
been removed, two other defenses remain: shielding and filtering.
Shielding
Shielding applies primarily to a networks cables and is actually a refined form of
grounding. The data-carrying wires in a shielded cable are surrounded for the full length
of the cable by a webbing of metal wires or a foil wrapper. Interference entering the
cable through its insulation is intercepted by the shielding and grounded before it can
reach the data-carrying wires in the cable. If shielded cable is used in the network, its
important that the connectors are all properly attached so that the shielding is grounded
and can discharge any electrical interference it intercepts. If the shielding isnt
grounded, it can accumulate an electrical charge and eventually discharge part of it into
the data line.
Twisted-pair cable helps eliminate electromagnetic interference induced in the cable by
proximity to AC power lines or equipment. Remember that the twisted-pair cable used
for networking has four pairs of wires. The wires in each pair are twisted around each
other, and the pairs are twisted together and bundled within a covering. The two wires
(two halves of a single circuit) are wound together to cancel out electromagnetic
interference (EMI) from external sources. The pairs are twisted together to prevent
crosstalk. This isnt as big a problem for most LANs as it is in commercial networks,
but wherever network wiring comes near AC wires or devices, shielded twisted-pair
(STP) cable is a must.
Filtering
Filters are electronic devices designed to permit the normal function of a device while
blocking or suppressing any other signal coming from it. Filters can be placed either on
the source of interference (the preferable location, if it can be found) or on the recipient
of the interference. The latter is the usual practice because the sources of interference
are often impossible to locate.
AC power-line filters are often built into high-quality surge and spike suppressors. They
allow the AC current powering a device to pass, but block any other frequency of
signal. These filters are designed to be placed on equipment that might produce powerline interference or on network devices that might receive the interference. One
multiple-outlet filter/suppressor can protect up to half a dozen devices for a reasonable
cost.

Radio frequency interference (RFI) generally originates outside the building and enters
the LAN through a telephone or cable modem. It can also be caused by cordless phones
and microwaves. To eliminate this type of interference, you can place an RFI and
electrical noise filter on the incoming connection cable in front of the modem (so the
incoming signal passes through the filter before reaching the modem). These filters cost
around $100 but can greatly speed up a modem connection with serious interference by
eliminating the need to resend many data packets corrupted by interference. The filter
can also reduce lost connections to the ISP caused by interference.
An interference filter can also be wired into the network itself. These filters, which often
function as surge and spike suppressors as well, operate by eliminating high voltage
from the network lines. Because network data is transmitted at plus or minus 5 volts, the
filter simply suppresses any voltage significantly above that level and thereby
eliminates interference. The key to good suppression is speed, and a high-quality
network filter should act within a couple of picoseconds in order to block interference
effectively. Network filters cost about $50.
Do it!
A-2:
Finding sources of static electricity and interference

Read the scenario, and then answer the questions. Youll try to figure out if any
equipment is producing interference.
Youve installed a network for a client, and it works well, except that there seems
to be a lot of interference that occasionally slows down data flow. You think its
caused by something electric operating at intervals. You take an FM radio outside,
and with the volume turned up high, tune the dial to the quietest location where no
station is operating. With the radio tuned to this location, you walk into the
building and hold the radio very close to each piece of operating electrical
equipment to determine if you hear static on the radio when its near equipment
1 What would the static indicate?
2 How could you silence the static and stop the network interference?
2213
Topic B: Computer maintenance

exam objectives.
#
Objective
2.5

Physical inspection
Use of appropriate repair tools and cleaning materials
Compressed air
Lint-free cloth
Computer vacuum and compressors
6.1
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Preventive measures
Explanation
As with most things, if you take care of your computer equipment, it will last longer.
Taking care of it includes keeping it clean and doing some periodic maintenance to
prevent future problems. Many manufacturers identify maintenance tasks that you
should complete for their products. You should familiarize yourself with those
recommendations and incorporate them into your maintenance schedule.
Ventilation, dust, and moisture control
Recall that two primary factors contribute to hardware device and computer peripheral
failure: dirt and heat. Most equipment has ventilation holes, and many computers have
fans that help cool them. Keeping the fan openings and ventilation holes clear helps the
airflow and prevents overheating. Keeping the fans clean helps prevent dust and foreign
matter from getting inside the device.
Hard disk drives, for example, are prone to failure in high-heat environments. Their
mechanical nature causes a great deal of friction, as the platters can spin in excess of
15,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Stack several disks inside of a single computer
without proper ventilation, and the combined heat of several drives can damage the
electrical components, leading to drive failure. If a drive fails and data is lost prior to a
timely backup, an expensive data recovery service bureau needs to be employed to open
the disks and attempt to extract the data from the failed device.
You should periodically inspect the ventilation holes and components for dust. Using
compressed-air canisters or computer-equipment vacuums that can blow air is useful for
pushing dust and other matter off of sensitive components. Try to blow the dust out of
the case, or tip the case so the dust is pushed to a corner without either the power supply
or drives in it. Then either use a vacuum to remove the accumulated debris, or use
tweezers to pick up the larger pieces and try to blow the rest out. Some Web sites
recommend using an air compressor instead of compressed-air canisters if the dust and
debris is caked on. An air compressor provides a more powerful air stream but can
cause damage to components if not used correctly.

When using an air compressor, you should give a brief test spray away from the
computer to make sure the compressor hasnt collected any moisture in the nozzle.
When you spray, use a low angle, facing towards the back of the case, so the dust and
debris exits from the case instead of onto other components. Regular cleaning of
computer equipment and adequate ventilation are necessary in order to maximize the
lifetime of the equipment.
The environment should be around 50% humidity, but not under 40% or above 60%, if
at all possible. Too-low humidity levels lead to static electricity and ESD damage. High
humidity levels can lead to moisture and condensation buildup on components, and you
know that water and electricity dont mix well!
Printers should be cleaned regularly to help them last. Paper dust, especially from
recycled paper, can cause problems. Spilled toner gets on rollers and other components
and leads to repeating marks on printed sheets if it isnt cleaned up properly. Even when
theyre idle, printers tend to gather dust. Laser printers use negative and positive static
charges to produce images, so keeping the printer dust-free and in a properly humidified
room is essential to proper operation. High humidity levels can cause papers to stick
together, causing paper jams. Jams can lead to unfused toner on the paper or, in an
inkjet or dot-matrix printer, to the image being printed on the printer rather than on the
paper. Be sure to clean up the inside of the printer if this happens.
Use rubbing alcohol to clean up ink smudges. Specially designed toner cleanup cloths
are also available. The lint-free material is stretched, and as it springs back to its normal
size and shape, it gathers toner particles.
Printer and scanner preventive maintenance
Printer and scanner vendors typically provide schedules for regular maintenance tasks.
The schedule is usually based on page count rather than time elapsed. The
documentation for the printer or scanner should describe any maintenance kits that
should be installed and explain how to reset the page count after you have performed the
recommended maintenance steps.
Ensuring that the printer or scanner is placed in a suitable environment helps the device
work more efficiently and last longer. Using recommended supplies increases the life of
the device. If you use recycled toner or ink cartridges or other non-recommended
supplies, this often voids the warranty on a printer.
Do it!
B-1:
Discussing preventive maintenance

1 What steps can you take to keep computer equipment properly ventilated?
2 Whats the ideal humidity level for computer equipment?
3 What is the best measurement to use for deciding when to complete printer
maintenance tasks?
2215
Cleaning computer equipment

When youre compiling supplies for cleaning computer equipment, some of the items
will be standard household cleaning materials. Others will be designed specifically for
use on electronic or computer equipment. Depending on what youre cleaning and the
materials youre cleaning with, you might need to wear a mask to filter out particles and
chemicals. Latex or other protective gloves can also be useful, especially when cleaning
up toner.
Liquid cleaning compounds
Most liquid cleaners used around computer equipment are alcohol-based because such
substances dry quickly. Water-based cleaners leave the item wet, and this isnt good for
electronic items. If you do use a water-based cleaner, such as a mild household cleaner,
to clean the exterior of equipment cases, spray or pour the cleaner on a lint-free cloth,
rather than spraying it directly onto the equipment. When spraying or pouring the
cleaner onto the cloth, you want to make sure to dampen the cloth, not to soak it.
Dont use ammonia or ammonia-based cleaners when cleaning laser printers or copiers.
A chemical reaction can occur between the toner and the ammonia. The results can
reduce print quality.
CRT monitors can be cleaned with special alcohol wipes or with a standard windowcleaning solution. Dont spray the window cleaner on the monitor. Instead, spray it on a
lint-free cloth and then wipe the monitor surface. This method is appropriate only for
glass screens. If you have an LCD screen or a screen with a plastic coating, be sure to
use wipes designed specifically for cleaning those monitor surfaces, as the ammonia in
glass cleaner can disintegrate the screens coating. Similar cloths are available for
cleaning keyboards.
Cleaning contacts and connections
Component connections and contacts should be clean to get the best connection between
devices. USB ports are especially susceptible to gathering dust and foreign materials in
their relatively large openings. These can usually be cleaned out with compressed air or
antistatic vacuum cleaners.
If the electrical contacts are especially dirty, you can clean them with a lint-free swab
and denatured alcohol or with a special contact cleaner available at most computer and
office supply stores. Examples of special contact cleaners can be found at
micro-tools.com/store.
Non-static vacuums
Special vacuums that dont build up static electricity should be used for cleaning
computer equipment. This is especially true when youre cleaning laser printers,
because they use positive and negative static charges to produce images with toner.
Small vacuums are useful for removing the dust and other debris that seems always to
find its way inside computers. The fans cool the system but also tend to bring dust and
particles into it. The ventilation slots also allow foreign matter to enter the case. Be sure
to keep the chassis, power supply, and fan clean, so any dust that enters doesnt end up
on components. The dust can create contacts between circuits and short them out.
Its also important to keep the CPU, the motherboard, and other thermally sensitive
devices, such as adapter cards, clean. Dust can impede airflow, causing the components
to overheat and fail.

Some computers have external covers over sections that are prone to catching dust.
These sections might include USB ports and floppy drives. Even though these covers
help keep dirt out of the openings, you should still periodically open the covers and
clean out any debris that has collected.
The vacuum is also useful for cleaning out the grilles on a monitor. Keeping these clear
is important for maintaining proper ventilation.
Cleaning monitors, keyboards, and mice
CRT monitors get very hot during operation, so there are a lot of ventilation grilles in
the top rear of the case. These are prone to catching dust, which can get inside the
monitor. Keeping these areas clean will prolong the life of the monitor. A high-pitched
whine from a CRT is often caused by a dirty interior.
Monitor screens and keyboards can be cleaned with lint-free, alcohol-based, moistened
wipes designed specifically for cleaning these items. LCDs and other plastic screens
require special care, and wipes designed for CRT glass screens shouldnt be used on
those surfaces.
Keyboards are great dust, crumb, and dirt catchers. Users who eat at their keyboards
tend to have quite a bit of foreign matter under their keys. You can turn a keyboard
upside down and gently shake it to get debris out. You can also use a small paintbrush
to move accumulated dirt to the end of a row of keys, and then use tweezers to remove
it.
If a user is using a mouse with a ball inside it (rather than an optical or laser mouse),
then the rollers and ball might need to be cleaned periodically. Using the mouse on a
mouse pad helps keep it clean, as long as the mouse pad is clean, but gunk builds up on
the rollers and can cause the mouse to respond in jerks and starts or to not move in a
certain direction. After removing the ring that holds the ball in place and wiping the ball
with rubbing alcohol, you can scrape the debris off the rollers with a toothpick. If the
debris isnt a tight band of gunk around the roller, you can try using a cotton swab
dipped in rubbing alcohol.
The raised areas on the bottom of optical and laser mice can also gather debris. Be sure
to clean any gunk that builds up around the sliding surfaces. Also, be sure that the light
isnt blocked by dirt.
Cordless mice need either to be placed in the recharging base or to have their batteries
replaced periodically. Be sure the contacts on rechargeable mice are clean so as to get
good contact to recharge. Make sure the batteries in the mouse arent leaking.

Do it!
B-2:
2217
Cleaning computer equipment
Heres how
Heres why
1 Gather together the cleaning

supplies to clean the monitor,
keyboard, mouse, and the interior
and exterior of the case
Youll clean the computer equipment at your lab

station.
2 Clean the monitor screen
Be sure to use the proper type of cleaning

materials, especially if you have an LCD or
plastic-coated screen.
3 Clean the monitor case
Try not to get any of the dust in the monitor if

you wipe the ventilation holes or use
compressed air on that area.
4 Clean the keyboard
You can gently shake it upside down over a

wastebasket, and then use a paintbrush, a
business card, or a toothpick to get any
remaining debris out from between the keys.
5 Clean the mouse
If necessary.
6 Clean the exterior of the case
Be sure that USB ports and any other openings

are free from dirt and dust.
7 Open the computer case

Clean the interior of the case
Use compressed air, a computer vacuum,

tweezers, or whatever you need to remove any
dust or debris from the interior of the computer.
Be sure not to get dust on the components and to
blow it away from the power supply and drives.

Material safety data sheets
A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a document that lists the proper procedures for
handling and working with a particular substance. An MSDS includes such information
as:
Physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.)
Toxicity
Health effects
First aid
Reactivity
Storage
Disposal
Protective equipment
Spill/leak procedures
These sheets are designed to give emergency personnel and employers information
about the dangers of products.
The MSDS should describe the first-aid measures needed if a person ingests or comes
into contact with the material (depending on the material and what happens if a person
does encounter it); the fire extinguishing measures needed, including which types of fire
extinguishers can be used; handling and storage procedures; and any other information
needed.
OSHA requires that MSDS information be made available to anyone who might be
exposed to toxic or hazardous materials. The MSDS is created by the manufacturer of
the product. Its available upon request from the manufacturer and should be sent with
the first order of a product and any time the product or the MSDS is updated. Many
MSDSs are available on the Internet.
Many MSDSs include a Hazard Rating section. This is a summary of the most important
hazards that might be posed by the product. Theres a code associated with each hazard.
The following table lists the ratings you might find.
Rating
Description
None
No potential hazard in this category.
The least hazard.
A slight hazard.
A moderate hazard.
Highly hazardous.
Extremely hazardous.
2219
The MSDS might also include codes for personal protective devices that should be worn
or used when handling the product. Examples are shown in the following table.
Rating
Description
Wear goggles when using this product.
Wear goggles and gloves when using this product.
Wear goggles and gloves and other protective gear when using this product.
There are many Web sites with links to MSDSs. Product manufacturers also usually
post MSDSs somewhere on their Web sites. One location you might check is
msdssearch.com/find.htm. You can search by manufacturer or search for a specific
MSDS.
Do it!
B-3:
Reading a material safety data sheet
Heres how
Heres why
1 In your Web browser, open a

search page, such as google.com
or yahoo.com
Youll search for an MSDS and evaluate the

products potential hazard level.
2 Search for toner MSDSs
Laser printer toner is one of the common spills

you might need to clean up.
3 View the MSDS for one of the

toners found in the search
4 How would you clean up a spill
according to the MSDS?
5 What type of fire extinguisher
should be used on a fire with the
toner involved?
Topic C: Safe work practices

exam objective.
#
Objective
2.5

Safe computer handling

Explanation
Computer technicians are often asked to carry large pieces of equipment to user
workstations. Technicians also sometimes spend hours over a computer trying to figure
out why it isnt working. Be sure to take frequent breaks to give your eyes and body a
rest from such tasks.
Ergonomic workstations
The media have covered the potential hazards usually referred to as repetitive strain (or
stress) injuries (RSIs). RSIs occur when stress is placed on the neck, arm, wrist, and
eyes of a computer user who spends hour upon hour on a computer that isnt
ergonomically configured to that particular users needs. (Even when a system is set up
correctly, working for hours without breaks can cause an RSI.) The following Web sites
contain information that can be useful in setting up workstations to best suit user needs:
office-ergo.com/index.html and ergo.human.cornell.edu.
The computer user should be able to sit comfortably on a chair, with feet flat on the
floor. The users back should be either straight or slightly reclined, never leaning
forward to reach the keyboard or to see the monitor. The monitor should be at eye level
so that theres no need to look down or up. The top of the monitor case should usually
be about two or three inches above eye level, thus placing the screen at eye level, with
the top tipped back slightly and about arms distance from the user.
The keyboard should allow the user to keep arms close to his or her body and keep the
forearm at approximately a 90 angle. Some keyboards come with a built-in wrist rest,
on which users can rest the lower part their hands to relieve some stress on the wrists.
You can also purchase wrist rests separately to place at the bottom of a keyboard that
doesnt have one. Eye strain can be lessened by using LCD monitors rather than CRT
monitors.
If the workstation needs to be altered, you can use risers to bring the monitor up to the
desired level. Be sure not to block any ventilation slots, though. This might happen if
the equipment is in an armoire, or if the monitor is right up against a shelf above it in an
office cubicle, or is in a corner with other things right next to its sides. If the desk itself
needs to be raised, be sure that its still stable afterward. A monitor or other piece of
equipment falling onto a user would be another hazard if the desk were unstable.
2221
Laptops
Laptops are convenient for many users, but they can be uncomfortable to use. Some
laptops weigh only about 3 to 5 pounds; others weigh 8 to 10 pounds. Add to that the
weight of the laptop bag and the papers and other things users often travel with, and
youre looking at 5 to 20 pounds in the laptop bag to be carried in hand, over the
shoulder, or on your back in a backpack.
The cramped keyboard can cause the user to type in unnatural positions. The monitor
and keyboard cannot usually both be placed in the optimal ergonomic positions. Usually
you can get one or the other in a good position, but its hard to get both correct.
Laptops are hot, particularly if theyre on your lap. Most laptops are designed to operate
at 35 C to 40 C (95 to 104 Fahrenheit). Placing them on your lap inhibits airflow
through the openings on the underside, resulting in higher operating temperatures.
These often rise to 40 C to 50 C (104 to 122 Fahrenheit) or even higher. At such
temperatures, the laptop often crashes when the processor becomes too hot. The hard
drive can also crash at these temperatures. Users have also been burned right through
their clothing when using a laptop directly on their laps.
Use a laptop cooling pad beneath your laptop, when traveling, to help protect the laptop
from overheating and protect yourself from burns. These pads usually contain fans to
help cool the laptop. Some pads also contain thermal gels to help cool the laptop. The
pad fans are usually powered through the USB port on the laptop. Other cooling pads
are simply flat or wedge-shaped plastic pads with ridges that enable air to flow through
between the work surface and the laptop.
Do it!
C-1:
Avoiding injury and strain when working with PCs
Heres how
1 Adjust your chair so that your feet
are flat on the floor
2 Is your monitor too high or too
low?
3 Does the height of the keyboard
allow you to keep your arms at
approximately a 90-degree angle,
and your elbows in close to your
body?
4 Does your workstation have a
wrist rest?
Heres why
Youll adjust your workstation to the optimum
ergonomic position.
Topic D: Disposing of computer equipment

exam objective.
#
Objective
6.1
Environmental consider proper disposal procedures
Disposal of electronics
Explanation
Its often more cost-effective to replace a component or even an entire computer than to
fix it or upgrade it. Home users and companies alike often end up with large piles of
broken or outdated computers and other electronic equipment that needs to be disposed
of properly.
Electronic components and equipment cant just be sent to the landfill along with the
rest of the trash. They contain many hazardous materials, a number of which can be
reclaimed. To help prevent environmental damage, you need to remove hazardous
materials before sending items to the landfill. Be sure to check the MSDS for
information on how to handle and dispose of the equipment.
Hazardous materials
Hazardous materials in electronic equipment often include lead, which is used in the
solder joints in electronics. CRT monitors contain phosphorous. Both of these materials
must be disposed of in accordance with OSHA and EPA guidelines. The MSDS lists
any hazardous materials in equipment, along with measures to take when disposing of
it.
Disposing of used toner and ink cartridges

Toner cartridges arent suitable for disposal in landfills. The manufacturers have
information on how the cartridges can be recycled. The cartridges are often refilled and
reused if the rest of the components in the cartridge are still in good condition. Some
manufacturers include a shipping label with the replacement cartridge for returning the
used cartridge to them for recycling or disposal.
Ink cartridges aren't usually as toxic as toner cartridges, but they still contain electronic
and metal components that can be reclaimed. They can also be refilled and used again.
(Some printer manufacturers dont honor the printers warranty, however, if you use
recycled ink cartridges.) Office supply stores and other locations often accept ink
cartridges for recycling.
Disposal of computer equipment

Many batteries contain heavy metals that cant be sent to the landfill. Batteries in the
equipment might contain nickel, mercury, or cadmium. Battery recyclers remove the
heavy metals from the batteries and sell them back to industries that can use them in
products. The rest of the battery can then be safely disposed of. Search the Web to find
battery recyclers. They often offer collection containers in which you can ship them
batteries for recycling.
2223
CRTs contain phosphorous and sometimes mercury switches, as well as lead and other
precious metals, in their components. These cant be thrown into the landfill, so they
need to be disposed of properly. When sending CRTs for recycling, be sure that theyre
packaged so that the screen doesnt break. Most recyclers cant reclaim anything from a
CRT with a broken screen.
The computer itself has many components that can be reclaimed. Precious metals can
often be extracted from circuit boards. The case can be recycled. The metals can then be
sold back to manufacturers for use in new products. If youre disposing of a storage
disk, its important that you physically destroy the area where data is stored. Even if you
use software to erase the disk, your data could be retrieved by a savvy thief.
There are companies that specialize in the disposal of electronic and computer
equipment. They sort the equipment by type and then begin manually dismantling the
equipment. They divide it into plastic, metal, and electronic components and CRTs. The
electronics boards are sent on for recapturing precious metals. A breakdown of the
materials found in one ton of electronics boards can be found at
www.thegreenpc.com/the.htm.
Reusing equipment
The first choice when your computer equipment no longer meets your needs should be
to donate the equipment to an organization that can use it. This might be a local school
or other charitable organization. Many PC recyclers attempt to send usable equipment
back out for use rather than dismantling it for materials reclamation.
Methods of disposal
Some municipalities offer local electronic-equipment recycling services. These might be
available year round or offered periodically. Theres often a small fee for disposing of
the equipment. Considering the amount of manual labor involved in recycling these
materials, the fees arent exorbitant.
If no local service is offered, you can check the Web for recyclers. If you have pallet
upon pallet of equipment, a recycler might be able to pick it up from you or arrange to
have it picked up.

Do it!
D-1:
Selecting the proper methods for computer

equipment disposal
Heres how
1 Open your Web browser
2 Search for computer recyclers
3 Determine if the recycler you find
offers equipment for reuse
4 Determine if the organization
recycles other electronic
components or batteries
5 Determine how to get the
equipment to the recycler
When youre done, close the
browser window
Heres why
Youll locate a computer recycler on the Web.
2225
Unit summary: Safety and maintenance

Topic A
In this topic, you identified safety issues and hazards in the computer environment. You
examined office hazards, including floor surfaces, fire safety, electrical safety, and air
quality. You also examined computer hazards, including physical and electromagnetic
hazards. Next, you examined high-voltage interference sources and the need to be
careful when working around high-voltage equipment. Finally, you learned about
MSDSs and why theyre needed, and you examined some examples.
Topic B
In this topic, you identified the preventative maintenance tasks you should complete
on your computer equipment and peripherals, such as printers, keyboards, and mice, to
keep them functioning properly. You examined the different types of cleaning
materials designed specifically for use on sensitive computer electronic components.
Topic C
In this topic, you identified ways to avoid injury and strain, often referred to as a
repetitive stress injury (RSI), when working with computers. You examined ways to
make a users workstation comfortable and to alleviate as much stress as possible to the
back, arms, wrists, and neck.
Topic D
In this topic, you identified the proper methods for disposing of computer equipment.
You identified why electronics and computer equipment cant be sent to a landfill. You
also identified ways of recycling or reusing the equipment.
Review questions
1 What type of fire extinguisher should you keep handy for computer fires?
A Class A
B Class B
C Class C
D Class D
2 What type of fire extinguishing substance interrupts the chemical reaction of
burning materials?
A CO2
B Dry chemicals
C Halon
D Water
3 True or false? Air-quality safety measures are for the benefit of computer users
only.
False. Sensitive computer equipment can be damaged by air pollutants such as cigarette smoke.
4 True or false? Any vacuum cleaner can be used to pick up spilled toner.
False. You should clean up spilled toner with a vacuum specially designed to clean up material
this small. Other vacuums can put the dust particles into the air or let the toner through the bag
onto the motor, where the toner can melt onto it.
5 True or false? Only specially trained technicians should attempt to repair problems
inside a CRT or power supply.
True

6 Which of the following is not a cause of outside interference?
A Atmospheric conditions that produce lighting
B CB radios
C Differences in electrical potential between areas of a building
D Wind
7 If you see an ESD spark when you touch an object, what was the voltage difference
between you and the object?
A At leas 1000 volts
B At least 3000 volts
C At least 5000 volts
D At least 8000 volts
8 Fluorescent lights produce interference through a phenomenon called
___________________ interference.
electromagnetic
9 _____________ applies primarily to a networks cables and is actually a refined

form of grounding.
Shielding
10 ______________ are electronic devices designed to permit the normal function of a

device while blocking or suppressing any other signals coming from it.
Filters
11 What can you use to keep ventilation holes clear of dust?

A Alcohol-based cleaner
B Compressed air
C Fan
D Lint-free cloth
12 What can you use to clean up ink smudges?
A Lint-free cloth
B Rubbing alcohol
C Soap and water
D Vacuum designed for picking up toner.
13 Which of the following devices can be used to maintain power for extended periods
of time?
A Battery backup
B Generator
C Inverter
D Surge protector
2227
14 Most liquid cleaning compounds for computer equipment are based on which of the
following?
A Alcohol
B Ammonia
C Mist in the form of compressed air
D Water
15 Which of the MSDS hazard ratings is least hazardous?
A 0
B 1
C 2
D 3
E 4
16 Which MSDS personal protection rating recommends goggles, gloves, and other
protective wear?
A Rating A
B Rating B
C Rating C
D Rating D
17 When youre properly setting up a users workstation, the angle of the users
forearm to his body should be approximately what?
A 10 degrees
B 45 degrees
C 90 degrees
D 180 degrees
18 True or false? Laptops are meant to be used on your lap.
False. Laptops are hot, particularly if they are placed on your lap. Components can overheat due
to the lack of airflow through the underside openings, and users can get burned when the laptop
is placed on their laps.
19 True or false? Batteries, toner cartridges, and ink cartridges can be disposed of in
landfills without any consequences.
False. Many batteries contain heavy metals that cant be sent to the landfill. Batteries in the
equipment might contain nickel, mercury, or cadmium. Toners are usually a mixture of plastic
resin, iron powder, and carbon black. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the
environment. Ink cartridges arent usually as toxic as toner cartridges, but they still contain
electronic and metal components that can be reclaimed.

In this activity, youll practice applying safety practices to a computer environment.
1 Obtain the MSDS for the type of toner, ribbon, or ink cartridge used in your office.
2 Determine what to do if its involved in a fire, as well as how to dispose of it.
3 Practice lifting equipment, using the proper technique and moving it from one desk
to another.
4 Adjust a users workstation so that its ergonomically correct.
5 Check your offices for unsafe or hazardous configurations.
6 Locate an electronics recycler and obtain a quote for disposing of outdated
equipment in your office.
7 Compile a list of organizations to which you can donate used equipment.
A1
Appendix A
This appendix covers these additional topics:
A Describe the layers of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
A2
Topic A: The OSI model

Explanation
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a standard means of describing

network communications or networking processes by defining it as a series of layers,
each with specific input and output. It describes a theoretical model of what happens to
information being sent from one computer to another on a network. The sending
computer works from the Application layer down, and the receiving computer works on
the transmitted data from the Physical layer up. The OSI model was developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) and has seven layers that are numbered in
order from the bottom (Layer 1) to the top (Layer 7).
The names of the various layers, starting from the top, are as follows:
Layer 7Application layer (top layer), the layer in which applications on a
network node (computer) access network services, such as file transfers,
electronic mail, and database access.
Layer 6Presentation layer, the layer that translates application layer data to an
intermediate form that provides security, encryption, and compression for the
data.
Layer 5Session layer, the layer that establishes and controls data
communication between applications operating on two different computers,
regulating when each can send data and how much.
Layer 4Transport layer, the layer that divides long communications into
smaller data packages, handles error recognition and correction, and
acknowledges the correct receipt of data.
Layer 3Network layer, the layer that addresses data messages, translates
logical addresses into actual physical addresses, and routes data to addresses on
the network.
Layer 2Data Link layer, the layer that packages bits of data from the physical
layer into frames (logical, structured data packets), transfers them from one
computer to another, and receives acknowledgement from the addressed
computer.
Layer 1Physical layer (bottom layer), the layer that transmits bits (binary
digits) from one computer to another and regulates the transmission stream over
a medium (wire, fiber optics, or radio waves).
All parts of network operating systems function in one of these seven layers. If you can
visualize the layer in which an operating system functions, you have a clearer
understanding of how it relates to the rest of the network operating system.
Exhibit 1-1: The OSI model
A3
A4
The OSI model applied to local area networking

The applications, operating systems, and network technology you choose determine
how the OSI model is applied to your network.
Exhibit 1-2: A LAN compared with the OSI model
B1
Appendix B
System cases
A Describe the various types of system cases.
B2
Topic A: System cases

Explanation
Computer cases enclose a computers components. Cases help protect sensitive parts
and keep dangerous componentsthose that get hot or could give electrical shocks
out of reach. A case also packages the various components into a single unit that can be
moved about easily. Most cases enclose the motherboard, power supply, disk drives,
expansion cards, and so forth. A few cases, especially those from non-Windows-based
personal computers, also encase the monitor. A notebook computers case encloses
everything, though you can typically also use external devices, such as mice and
keyboards, with notebooks.
The following table describes the common form factors for computer cases.
Form factor
Description
Desktop
Once the most popular form factor, but rare today. The case was designed
to lie horizontally on a desk, with the monitor sitting atop it. Floppy and
CD drives were mounted horizontally so they would work correctly in a
case in this orientation.
Tower
Essentially, an upright version of the desktop case (one that stands

vertically, rather than horizontally). Its designed to sit on the floor or on a
shelf. Drives and other components are mounted such that theyre
horizontal in the towers upright position. Dimensions are in the range of
20" tall by 8" wide by 18" deep or larger.
Mid-tower
A smaller version of the tower style case. Dimensions are in the range of
18" tall by 8" wide by 18" deep.
Mini-tower
A still smaller version of the tower case. Dimensions are in the range of 16"
tall by 8" wide by 16" deep or smaller.
Brick (or cube)
A small case, more cube-shaped than a typical tower case. This case style
was introduced many years ago, but is regaining favor among some users
and manufacturers. Dimensions are in the range of 8" tall by 12" wide by 8"
deep or smaller.
C1
Appendix C
A Understanding the binary and hexadecimal
numbering systems.
C2
Topic A: Count like a computer

Explanation
As a computer support technician, youll sometimes need to interact with the computer
by using numbers or symbols that the computer can understand. To do so, youll
sometimes need to enter numerical values using a numbering system that the computer
can interpret.
Numbering systems
A numbering system is a method of recording numbers. It follows a particular paradigm
for recognizing and manipulating numerical values.
Numbering systems define a limited set of symbols with which you can represent the
individual digits of a number. Numbering systems also define the concept of positions
or places, which are the means by which you can construct numbers larger than the
base.
The numbering systems base is the number of digits available. For example, in the
decimal or base-10 numbering system, there are ten digits with which we can construct
any number.
To construct numbers larger than ten digits allow, you must add digits. All the digits of
a number are written next to each other, with the position or place of each digit
representing the base raised to the digit position minus one.
Base-10 numbering
For example, in the decimal system, the first place (the rightmost) represents multiples
of 10 raised to the zero power. These are the single-digit values. The second place
represents multiples of 10 raised to the first power, or multiples of 10.
In the base-10 system, the places are:
, 1000 (or 103), 100 (or 102) , 10 (or 101) , 1 (or 100)
The number 23 is thus represented by two tens plus three ones.
2 * 101 + 3 * 100 = 20 + 3 = 23
Other numbering systems use different bases and places.
The following table provides a quick overview of how numbers larger than a single digit
are constructed from powers of 10. The powers of 10 are sometimes called places, as
in the ones place or the tens place.
Number
1000 (or 103)
100 (or 102)
10 (or 101)
1 (or 100)
23
287
C3
The binary numbering system

The binary numbering system is a base-2 system. It uses just two digits0 and 1to
represent any number. Places in this system represent powers of 2. The following table
illustrates how some numbers can be constructed in the binary system.
Number
16 (or 24)
8 (or 23)
4 (or 22)
2 (or 21)
1 (or 20)
14
31
As you can see, many places are required to represent even small numbers when using
the binary system.
Computers are constructed of millions of tiny switches. These switches can be either on
or off. Thus, the binary system is well-suited for computers. In fact, everything that a
computer works with or does has a representation as a binary digit.
Binary notation
Often, context makes it clear whether youre working with binary or decimal numbers.
Sometimes, though, you must take extra care to be clear which youre using.
One binary notation style includes a subscript 2 following the number. Thus, you would
be able to know that 102 is the binary number representing two, not the decimal number
10.
Another notation style involves writing the decimal digits in groups of four or eight
digits, with zeros added as needed on the left to make equal groups. For example, you
would write the binary number 10000000000 (1024 in base 10) as 00000100 00000000.
Conversion from base 10
A useful trick for converting base-10 numbers to binary is to construct a table like the
following one. Write the base-10 number on the left. Then, starting with the leftmost
binary place, put a 1 in each column, if that value is smaller than the number at the left.
Then subtract the number in the column from the number at the left. This is your new
base number, and you can move on to the next column; otherwise, put a 0 in the
column.
# to convert
1024
512
256
128
64
32
16
C4

Binary math
You can add, subtract, multiply, and divide binary numbers. You add the value at each
place, carrying the remainder to the next higher place. For example, binary 10 (2) plus
binary 01 (1) is binary 11 (3).
Just as with decimal numbers, the value of each place can never exceed the base minus
one. In other words, binary 10 (2) plus binary 10 (2) cannot equal 20. Instead, you must
add a new place to the left, putting a 1 in it. The correct answer is thus 100 (4).
The hexadecimal numbering system

The hexadecimal numbering system, also called hex or base-16 numbering, uses 16
digits0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 , 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. The letter digits represent the
decimal-equivalent values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. For example, to represent the
number 10 in hex, you write A.
In hex, the base is 16 and each place represents a power of 16, as shown in the
following table.
Number
4096 (or 163)
256 (or 162)
16 (or 161)
1 (or 160)
15
17
453
1024
62331
Even very large numbers can be represented with just a few hexadecimal digits.
Hex numbering is often used with computers because each hex digit compactly
represents four binary digits. Thus, instead of writing 11111111 to represent the number
255, you can simply write FF.
Hex notation
When you see a number containing the letters A through F, it should be obvious that
youre looking at a hexadecimal number. For numbers that dont include letters, you
need to include a clue that youre representing a hex value.
Matching the other notations, you can include a subscript 16 following the number to
indicate that it is a hexadecimal number. For example, you might write 1116 to represent
decimal 17 in hex.
The more common technique is to precede the number with a zero and a lowercase x.
Thus, the hex equivalent of decimal 1024 would be written 0x400.
D1
Appendix D
CompTIA A+ acronyms
This appendix covers the following
information:
A Acronyms and abbreviations appearing on
the CompTIA A+ exams covering 2009

objectives.
D2
Topic A: List of abbreviations

Explanation
The following is a list of acronyms and abbreviations that appear on the CompTIA A+
exams covering 2009 objectives. Candidates are encouraged to review the complete list
and attain a working knowledge of all listed items as part of a comprehensive exam
preparation program. Relevant exams include:
CompTIA A+ Essentials, 220-701, version 2.0
CompTIA A+ Practical Application, 220-702, version 2.0
CompTIA A+ Acronyms. Copyright 2008 by CompTIA. All rights reserved.
Acronym
Spelled out
AC
alternating current
ACL
access control list
ACPI
advanced configuration and power interface
ACT
activity
ADF
automatic document feeder
ADSL
asymmetrical digital subscriber line
AGP
accelerated graphics port
AMD
advanced micro devices
APIPA
automatic private internet protocol addressing
APM
advanced power management
ARP
address resolution protocol
ASR
automated system recovery
ATA
advanced technology attachment
ATAPI
advanced technology attachment packet interface
ATM
asynchronous transfer mode
ATX
advanced technology extended
BHO
browser helper object
BIOS
basic input/output system
BNC
Bayonet-Neill-Concelman or British Naval Connector
BTX
balanced technology extended
CD
compact disc
CompTIA A+ acronyms
Acronym
Spelled out
CD-ROM
compact disc-read-only memory
CD-RW
compact disc-rewritable
CDFS
compact disc file system
CFS
Central File System, Common File System, Command File

System
CMOS
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
COMx
communication port (x=port number)
CPU
central processing unit
CRT
cathode-ray tube
DAC
discretionary access control
DB-25
serial communications D-shell connector, 25 pins
DB-9
9 pin D shell connector
DC
direct current
DDOS
distributed denial of service
DDR
double data-rate
DDR RAM
double data-rate random access memory
DDR SDRAM
double data-rate synchronous dynamic random access memory
DFS
distributed file system
DHCP
dynamic host configuration protocol
DIMM
dual inline memory module
DIN
Deutsche Industrie Norm
DIP
dual inline package
DLT
digital linear tape
DLP
digital light processing
DMA
direct memory access
DMZ
demilitarized zone
DNS
domain name service or domain name server
DOS
denial of service
D3
D4

Acronym
Spelled out
DRAM
dynamic random access memory
DSL
digital subscriber line
DVD
digital video disc or digital versatile disc
DVD-RAM
digital video disc-random access memory
DVD-ROM
digital video disc-read only memory
DVD-R
digital video disc-recordable
DVD-RW
digital video disc-rewritable
DVI
digital visual interface
ECC
error correction code
ECP
extended capabilities port
EEPROM
electrically erasable programmable read-only memory
EFS
encrypting file system
EIDE
enhanced integrated drive electronics
EMI
electromagnetic interference
EMP
electromagnetic pulse
EPROM
erasable programmable read-only memory
EPP
enhanced parallel port
ERD
emergency repair disk
ESD
electrostatic discharge
EVGA
extended video graphics adapter/array
EVDO
evolution data optimized or evolution data only
FAT
file allocation table
FAT12
12-bit file allocation table
FAT16
FAT32
FDD
floppy disk drive
CompTIA A+ acronyms
Acronym
Spelled out
Fn
Function (referring to the function key on a laptop)
FPM
fast page-mode
FRU
field replaceable unit
FSB
Front Side Bus
FTP
file transfer protocol
FQDN
fully qualified domain name
Gb
gigabit
GB
gigabyte
GDI
graphics device interface
GHz
gigahertz
GUI
graphical user interface
GPS
global positioning system
GSM
global system for mobile communications
HAL
hardware abstraction layer
HCL
hardware compatibility list
HDD
hard disk drive
HDMi
high definition media interface
HPFS
high performance file system
HTML
hypertext markup language
HTTP
hypertext transfer protocol
HTTPS
hypertext transfer protocol over secure sockets layer
I/O
input/output
ICMP
internet control message protocol
ICR
intelligent character recognition
IDE
integrated drive electronics
IDS
Intrusion Detection System
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
D5
D6

Acronym
Spelled out
IIS
Internet Information Services
IMAP
internet mail access protocol
IP
internet protocol
IPCONFIG
internet protocol configuration
IPP
internet printing protocol
IPSEC
internet protocol security
IPX
internetwork packet exchange
IPX/SPX
internetwork packet exchange/sequenced packet exchange
IR
infrared
IrDA
Infrared Data Association
IRQ
interrupt request
ISA
industry standard architecture
ISDN
integrated services digital network
ISO
Industry Standards Organization
ISP
internet service provider
JBOD
just a bunch of disks
Kb
kilobit
KB
Kilobyte or knowledge base
LAN
local area network
LBA
logical block addressing
LC
Lucent connector
LCD
liquid crystal display
LDAP
lightweight directory access protocol
LED
light emitting diode
Li-on
lithium-ion
LPD/LPR
line printer daemon / line printer remote
LPT
line printer terminal
CompTIA A+ acronyms
Acronym
Spelled out
LPT1
line printer terminal 1
LVD
low voltage differential
MAC
media access control / mandatory access control
MAPI
messaging application programming interface
MAU
media access unit, media attachment unit
Mb
megabit
MB
megabyte
MBR
master boot record
MBSA
Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer
MFD
multi-function device
MFP
multi-function product
MHz
megahertz
MicroDIMM
micro dual inline memory module
MIDI
musical instrument digital interface
MIME
multipurpose internet mail extension
MMC
Microsoft management console
MMX
multimedia extensions
MP3
Moving Picture Experts Group Layer 3 Audio
MP4
Moving Picture Experts Group Layer 4
MPEG
Moving Picture Experts Group
MSCONFIG
Microsoft configuration
MSDS
material safety data sheet
MUI
multilingual user interface
NAC
network access control
NAS
network-attached storage
D7
D8

Acronym
Spelled out
NAT
network address translation
NetBIOS
networked basic input/output system
NetBEUI
networked basic input/output system extended user interface
NFS
network file system
NIC
network interface card
NiCd
nickel cadmium
NiMH
nickel metal hydride
NLX
new low-profile extended
NNTP
network news transfer protocol
NTFS
new technology file system
NTLDR
new technology loader
NTP
Network Time Protocol
OCR
optical character recognition
ODBC
open database connectivity
OEM
original equipment manufacturer
OS
operating system
PAN
personal area network
PATA
parallel advanced technology attachment
PC
personal computer
PCI
peripheral component interconnect
PCIe
peripheral component interconnect express
PCIX
peripheral component interconnect extended
PCL
printer control language
PCMCIA
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PDA
personal digital assistant
PGA
pin grid array
PGA2
pin grid array 2
CompTIA A+ acronyms
Acronym
Spelled out
PIN
personal identification number
PKI
public key infrastructure
PnP
plug and play
POP3
post office protocol 3
POST
power-on self test
POTS
plain old telephone service
PPP
point-to-point protocol
PPTP
point-to-point tunneling protocol
PRI
primary rate interface
PROM
programmable read-only memory
PS/2
personal system/2 connector
PSTN
public switched telephone network
PSU
power supply unit
PVC
permanent virtual circuit
PXE
preboot execution environment
QoS
quality of service
RAID
redundant array of independent (or inexpensive) discs
RAM
random access memory
RAS
remote access service
RDRAM
RAMBUS dynamic random access memory
RDP
Remote Desktop Protocol
RF
radio frequency
RFI
radio frequency interference
RGB
red green blue
RIMM
RAMBUS inline memory module
RIP
routing information protocol
RIS
remote installation service
RISC
reduced instruction set computer
D9
D10

Acronym
Spelled out
RJ
registered jack
RJ-11
registered jack function 11
RJ-45
registered jack function 45
RMA
returned materials authorization
ROM
read only memory
RS-232 or
RS-232C
recommended standard 232
RTC
real-time clock
SAN
storage area network
SATA
serial advanced technology attachment
SC
subscription channel
SCP
secure copy protection
SCSI
small computer system interface
SCSI ID
small computer system interface identifier
SD card
secure digital card
SDRAM
synchronous dynamic random access memory
SEC
single edge connector
SFC
system file checker
SGRAM
synchronous graphics random access memory
SIMM
single inline memory module
SLI
scalable link interface or system level integration or

scanline interleave mode
S.M.A.R.T.
self-monitoring, analysis, and reporting technology
SMB
server message block or small to midsize business
SMTP
simple mail transport protocol
SNMP
simple network management protocol
SoDIMM
small outline dual inline memory module
SOHO
small office/home office
CompTIA A+ acronyms
Acronym
Spelled out
SP
service pack
SP1
service pack 1
SP2
service pack 2
SP3
service pack 3
SP4
service pack 4
SPDIF
Sony-Philips digital interface format
SPGA
staggered pin grid array
SPX
sequenced package exchange
SRAM
static random access memory
SSH
secure shell
SSID
service set identifier
SSL
secure sockets layer
ST
straight tip
STP
shielded twisted pair
SVGA
super video graphics array
SXGA
super extended graphics array
TB
terabyte
TCP
transmission control protocol
TCP/IP
transmission control protocol/internet protocol
TDR
time domain reflectometer
TFTP
trivial file transfer protocol
TPM
trusted platform module
UAC
user account control
UART
universal asynchronous receiver transmitter
UDF
user defined functions or universal disk format or universal data format
UDMA
ultra direct memory access
UDP
user datagram protocol
D11
D12

Acronym
Spelled out
UNC
universal naming convention
UPS
uninterruptible power supply
URL
uniform resource locator
USB
universal serial bus
USMT
user state migration tool
UTP
unshielded twisted pair
UXGA
ultra extended graphics array
VESA
Video Electronics Standards Association
VFAT
virtual file allocation table
VGA
video graphics array
VoIP
voice over internet protocol
VPN
virtual private network
VRAM
video random access memory
WAN
wide area network
WAP
wireless application protocol
WEP
wired equivalent privacy
WIFI
wireless fidelity
WINS
windows internet name service
WLAN
wireless local area network
WPA
wireless protected access
WUXGA
wide ultra extended graphics array
XGA
extended graphics array
ZIF
zero-insertion-force
ZIP
zigzag inline package
E1
Appendix E
A CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition)
exam version 2.0 objectives with

references to corresponding coverage in
this course manual.
B CompTIA A+ 220-702 (2009 Edition)
exam version 2.0 objectives with

references to corresponding coverage in
this course manual.
E2
Topic A: Essentials (2009) comprehensive exam

objectives
Explanation
This section lists all CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam version 2.0
objectives and indicates where each objective is covered in conceptual explanations,
activities, or both.
1.0 Hardware
Objective
1.1
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
FDD
Unit 10, Topic D
D-2, D-3, D-4
HDD
Unit 10, Topic B
B-1
Unit 10, Topic B
B-1
Unit 10, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Tape drive
Unit 10, Topic D
D-5
Solid state (e.g. thumb drive, flash, SD cards, USB)
Unit 10, Topic D
D-1
Unit 10, Topic B

Unit 10, Topic C
Hot-swappable devices and non-hot-swappable devices
Unit 10, Topic D
D-1
ATX / BTX
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1
micro ATX
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1
NLX
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1
I/O interfaces
Unit 4, Topic C
Unit 7, Topic A
C-1
A-1A-5
Sound
Unit 7, Topic B
Unit 8, Topic B
Unit 9, Topic E
B-1
B-1, B-2
E-1, E-2
Video
Unit 7, Topic B
Unit 8, Topic A
Unit 9, Topic E
B-1, B-2
A-1, A-2
E-2
USB 1.1 and 2.0
Unit 9, Topic C
Unit 10, Topic A
C-1
A-1
Serial
Unit 9, Topic A
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
A-1
Unit 9, Topic D
Unit 10, Topic A
D-1
A-1
Parallel
Unit 9, Topic A
Unit 10, Topic A
A-2
A-1
NIC
Unit 13, Topic B
B-4
Solid state vs. magnetic

Optical drives
Removable storage
1.2

Form factor

Objective
1.2
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Explain motherboard components, types, and features (continued)

Modem
Unit 7, Topic A
Unit 8, Topic C
Unit 9, Topic A
Unit 13, Topic B
A-1
C-1
A-1
B-5
PS/2
Unit 9, Topic B
B-1
RIMM
Unit 6, Topic B
B-1
DIMM
Unit 6, Topic B
B-1
SODIMM
Unit 6, Topic B
B-1
SIMM
Unit 6, Topic B
B-1
Processor sockets
Unit 4, Topic A
A-2
Bus architecture
Unit 7, Topic A
A-1A-5
PCI
Unit 7, Topic B
B-1, B-2
AGP
Unit 7, Topic B
B-2
PCIe
Unit 7, Topic B
B-1, B-2
AMR
Unit 7, Topic A
Unit 8, Topic C
A-1
C-1
CNR
Unit 7, Topic A
Unit 8, Topic C
A-1
C-1
PCMCIA
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2
IDE
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
EIDE
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
SATA, eSATA
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
Contrast RAID (levels 0, 1, 5)
Unit 10, Topic B
B-4
Chipsets
Unit 4, Topic A
A-2
Unit 5, Topic A
A-1
POST
Unit 5, Topic B
B-1
CMOS battery
Unit 5, Topic A
A-3
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1
AC adapter
Unit 16, Topic A
A-1
ATX proprietary
Unit 3, Topic B
B-1
Voltage, wattage and capacity
Unit 3, Topic A
A-1
Voltage selector switch
Unit 3, Topic B
B-2
Pins (20, 24)
Unit 3, Topic B
B-1
Memory slots
Bus slots
PATA
Riser card / daughter board

1.3
E3
Classify power supplies, types, and characteristics
E4

Objective
1.4
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
AMD
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
Intel
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
Hyperthreading
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
Multi-core
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
Dual core
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
Triple core
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
Quad core
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
On-chip cache
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
L1
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
L2
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
Speed (real vs. actual)
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1
32-bit vs. 64-bit
Unit 2, Topic A
A-1
Heat sinks
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1
CPU and case fans
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1
Liquid cooling systems
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1
Thermal compound
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1
DRAM
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
SRAM
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
SDRAM
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
DDR / DDR2 / DDR3
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
RAMBUS
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
Parity vs. Non-parity
Unit 6, Topic B
B-1
ECC vs. non-ECC
Unit 6, Topic B
B-1
Single sided vs. double sided
Unit 6, Topic B
B-1
Single channel vs. dual channel
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
PC100
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
PC133
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
PC2700
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
PC3200
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
DDR3-1600
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
DDR2-667
Unit 6, Topic A
A-1
Explain the purpose and characteristics of CPUs and

their features
Identify CPU types
1.5
1.6
Explain cooling methods and devices
Compare and contrast memory types, characteristics,

and their purposes
Types
Speed

Objective
1.7
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Unit 11, Topic A
A-1A-4
Resolution (e.g., XGA, SXGA+, UXGA, WUXGA)
Unit 11, Topic A
A-3A-4
Contrast ratio
Unit 11, Topic A
A-3A-4
Native resolution
Unit 11, Topic A
A-3A-4
VGA
Unit 8, Topic A
Unit 11, Topic A
A-1
A-2
HDMI
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1
S-Video
Unit 9, Topic E
E-2
Component / RGB
Unit 9, Topic E
E-2
Unit 8, Topic A
Unit 11, Topic A
A-1
A-4
Refresh rate
Unit 11, Topic A
A-1A-4
Resolution
Unit 11, Topic A
A-1A-4
Multi-monitor
Unit 11, Topic A
IPA
Degauss
Unit 11, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Distinguish between the different display devices and

their characteristics
Projectors, CRT and LCD
LCD technologies
Connector types
Settings
1.8
E5
Unit 9, Topic A
Mouse
Unit 9, Topic B
Unit 9, Topic C
B-1, B-2
C-1
Keyboard
Unit 9, Topic B
Unit 9, Topic C
B-1, B-3
C-1
Bar code reader
Unit 9, Topic B
Unit 9, Topic C
C-1
Multimedia (e.g., Web and digital cameras, MIDI,

microphones)
Unit 9, Topic C
Unit 9, Topic D
Unit 9, Topic E
Unit 11, Topic B
C-1
D-1
E-1, E-2
B-1, B-2
Biometric devices
Unit 9, Topic C
Unit 20, Topic C
C-1
Touch screen
Unit 9, Topic C
Unit 11, Topic A
C-1
A-3
KVM switch
Unit 9, Topic B
Unit 9, Topic C
B-4
C-1
E6

Objective
1.9
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
PCI
Unit 7, Topic B
B-1, B-2
PCIe
Unit 7, Topic B
B-1, B-2
AGP
Unit 7, Topic B
B-2
Sound card
Unit 8, Topic B
Unit 9, Topic E
B-1
E-1
TV tuner cards
Unit 9, Topic E
E-2
Capture cards
Unit 9, Topic E
E-2
SCSI
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
Serial
Unit 9, Topic A
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
A-1
USB
Unit 9, Topic C
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
Unit 9, Topic A
Unit 10, Topic A
A-2
A-1
NIC
Unit 13, Topic B

Unit 16, Topic C
B-4
C-2
Modem
Unit 8, Topic C
Unit 9, Topic A
Unit 13, Topic B
Unit 16, Topic C
C-2
A-1
B-5
C-2
PCMCIA cards
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1
PCI Express cards
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1
Docking station
Unit 16, Topic C
C-4
Bluetooth
Unit 16, Topic A

Unit 16, Topic C
A-2
Infrared
Unit 14, Topic B

Unit 16, Topic A
Unit 16, Topic C

Video
Multimedia
I/O
Parallel
Communication
1.10
Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and

features
Expansion devices
A-2
Cellular WAN
Unit 16, Topic A

Unit 16, Topic C
A-2
Ethernet
Unit 14, Topic B

Unit 16, Topic A
Unit 16, Topic C
B-1, B-2
A-1, A-2

Objective
1.10
E7
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Unit 14, Topic B

Unit 16, Topic A
Unit 16, Topic C
B-7, B-8
A-1
Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and

features (continued)
Modem

Auto-switching
Unit 16, Topic A
Unit 16, Topic A

Unit 16, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Unit 16, Topic A

Unit 16, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Stylus / digitizer
Unit 16, Topic A
A-1
Function keys
Unit 16, Topic A
A-1
Unit 16, Topic A

Unit 16, Topic C
A-1
Unit 9, Topic A
Unit 9, Topic C
Unit 9, Topic D
Unit 12, Topic B
Unit 12, Topic C
A-2
Laser
Unit 12, Topic A
A-3
Inkjet
Unit 12, Topic A
A-2
Thermal
Unit 12, Topic A
A-4
Impact
Unit 12, Topic A
A-1
Local vs. network printers
Unit 12, Topic B
B-2
Printer drivers (compatibility)
Unit 12, Topic B
B-2
Consumables
Unit 12, Topic C
C-3
Batteries
Input devices
1.11
D-1
B-2
C-1, C-2
Differentiate between printer types
E8
2.0 Troubleshooting, Repair, and Maintenance

Objective
2.1
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious)
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Test the theory to determine cause
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1
Once theory is confirmed, determine next steps to

resolve problem
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1
If theory is not confirmed, re-establish new theory or

escalate
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1
Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and

Unit 1, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Verify full system functionality, and if applicable,

implement preventative measures
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1
Unit 1, Topic A
A-1
Given a scenario, explain the troubleshooting theory

Question user and identify user changes to computer,
and perform backups before making changes
2.2
Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware

and operating system symptoms and their causes
OS-related symptoms
Bluescreen
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
System lockup
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Input/output device
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Application install
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Start or load
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Unit 12, Topic D
Print spool stalled
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Incorrect / incompatible driver
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Excessive heat
Unit 4, Topic D
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
D-1
Noise
Unit 3, Topic C
Unit 4, Topic D
Unit 10, Topic F
Unit 12, Topic D
C-3
D-1
F-1
D-1

Objective
2.2
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware

and operating system symptoms and their causes (continued)
Odors
Unit 4, Topic D
Unit 10, Topic F
D-1
F-1
Unit 3, Topic C
Unit 4, Topic D
Unit 10, Topic F
Unit 12, Topic D
Unit 16, Topic D
C-3
D-1
F-1
D-1
D-1, D-2
Alerts
Unit 4, Topic D
Unit 10, Topic F
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
F-1
D-1
Unit 10, Topic F

Unit 12, Topic D
F-1
D-1
User / installation manuals
Unit 1, Topic A
A-2
Internet / Web based
Unit 1, Topic A
A-2
Training materials
Unit 1, Topic A
A-2
Manage print jobs
Unit 12, Topic C
C-1
Print spooler
Unit 12, Topic B

Unit 12, Topic C
B-1
C-1
Unit 12, Topic B

Unit 12, Topic C
B-2
C-1
Print a test page
Unit 12, Topic B
B-2
Use documentation and resources
2.3
E9
Given a scenario, determine the troubleshooting

method and tools for printers
E10

Objective
2.4
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Power conditions
Unit 16, Topic D
D-2
Video
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Keyboard
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Pointer
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Stylus
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Wireless card issues
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Verify power (e.g., LEDs, swap AC adapter)
Unit 16, Topic D
D-2
Remove unneeded peripherals
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Plug in external monitor
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Toggle Fn keys or hardware switches
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Check LCD cutoff switch
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Verify backlight functionality and pixilation
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Check switch for built-in WIFI antennas or external

antennas
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Unit 22, Topic A

Unit 22, Topic B
A-1, A-2
B-1
Driver
Unit 8, Topic D
Unit 12, Topic B
Unit 21, Topic A
D-1
B-2
A-5
Firmware
Unit 5, Topic A
A-2
OS
Unit 21, Topic A
A-4
Security
Unit 21, Topic A
A-6
Defrag
Unit 10, Topic E
E-4, E-5
ScanDisk
Unit 10, Topic E
E-2
Check disk
Unit 10, Topic E
E-3
Startup programs
Unit 19, Topic B
B-3
Compressed air
Unit 22, Topic B
B-1
Lint-free cloth
Unit 22, Topic B
B-2
Given a scenario, explain and interpret common laptop

issues and determine the appropriate basic
troubleshooting method
Issues
Methods
2.5
Given a scenario, integrate common preventative

maintenance techniques
Physical inspection
Updates
Use of appropriate repair tools and cleaning materials

Objective
2.5
E11
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Unit 22, Topic B
B-2
Unit 3, Topic C
C-1
Unit 22, Topic A

Unit 22, Topic B
Unit 22, Topic C
A-1, A-2
Unit 18, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Given a scenario, integrate common preventative

maintenance techniques (continued)
Computer vacuum and compressors
Power devices
Appropriate source such as power strip, surge
protector, or UPS
Backup procedures
C-1
E12
3.0 Operating Systems and Software

Unless otherwise noted, operating systems referred to include Microsoft Windows 2000,
Windows XP Professional, XP Home, XP MediaCenter; Windows Vista Home, Home
Premium, Business and Ultimate, Windows 7 Starter, Home Premium, Professional and
Ultimate.
Objective
3.1
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Unit 2, Topic A
A-1
Sidebar, Aero, UAC, minimum system requirements,

system limits
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 17, Topic A
Unit 20, Topic A
Unit 21, Topic A
A-2
A-3, A-4, A-5
A-7
A-1, A-2
Windows 2000 and newer upgrade paths and

requirements
Unit 21, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Unit 21, Topic A

Unit 21, Topic B
A-2
Microsoft Assessment and Planning Toolkit
Unit 21, Topic B
Compare and contrast the different Windows

operating systems and their features
Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows
Vista 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows 7 32-bit vs. 64-bit
3.2
Terminology (32bit vs. 64bit x86 vs. x64)
Unit 2, Topic A
A-1
Application compatibility, installed program locations

(32bit vs. 64bit), Windows compatibility mode
Unit 21, Topic B
B-3
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 17, Topic A
A-2, A-3
Unit 2, Topic A
A-2
Unit 2, Topic A
A-2
My Computer
Unit 2, Topic A
A-2
Control Panel
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 2, Topic D
A-3
D-2
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 2, Topic B
A-1A-5
Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user

interfaces
Windows Explorer
Libraries in Windows 7
Unit 2, Topic C
B-2, B-3, B-5,

B-6, B-7, B-9
C-1, C-2, C-5
Unit 14, Topic A

Unit 15, Topic B
B-3
ping
Unit 14, Topic A

Unit 15, Topic B
A-3
B-3, B-5
ipconfig
Unit 14, Topic A

Unit 15, Topic B
A-2
B-3, B-4
Msconfig
Unit 19, Topic B
B-3
Msinfo32
Unit 18, Topic A
A-1, A-2
telnet
Run line utilities

Objective
E13
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Dxdiag
Unit 18, Topic A
A-3
Cmd
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 14, Topic A
A-3
A-2, A-3
REGEDIT
Unit 17, Topic C
C-4, C-5, C-6
My Network Places / HomeGroup
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 2, Topic D
A-3
D-2
Taskbar / systray
Unit 2, Topic A
A-2
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 10, Topic B
Unit 17, Topic C
Unit 18, Topic A
Unit 18, Topic B
A-3
B-2, B-3
C-2, C-3
A-6, A-9, A-10
B-2, B-3, B-4
Unit 2, Topic A
A-3
Task Manager
Unit 2, Topic A
Unit 6, Topic D
Unit 18, Topic A
A-3
D-1
A-4A-8
Start Menu
Unit 2, Topic A
A-2, A-3
Unit 10, Topic B

Unit 21, Topic A
B-2
A-3
Create folders
Unit 2, Topic B
B-4B-7
Navigate directory structures
Unit 2, Topic B
B-1, B-3
Creation
Unit 2, Topic C
C-1, C-3
Extensions
Unit 2, Topic C
C-1
Attributes
Unit 2, Topic C
C-4, C-5
Permissions
Unit 2, Topic D
D-3
Unit 21, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Boot media such as CD, floppy, or USB
Unit 21, Topic A
A-4
Unit 21, Topic A
A-4
Install from image
Unit 21, Topic A
A-4
Recovery CD
Unit 19, Topic B
B-5
Factory recovery partition
Unit 19, Topic B
B-5
Performance Monitor, Event Viewer, Services,
Computer Management
MMC
3.2
3.3
Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user

interfaces (continued)
Explain the process and steps to install and configure

the Windows OS
File systems
FAT32 vs. NTFS
Directory structures
Files
Verification of hardware compatibility and minimum

requirements
E14

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
File system type
Unit 21, Topic A
A-3
Network configuration
Unit 21, Topic A
A-4
Repair install
Unit 19, Topic B
B-5
Format drive
Unit 21, Topic A
A-3
Partition
Unit 21, Topic A
A-3
Start installation
Unit 21, Topic A
A-4
Verify
Unit 21, Topic A
A-2, A-5
Install and update device drives
Unit 21, Topic A
A-5
Driver signing
Unit 18, Topic A

Unit 21, Topic A
Unit 22, Topic A
A-6
Disk preparation order
Device Manager
3.3
User data migration User State Migration Tool (USMT)
Unit 21, Topic A
Virtual memory
Unit 6, Topic D
D-2
Unit 16, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Suspend
Unit 16, Topic B

Unit 17, Topic A
B-2
A-6, A-7, A-8
Wake on LAN
Unit 17, Topic A
A-8
Sleep timers
Unit 17, Topic A
A-6, A-7, A-8
Hibernate
Unit 16, Topic B

Unit 17, Topic A
B-2
A-6, A-7, A-8
Standby
Unit 16, Topic B

Unit 17, Topic A
B-2
A-6, A-7, A-8
Demonstrate safe removal of peripherals
Unit 16, Topic C
C-3
Explain the basics of boot sequences, methods, and

startup utilities
Unit 19, Topic A
A-1
Unit 5, Topic A
A-1
Unit 5, Topic B
B-2
Safe mode
Unit 19, Topic B
B-2
Unit 18, Topic C

Unit 19, Topic B
C-3, C-4
B-5
Unit 19, Topic B
B-5
Emergency Repair Disk (ERD)
Unit 19, Topic B
B-5
Recovery console
Unit 19, Topic B
B-5
Explain the process and steps to install and configure

the Windows OS (continued)
3.4
Types of boot devices (disk, network, USB, other)

Boot options
Recovery options
E15
4.0 Networking
Objective
4.1
4.1
4.2
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Basics of configuring IP addressing and TCP/IP properties

(DHCP, DNS)
Unit 14, Topic A

Unit 14, Topic B
A-1, A-2
B-1, B-2
Bandwidth and latency
Unit 13, Topic A
A-5
Status indicators
Unit 13, Topic B
B-4
Protocols (TCP/IP, NETBIOS)
Unit 14, Topic A
A-1, A-4
Full-duplex, half-duplex
Unit 13, Topic A
A-3
Basics of workgroups and domains
Unit 13, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Common ports: HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, TELNET,

HTTPS
Unit 14, Topic A

Unit 15, Topic B
A-5
B-7
LAN / WAN
Unit 13, Topic A
A-1, A-2, A-5,

A-6, A-7
Hub, switch, and router
Unit 13, Topic C
C-2
Identify Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Unit 13, Topic A
A-1
Basics class identification
Unit 14, Topic A
A-2
IPv6 vs. IPv4
Unit 14, Topic A
Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals,

including technologies, devices, and protocols
Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals,

including technologies, devices, and protocols (continued)
Address length differences
Unit 14, Topic A
A-1
Address conventions
Unit 14, Topic A
A-1
Plenum / PVC
Unit 13, Topic A
A-4
UTP (e.g. CAT3, CAT5 / 5e, CAT6)
Unit 13, Topic A

Unit 13, Topic B
A-3, A-4
B-2
STP
Unit 13, Topic A

Unit 13, Topic B
A-3, A-4
B-2
Fiber
Unit 13, Topic A

Unit 13, Topic B
A-3, A-4
B-1
Coaxial cable
Unit 13, Topic A

Unit 13, Topic B
A-3, A-4
B-3
RJ45
Unit 13, Topic B
B-2
RJ11
Unit 8, Topic C
Unit 13, Topic B
C-2
B-2
Categorize network cables and connectors and their

implementations
Cables
Connectors
E16

Objective
4.3
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
DSL
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Cable
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Satellite
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Fiber
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Dial-up
Unit 13, Topic A

Unit 13, Topic B
Unit 14, Topic B
A-7
B-5
B-7, B-8
Wireless
Unit 13, Topic A
A-6, A-7
All 802.11 types
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
WEP
Unit 14, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5
WPA
Unit 14, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5
SSID
Unit 14, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5
MAC filtering
Unit 14, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5
DHCP settings
Unit 14, Topic B
B-2B-5
Bluetooth
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Cellular
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7

Broadband
E17
5.0 Security
Objective
5.1
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Encryption technologies
Unit 20, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Data wiping / hard drive destruction / hard drive recycling
Unit 20, Topic E
E-5
Software firewall
Unit 13, Topic C

Unit 20, Topic E
C-2
E-2, E-3
Port security
Unit 15, Topic B

Unit 20, Topic E
B-7
E-3
Exceptions
Unit 15, Topic B

Unit 20, Topic E
B-7
E-3
User name
Unit 20, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Password
Unit 20, Topic A
A-2, A-3, A-5
Biometrics
Unit 20, Topic C
C-1
Smart cards
Unit 20, Topic C
C-1
Compliance
Unit 20, Topic E
E-6
Classifications
Unit 20, Topic E
E-6
Social engineering
Unit 20, Topic E
E-4
WEPx and WPAx
Unit 14, Topic B
B-4, B-5, B-6
Client configuration (SSID)
Unit 14, Topic B
B-4, B-6
Viruses
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1, D-2, D-4
Trojans
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1, D-2, D-4
Worms
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1, D-2, D-4
Spam
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1, D-2, D-4
Spyware
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1D-4
Adware
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1, D-2, D-4
Grayware
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1, D-2, D-4
Drive lock
Unit 20, Topic C
C-2
Passwords
Unit 20, Topic C
C-2
Intrusion detection
Unit 20, Topic C
C-2
TPM
Unit 20, Topic B
Explain the basic principles of security concepts and

technologies
Basics of data sensitivity and data security
5.2

Wireless encryption
Malicious software protection
BIOS Security
Password management / password complexity
Unit 20, Topic A
Locking workstation
Unit 20, Topic E
A-2, A-3, A-5
E18

Objective
5.2
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Hardware
Unit 20, Topic C

Unit 20, Topic E
C-1, C-2
E-1, E-5
Operating system
Unit 20, Topic A

Unit 20, Topic B
Unit 20, Topic D
Unit 20, Topic E
A-1A-8
B-1B-3
D-2, D-3, D-4
E-2, E-3
Unit 20, Topic C
C-1
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
ESD
Unit 3, Topic A
Unit 22, Topic A
A-3
A-2
EMI
Unit 11, Topic A

Unit 22, Topic A
A-2
A-1, A-2
Unit 13, Topic A

Unit 15, Topic B
A-3
Magnets
Unit 11, Topic A
Summarize the following security features (continued)
Biometrics
Fingerprint scanner
6.0 Operational Procedure

Objective
6.1
Outline the appropriate safety and environmental

procedures, and given a scenario, apply them
RFI
Unit 22, Topic A

Unit 14, Topic A
Unit 22, Topic A
A-2
Unit 14, Topic A

Unit 22, Topic A
A-2
Unit 3, Topic A
Unit 22, Topic A
A-2
A-1
CRT
Unit 11, Topic A

Unit 22, Topic A
A-2
A-1
Power supply
Unit 3, Topic B
Unit 22, Topic A
B-2
A-1
Inverter
Unit 3, Topic C
C-1
Laser printers
Unit 12, Topic C

Unit 22, Topic A
C-3
A-1
Matching power requirements of equipment with

power distribution and UPSs
Unit 3, Topic C
C-1
Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)
Unit 22, Topic B
B-3
Cable management
Unit 22, Topic A
A-1
Unit 22, Topic A
A-1
Microwaves
Electrical safety
Avoid trip hazards

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Unit 22, Topic A
A-1
Unit 11, Topic A

Unit 22, Topic A
A-1
Unit 22, Topic A
A-1
Unit 22, Topic D
D-1
Use proper language avoid jargon, acronyms, slang
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Maintain a positive attitude
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Listen and do not interrupt a customer
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Be on time
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Personal calls
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Talking to co-workers while interacting with customers
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Personal interruptions
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Avoid arguing with customers and/or being defensive
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Do not minimize customers problems
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Avoid being judgmental
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Clarify customer statements
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Ask open-ended questions to narrow the scope of

the problem
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Restate the issue or question to verify

understanding
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Set and meet expectations / timeline and communicate

status with the customer
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-4
Order different repair / replacement options if

applicable
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-4
Provide proper documentation on the services provided
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-4
Follow up with customers / users at later date to verify

satisfaction
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1, B-4
Deal appropriately with customers confidential materials
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Unit 1, Topic B
B-1
Physical safety
Heavy devices
Hot components
Environmental consider proper disposal procedures
6.2
E19
Given a scenario, demonstrate the appropriate use of

communication skills and professionalism in the
workplace
If late, contact the customer

Avoid distractions
Dealing with a difficult customer or situation
Located on computer, desktop, printer, etc.
E20
Topic B: Practical Application (2009)

comprehensive exam objectives
Explanation
This section lists all CompTIA A+ Practical Application (2009 Edition) exam version
2.0 objectives and indicates where each objective is covered in conceptual explanations,
activities, or both.
1.0 Hardware
Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
1.1 Given a scenario, install, configure, and

maintain personal computer components
Storage devices
HDD
Unit 10, Topic B
B-1
SATA
Unit 10, Topic B
B-1
PATA
Unit 10, Topic B
B-1
Solid state
Unit 10, Topic B
FDD
Unit 10, Topic D
D-3
Optical drives
Unit 10, Topic C
C-1
Unit 10, Topic C
C-1
Removable
Unit 10, Topic D
D-1
External
Unit 10, Topic D
D-1
Motherboards
Jumper settings
Unit 4, Topic A
Unit 4, Topic C
C-2
CMOS battery
Unit 5, Topic A
A-3
Unit 5, Topic A
A-1
Bus speeds
Unit 4, Topic A
A-2
Chipsets
Unit 4, Topic A
A-2
Firmware updates
Unit 6, Topic C
Unit 5, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Unit 4, Topic A
A-2
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Expansion slots
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Memory slots
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Unit 4, Topic C
C-1, C-2
I/O ports
Unit 4, Topic C
Socket types

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
1.1 Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain

personal computer components (continued)
Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE 1394 /
Firewire, parallel, NIC, modem, PS/2
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Unit 8, Topic B
B-2
Unit 8, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Unit 9, Topic A
A-1, A-2
Unit 9, Topic B
B-1
Unit 9, Topic C
C-1
Unit 9, Topic D
D-1
Unit 3, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Unit 3, Topic B
B-1
Output voltage
Unit 3, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Socket types
Unit 4, Topic A
A-2, A-3
Speed
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1, A-3
Number of cores
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1, A-3
Power consumption
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1, A-3
Cache
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1, A-3
Front side bus
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1, A-3
32bit vs. 64bit
Unit 4, Topic A
A-1, A-3
Unit 6, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Power supplies
Processors
Memory
E21
E22

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Adapter cards
Graphic cards
Unit 8, Topic A
A-2
Sound cards
Unit 8, Topic B
B-2
Storage controllers
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
Unit 10, Topic B
B-1
Unit 10, Topic B
B-4
eSATA cards
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1
FireWire
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1
USB
Unit 10, Topic A
A-1
Parallel
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1
Serial
Unit 9, Topic A
A-1
I/O cards
1.1 Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain

personal computer components (continued)
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1
Media reader
Unit 8, Topic A
A-1
Heat sinks
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1
Thermal compound
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1
CPU fans
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1
Case fans
Unit 4, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Cooling systems
1.2 Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and

repair/replace personal computer components (continued)
Storage devices
HDD
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1
SATA
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1
PATA
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1
Solid state
Unit 10, Topic F
FDD
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1
Optical drives
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1
Removable
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1
External
Unit 10, Topic F
F-1

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Motherboards
Jumper settings
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
CMOS battery
Unit 5, Topic A
A-3
Unit 5, Topic B
B-3
Unit 5, Topic A
A-1
Unit 5, Topic B
B-3
Bus speeds
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Chipsets
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Firmware updates
Unit 4, Topic D
Unit 5, Topic A
A-3
Unit 5, Topic B
B-3
Socket types
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Expansion slots
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Memory slots
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Unit 3, Topic C
C-2, C-3
Unit 3, Topic C
C-3
Output voltage
Unit 3, Topic C
C-2, C-3
Socket types
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Speed
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Number of cores
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Power consumption
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Cache
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Front side bus
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
32bit vs. 64bit
Unit 4, Topic D
D-1
Unit 6, Topic E
E-1, E-2

I/O ports
Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE
1394 / Firewire, parallel, NIC, modem, PS/2
Power supplies
Processors
Memory
E23
E24

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
Adapter cards
Graphic cards - memory
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Sound cards
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Storage controllers
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
RAID cards
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
eSATA cards
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Unit 9, Topic F
F-1
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Unit 9, Topic F
F-1
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Unit 9, Topic F
F-1
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Unit 9, Topic F
F-1
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
Media reader
Unit 8, Topic D
D-2
I/O cards
FireWire
USB
Parallel
Serial
Cooling systems
Heat sinks
Unit 4, Topic B
Thermal compound
Unit 4, Topic B
CPU fans
Unit 4, Topic B
Case fans
Unit 4, Topic B
B-2
1.3 Given a scenario, install, configure, detect

problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace laptop
components
Components of the LCD, including inverter, screen, and
video card
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1, D-2
Unit 6, Topic C
C-2
Unit 6, Topic E
E-1
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1

Objective
Conceptual
information
E25
Supporting
activities
Disassembly processes for proper re-assembly

Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2, C-3
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2, C-3
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2, C-3
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2, C-3
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Unit 16, Topic D
D-1
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Replace keyboard, processor, plastics, pointer devices,

heat sinks, fans, system board, CMOS battery, speakers
Unit 16, Topic C
C-1, C-2, C-3
Multimeter
Unit 3, Topic C
C-2
Power supply tester
Unit 3, Topic C
C-2
Unit 3, Topic C
C-1
Unit 12, Topic C
C-2, C-3
Unit 15, Topic A
A-1
Unit 15, Topic B
B-1
Unit 15, Topic A
A-1
Unit 15, Topic B
B-1
Loopback plugs
Unit 9, Topic F
F-1
Antistatic pad and wrist strap
Unit 3, Topic A
A-2, A-3
Extension magnet
Unit 12, Topic C
C-3
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Organize parts
1.4 Given a scenario, select and use the following

tools
Cable tester
E26

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
1.5 Given a scenario, detect and resolve common

printer issues
Symptoms
Paper jams
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Blank paper
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Error codes
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Out-of-memory error
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Lines and smearing
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Garbage printout
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Ghosted image
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
No connectivity
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Replace fuser
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Replace drum
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Clear paper jam
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Power cycle
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Unit 12, Topic C
C-3
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Set IP on printer
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Clean printer
Unit 12, Topic C
C-3
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Issue resolution
E27
2.0 Operating Systems

Unless otherwise noted, operating systems referred to within include Microsoft
Windows 2000, Windows XP Professional, XP Home, and XP MediaCenter; Windows
Vista Home, Home Premium, Business and Ultimate, Windows 7 Starter, Home
Premium, Professional and Ultimate.
Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
2.1 Select the appropriate commands and options

to troubleshoot and resolve problems
MSCONFIG
Unit 19, Topic B
B-3
DIR
Unit 2, Topic B
B-3
CHKDSK (/f /r)
Unit 10, Topic E
E-3
EDIT
Unit 2, Topic C
C-1, C-2
COPY (/a /v /y)
Unit 2, Topic B
B-7
XCOPY
Unit 2, Topic B
B-7
FORMAT
Unit 10, Topic B
Unit 14, Topic A
A-2
Unit 15, Topic B
B-4
Unit 14, Topic A
A-3
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3
MD / CD / RD
Unit 2, Topic B
B-5, B-7, B-9
NET
Unit 17, Topic C
C-3
TRACERT
Unit 15, Topic B
B-6
NSLOOKUP
Unit 15, Topic B
B-6
[command name] /?
Unit 2, Topic B
B-2
SFC
Unit 19, Topic B
B-4
PING (-t l)
2.2 Differentiate between Windows operating

system directory structures (Windows 2000, XP,
Vista, and Windows 7)
User file locations
Unit 2, Topic B
User profile and program files
Unit 2, Topic B
System file locations
Unit 2, Topic B
Fonts
Unit 2, Topic B
Temporary files
Unit 2, Topic B
Program files
Unit 2, Topic B
Offline files and folders
Unit 2, Topic B
E28

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
2.3 Given a scenario, select and use system

utilities / tools and evaluate the results
DEFRAG
Unit 10, Topic E
E-4, E-5
NTBACKUP
Unit 18, Topic C
C-1, C-2
Check Disk
Unit 10, Topic E
E-3
Active, primary, extended, and logical partitions
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Mount points
Unit 10, Topic B
B-3
Mounting a drive
Unit 10, Topic B
B-3
FAT32, NTFS, FAT64 (exFAT)
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Disk Manager
External hard drives
Unit 10, Topic B
Flash drives
Unit 10, Topic B
Drive status
Foreign drive
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Healthy
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Formatting
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Active unallocated
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Failed
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Dynamic
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Offline
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Online
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Unit 18, Topic B
B-3
Event Viewer
Unit 18, Topic A
A-9, A-10
Computer Management
Unit 2, Topic A
A-3
Unit 7, Topic A
A-2A-5
Unit 10, Topic B
B-2
Services
Unit 17, Topic C
C-2, C-3
Performance Monitor
Unit 18, Topic B
B-3, B-4
System monitor

Objective
Conceptual
information
E29
Supporting
activities
2.3 Given a scenario, select and use system

utilities / tools and evaluate the results (continued)
Device Manager
Enable
Unit 21, Topic A
A-5
Disable
Unit 21, Topic A
A-5
Warnings
Unit 21, Topic A
A-5
Indicators
Unit 21, Topic A
A-5
Process list
Unit 18, Topic A
A-5
Resource usage
Unit 6, Topic D
D-1
Unit 18, Topic A
A-5, A-7
Process priority
Unit 18, Topic A
A-5
Termination
Unit 18, Topic A
A-4, A-5, A-8
System Information
Unit 18, Topic A
A-1, A-2
System restore
Unit 18, Topic C
C-3, C-4
Remote Desktop Protocol (Remote Desktop / Remote

Assistance)
Unit 17, Topic D
D-1D-4
Task Scheduler
Unit 17, Topic B
B-1, B-2
Regional settings and language settings
Unit 17, Topic A
A-1
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Print spool stalled
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Incorrect / incompatible driver / form printing
Unit 12, Topic D
D-1
Auto-restart errors
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Blue screen errors
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
System lockup
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Device driver failure (input / output devices)
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Application, install, start, or load failure
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Service fails to start
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Task Manager
2.4 Evaluate and resolve common issues

Operational problems
E30

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
2.4 Evaluate and resolve common issues

(continued)
Error messages and conditions
Boot
Invalid boot disk
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Inaccessible boot drive
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Missing NTLDR
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Device / service failed to start
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Device / program in registry not found
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1
Unit 18, Topic A
A-9, A-10
Aero settings
Unit 17, Topic A
A-4
Indexing settings
Unit 17, Topic A
A-2
UAC
Unit 20, Topic A
A-7
Sidebar settings
Unit 17, Topic A
A-3, A-5
Startup file maintenance
Unit 19, Topic B
B-2, B-3
Background processes
Unit 19, Topic B
B-1, B-3
Startup
Event Viewer (errors in the event log)

System performance and optimization
E31
3.0 Networking
Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
3.1 Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues,

using appropriate tools
TCP/IP settings
Gateway
Subnet mask
DNS
NAT (private and public)
Unit 14, Topic A
A-1, A-2, A-3
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5,

B-8
Unit 14, Topic A
A-1, A-2, A-3
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5,

B-8
Unit 14, Topic A
A-2, A-3
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5,

B-8
Unit 14, Topic A
A-2, A-3
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5,

B-7, B-8
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Loopback addresses
Unit 14, Topic A

Unit 15, Topic B
B-5
Unit 14, Topic A
A-3
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-4, B-5,

B-8
Unit 14, Topic A
A-4
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-4
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-4
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Unit 15, Topic B
B-5
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7

SMTP
IMAP
POP
FTP settings
Ports
IP addresses
Exceptions
Programs
E32

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
3.1 Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues,

using appropriate tools (continued)
Proxy settings
Ports
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
IP addresses
Unit 15, Topic B
B-5
Exceptions
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Programs
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-4
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3
Tracert
Unit 15, Topic B
B-6
Nslookup
Unit 15, Topic B
B-6
Netstat
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3
Net use
Unit 17, Topic C
C-1
Net /?
Unit 17, Topic C
C-1
Ipconfig
Unit 14, Topic A
A-2
Unit 15, Topic B
B-4
telnet
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-7
SSH
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-7
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Unit 15, Topic B
B-3, B-7
Open and closed ports
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7
Program filters
Unit 15, Topic B
B-7

Ping

SSH
HTTPS
Firewall settings

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
3.2 Install and configure a small office / home

office (SOHO) network
Connection types
Dial-up
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Unit 13, Topic B
B-5
DSL
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Cable
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Satellite
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
ISDN
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Wireless
Unit 13, Topic A
A-6
Broadband
All 802.11
Unit 14, Topic A
WEP
Unit 14, Topic B
B-3, B-4
WPA
Unit 14, Topic B
B-3, B-4
SSID
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
MAC filtering
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
DHCP settings
Unit 14, Topic B
B-3, B-4
Unit 13, Topic C
C-2
Disable DHCP
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
Use static IP
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
Change SSID from default
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
Disable SSID broadcast
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
MAC filtering
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
Change default username and password
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
Update firmware
Unit 14, Topic B
B-5
Firewall
Unit 13, Topic C
C-2
Unit 13, Topic A
A-5
Unit 13, Topic B
B-4
Bluetooth (1.0 vs. 2.0)
Unit 14, Topic A
A-6
Cellular
Unit 13, Topic A
A-7
Basic VoIP (consumer applications)
Unit 13, Topic A
E33
Unit 13, Topic C
C-2
Unit 20, Topic E
E-2, E-3
E34

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
3.2 Install and configure a small office / home

office (SOHO) network (continued)
Unit 20, Topic E
E-2, E-3
Unit 20, Topic E
E-2, E-3
Unit 13, Topic B
B-1, B-2, B-3
Unit 13, Topic C
C-1
Unit 13, Topic A
A-6
Unit 14, Topic B

Cable length
Unit 13, Topic A
A-3, A-4, A-5
4.0 Security
Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
4.1 Given a scenario, prevent, troubleshoot, and

remove viruses and malware
Use antivirus software
Unit 20, Topic D
Identify malware symptoms
Unit 20, Topic D
Quarantine infected systems
Unit 20, Topic D
D-4
Research malware types, symptoms, and solutions (virus

encyclopedias)
Unit 20, Topic D
Unit 20 IPA
Remediate infected systems
Unit 20, Topic D
D-4
Update antivirus software, educate end user
Unit 20, Topic D
D-1
Signature and engine updates
Unit 20, Topic D
D-2
Automatic vs. manual
Unit 20, Topic D
D-2
Schedule scans
Unit 20, Topic D
D-2
Repair boot blocks
Unit 20, Topic D
D-2
Scan and removal techniques

Safe mode
Unit 20, Topic D
D-2
Boot environment
Unit 20, Topic D
D-2
Unit 20, Topic E

Objective
Conceptual
information
Supporting
activities
4.2 Implement security and troubleshoot

common issues
Operating systems
Local users and groups: Administrator, Power Users,
Guest, Users
Unit 20, Topic A
A-1A-6
Vista/Windows 7 User Access Control (UAC)
Unit 20, Topic A
A-7
NTFS vs. Share permissions
Unit 20, Topic A
A-8
Allow vs. deny
Unit 20, Topic A
A-8
Differentiate between moving and copying folders

and files
Unit 20, Topic A
File attributes
Unit 6, Topic C
C-4, C-5
Unit 20, Topic A

Shared files and folders
Administrative shares vs. local shares
Unit 20, Topic A
A-8
Permission propagation
Unit 20, Topic A
A-8
Inheritance
Unit 20, Topic A
A-8
System files and folders
Unit 20, Topic A
Encryption (BitLocker, EFS)
Unit 20, Topic B
B-1B-3
User authentication
Unit 20, Topic A
A-1A-8
System
BIOS security
Unit 5, Topic A
Unit 20, Topic C
E35
C-2
Drive lock
Unit 20, Topic C
Passwords
Unit 5, Topic A
A-1
Intrusion detection
Unit 5, Topic A
A-1
TPM
Unit 20, Topic B
E36
S1
Course summary
This summary contains information to help

you bring the course to a successful
conclusion. Using this information, you will
be able to:
A Use the summary text to reinforce what
youve learned in class.

B Determine other resources that might help
you continue to learn.
S2
Topic A: Course summary

Use the following summary text to reinforce what youve learned in class.
Unit summaries
Unit 1
In this unit, you learned about the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting methodology you
can apply to hardware and software problems you encounter with personal computers.
You also learned how to maintain professionalism and communicate appropriately
when interacting with users.
Unit 2
In this unit, you learned the fundamental concepts and features of client operating
systems, including Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000, Mac OS
X Snow Leopard, and Linux. You also learned how to manage folders and files on a
Windows-based client computer.
Unit 3
In this unit, you learned how to work safely with electricity and computer power
systems. Following ESD safe practices, you examined power supplies and connectors,
and installed a new power supply in a PC. You also compared types of power
conditioning equipment and troubleshot faulty power supplies.
Unit 4
In this unit, you learned the fundamental concepts of CPUs and motherboards. You
classified CPUs according to their specifications, and identified the packaging options
and related slot and socket technologies used in CPUs. You installed a motherboard.
You also troubleshot motherboard- and CPU-related problems. You also learned about
the different technologies used to cool CPUs in a PC.
Unit 5
In this unit, you accessed the system BIOS to make hardware configuration changes.
You learned how to flash the system BIOS to install an update. You also identified the
stages in the POST and boot processes.
Unit 6
In this unit, you differentiated between the different types of memory chips and
packages, installed RAM into a system, and troubleshot memory problems. You
learned how to monitor memory usage and change the size of the Windows page file.
Unit 7
In this unit, you defined bus structures and learned how buses use interrupts, IRQs, I/O
addresses, DMA, and base memory addresses. You examined the features and functions
of the PCI bus.
Course summary
S3
Unit 8
In this unit, you learned about expansion cards for drive interfaces, such as IDE and
SCSI; video adapters; sound cards; and modems. You examined the components of a
sound card and the connections on a modem. You also installed expansion adapters,
including video and sound cards. You then learned how to update hardware device
drivers, and you troubleshoot expansion cards.
Unit 9
In this unit, you identified the different types of ports, connectors, and cables
including serial, parallel, PS/2, USB, IEEE 1394 (FireWire), and multimedia, and
troubleshoot ports, connectors, and cables.
Unit 10
In this unit, you learned the fundamental concepts about different types of data storage
devicesincluding hard drives (IDE and SCSI), optical drives (CD and DVD), and
removable storage devices such as floppy drives and USB flash drives. You learned
about file systems, partitions, the Disk Management utility, and RAID levels. You
installed hard drives, optical drives, and floppy drives, and then you troubleshot
drive-related problems.
Unit 11
In this unit, you learned how to select and use video and image input devices,
including CRT and LCD displays, and digital and Web cameras.
Unit 12
In this unit, you distinguished between the different printing technologies and
processes. You also installed, optimized, and performed maintenance on a local
printer. You performed routine maintenance tasks on inkjet and laser printers. You
also learned how to troubleshoot common problems that affect printing, including
problems with software, the operating system, and the printer itself.
Unit 13
In this unit, you learned how to connect computers to form a network. You identified
the components that make up a networkboth wired and wirelessand described the
various network standards that can be used to create a network. You identified
common connection methods for SOHO networks.
Unit 14
In this unit, you learned how to establish connectivity, both wired and wireless,
between networked computers and the Internet. You learned how to use the TCP/IP
protocol and utilities to establish communication between network nodes.
Unit 15
In this unit, you learned the basic tools needed to diagnose network problems. You
learned how to use the TCP/IP protocol and utilities to troubleshoot client-side
network communication problems.
S4

Unit 16
In this unit, you learned how to identify notebook and netbook computer components.
You learned how to configure a notebook computer by using the Windows Mobility
Center, and you learned how to set power options. Then you replaced hot-swappable
components and internal components in a notebook computer. Finally, you learned how
to troubleshoot components of a notebook computer.
Unit 17
In this unit, you learned how to use Windows utilities to manage the operating system.
You learned how to manage Windows services. You learned how to use the Registry
and other Windows system utilities to manage the operating system. You configured
regional and language settings, indexing, Windows Aero, and the Windows Sidebar.
Unit 18
In this unit, you learned how to use Windows utilities to monitor the performance of
the installed Windows operating system. You maintained Windows by monitoring
performance in Task Manager, looking for errors in Event Viewer, backing up and
restoring data, working with restore points, and scheduling tasks.
Unit 19
In this unit, you learned how to use Windows utilities to manage and troubleshoot the
Windows startup process. You learned how to use the utilities provided with Windows
to recover from a system failure or major problem.
Unit 20
In this unit, you learned how to secure the operating system and the data residing on a
PC by using software-based authentication and encryption methods, and hardwarebased security devices, such as biometrics, card readers, and fobs. You also learned
how to manage the human aspects of computer security by implementing physical
access restrictions, destroying data, implementing corporate security policies, and
preventing social engineering attacks. You learned about common security threats,
including viruses, Trojan horses, worms, and social engineering, and you secured your
computer by using antivirus software and Windows Defender. Finally, you implemented
and troubleshot some basic security solutions.
Unit 21
In this unit, you learned how to complete a clean or upgrade installation of Windows
operating systems and apply hot fixes and service packs when the installation is
complete. You learned how to install and configure device drivers for devices that
Windows doesnt recognize. You also learned how to troubleshoot problems that occur
during the installation process.
Unit 22
In this unit, you learned how to identify safety issues and hazards in the computing
environment. You learned how to work safely in this environment and how to properly
dispose of computer equipment that cant be sent to a landfill.
Course summary
S5
Topic B: Continued learning after class

To get the most out of this class, you should begin applying your new skills and
knowledge as soon as possible. Axzo Press also offers resources for continued learning.
For more information, visit www.axzopress.com.
S6
G1
Glossary
802.11a
An improved version of the original Wi-Fi 802.11b
technology, based on the same IEEE 802 standard.
Aspect ratio
The relationship between the horizontal size and
the vertical size of the screen.
AC (alternating current)
Current that flows repeatedly back and forth
through the circuit at a constantly varying voltage level.
Authentication
The process by which your identity is validated
against a database that contains your account.
Active Directory
Microsofts directory service, included with
Windows servers, that provides a single point of
administration and storage for user, group, and
computer objects.
Backbone
The main network cable to which other network
segments connect.
Active matrix
Flat-panel monitor technology that uses TFT to
produce sharp images.
Address bus
The bus that transmits memory addresses between
the CPU and RAM.
ADRAM (Asynchronous DRAM)
Memory that isnt synchronized to the system
clock.
Adware
Software that displays advertisements, which might
or might not be targeted to your interests.
AGP (Advanced Graphics Port)
A video port used with Pentium-based computers.
Amp (ampere)
The unit of measure of amperage (the strength of a
current of electricity).
Anycast address
A new, unique type of IPv6 address that is a cross
between IPv4 unicast and multicast addressing. An
anycast address identifies a group of interfaces,
typically on separate nodes. Packets sent to an anycast
address are delivered to the nearest interface as
identified by the routing protocols distance
measurement.
APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)
An IPv4 address from the network 169.254.0.0 that
is self-assigned by a Windows computer if it cant
contact a DHCP server.
AppleTalk
A routable network protocol supported by Apple
Macintosh computers.
Bandwidth
The amount of data that can travel over a
communication line or wireless connection in a given
amount of time.
Bank
A group of memory slots. You must fill all of the
slots within a bank when installing memory. Typically,
you must also use the same type and speed of memory
within a bank.
Base memory addresses
A range of addresses that designate an area of
memory in which extensions to the BIOS are stored.
Basic partition
A standard, or classic, partition. Compare to
dynamic partition.
Baud
A measure of signal changes per second. The baud
rate is analogous to the frequency of an analog wave.
Binary
The base-2 numbering system.
Binary file
A file that can be read by a computer, but not by
humans.
Biometric
A type of security device that authenticates
(identifies) a user by examining a biological trait, such
as a fingerprint, retinal vein pattern, and so forth.
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
The computers firmwarea set of software
instructions that are stored on a chip on the
motherboard and that enable basic computer functions,
such as getting input from the keyboard and mouse.
G2
Bluetooth
A standard for short-range wireless communication
and data synchronization between devices.
Color depth
A value that specifies how many bits are used to
describe the color of a single pixel on a monitor.
BRI (Basic Rate Interface)

An ISDN configuration intended for home-office
and small-business users.
COM ports
Serial ports, which are named COM1, COM2, and
so forth.
Brightness
The measurement in candelas per square meter
(cd/m2) of the light produced by an LCD monitor.
Command-line utility
In Windows, a program that enables the user to
interact with the operating system through a nongraphical user interface.
Bus
A communication pathway within a computer.
Cable modem
A device that connects a LAN to an ISP via the
cable television connection.
Card Services
An API that enables the sharing of device drivers
and other software by PC Cards and sockets.
CardBus
A PC Card bus that provides 32-bit bus mastering.
Central gateway
A connection device between a LAN and the
Internet.
Chipset
One or more chips, packaged into a single unit and
sold together, that perform a set of functions in a
computer.
Circuit
A path from the electrical source through
intervening components and back to ground.
CIS (Card Information Structure)
One of the software layers in the PC Card
specification. It provides a method of data organization
and data-recording-format compatibility for a variety of
PC Cards.
Client/server network
A network in which a server controls which
resources on the LAN are shared by clients and who
can access these resources.
Clusters
Logical collections of one or more sectors. Data
storage is managed at the cluster level, rather than the
sector level.
CMOS
An area of memory that stores BIOS configuration
information.
Coax (coaxial) cable
Cable that contains a layer of braided wire or foil
between the core and the outside insulating layer.
Compact Flash
A flash memory card used in portable devices,
especially digital cameras. Roughly the size of a book
of matches.
Compression
The use of an algorithm to make data take up less
space.
Computer Management console
A group of tools you can use to manage the local
computer or a remote computer in Windows Vista,
Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional.
Conductor
A material that permits the flow of electricity.
Contrast ratio
The ratio between a monitors brightest white and
darkest black.
Control Panel
A group of utilities, called applets, that you can use
to control your computers system settings in Windows
Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional.
Controller
The adapter board that plugs into a PCs expansion
slot and is used to interface with a hard drive or other
storage device.
Cooling fins
Metal protrusions that dissipate heat through
convection.
CPU (central processing unit)
A computer chip that processes instructions,
manipulates data, and controls the interactions of the
other circuits in the computer.
Crosstalk
Interference that occurs when two wires are
running parallel to each other, and one wire carries a
signal intended for the other wire.
CRT (cathode ray tube)
A monitor that use three electron beamsred,
green, and blueto produce images.
Glossary
Current
A measure of the flow of electrons past a given
point; measured in amps, or amperes.
Cylinder
The logical collection of all of the tracks at a given
distance from the axis.
CYMK
Cyan, yellow, magenta, and black; the colors used
in inkjet printers.
Data bus
The bus that transfers data between the CPU and
RAM.
Daughter board
A circuit board that connects to another circuit
board (sometimes a motherboard) to provide additional
functions or assist with its functions.
DC (direct current)
Current that flows in a single direction at a constant
voltage through a circuit.
Decimal
The normal base-10 numbering system.
Default gateway
A router on a TCP/IP network.
Defragging
Defragmenting a disk, optimizing file access
speeds by relocating the clusters that make up a file to
contiguous locations on the disk.
Demodulation
The process by which a modem electronically
subtracts the carrier analog wave, revealing the digital
signal it carries.
Desktop
The screen that is the main work area and starting
point for beginning all tasks in Windows.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
A method of automatically assigning IP addresses
to nodes on a LAN.
DIP switches
Small, typically rocker-style switches that were
used with older hardware components to configure
various options.
Direct thermal printer
A printer that produces images by using a row of
heating elements to burn dots directly onto a special
coated paper.
G3
DMA (direct memory access)

A system by which a support chip manages
memory access by hardware components so that the
CPU doesnt have to.
DNS
A part of the TCP/IP protocol suite that translates
domain names into their corresponding IP addresses.
DNS is used to refer to both the Domain Name Service
and the Domain Name System.
Domain name
A unique name assigned to a network and
registered with ICANN.
Dot pitch
The distance, measured in millimeters, between
dots of the same color on the screen.
Dot-matrix printer
A type of impact printer that uses a print head
containing 9 or 24 pins.
DRAM (dynamic RAM)
RAM that loses its contents quickly, even when
power is present, and must be refreshed hundreds of
times per second.
Drive array
A collection of two or more drives that work in
unison to provide a single point of data storage. A drive
array appears to the operating system to be a single
drive.
Drive controller
The adapter board that plugs into a PCs expansion
slot.
Drive interface
The communications standard that defines how
data flows to and from the disk drive.
Driver
A form of software that interacts with a hardware
device to enable that devices functionality.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
A high-speed network connection made over
regular analog phone lines.
Dual-channel architecture
A technology that doubles data throughput from
memory to the memory controller by using two 64-bit
data channels, providing a 128-bit data path.
Dual-link cable
A DVI cable that uses two TDMS 165 MHz
transmitters.
DUN (dial-up networking)
A process that uses a modem to create a network
connection through regular, analog phone lines.
G4
DVI (Digital Video Interface)

A display interface that enables the use of analog
and digital monitors. Data is sent from the PC to the
monitor via TMDS (Transition Minimized Differential
Signaling).
DVI-D
A DVI connector that implements only digital
signals.
DVI-I
A DVI connector that implements both digital and
analog signals.
Dye sublimation printer
A printer that produces images by pushing the print
head against the paper through weights or springs to
transfer dye from a ribbon or roll. The depth of color is
regulated by varying the heat applied.
Dynamic partition
An enhanced type of partition that enables you to
change your partitions and the volumes they contain
without restarting the operating system.
Extended partition
A partition that contains one or more logical drives,
which the operating system accesses for file storage.
Fault tolerance
The ability of a system to gracefully recover from
hardware or software failure.
Fiber optic cable
Cable that carries light-based data through strands
of glass or plastic no thicker than a human hair.
Firewall
Hardware or software that controls the data
entering or leaving a computer system. Used to
maintain the security of the system.
FireWire
Apple Computers proprietary name for the IEEE
1394 peripheral interconnection bus.
Firmware
Software written permanently or semi-permanently
to a computer chip.
ECC (error correcting code)

A technology that permits a computer not only to
detect that an error has occurred, but also to correct that
error.
Flashing
The process of updating the BIOS in a PC by using
a special program provided by the motherboards or
PCs manufacturer.
Electrophotographic
A printing process that combines electrostatic
charges, toner, and laser light to produce high-quality
images one page at a time.
Flat-panel monitor
An LCD monitor that uses TFT technology.
EMI (electromagnetic interference)

Interference in communications that is caused by
crosstalk or other noise on the line and that causes
problems with data transmission.
Encryption
The scrambling of data so that only permitted
people can unscramble and read it.
ESD (electrostatic discharge)
A phenomenon that occurs when the charges on
separate objects are unequal and the charge imbalance
creates an electrical field that can cause objects to
attract or repel each other.
Ethernet
The most common form of LAN architecture. It
uses bus or star topology and employs CSMA/CD to
manage the flow of data on the network.
eXecute In Place (XIP)
The ability to run commands directly from code
stored on a PC Card without using system RAM.
Expansion bus
The bus to which add-on adapter cards are
connected to enhance the functionality of a PC.
Form factor
A description or label denoting the size and shape
of a computer component. The term is used most often
with cases, motherboards, and power supplies.
Fusing assembly
The set of components in a laser printer that heat
the toner to melt it into the paper.
Global unicast address
An IPv6 public address.
Grayware
A general name for software that has annoying,
undisclosed, or undesirable behaviors.
GUI (graphical user interface)
An interface that provides icons and menus that
you can click or select to perform a function or run a
program.
Hardware
Any physical component of a computer or
peripheral device.
HBA
Host bus adapter; a SCSI drive controller.
Glossary
G5
Heat pipes
Small tubes, typically built into cooling fins, filled
with a small amount of fluid.
Impedance
A force that opposes the flow of AC through a
conductor; measured in ohms.
Heat sink
A cooling mechanism that absorbs and transfers
heat better than its surroundings.
Infrared
A wireless connection technology that uses pulses
of invisible infrared light to transmit signals between
devices, offering relatively low-speed, line-of-sight
connections between devices.
Hertz
A count of cycles per second. Hertz is used to note
how many times per second alternating current switches
directions (polarities).
Hex
Shorthand notation for hexadecimal numbers or the
hexadecimal numbering system.
Hexadecimal
Hibernate mode
An ACPI-defined power state in which the
computer takes all current applications running in
RAM, saves them to the systems swap file on the hard
disk, and then turns the systems power off.
Host
A computer on a network.
Hot-swapping
Changing a drive in an array, or adding or
removing a device, without shutting down and
powering off the system.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
Protocol used to send and receive Web pages over
the Internet.
Hub
A network device that can be used to connect
devices that use a BNC or RJ-45 connector.
HVPS
A high-voltage power supply in laser printers that
creates the high voltages required in the printing
process.
I/O address
A section of memory shared between the CPU and
a device and through which those components can
transfer data.
IEEE 1394
A high-speed peripheral interconnection bus, better
known as FireWire.
Impact printer
A printer that uses a mechanical method to press
ink from a ribbon onto the page.
Infrared port
A line-of-sight wireless technology for connecting
computing devices. It sends infrared light, which is
invisible to human eyes.
Inkjet printer
A printer that produces images by forcing ink
through tiny nozzles and onto the paper. Also known as
ink dispersion printing technology.
Instruction
A low-level, hardware-specific command to be
acted upon by a processor.
Insulator
A material that inhibits the flow of electricity.
Interface
A communications standard that defines how data
flows to and from the disk drive. In practice, an
interface is implemented as a circuit board attached to
the drive unit.
Internetworking
The technology and devices by which computers
can communicate across networks.
Interrupt
A signal sent by a device to the CPU to gain its
attention.
Inverter
A device that converts DC to AC.
IPCONFIG
A TCP/IP utility that displays the computers
adapter address, IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway, and allows the DHCP lease to be renewed or
released by the user.
IPv4 address
A 32-bit address consisting of a series of four 8-bit
numbers, separated by periods, used to identify a
computer, printer, or other device on a TCP/IP network.
IPv6 address
A 128-bit address used to identify a computer,
printer, or other device on a TCP/IP network.
IPX (Internet Packet eXchange)
A protocol that handles moving information over
the network. It is a connectionless protocol.
G6
IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/

Sequenced Packet Exchange)
A routable, proprietary protocol that was the native
protocol in early versions of Novell NetWare.
Local accounts
User accounts stored in the computers local
security database and available only on the computer on
which they were created.
IRQ
Local area network (LAN)

A regionally confined network consisting of
computers that communicate and share data and
services.
Interrupt request line, a channel over which

interrupt signals are transmitted.
ISA bus
Industry Standard Architecture bus; the 16-bit
expansion bus of the IBM PC/AT computers and
clones.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
A technology that uses a telephone line to transmit
digital data at a high speed.
Jumpers
Plastic and metal covers that slide over metal pins,
used to configure older hardware components.
LAN (local area network)
A specifically designed configuration of computers
and other devices located within a confined area, such
as a home or office building, and connected by wires or
radio waves that permit the devices to communicate
with one another to share data and services.
Laser printer
A printer that produces images by using an
electrophotographic process.
A component that contains the laser which is used
to write the image to the drum in a laser printer.
Layer 2 switch
A networking device that connects two LANs and
makes them appear to be one, or segments a larger
LAN into two smaller pieces, and then filters
information before passing it on to another network
segment.
Low-level formatting
The preparation step that divides the disk into
tracks and divides each track into sectors. With hard
drives, this step is performed at the factory.
LPT ports
Line printer (parallel) ports, which are named
LPT1, LPT2, and so forth.
MAC (Media Access Control) address
A unique address permanently embedded in a NIC
by the manufacturer and used to identify the device on a
LAN.
MBR (master boot record)
The first sector on a bootable hard disk.
Memory card
Solid-state flash memory in a card format.
Memory effect
A process by which batteries can gradually lose
power because they remember how full they were the
last time they were charged and then dont charge past
that point when recharged.
Memory Stick
A flash memory card developed by Sony and used
in portable devices, especially digital still and video
cameras. Roughly the size of a pack of gum.
Metaformat
See Card Information Structure.
LCD (liquid crystal display)

A monitor that uses layers of liquid crystals, a
fluorescent light source, and polarizing filters. A
transistor controls each pixels transparency by setting
the electrical field to adjust the liquid crystals
alignment.
MICRODIMM
A memory standard for notebooks that uses CSP
architecture, grid ball array, or other technologies.
Li-Ion (Lithium ion)

A lightweight battery used in portable computing
devices.
Mini PCI card

A card that provides the same functionality as a
desktop PCI card, but in a smaller format for portable
computing devices.
Link-local address
An IPv6 address that is self-assigned through the
Neighbor Discovery process.
Microprocessor
A CPU contained on a single chip.
MMC (Microsoft Management Console)

A common GUI interface that Microsoft uses in
administrative utilities such as Computer Management.
Glossary
Modem
A device that enables you to connect your
computer to another computer through a phone line.
Modulation
The process through which a modem converts a
digital signal into an analog one.
Motherboard
The main circuit board in a personal computer.
Multicast address
An IPv6 address used to send information or
services to all interfaces that are defined as members of
the multicast group.
Multimeter
A meter that can be used to measure various
electrical properties.
My Network Places
A utility for browsing network resources such as
shared file folders on other computers, networked local
printers, and Web links. Provided in Windows XP and
NAT (Network Address Translation)
A service that allows multiple computers to access
the Internet by sharing a single public IP address.
Native resolution
The number of individually addressable pixels in
the screen matrix of a monitor.
NetBEUI
A non-routable, proprietary Microsoft protocol
thats supported in Windows 9x/Me, Windows NT, and
Windows 2000.
NetBIOS
A protocol that provides name resolution and
session management between computers.
Netbooks
A class of notebook computers, much smaller than
their regular counterparts, that are designed for wireless
Internet use, such as Web browsing, e-mail, and cloud
computing.
Network
In Windows Vista, an auto-discovery utility that
uses the Link-Layer Topology Discovery (LLTD)
protocol to identify and display the computers, routers,
and switches on a network.
Network protocols
The languages that computers, servers, and
network devices use to communicate with each other.
G7
NIC (network interface card)

A card that provides a communication channel
between a computers motherboard and the network.
Also referred to as a network board or network adapter.
NiCad (Nickel cadmium)
A type of battery used for portable computing
devices. Suffers from the memory effect.
NiMH (Nickel metal-hydride)
An environmentally friendly battery used for
portable computing devices.
NLQ (near letter quality)
The highest print quality of a dot-matrix printer.
nm
Nanometer; a measurement of visible light
wavelength. An nm is 110-9 meters (one millionth of a
millimeter).
Node
A computer or other device connected to a LAN by
a NIC.
Non-volatile memory
Memory that does not lose its contents when power
is removed.
Notebook computers
Small computers with all the necessary input and
output components contained in a portable unit.
Notification area
An area of the Windows taskbar that displays icons
for system and application programs that are running,
but have no desktop presence.
Octal system
Operating system
A set of software instructions that control the
computer and run other programs on it.
Package
A case made from plastic, ceramic, glass, metal, or
other material, plus the wires and connectors that bridge
the microscopic connections on the die with the
external circuitry. A package might also include support
function chips, memory, and cooling-related
components.
Page file
A file that is used to temporarily store active data
that doesnt fit in the RAM installed on the computer.
The components in a laser printer that move the
paper through the printer.
G8
Parallel transmission
A technique by which the 8 bits in a byte are
transmitted simultaneously, with each bit traveling over
its own path in the transmission medium.
Ping
A TCP/IP utility that enables a user at one
computer to determine if that node can communicate
with another computer on the network.
Parity
A scheme that enables the detection of a memory
error.
Pixel
The smallest addressable unit of a picture.
Partition
The usable storage space that a hard disk is divided
into.
Partitioning
Dividing a disk into one or more logical drives,
which are also called volumes.
Patch panel
A device consisting of a row or block of jacks,
used for connecting all components on a network.
PC Card
An expansion card for portable computers;
approximately the size of a credit card.
PCI bus
Peripheral Component Interconnect bus, a 32- or
64-bit expansion bus used in Pentium-based and other
modern PCs.
PCMCIA
Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association, the group responsible for establishing the
standards for expansion cards for portable computing
devices.
PDA (personal digital assistant)
Handheld computing device. Most often used for
organizing address books, schedules, and notes.
Peer-to-peer network
A network that consists of several client computers
that are connected for simple file and printer sharing in
a small office or home office. Each host on the LAN
has the same authority as the other hosts.
Peltier device
(Pronounced PELT-ee-y) An electronic
component that gets colder when voltage is applied.
Peripherals
External computer components, such as printers,
keyboards, and mice.
Piezoelectric
An ink dispersion print technology in which a
bubble is created with a piezo crystal behind each
nozzle. An electrical current sent to the crystal causes it
to vibrate. When it vibrates inward, it releases ink onto
the paper; when it vibrates outward, it pulls ink from
the cartridge.
Pixel depth
The number of bits per pixel devoted to each shade
of a color.
Plenum
An enclosure thats used to move air for heating,
cooling, or humidity control in a building.
Plotters
Pen-based printers that create line images.
PnP (Plug and Play )
A system through which devices in a PC are
discovered automatically and configured to use system
resources without causing conflicts. PnP requires
cooperation between hardware and software (operating
system) components.
Port
A connector into which you can plug cables from
external devices, or in some cases, plug in the devices
themselves.
Port address
A number between 0 and 65,535 that identifies a
program running on a computer.
POST (power-on self test)
A series of basic checks that the computer runs at
startup to make sure the system components are in
proper working order.
POTS (plain old telephone service)
The analog phone service used in most homes; can
be used for dial-up Internet connections.
Power supply
The internal component that converts wall voltage
(110 V or 220 V) to the various DC voltages used by
the computers other components.
PRI (Primary Service Interface)
An ISDN configuration intended for large
organizations.
Primary partition
A partition that is directly accessed by the
operating system as a volume.
Protocol
A set of rules and standards that a network uses to
communicate among its nodes.
Glossary
Protocol suite
A group of protocols that work together to provide
services.
RG-59
Coaxial cable used for cable television
transmission.
RAID
A set of standards for lengthening disk life,
preventing data loss, and enabling relatively
uninterrupted access to data.
RG-6
Coaxial cable used for long-distance cable
television transmission.
RAID level 0
Striping with no other redundancy features.
RAID level 1
Simple disk mirroring.
RAID level 2
An array of disks in which the data is striped across
all disks in the array.
RAID level 3
A setup that uses disk striping and stores errorcorrecting information, but writes the information to
only one disk in the array.
RAID level 4
A setup that uses disk striping and stores errorcorrecting information on all drives, with the ability to
perform checksum verification.
RAID level 5
A setup that provides striping, error correction, and
checksum verification and that spreads both errorcorrection and checksum data over all of the disks, so
there is no single point of failure.
RAM (random access memory)
The hardware component that stores data as the
CPU works with it.
Registry
A hierarchical database, created during the
installation of Windows, containing binary files that
hold system configuration information about all aspects
of a Windows computer, including security settings,
user profiles, installed applications, attached hardware,
and system properties.
Resistance
A force that opposes the flow of DC through a
conductor; measured in ohms.
Resolution
The number of pixels across and down that a video
adapter can create.
Response rate
A value that identifies how quickly the pixels can
change colors on a monitor.
RG-58
Coaxial cable used for Ethernet networks. Also
known as Thinnet.
G9
RG-8
Coaxial cable used for Ethernet networks. Also
known as Thicknet.
Riser card
A circuit board that connects to a motherboard to
provide additional expansion slots or sockets.
RJ-11 connectors
Square, 6-pin connectors used with phone, modem,
and LocalTalk connections.
RJ-45
A terminating 8-pin connector on a twisted-pair
cable used for network connections.
Root directory
The highest-level folder on the disk.
Routable protocol
A protocol that allows data to be sent to
interconnected networks on the Internet.
Router
An internetworking device used to create a path
between individual networks.
SDRAM (synchronous DRAM)
Memory that is tied to the system clock.
Sectors
Divisions of tracks in which data is written.
Secure Digital
A flash memory card used in portable devices,
especially digital cameras.
Security Accounts Manager (SAM) database
The local security and account database on a
Windows server.
Serial transmission
A technique in which bits of data are sent, one at a
time, across the transmission medium.
Server
A computer or device that provides network
services or manages network resources.
Service set identifier (SSID)
The network name for a wireless LAN.
G10
Shadowing
A process in which the computer copies the
contents of the BIOS into standard memory at startup to
improve performance.
SSD (solid-state drive)

A hard drive that uses memory chips (DDR RAM
or flash memory) to read and write data, instead of
using a rotating disk.
Site-local address
An IPv6 private address.
Standby mode
A user-configurable mode thats activated in order
to conserve power and (on a notebook) extend battery
life.
SLA (service-level agreement)

A document specifying how clients and support
personnel are to interact, what to expect from each
other, and what timeframes are acceptable for the
resolution of issues.
Start menu
In Windows, a cascading menu from which the
user can open programs.
Sleep mode
An ACPI-defined power state in which system
configuration information, open applications, and files
are stored in RAM, while the screen, hard disk, and
most other components are turned off.
Static electricity
A phenomenon that occurs when the charges on
separate objects are unequal and the charge imbalance
creates an electrical field that can cause objects to
attract or repel each other.
SmartMedia
A flash memory card developed by Toshiba and
used in portable devices, especially digital cameras.
STP
Shielded twisted-pair cable used for LANs.
Socket Services
BIOS-level software that manages PC Cards and
detects their insertion and removal.
SODIMM (small outline dual inline memory
module)
A memory standard, with 144-pin dual inline
memory, used in notebook computers.
Software
A set of instructions processed by the central
processing chip in the computer.
Striping
A RAID implementation in which data is divided
into blocks and the blocks are distributed across the
drives in the array.
Stylus
A pointing device used to interact with touchscreen devices.
Subnet mask
The part of an IP address that designates the
network ID.
Solid-ink printer
A printer that melts sticks of wax to create the ink
for printing.
Subpixels
Components of a pixel. Each pixel on an LCD
monitor is composed of three subpixels, each covered
by a red, blue, or green filter.
SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork)

An ANSI standard protocol for signal transmission
on optical networks.
Surge protector
A device that protects computers and other
equipment from electrical surges and spikes.
Spam
Junk e-mail, officially known as unsolicited
commercial e-mail (UCE).
Switch
A device used in a LAN to direct data traffic
among the nodes.
SPX (Sequenced Packet eXchange)

The protocol that provides guaranteed delivery of
packets.
Task Manager
In Windows, a program that provides information
on processes and applications that are running on a
computer.
Spyware
Software that monitors a system and gathers
information without the users knowledge.
SRAM (static RAM)
Memory that holds its contents until power is
removed.
Taskbar
In Windows, a bar that contains buttons and icons
that can be used to monitor, control, and switch among
running programs.
Glossary
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol)
A routable, non-proprietary protocol thats the
predominant Windows network protocol and is also the
protocol of the Internet.
Telnet
A TCP/IP utility that allows a user in one location
to access a computer in a remote location as if the user
were physically sitting in front of the remote machine.
Termination
The process of adding terminators to the bus. Both
ends of a SCSI bus must be terminated. You cannot
have terminators in the middle of the bus.
Terminators
Devices, basically electrical resistors, that serve to
absorb signals that reach the end of the SCSI bus.
Text file
A file, typically in ASCII format, that can be read
by humans using a text editor, such as Notepad.
TFT (thin-film transistor)
A type of active matrix LCD monitor containing
metallic contacts composed of thin film, a layer of
semiconductive material, and a layer of insulating
material.
Thermal autochrome printer
A printer that produces images by using special
paper in which cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments are
embedded. Each page passes three times under the
thermal print head at varying temperatures. Each color
is processed at a different temperature.
Thermal bubble
An ink dispersion printing technology in which the
ink is heated, vaporizing it and creating a bubble. The
bubble protrudes through the nozzle and sprays onto the
paper. When the bubble bursts, it creates a vacuum that
draws more ink from the cartridge into the print head,
readying it to create another dot.
Thermal compound
Glue that transmits heat well and is used between
components to improve heat flow.
Thermal wax transfer printer
A printer that produces images by using a heating
element in the print head to melt ink in a wax base from
the transfer ribbon. Separate cyan, yellow, magenta,
and black transfer ribbons are used to create the image.
The cooled wax becomes a permanent image on the
paper.
Thinnet
Another name for RG-58 Ethernet cables.
G11
Toner
Fine particles composed of carbon, polyester, and
iron oxide, held in a cartridge and used in laser printers
to produce images.
Toner cartridge
A container filled with toner, an EP drum, a blade
to remove used toner from the drum, and a corona
charging assembly used to apply a static charge to the
drum after the image has printed.
Tracks
On the disk medium, concentric or spiral rings that
are divided into sectors, which store data.
The components in a laser printer that transfer the
image from the drum to the paper.
Trojan horse
Software that includes undisclosed functions.
Troubleshooting
The process of determining the cause of, and
ultimately the solution to, a problem.
Twisted-pair cable
Cable composed of four pairs of wires, with each
pair twisted around each other, and with the pairs
twisted together and bundled within a covering.
Type I PC Card
A PC Card, 3.3 mm thick, most often used for
memory.
Type II PC Card
A PC Card, 5 mm thick, most often used for
network adapters, modems, and other communications
channels, such as SCSI, USB, or FireWire.
Type III PC Card
A PC Card, 10.5 mm thick, most often used for
additional storage.
UDC (Universal data connector)
A connector used on token ring networks to
connect the computer to the network.
UDF (universal disk format)
An ISO 13346 standard implementation used for
flash media, REV discs, and rewritable CD and DVD
discs.
UPS (uninterruptible power supply)
A device that protects computers and other
equipment from brownouts and blackouts.
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
A peripheral specification developed by a
consortium of companies. It defines a bus architecture
to which you can connect one or more expansion
devices.
G12
UTP
Unshielded twisted-pair, a type of wiring that is
used for LANs and does not contain any shielding.
VESA local bus (VLB)
The Video Electronics Standard Association video
bus developed for 80486-based computers.
Video bus
The bus that transmits display information between
the CPU and the video circuitry.
Viewing angle
The maximum angle at which the image remains
intact (isnt distorted) when someone is looking at a
monitor.
Virtual memory
A Windows memory-management scheme that
uses hard disk space to deceive applications into
functioning as if there were more RAM available than
the amount that is installed in the computer.
Virus
Destructive or damaging software meant to disrupt
the operation of a PC, destroy data, or even destroy
hardware.
Volatile memory
Memory that loses its contents when power isnt
present.
Volt
The unit of measure of voltage. Officially
abbreviated with an uppercase V, but often written as a
lowercase v.
Voltage
The force of electricity caused by a difference in
charge, or electrical potential, at two locations;
measured in volts.
VPN (virtual private network)
A network connection that uses encryption and
security protocols to create a private network over a
public network.
VRM (voltage regulator module)
Internal component that receives power from the
power supply and sends the correct voltages to the
CPU.
WAN (Wide area network)
A network covering large geographic areas, such as
counties, states, or countries, or the world.
WAP (Wireless access point)
A device that wireless computing devices use to
communicate and connect with network services.
War driving
The act of driving around in a car and using a
laptop with a wireless network card to see which
networks can be connected to.
Watt
The measure of electrical power. Power is a
derived quantity: 1 watt = 1 volt 1 amp.
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
A protocol, built into the 802.11 standards, that
governs how data can be encrypted while in transit on
the wireless network.
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
The most widely used wireless technology at
present. It began as an IEEE 802.11b wireless standard
and is being replaced with the faster IEEE 802.11g
standard.
WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 Air Interface Standard)
A point-to-multipoint broadband wireless access
standard, operating in the frequency ranges of 1066
GHz for licensed communications and 211 GHz for
unlicensed communications, providing bandwidth in
excess of 70 Mbps. An emerging wireless connection
standard for long distances, WiMAX services wide area
and metropolitan area networks, allowing wireless users
with 802.16e devices to roam between current wireless
hot spots.
Windows Aero
The name of the new user interface Microsoft
introduced with Windows Vista.
Windows print processes
The processes involved in getting the print request
from the user to the printer.
WinModem
A Windows-based combination of simple hardware
(basically, just physical components to interface with
the motherboard and phone lines) and modem-function
emulation software.
WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service)
A service used to resolve NetBIOS names to IP
addresses and to store NetBIOS service information.
Wireless router
A device to which nodes in a wireless LAN can
connect, using radio waves.
WLAN (wireless LAN)
A network that uses radio waves or infrared light
instead of cables to connect network nodes.
Workgroup
A logical group of computers characterized by a
decentralized security and administration model.
Glossary
Workstation
A computer connected to a network.
Worm
A self-propagating program meant to disrupt the
operation of a PC.
WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)
A wireless communication protocol that is
replacing WEP. It uses a shared key for security.
xD-Picture Card
A flash memory card developed by Olympus and
Fujifilm and used in portable devices, especially digital
cameras.
Zinc air batteries
Batteries that use a carbon membrane to absorb
oxygen, contain a zinc plate, and use potassium
hydroxide electrolyte. Used in portable computing
devices.
ZV (Zoomed Video)
A technology that provides direct communication
between the PC card and the video controller.
G13
G14
I1
Index
A
AC signals, 3-23
Access control, 14-44
Access control list (ACL), 20-31
Access Denied errors, troubleshooting, 20-36
Account lockouts, 20-18
Active Directory, 20-14
Address bus, 4-6
Addresses
Leasing, 14-36
Network, types of, 14-5
Adware, 20-66
AGP standard, 7-16
AIT tapes, 10-66
Alternating current, 3-3
Antivirus software, 20-62
Anycast address, 14-8
AP isolation, 14-45
APIPA, 14-7
AppleTalk, 14-4
Application layer, 14-21
Applications, managing in Task Manager, 18-13
Archive bit, 18-47
ASCII format, 2-58
Aspect ratio, 11-4
Asynchronous DRAM, 6-5
Asynchronous Transfer Mode, 13-37
ATA, 10-4
Attenuation, 13-13, 15-8
Attrib command, 2-67
Authentication
Biometric, 20-50
Interactive, 20-14
Network, 20-14
On client/server networks, 13-7
On peer-to-peer networks, 13-6
On wireless LANs, 14-44
Protocols, 20-14
Two-factor, 20-53
Autoconfiguration, 14-37
Automated System Recovery (ASR), 19-27
B
Backups
Strategies for, 18-51
Bandwidth, 6-7
Base 10 numbering, C-2
Base memory addresses, 7-11
Batch files, 2-63
Battery backups, 3-24

Battery types, 16-5
BEDO RAM, 6-6
Beep codes, 5-13
Berg connector, 3-16
Binary notation, C-3
Biometric security devices, 20-50
BIOS, 5-3
Configuring, 5-4
Security settings, 20-55
Troubleshooting, 5-17
Update failures, 5-8
Updating, 5-6
BitLocker Drive Encryption, 20-42
Bluetooth, 14-30, 16-16, 16-17
Blu-ray discs, 10-46
Boot error messages, 19-8
Boot process, 5-15
Brightness measurements, 11-12
Burst mode, 10-64
Bus topology, 13-61
Buses
Address, 4-6
Data, 4-6
Expansion, 7-2
Front-side, 4-6
Internal, 4-6
PCI, 7-13
Riser, 7-3
Video, 7-15
C
Cable modems, 13-32
Cable testing devices, 15-9
Cables
Coax, 13-16
Composite, 13-16
Fiber optic, 13-11
Printer, parallel, 9-10
RG standards, 13-18
Serial, 9-6
Solid vs. stranded, 13-15
UTP vs. STP, 13-13
Caches, 4-6
Cases, B-2
CD drives
Installing, 10-46
CDs
Capacity of, 10-41
Types of, 10-42
I2
Cell-phone Internet access, 13-34

Cellular WAN, 16-17
Chipsets, 4-12
Chkdsk command, 10-74
Client/server networks, 13-6
Clock speed, 4-6
CMOS, 5-3
Battery for, 5-10
Configuring, 6-17
Coaxial cables
Terminating, 13-52
Color depth, 11-7
COM ports, 9-3
Command Prompt, running as administrator, 17-38
Command-line utility, 2-32, 2-63
Commands
Chdir/cd, 2-46
Command/cmd, 2-45
Copy, 2-53
Defrag, 10-80
Dir, 2-46
Edit, 2-60, 2-62
Getting help on, 2-47
IPCONFIG, 15-18
Mkdir/md, 2-50
Net, 17-37
NSLookup, 15-26
Rmdir/rd, 2-57
Spaces in, 2-50
Tracert, 15-26
Xcopy, 2-54
Communication, guidelines for, 1-10
CompactFlash cards, 11-23
CompTIA troubleshooting models, 1-2
Computer cases, opening, 3-10
Computer Management console, 2-31, 18-21
Computers, cleaning, 22-15
Configuration weaknesses, 20-58
Connectors
Coax, 9-41
Digital cameras, 11-24
Drive power, 3-16
DVI, 11-16
Floppy drives, 10-60
MIDI, 9-42
Modems, 8-22
Motherboard power, 3-17
Multimedia, 9-35
Optical drives, 10-47
Parallel, 9-9
RCA, 9-41
S/PDIF, 9-43
Serial, 9-5
Sound cards, 8-15
S-Video, 9-41
USB, 9-27
Video, 8-6, 11-7
Continuous UPS, 3-24
Contrast ratio, 11-11

Control Panel, 2-26
Control units, 4-3
Controllers, 10-3
CPUs
Components of, 4-3
Cooling, 4-22
Factors affecting performance of, 4-5
For notebooks, 16-6
Installing, 4-19
Package types, 4-12
Cross-over TP cable, 13-47
Crosstalk, 13-13
CRT monitors
Characteristics of, 11-4
Workings of, 11-2
Current
Calculating, 3-5
DC vs. AC, 3-3
Measuring, 3-30
D
Data
Backing up, 18-47
Protecting, 20-93
Restoring from backups, 18-55
Restoring with System Restore, 18-60
Data bus, 4-6
Data transmission
Duplex vs. simplex, 13-19
Daughter boards, 4-31
DDR RAM, 6-6
DDS tapes, 10-64
Decimals, C-2
Deleted files, recovering, 10-82
Device Manager, 7-7
DHCP, 14-10
Dial-up connections, 14-57
Properties of, 14-61
Digital cameras, 11-22
DIMMs, 6-12
Dir command, 2-46
Direct current, 3-3
Directories
Copying, 2-52, 2-53
Creating, 2-49, 2-50
Navigating in, 2-43
Removing, 2-56, 2-57
Directory trees, 10-26
DirectX Diagnostic Tool, 18-8
Disk Cleanup utility, 10-68
Disk duplexing, 10-35
Disk Management utility, 10-23, 10-28
Disk mirroring, 10-35
Disks
Checking, 10-74
Defragmenting, 10-77
Index
Encrypting, 20-41, 20-45
Scanning for errors, 10-72
Display projectors, 11-19
Display properties, 11-7
DisplayPort technology, 11-19
Dithering, 12-6
DLT tapes, 10-65
DMA, 7-10, 10-6
DNS, 14-11
Docking stations, 16-41
Documents library, 2-21
DoS attacks, 20-59
Dot pitch, 11-5
Dot-matrix printers, 12-2
DRAM, 6-5, 6-6, 6-11
DRDRAM, 6-6
Drive power connectors, 3-16
Driver signing, 21-29
Drivers, 8-11
Updating, 8-25
Drivers, updating, 21-26
Drives
ATA, 10-4
Capacities, 10-8
CD, 10-42
DVD, 10-44
Floppy, 10-57
IEEE 1394, 9-31
Interfaces, 10-4
Optical, 10-41
SCSI, 10-10
Tape, 10-64
USB, 10-12
USB flash, 10-53
DSL, 13-31
Dual Independent Bus, 4-6
Dual-channel architecture, 6-16
Dumpster diving, 20-90
DVD drives
DVDs
Capacity of, 10-44
Types of, 10-45
DVI connectors, 8-7, 11-16
Dynamic tables, 13-71
E
E-carrier lines, 13-35
ECC, 6-14
ECP mode, 9-8
Edit command, 2-60, 2-62
EDO RAM, 6-6
Effective permissions, 2-80, 20-31
Effective Permissions
Determining, 20-32
Electricity
Safety precautions, 3-6
Static (ESD), 3-7, 22-9

The 1-10-100 rule, 3-5
Electronics, disposing of, 22-22
Electrophotographic process, 12-9
Elevation prompts, 20-23
Emergency Repair Disks, 19-26
EMI, 22-10
Encrypted File System, 20-40
Encryption, 14-44, 20-39
EPP mode, 9-8
Ergonomics, 22-20
Ethernet, 16-17
10 Gigabit, 13-24
10BASE-T, 13-25
Devices for, 13-65
Fast, 13-25
Gigabit, 13-24
Types and speeds, 13-23
Ethernet bonding, 13-25
Event monitoring, real-time, 18-39
Event Viewer, 18-21
Events
Filtering, 18-28
Grouping, 18-27
Sorting, 18-27
Execution units, 4-3
Expansion buses, 7-2
Expansion cards
Handling, 8-10
Installing, 8-11
Extended partitions, 10-23
F
Fast Page Mode RAM, 6-6
FAT, 10-24
FAT32, 10-24
Fault tolerance, 10-34
FDDI networks, 13-62
Fiber optic cable, 13-11
Fiber optic connectors, 13-44
File attributes, 2-66, 20-36
File systems, 10-23
File-name extensions, 2-59
Files
Batch, 2-63
Binary vs. text, 2-58
Sharing, 2-69
Fire extinguishers, types of, 22-4
Firewalls, 13-72, 20-75
FireWire, 9-31
Firmware, 5-2
Flash drives, 10-53
Flat-panel monitors, 11-10
Connections, 11-16
Floppy disks, 10-57
Floppy drives
Flow control, 9-4
I3
I4
Folders
Adding to a library, 2-22
Removing from library, 2-23
Setting as default save location, 2-23
Folders, encrypting, 20-41
Form factors, 3-18, 4-31
Format command, 10-62
Formatting
Low-level, 10-21
Frame relay protocol, 13-36
Front-side bus, 4-6
FTP, 15-28
Fully qualified domain names, 14-11
G
Gateways, 14-9
Generators, 3-27
Global unicast address, 14-8
Grandfather-Father-Son backup strategy, 18-52
H
Handheld devices
Maintaining power for, 16-51
Memory in, 6-21
Hard drives
Components of, 10-15
Encrypting, 20-42
Formatting, 10-28
Installing, 10-18
Magnetic vs. solid-state, 10-16
Partitioning, 10-22
Preparing for use, 10-21
Tracks, sectors, and clusters, 10-17
Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL), 19-3
Hardware Compatibility List, 21-10
Hardware toolkit, 15-2
HDMI connectors, 8-8
Heat pipes, 4-24
Heat sinks, 4-24
Hexidecimals, C-4
Hibernate mode, 16-22, 17-24
Host IDs, 14-6
Hosts, on networks, 13-3
Hot-swapping, 16-27
HTTP, 15-28
Hubs, 13-65
Human error, security, 20-59
Hybrid topology, 13-64
Hyperthreading, 4-6
I
ICMP, 14-18
IDE, 10-4
IDE channels, 10-10
IEEE 1394, 9-31
IEEE 1394 ports, troubleshooting, 9-48
IMAP4, 14-25, 15-29

Impedance, 3-3
Indexing Service, 17-41
Indexing settings, 17-5
Infrared, G-5
Infrared technology, 16-15
Inkjet printers, 12-4
Photo printers, 12-7
Print quality, 12-6
Interference
In LANs, 22-9
Minimizing, 22-10
Shielding and filtering, 22-11
With CRTs, 11-8
Interference, electrical, 13-13, 15-8
Internet layer, 14-22
Interrupts, 7-5
IP addresses, 14-6
Assigning through DHCP, 14-10
IPv4, 14-5
IPv6, 14-5
IPCONFIG, 14-16
IPCONFIG command, 15-18
IPX/SPX, 14-4
IRQs, 7-5
ISDN, 13-31
Isochronous transfers, 9-32
K
Keyboards, 9-11
Setting properties of, 9-19
KVM swtiches, 9-21
L
LANs, 13-3
Laser printers, 12-9
Printing process, 12-11
Laser printers, maintaining, 12-37
Latency, 13-67
Latency sensitivity, 15-11
Layer 2 switches, 13-67
LCD monitors, 11-10
Technologies, 16-10
Workings of, 11-10
Libraries
Adding folders to, 2-22
Creating, 2-22
Removing folders from, 2-23
Specifying a default save location in, 2-23
Link-local address, 14-8
Linux, 2-4
LLTD protocol, 2-32
Local area networks (LANs)
Peer-to-peer, G-8
Local Security Policy console, 20-26
Logic bombs, 20-61
Logical block addressing, 10-8
Index
I5
Loopback adapters, 9-49

Low-level formatting, 10-21
LTO tapes, 10-65
Multimedia ports, troubleshooting, 9-48

Multimeters, 3-29
Multistation access units, 13-62
MAC addresses, 14-5

Mac OS, 2-3
Malware, disabling and removing, 20-69
Material safety data sheets, 22-18
MBR, 10-22
Memory
Dynamic vs. static, 6-5
Error detection and recovery, 6-14
Handling, 6-17
In handheld devices, 6-21
In notebooks, 6-19, 16-33
Installing, 6-16
Monitoring usage of, 6-22
Package types, 6-12
Shared video, 6-19, 16-33
Synchronous vs. asynchronous, 6-5
Testing, 6-31
Video, 7-16
Virtual, 6-28
Volatile vs. non-volatile, 6-4
Memory cards, 11-22
Memory leaks, 18-38
Mesh topology, 13-63
Mice, 9-13
Setting properties of, 9-16
MICRODIMMs, 6-12
Microprocessors, 4-3
Microsoft Management Console, 2-34
MIDI connectors, 9-42
Mini PCI cards, 16-32
Mkdir/md command, 2-50
MMX, 4-7
Modem bonding, 13-30
Modems, 8-19, 13-57
Connectors, 8-22
Molex connector, 3-16
Monitors
Cleaning, 22-16
CRT, 11-2
In laptop computers, 11-13
LCD, 11-10
Touch-screen, 11-12
Using multiple, 11-17
Motherboards
Components of, 4-29
Installing, 4-34
Power connectors, 3-17
Sockets and slots on, 4-16
Msconfig utility, 19-18
Msinfo32 command, 18-6
Multicast address, 14-8
Net command, 17-37

NetBEUI, 14-4
NetBIOS names, 14-12
Netbook computers, 16-4
Network address translation (NAT), 13-71
Network analyzers, 15-10
Network authentication, 20-14
Network cameras, 11-26
Network IDs, 14-6
Network interface cards
Indicator lights on, 8-28
Wireless, 14-40
Network Interface Cards (NICs), 13-53
Selecting, 13-54
Network Interface layer, 14-22
Network noise, 15-8
Network operating systems, 13-6
Network utility, 2-32
Network utilization, monitoring, 18-17
Networks
Circuit switching, 13-29
FDDI, 13-62
Nodes on, 13-3
Packet switching, 13-29
Peer-to-peer vs. client/server, 13-4
Wireless, 13-27, 16-17
Wireless standards for, 14-28
Wiring, 13-11
Northbridge chips, 4-12
Notebook computers, 13-54
Notebooks, 16-2
Configuring with Windows Mobility Center, 16-19
CPUs, 16-6
Fn key, 16-9
Hard drives, 16-8
Maintaining, 16-52
Memory, 6-19, 16-8, 16-33
Monitor technologies, 16-9
Peripheral ports, 16-12
Pointing devices, 16-11
Ports for peripherals, 16-40
Power management features, 16-7
Power problems, 16-49, 16-50
Power sources for, 16-4
Replacing components in, 16-26
NSLookup, 15-26
NTFS, 10-24
Permissions, 2-76
Permissions, assigning, 2-79
NTFS permissions, 20-32
I6
O
Online attacks, 20-90
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, A-2
Operating systems
Defined, 2-2
Linux, 2-4
Mac OS, 2-3
Windows, 2-3, 2-5
Operating-system load errors, 19-10
Optical drives, 10-41
Optical drives, installing, 10-46
Overclocking, 4-7
P
Packet filtering, 13-73
Page files, 6-2, 6-28
Parallel ports, troubleshooting, 9-46
Parallel transmission, 9-3
Parity, 6-14, 9-4
Partitions, 10-22
Creating, 10-23, 21-15
Primary vs. extended, 10-22
Password policies, 20-16
Passwords, 20-3, 20-8
Requiring, 20-12
PC Cards, 16-27
Installing, 16-30
PCI bus, 7-13
PCI Express specification, 7-14
Peer-to-peer networks, 13-5
Peltier coolers, 4-25
Performance console
Logs and Alerts, 18-45
Performance Monitor, 18-37
Configuring, 18-42
Performance tab, Task Manager, 6-24
Permanent virtual circuits, 13-36
Permissions, 2-76
Effective, 2-80
NTFS, 2-76
Piezoelectric technology, 12-5
Ping command, 14-18
PIO modes, 10-6
Pipelining, 4-7
Pixel depth, 8-4
POP3, 14-24
Port addresses, 14-25
Port replicators, 16-41
Port scanning, 20-77
Ports, 9-2
Keyboard, 9-11
Mice, 9-13
Microphone, 9-38
On notebooks, 16-12
Parallel, 9-7
Printer, 9-8
Serial, 9-3
Speaker, 9-37
USB, 9-27
POST, 5-12
POST troubleshooting, 5-18
POTS/PSTN, 13-30
Power conditioning, 3-24
Power saving
Configuring, 17-20
Modes, 16-7, 17-20, 17-24
Power supplies, 3-14
Installing, 3-19
Requirements for common PC components, 3-15
Power_Good signal, 3-34
Power-saving modes, 16-22
Printers
Configuring and optimizing, 12-26
Dot-matrix, 12-2
Dye sublimation, 12-13
Inkjet, 12-4
Inkjet, photo, 12-7
Installing, 12-18, 12-20
Laser, 12-9
Maintaining, 12-35
Multifunction, 12-32
Options for, 12-32
Plotters, 12-14
Snapshot, 12-14
Solid ink, G-10
Solid-ink, 12-13
Thermal, 12-14
Printing processes, 12-16
Processes, monitoring, 18-15
Processors
Single-core vs. multi-core, 4-4
Specifications of, 4-8
Product keys, 21-20
Protocols
802.11a, 16-17
AppleTalk, 14-4
Bluetooth, 14-30, 16-17
Frame relay, 13-36
FTP, 15-28
HTTP, 15-28
IMAP4, 14-25, 15-29
IPX/SPX, 14-4
LLTD, 2-32
NetBEUI, 14-4
POP3, 14-24, 15-29
Secure HTTP, 14-23
SMTP, 14-24, 15-29
SONET, 13-39
SSH, 15-28
SSL, 14-23, 15-28
TCP/IP, 14-4, 14-21
TDMS, 8-8, 11-16
Telnet, 14-24
TFTP, 14-24
Index
Wi-Fi, 16-17
WiMAX, 14-30, 16-17
X.25, 13-36
Proxy servers, 13-74, 15-33, 20-77
PS/2 ports, troubleshooting, 9-47
Public folder, 2-70
Q
QIC tapes, 10-64
QoS mechanisms, 15-11
R
Radio networking technologies, 16-15
RADIUS, 14-46
RAID
Software vs. hardware, 10-39
RAM, 6-2
Access time, 6-7
Addressable, 4-6
How CPUs access it, 6-6
Installation requirements, 6-16
Package types, 6-12
Speed of, 6-7
Types of, 6-4
RCA connectors, 9-41
Recovery Console, 19-24
Refresh rate, 8-3, 11-5
Registers, 4-4
Registry, 17-48
Backing up, 17-52
Editing, 17-48
Searching, 17-51
Reliability and Performance Monitor, 18-35
Reliability Monitor, 18-32
Remote Assistance, 17-55
Remote Desktop, 17-58
Repetitive strain (or stress) injuries (RSIs), 22-20
Resistance, 3-3
Measuring, 3-30
Resolution, 8-3, 11-4
Native, 11-11, 16-10
Resource Overview, 18-35
Response rate, 11-11
Restore points, creating, 18-57
RFI, 22-12
RG cable standards, 13-18
RIMMs, 6-12
Ring topology, 13-62
Riser buses, 7-3
Riser cards, 4-31, 8-20
Rmdir/rd command, 2-57
Rollover TP cable, 13-47
Routers, 14-9
Types of, 13-71
S
S/PDIF connectors, 9-43
I7
Safety considerations
Air quality, 22-6
Electricity, 22-4, 22-7
Fire, 22-3
Floors, 22-2
Toner, 22-7
SAIT tapes, 10-66
SATA connector, 3-16
Satellite Internet access, 13-33
ScanDisk utility, 10-72
SCSI drives, 10-10
SDRAM, 6-6
Secure HTTP, 14-23
Secure Shell (SSH), 15-28
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), 14-23, 15-28
Security
BIOS settings, 20-55
Classifications, 20-96
Firewalls, 20-75
Hardware-based, 20-49
Malicious software, 20-62
Of data, 20-93
Phishing, 20-89
Physical access restrictions, 20-73
Security devices
Biometric, 20-50
Fobs, 20-53
Security policies, 20-16, 20-95
Security threats, types of, 20-57
Serial ports, 9-3
Cables, 9-6
Connectors, 9-5
Serial ports, troubleshooting, 9-46
Serial transmission, 9-2
Service-level agreements, 1-20
Services and Applications utility, 17-41
Services console, 17-42
Services, monitoring, 18-16
Share permissions, 2-76, 20-33
Shared Documents folder, 2-71
Shared video memory, 6-19
Shoulder surfing, 20-89
SIMMs, 6-12
Simple File Sharing, 2-79
Simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT), 4-4
Site-local address, 14-8
Sleep mode, 16-22, 17-24
Smart cards, 20-52
SMTP, 14-24, 15-29
Social engineering, 20-89
Countermeasures, 20-91
Socket types, 4-16
SODIMMs, 6-12
Software toolkits, 15-4
Solid-state drives, 10-16
SONET protocol, 13-39
Sound cards, 8-14
Connectors on, 9-36
I8
Southbridge chips, 4-12

SPP mode, 9-8
Spyware, 20-66
SRAM, 6-5
Stability Index, 18-33
Standby mode, 16-22
Standby UPS, 3-24
Star topology, 13-60
Startup errors, 19-7, 19-10
Static tables, 13-71
STP cables, 13-13
Straight-through cable, 13-47
Striping, 10-35
Subnet masks, 14-9
Superscalar, 4-7
SuperVGA, 8-5
Surge protectors, 3-24
S-Video connectors, 9-41
Swap files, 6-28
Switches, 13-67, 13-70
System Configuration utility, 19-18
System File Checker, 19-23
System Information window, 18-3
System Recovery Options menu, 19-25
System Restore utility, 18-57
System state, backing up, 18-48
T
Tape drives, 10-64
Tape heads, cleaning, 10-66
Task Manager, 2-33, 6-22, 18-12
Applications tab, 18-13
Networking tab, 18-17
Processes tab, 18-15
Services tab, 18-16
Users tab, 18-19
Task Scheduler, 17-29
T-carrier lines, 13-35
TCP/IP, 14-4, 14-21
Configuring, 14-33
TDMS protocol, 8-8, 11-16
Technology weaknesses, 20-58
Telnet, 14-24
Text files
Creating, 2-60
Editing, 2-62
TFT technology, 11-10, 16-10
TFTP, 14-24
Thermal bubble technology, 12-4
Thicknet cables, 13-17
Thinnet
Connecting, 13-51
Thinnet cables, 13-18
Throttling, 4-7
TMP chips, 20-42
Token Ring networks, 13-62
Toner cartridges, disposing of, 22-22
Topologies
Bus, 13-61
Hybrid, 13-64
Logical vs. physical, 13-4
Mesh, 13-63
Ring, 13-62
Star, 13-60
Token Ring, 13-62
Touchpads, 16-11
Touch-screen monitors, 11-12
Tracert command, 15-26
Transport layer, 14-21
Trojan horses, 20-61
Troubleshooting
Access Denied errors, 20-36
BIOS, 5-17
Boot errors, 19-8
CD drives, 10-85
CMOS, 5-19
DVD drives, 10-86
Hard and floppy drives, 10-84
IEEE 1394 connections, 9-48
Memory, 6-33
Modems, 8-28
Motherboard and CPU, 4-38
Multimedia ports, 9-48
Networks, wired, 15-8
Networks, wireless, 15-13
Notebooks, 16-44, 16-50
Operating-system load errors, 19-10
Parallel connections, 9-46
POST, 5-18
Power supplies, 3-33
Printers, 12-41
PS/2 connections, 9-47
Serial connections, 9-46
Sound cards, 8-27
Startup errors, 19-10
Startup messages, 19-12
TCP/IP problems, 15-16
Tools for, 15-2
USB connections, 9-47
Video cards, 8-26
Windows installations, 21-22
Windows upgrades, 21-38
Wireless connections, 15-14, 16-47
Tunneling, 13-9
Twisted pair connectors, 13-46
Two-factor authentication, 20-53
U
UDMA, 10-6
UPSs, 3-24, 3-27
USB, 9-24, 10-12
Classes, 9-25
Flash drives, 10-53
Versions of, 9-26
USB ports, troubleshooting, 9-47
User Account Control (UAC), 20-23
Index
Working with, 20-26
User accounts, 13-6
Creating, 20-5
Deleting, 20-21
Disabling, 20-21
Groups, 20-6
User names, 20-3
Users, viewing in Task Manager, 18-19
Utilities
IPCONFIG, 14-16
Ping, 14-18
UTP cables, 13-13
V
Video adapters, 8-3
Video buses, 7-15
Video connectors, 11-7
Video RAM, 6-6
Virtual circuits, 13-37
Virtual memory, 6-28
Virtual private networks, 13-8
VoIP, 13-40
Volatile memory, 6-4
Voltage, 3-2
Measuring, 3-30
Setting on power supply, 3-19
Voltage regulator modules (VRMs), 4-8
Volumes
Mounting, 10-32
W
Wake on LAN, 17-27
War driving, 14-43
Water pumps, 4-25
Watts, 3-3
Webcams, 11-26
WEP, 14-46
Wide area networks, 13-29
Wi-Fi protocol, 16-17
WiMAX, 14-30, 16-17
Windows
Activation, 4-34
Appearance settings, 17-10
Desktop components, 2-13
Hardware requirements for, 21-5
Indexing settings, 17-5
Installing, 21-17
Network installation, 21-17
I9
Pre-upgrade tasks, 21-36

Printing processes, 12-16
Region and language settings, 17-2
Security policies, 20-16
Startup modes, 19-14
Startup process, 19-3
Unattended installation, 21-18
Upgrade paths, 21-32
Windows 2000 Professional, features, 2-9
Windows Aero, 2-16
Windows Backup utility, 18-48
Windows Defender, 20-66
Windows Diagnostics, 18-3
Windows Explorer, 2-19
Windows File Protection, 19-23
Windows Firewall, 20-82, 20-83
Windows Network Diagnostics, 15-35
Windows Security Center, 20-78
Windows Update, 21-20
Windows Vista
Aero interface, 17-8
Editions of, 2-6
Grouping and filtering events, 18-27
Program Compatibility Wizard, 21-40, 21-41
Remote Assistance, 17-55
Remote Desktop, 17-58
Upgrading to, 21-36
Windows Mobility Center, 16-19
Windows XP
Editions of, 2-8
Wireless access points, 13-27, 14-28, 14-40
Wireless Auto Configuration, 14-53
Wireless connections, troubleshooting, 15-14, 16-47
Wireless Internet access, 13-34
Wireless LANs, 13-27, 16-17
Connection components for, 14-40
Security for, 14-44
Security risks for, 14-43
Transmission encryption methods, 14-45
Wireless Zero Configuration, 14-53
WMI Control, 17-41
Worms, 20-61
WPA Personal, 14-46
Write protection, 10-58
X
X.25 protocol, 13-36
Xcopy command, 2-54
I10

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CompTIA A+ Certification

COMPREHENSIVE, 2009 EDITION

4.9/5.0 rating from ProCert Labs

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive,

Vice President, Product Development:

Vice President, Operations:

Director of Publishing Systems Development:

Judi Kling, Andy LaPage, Tim Poulsen

COPYRIGHT 2010 Axzo Press. All rights reserved.

Topic A: About the manual............................................................................... vi

Topic A: Troubleshooting stages ..................................................................... 1-2

Topic A: Operating system fundamentals........................................................ 2-2

Electricity and power supplies

Topic A: Electrical safety ................................................................................ 3-2

CPUs and motherboards

Topic A: Central processing units.................................................................... 4-2

The Basic Input/Output System

Topic A: The BIOS and CMOS....................................................................... 5-2

Topic A: Memory ............................................................................................ 6-2

Topic A: Buses................................................................................................. 7-2

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One

Topic A: Video cards....................................................................................... 8-2

Peripheral connection types

Topic A: Serial and parallel connections......................................................... 9-2

Data storage devices

Topic A: Drive adapters ................................................................................. 10-2

Video output and image input devices

Topic A: Monitors .......................................................................................... 11-2

Topic A: Printing technologies....................................................................... 12-2

Topic A: Networking concepts....................................................................... 13-2

Topic A: Addressing....................................................................................... 14-2

Topic A: Troubleshooting basics.................................................................... 15-2

Topic A: Notebook computers........................................................................ 16-2

Topic A: System management ........................................................................ 17-2

Topic A: System monitoring........................................................................... 18-2

Operating system troubleshooting

Topic A: Windows startup .............................................................................. 19-2

Topic A: Operating system security................................................................ 20-2

Windows installation and upgrades

Topic A: Windows installation ....................................................................... 21-2

Safety and maintenance

Topic A: Safety and hazards ........................................................................... 22-2

The Open Systems Interconnection model

Topic A: The OSI model..................................................................................A-2

Topic A: System cases .....................................................................................B-2

Binary and hexadecimal numbering

Topic A: Count like a computer.......................................................................C-2

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One

Topic A: List of abbreviations......................................................................... D-2

Certification exam objectives map

Topic A: Essentials (2009) comprehensive exam objectives .......................... E-2

Topic A: Course summary............................................................................... S-2

After reading this introduction, you will know

description, course objectives, and a skills

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One

Topic A: About the manual

In conceptual text, indicates a new term or feature.

In unit summaries, indicates a key term or concept. In

Indicates code or syntax.

In the hands-on activities, any code thats too long to fit

Select bold item

In the left column of hands-on activities, bold sans-serif

Indicate a key on the keyboard you must press.