I HC QUC GIA H NI

TRNG I HC KHOA HC T NHIN

TRN VN LONG

CNG THC KHAI TRIN

TAYLOR - GONTCHAROV
V P DNG

LUN VN THC S TON HC

H NI, NM 2009

I HC QUC GIA H NI
TRNG I HC KHOA HC T NHIN

TRN VN LONG

CNG THC KHAI TRIN

TAYLOR - GONTCHAROV
V P DNG

Chuyn ngnh :

GII TCH

M s : 60 46 01

LUN VN THC S TON HC

Ngi hng dn khoa hc:

GS.TSKH. NGUYN VN MU

H NI - NM 2009

MC LC

M u

1 Khai trin Taylor

1.1 Mt s kin thc chun b . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Mt s tnh cht ca a thc . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Mt s nh l c bn ca gii tch c in
1.2 Khai trin Taylor i vi a thc . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Khai trin Taylor vi cc phn d khc nhau . . .

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6
6
6
7
8
12

2 Cng thc khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov

18
2.1 Bi ton ni suy Newton v cng thc khai trin Taylor Gontcharov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.1 Bi ton ni suy Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.2 Cng thc khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov vi cc phn d khc nhau . . 24
2.2.1 Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov vi phn d dng Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.2 Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov vi phn d dng Cauchy 29
2.3 S hi t trong khai trin Taylor v khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov 31
2.4 Bi ton ni suy Newton i vi hm a thc nhiu bin. . . 38
2.4.1 Bi ton ni suy Taylor i vi hm a thc nhiu bin 38
2.4.2 Bi ton ni suy Newton i vi hm a thc nhiu bin. 39
3 Mt s bi ton p dng
3.1 Khai trin Taylor ca mt s hm s cp v ng dng . .
3.1.1 c lng v nh gi sai s . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Tnh gii hn hm s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov vi bi ton c lng hm

43
. . 43
. . 43
. . 49
s 54

Kt lun

61

Ti liu tham kho

62

M U

Khai trin a thc ni ring v khai trin hm s ni chung cng nhng

vn lin quan n n l mt phn quan trng ca i s v gii tch ton
hc. Cng vi cc bi ton ni suy, cc bi ton v khai trin hm s c v tr
c bit trong ton hc khng ch nh l nhng i tng nghin cu m
cn ng vai tr nh l mt trong nhng cng c c lc ca cc m hnh
lin tc cng nh cc m hnh ri rc ca gii tch trong l thuyt phng
trnh vi phn, l thuyt xp x, l thuyt biu din,....
L thuyt khai trin hm s cng cc bi ton ni suy lin quan ra i
rt sm vi cc cng trnh ca Taylor, Lagrange, Newton... Tuy nhin, vic
xy dng bi ton khai trin hm s tha mn nhng yu cu khc nhau
cng nh vic xy dng l thuyt hon thin v khai trin hm s ni chung
n nay vn ang c nhiu nh ton hc tip tc nghin cu v pht trin
theo nhiu hng.
L thuyt cc bi ton v khai trin hm s cng nh cc bi ton ni
suy c in c lin quan cht ch n cc c trng c bn ca hm s nh
tnh n iu, tnh li lm, tnh tun hon,... l nhng mng kin thc quan
trng trong chng trnh gii tch.
Trong cc gio trnh gii tch i hc ta bit bi ton ni suy Taylor
Gi s hm f xc nh trn tp hp R, trong l hp ca cc
khong m trn trc thc. Gi s f kh vi cp n ti im a . Hy xc
nh cc a thc Pn (x) c bc deg Pn (x) n sao cho

Pn(k) (a) = f (k) (a), k = 0, 1, . . . , n.

3

T ta c khai trin Taylor ca hm f (x) ti im a

1
1
1
f (x) = f (a)+ f 0 (a)(xa)+ f 00 (a)(xa)2 +...+ f (n) (a)(xa)n +Rn (f ; x)
1!
2!
n!
vi cc phn d dng Lagrange v Cauchy.
(k)

Trong khai trin Taylor, khi xt b im M (a, Pn (a)), k = 0, 1, ..., n ta

thy chng cng nm trn ng thng x = a. Khi cho a thay i v nhn
gi tr ph thuc vo k th ta c mt b im mi dng

Mk (xk , Pn(k) (xk )), k = 0, 1, ..., n

Khi , ta thu c bi ton ni suy Newton v dn n khai trin TaylorGontcharov l mt m rng t nhin ca khai trin Taylor.
Lun vn tp trung i gii quyt vn xy dng cng thc nghim ca
bi ton ni suy Newton, a ra biu din hm s f (x) theo cng thc khai
trin Taylor- Gontcharov v c bit a ra cc nh gi phn d ca khai
trin Taylor - Gontcharov ca hm f (x) di hai dng Lagrange v Cauchy
cng nh m rng bi ton i vi hm a thc nhiu bin.
Lun vn gm phn m u v c chia thnh ba chng
Chng 1: Nhc li cc kin thc c bn v a thc v mt s nh l c
bn ca gii tch c in s dng trong lun vn. Tip theo tc gi trnh by
bi ton ni suy Taylor, khai trin Taylor v cc nh gi phn d ca khai
trin Taylor.
Chng 2: L phn chnh ca lun vn. Bt u bng vic kho st bi
ton ni suy Newton, a ra cng thc nghim ca bi ton ni suy Newton. T dn n khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov ca hm f (x) theo cc
mc ni suy x0 , x1 , ..., xn v c bit a ra cc nh gi c lng phn d
ca khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov di dng Lagrange v Cauchy. Phn tip
theo, tc gi nh gi s hi t trong khai trin Taylor v khai trin Taylor
- Gontcharov. Cui cng l m rng ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov cho
4

hm a thc nhiu bin.

Chng 3: cp n mt s ng dng ca khai trin Taylor v khai
trin Taylor - Gontcharov cng nh ca bi ton ni suy Newton trong c
lng v nh gi sai s, tm gii hn hm s.
Lun vn c hon thnh di s hng dn khoa hc ca NGND.GS.
TSKH Nguyn Vn Mu, trng i hc Khoa hc T nhin, i hc Quc
gia H ni, ngi Thy tn tnh hng dn, gip tc gi trong sut
qu trnh hon thnh bn lun vn ny. Tc gi xin by t lng bit n chn
thnh v knh trng su sc i vi Gio s.
Tc gi xin by t lng cm n ti cc thy c gio, cc thnh vin, cc
anh ch ng nghip trong Seminare Gii tch trng i hc Khoa hc T
nhin, i hc Quc gia H ni v nhng kin ng gp qu bu, s gip
tn tnh v s c v ht sc to ln trong sut thi gian qua.
Tc gi xin chn thnh cm n Ban gim hiu, phng sau i hc, khoa
Ton - C - Tin hc trng i hc Khoa hc T nhin, i hc Quc gia
H ni to iu kin thun li cho tc gi trong sut qu trnh hc tp
ti trng. Tc gi cng xin chn thnh cm n S Gio dc - o to Nam
nh, trng THPT M Tho v gia nh ng vin, to iu kin thun
li cho tc gi trong sut kha hc.
H ni, thng 12 nm 2009
Tc gi
Trn Vn Long

CHNG 1

KHAI TRIN TAYLOR

1.1

Mt s kin thc chun b

1.1.1

Mt s tnh cht ca a thc

Cc nh ngha, tnh cht trong mc ny c trch t [2].

nh ngha 1.1. Cho vnh A l mt vnh giao hon c n v. Ta gi a
thc bc n bin x l biu thc c dng

Pn (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a1 x + a0 .(an 6= 0)

trong cc s ai A c gi l cc h s, an gi l h s bc cao nht v

a0 gi l h s t do ca a thc.
Tp hp tt c cc a thc vi h s ly trong vnh A c k hiu l
A[x]. Khi A l mt trng th vnh A[x] l mt vnh giao hon c n v.
Cc vnh a thc thng gp l Z[x], Q[x], R[x], C[x].
nh ngha 1.2. Cho hai a thc

P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a1 x + a0

Q(x) = bn xn + bn1 xn1 + ... + b1 x + b0
Ta nh ngha cc php ton sau

P (x) + Q(x) = (an + bn )xn + (an1 + bn1 )xn1 + ... + (a1 + b1 )x + a0 + b0

P (x) Q(x) = (an bn )xn + (an1 bn1 )xn1 + ... + (a1 b1 )x + a0 b0
P (x).Q(x) = c2n x2n + c2n1 x2n1 + ... + c1 x + c0
trong

ck = a0 bk + a1 bk1 + ... + ak b0 , k = 0, 1, ..., n.

6

nh l 1.1. Gi s A l mt trng, f (x), g(x) l hai a thc khc 0 ca

vnh A[x]. Khi , tn ti duy nht cp a thc q(x), r(x) thuc A[x] sao
cho

f (x) = g(x).q(x) + r(x)

vi deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x)). Khi r(x) = 0, ta ni f (x) chia ht cho g(x).
Nu f (a) = 0 th ta ni a l nghim ca f (x). Bi ton tm cc nghim ca

f (x) trong A c gi l gii phng trnh i s bc n

an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a1 x + a0 = 0(an 6= 0)
trong A.
nh l 1.2. Gi s A l mt trng, a A v f (x) A[x]. Khi , d
ca php chia f (x) cho x a chnh l f (a).
nh l 1.3. Mi a thc bc n u c khng qu n nghim thc.
nh l 1.4. a thc c v s nghim l a thc khng.

1.1.2

Mt s nh l c bn ca gii tch c in

Sau y, ta nhc li mt s nh l c bn s dng trong cc phn sau.

Cc nh l ny c trch t [3].
nh l 1.5 (Rolle). Gi s f : [a, b] R lin tc trn on [a; b] v c
o hm trn khong (a, b) . Nu f (a) = f (b) th tn ti t nht mt im

c (a; b) sao cho f 0 (c) = 0.

nh l 1.6 (Lagrange). Nu hm s f lin tc trn on [a; b] v c o hm
trn khong (a, b) th tn ti t nht mt im c (a; b) sao cho f (b)f (a) =

f 0 (c)(b a).
nh l 1.7 (nh l v gi tr trung bnh ca tch phn). Nu hm s f
kh tch trn on [a; b] v m f (x) M vi x [a; b] th tn ti mt s

[m; M ] sao cho

Zb
f (x)dx = (b a).
a

H qu 1.1. Nu f l hm s lin tc trn on [a; b] th tn ti t nht

mt im c (a; b) sao cho

Zb
f (x)dx = f (c)(b a).
a

nh l 1.8 (nh l v gi tr trung bnh m rng ca tch phn). Gi s

hai hm s f v g kh tch trn on [a; b] v tha mn:
a) m f (x) M vi x [a; b]
b) g(x) khng i du trn [a; b].
Khi , tn ti t nht mt s thc [m; M ] sao cho

Zb

Zb
f (x).g(x)dx =

g(x)dx.
a

H qu 1.2. Gi s f l hm s lin tc trn [a; b] v g l hm s kh tch

trn on [a; b]. Nu g(x) khng i du trn [a; b] th tn ti t nht mt s
thc c [a; b] sao cho

Zb

Zb
f (x).g(x)dx = f (c)
a

g(x)dx.
a

nh l 1.9 (Bolzano - Cauchy). Gi s f l mt hm s lin tc trn on

[a; b] v l mt s nm gia f (a) v f (b). Khi , tn ti t nht mt im

c [a, b] sao cho f (c) = . Ni mt cch khc, f ly mi gi tr trung gian
gia f (a) v f (b).

1.2

Khai trin Taylor i vi a thc

Cc nh l, nh ngha v bi ton trong mc ny ch yu c trch t

[1].
Ta thng thy trong cc sch gio khoa hin hnh, dng chnh tc ca mt
a thc i s P (x) bc n, n N , (thng c k hiu deg(P (x)) = n)
c dng:
P (x) = p0 xn + p1 xn1 + ... + pn , p0 6= 0.
8

a thc dng chnh tc l a thc c vit theo th t gim dn ca ly

tha.Tuy nhin, khi kho st cc a thc, ngi ta thng quan tm n c
mt lp cc a thc bc khng qu mt s nguyn dng n cho trc no .
V th, v sau, ngi ta thng s dng cch vit a thc P (x) di dng
tng dn ca bc ly tha

P (x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + + bn xn .

(1.1)

Nhn xt rng a thc (1.1) c tnh cht

P (k) (0) = k!bk , k = 0, 1, . . . , n

v

P (k) (0) = 0, k = n + 1, n + 2, . . .
V th a thc (1.1) thng c vit di dng cng thc (ng nht thc)
Taylor

a1
a2
an
x + x2 + + xn .
(1.2)
1!
2!
n!
Vi cch vit (1.2) ta thu c cng thc tnh h s ak (k = 0, 1, . . . , n) ca
a thc P (x), chnh l gi tr ca o hm cp k ca a thc ti x = 0:
P (x) = a0 +

ak = P (k) (0), k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
T y ta thu c ng nht thc Taylor ti x = 0

P (x) = P (0)+

P 0 (0)
P (2) (0) 2
P (n) (0) n
x+
x + +
x .
1!
2!
n!

V d 1.1. Vit biu thc

5

Q(x) = (x2 2x 2) + (2x3 + 3x2 x 1) .

di dng (chnh tc) cng thc Taylor ti

Q(x) = a0 +

a1
a2
a10 10
x + x2 + +
x .
1!
2!
10!

Tnh gi tr ca a8 ?

(1.3)

Theo cng thc (1.3) th ta c ngay h thc a8 = Q(8) (0)

Dng (1.2) cho ta mi lin h trc tip gia cc h s ca mt a thc chnh
tc vi cc gi tr o hm ca a thc ti x = 0. Trong trng hp tng
qut, cng thc Taylor ti x = x0 c dng:

P (x) = P (x0 )+

P (2) (x0 )
P (n) (x0 )
P 0 (x0 )
(x x0 ) +
(x x0 )2 + +
(x x0 )n .
1!
2!
n!
(1.4)

V d 1.2. Vit biu thc:

Q(x) = (x 1)(x 2)...(x 9)

di dng (chnh tc) cng thc Taylor ti im x = 10:

Q(x) = a0 +

a1
a2
a9
(x 10)x + (x 10)2 + + (x 10)9 .
1!
2!
9!

Tnh gi tr ca a7 ?
Cng thc (1.4) cho ta h thc a7 = Q(7) (10).
Trong trng hp a thc bc ty , ta c cc kt qu hon ton tng t.
V d 1.3. Chng minh rng nu a thc P (x) tha mn iu kin deg P (x)

n v P (k) () = qk , k {0, 1, . . . , n}, trong , qk l cc s cho trc;

P (0) (x) P (x) th P (x) c dng:
P (x) =

n
X
qk
k=0

k!

(x )k .

ng thc trn c chng minh bng cch ly o hm lin tip hai v

v s dng gi thit v cc gi tr ban u P (k) () = qk , k {0, 1, . . . , n}..
Vic chng minh tnh duy nht c suy ra t tnh cht ca cc a thc
(khc 0) bc khng vt qu n l n c khng qu n nghim (k c bi).
By gi, ta chuyn sang bi ton ni suy Taylor.
Bi ton 1.1 (Bi ton ni suy Taylor). Cho x0 , ak R vi k = 0, 1, . . . , N

1. Hy xc nh a thc T(x) c bc khng qu N 1 v tha mn cc iu

10

kin:

T (k) (x0 ) = ak , k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.

(1.5)

Gii. Trc ht, d thy rng a thc

T (x) =

N
1
X

k (x x0 )k .

k=0

c bc deg T (x) N 1. Tip theo, ta cn xc nh cc h s k R sao

cho T (x) tha mn iu kin

T (k) (x0 ) = ak , k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Ln lt ly o hm T (x) n cp th k, k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1 ti x = x0 v
s dng gi thit

T (k) (x0 ) = ak , k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Ta suy ra

ak
, k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
k!
Thay gi tr ca k vo biu thc ca T (x), ta thu c
k =

T (x) =

N
1
X
k=0

ak
(x x0 )k .
k!

(1.6)

Vi mi k = 0,1,. . . ,N-1, ta c

(k)

(x) = ak +

N
1
X
j=k+1

aj
(x x0 )jk .
(j k)!

Do vy a thc T (x) tha mn iu kin

T (k) (x0 ) = ak , k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Cui cng, ta chng minh rng a thc T (x) nhn c t (1.6) l a thc
duy nht tha mn iu kin ca bi ton ni suy Taylor .
Tht vy, nu c a thc T (x), c bc deg T (x) N 1 cng tha mn
iu kin ca bi ton (1.5) th khi , a thc

P (x) = T (x) T (x)

11

cng c bc deg P (x) N 1 v ng thi tha mn iu kin

P (k) (x0 ) = 0, k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Tc l, a thc P (x) l a thc c bc khng qu N 1 m li nhn x0 lm
nghim vi bi khng nh thua N , nn P (x) 0, v do T (x) = T (x).
nh ngha 1.3. a thc

T (x) =

N
1
X
k=0

ak
(x x0 )k
k!

c gi l a thc ni suy Taylor.

Nhn xt 1.1. Ch rng a thc ni suy Taylor T (x) c xc nh t

(1.6) chnh l khai trin Taylor n cp th N 1 ca hm s T (x) ti im

x = x0 .

1.3

Khai trin Taylor vi cc phn d khc nhau

Cc nh l, nh ngha v bi ton trong mc ny ch yu c trch t

[1].
Ta xt cng thc khai trin Taylor i vi a thc. Tip theo, trong mc
ny, ta s xc lp cng thc Taylor vi cc phn d khc nhau. Ta nhc li,
khi hm f kh vi ti im x = a th theo nh ngha, ta c
f (a + h) f (a) = f 0 (a)h + o(h).
Nu t a + h = x th h = x a v

f (x) f (a) = f 0 (a)(x a) + o(x a).

Ni mt cch khc, tn ti hm tuyn tnh

P1 (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x a)

sao cho

f (x) = P1 (x) + o(x a)

trong

P1 (a) = f (a), P10 (a) = f 0 (a).

Ta pht biu mt s bi ton sau y.
12

Bi ton 1.2. Gi s hm f xc nh trn tp hp R, trong l

hp ca cc khong m trn trc thc. Gi s f kh vi cp n ti im a .
Hy xc nh cc a thc Pn (x) c bc deg Pn (x) n sao cho

Pn(k) (a) = f (k) (a), k = 0, 1, . . . , n.

Gi s P (x) l a thc (bc n) ty . Ta vit

P (x) =

n
X
ak
k=0

Khi

P () (a) =

k!

(x a)k .

a
! = a .
!

Nu by gi ta t

a = f () (a), = 0, 1, . . . , n.
th

f () (a) = P () (a).
Nh vy bi ton c gii xong.
Tip theo, ta xt bi ton c lng hiu f (x) Pn (x).
nh ngha 1.4. a thc

Tn (f ; x) =

n
X
f (k) (x0 )

k!

k=0

(x a)k

c gi l a thc Taylor bc n vi tm a ca hm f , kh vi cp n ti im
a.
Ta t

1 (n)
f (a)(xa)n +Rn (f ; x).
n!
(1.7)
Cng thc (1.7) c gi l cng thc Taylor (dng y ) ca hm f (x).
Nu a = 0 th (1.7) c gi l cng thc Maclaurin.
Biu thc Rn (f ; x) c gi l phn d ca cng thc Taylor. Vi nhng
iu kin khc nhau t ra i vi hm f, phn d s c biu din bi cc
cng thc khc nhau. Li gii ca bi ton c lng hiu f (x) Pn (x) cng
chnh l c lng cc biu thc phn d ny.
f (x) = Tn (f ; x)+Rn (f ; x) = f (a)+f 0 (a)(xa)+...+

13

B 1.1. Nu hm c o hm n cp n ti im a v

(a) = 0 (a) = ... = (n) (a) = 0,

th (x) = o((x a)n ) khi x a, tc l

(x)
0(x a).
(x a)n
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng phng php qui np. Vi n = 1 ta c

(a) = 0 (a) v
(x)
(x) (a)
=
0 (a) = 0(x a)
xa
xa
tc l (x) = o((x a)). Gi s b ng vi n no , tc l vi iu
kin

(a) = 0 (a) = ... = (n) (a) = 0,

th

(x) = o((x a)n ).

Ta cn chng minh rng vi (n+1) (a) = o th

(x) = o((x a)(n+1) ), x a.

Ta xt hm (x) = 0 (x). Ta c

(a) = 0 (a) = ... = (n) (a) = 0.

v do (x) = o((x a)n ), tc l

0 (x)
(x)
=
0(x a).
(x a)n
(x a)n
Theo nh l Lagrange, ta c

(x)
(x) (a) 0 ()(x a)
0 ()
=
=
=
(x a)n+1
(x a)n+1
(x a)n+1
( a)n

a
xa

n
.

trong , nm xen gia a v x. T ta thu c

0 ()
a

0(x

a),
0
<
< 1.
( a)n
xa
Nh vy, (x) = o((x a))(n+1) khi x a v b c chng minh.
14

nh l 1.10 (Taylor). Gi s f : U(a, ) R l hm kh vi lin tc n

cp n 1 trong - ln cn U(a, ) ca im a v c o hm hu hn cp n
ti im a. Khi , hm f c th biu din di dng

f (x) =

n
X
f (k) (a)

k!

k=0

(x a)k + o((x a)n )

(1.8)

khi x a, trong 0! = 1, f (0) (a) = f (a).

Cng thc (1.8) c gi l cng thc Taylor dng a phng vi phn
d Peano.
Chng minh. t

(x) = f (x)

n
X
f (k) (a)

k!

k=0

(x a)k , (x) = (x a)n .

(1.9)

T (1.9) ta d dng thy rng (a) = 0 (a) = ... = (n) (a) = 0. Do theo
b 1.1, ta thu c (x) = 0((x)), x a v h thc (1.9) c chng
minh.
Cng thc (1.8) ch cho ta dng iu ca f (x) Tn (f ; x) vi nhng gi tr x
gn a. c th s dng a thc Tn (f ; x) lm cng c xp x hm f (x)
cn phi a ra nhng dng khc i vi phn d Rn (f ; x).
Nu hm f c thm nhng hn ch cht hn so vi nh l (2.1) th ta thu
c nh l Taylor ton cc sau y.
nh l 1.11 (Taylor). Gi s f : (a, b) R kh vi lin tc cp n trn
khong (a, b) v c o hm cp n + 1 ti mi im ca khong (a, b) c th
tr ra im x0 (a, b). Khi , gia im x0 v im x (a, b) bt k, tn
ti im , sao cho

f (x) =

n
X
f (k) (x0 )
k=0

k!

(x x0 )k + Rn+1 (f ; x)

(1.10)

trong

1
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
n!p

x x0
x

p

(x )(n+1) f (n+1) (), p R, p > 0.

15

(1.11)

Cng thc (1.10) c gi l cng thc Taylor i vi hm f vi phn d

Rn+1 di dng Schlomilch-Roche.

Chng minh. Khng gim tnh tng qut, ta xt x > x0 . Xt hm s
h(t) = f (x)

n
X
f (k) (t)

k!

k=0

(x t)k

(x t)p
, x0 t x,
n!p

(1.12)

trong p R, p > 0, l tham s.

Hm h(t) lin tc trn on [x0 , x], h(x) = 0 v o hm h0 (t) tn ti t

(x0 ; x). Ta chn s sao cho

h(x0 ) = f (x)

n
X
f (k) (x0 )
k=0

k!

(x x0 )p
(x x0 )
= 0.
n!p
k

(1.13)

Vi cch chn , hm h(t) tha mn mi iu kin ca nh l Rolle trn

on [x0 , x]. Do , tn ti [x0 , x], sao cho

f (n+1) ()
(x )p1
n
h () =
(x ) +
= 0.
n!
n!
0

(1.14)

Tht vy, t h thc (1.11), ta c

f 0 (t) f 00 (t)
f 00 (t)
f (n) (t)
h (t) = f (t) +

(x t) +
2(x t) ... +
(x t)n1
1!
1!
2!
n!
(n+1)
(x t)p1
f
(t)
n
(x t) +
. (1.15)

n!
n!
0

D dng thy rng mi s hng v phi ca (1.15) tr hai s hng cui

cng u kh nhau ht. T bng cch thay t = ta thu c (1.14). T

(1.14) ta c
= f (n+1) ()(x )np+1 .

(1.16)

Thay t (1.16) vo (1.11) ta thu c iu phi chng minh.


Bng cch chn cc gi tr p > 0 hon ton xc nh, ta thu c nhng
trng hp ring i vi phn d Rn+1 (f ; x). Ta xt nhng trng hp quan
trng nht khi p = n + 1 v p = 1.
Khi p = n + 1 th t (1.11) ta thu c phn d ca cng thc Taylor di
dng Lagrange
f (n+1) ()
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
(x x0 )n+1 , = x0 + (x x0 ), 0 < < 1. (1.17)
(n + 1)!
16

Khi p = 1 th t (1.11) ta thu c phn d ca cng thc Taylor di dng

Cauchy

f (n+1) (x0 + (x x0 ))
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
(x x0 )n+1 (1 )n , 0 < < 1 (1.18)
n!
trong = x0 + (x x0 ).
Nhn xt 1.2. Cng thc Maclaurin vi cc phn d (1.17) v (1.18) c
dng tng ng

Rn+1 (f ; x) =

f (n+1) (x) n+1

,
(n+1)! x

Rn+1 (f ; x) =

f (n+1) (x)
(n+1)! (1

0 < < 1 (dng Lagrange).

)n xn+1 , 0 < < 1 (dng Cauchy).

17

CHNG 2

CNG THC KHAI TRIN TAYLOR GONTCHAROV

2.1
2.1.1

Bi ton ni suy Newton v cng thc khai trin

Taylor - Gontcharov
Bi ton ni suy Newton

Trc ht ta nhc li bi ton ni suy Taylor mc trc

Bi ton 2.1 (Ni suy Taylor). Cho x0 , ak R vi k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Hy
xc nh a thc T(x) c bc khng qu N 1 v tha mn cc iu kin:

T (k) (x0 ) = ak , k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.

(2.1)

Nhn xt rng khi xt b im M (x0 , T (k) (x0 ))(k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1), ta

thy chng cng nm trn mt ng thng x = x0 . Khi ta cho x0 thay i
v nhn gi tr ty ph thuc vo k th ta c mt b im mi dng

Mk (xk , T (k) (xk )), k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1,

s trng vi b im ban u khi cc xk trng nhau. Khi ta thu c bi
ton ni suy Newton. Ta pht biu bi ton di dng sau y.
Bi ton 2.2 (Bi ton ni suy Newton). (Xem [1]). Cho xi , ai R, vi i =

0, 1, . . . , n. Hy xc nh a thc N (x) c bc khng qu n(deg N (x) n)

v tha mn cc iu kin:
N (i) (xi ) = ai , i = 0, 1, . . . , n.

18

(2.2)

 gii bi ton ny, trc ht ta xt mt s trng hp ring ca n.

Vi mi i = 2, 3, . . . , n, ta k hiu

Ri (x0 , x1 , . . . , xi1 , x) =

Zti1

Zx Zt1
...
x0 x1

dti dti1 ...dt1 .

xi1

i) Nu n = 0 (ng vi i = 0) th ta c deg N (x) = 0 v N (x0 ) = a0 , v do

N (x) = a0 .
ii) Nu n = 1 (ng vi i = 0, 1), th ta c

N (x) = 0 + 1 x
N (i) (xi ) = ai , (i = 0, 1)

T suy ra N (x) = a0 + a1 (x x0 ) hay

N (x) = a0 + a1 R(x0 , x).

iii) Nu n = 2 (ng vi i = 0, 1, 2), th ta c

N (x) = 0 + 1 x + 2 x2
N (i) (xi ) = ai , (i = 0, 1, 2).
T suy ra

a2

2
1 = a1 a2 x1

0 = a0 (a1 a2 x1 )x0 a2 x20 .

2

Do


N (x) = a0 + a1 (x x0 ) + a2


(x x1 )2 (x0 x1 )2

.
2
2

T :

N (x) = a0 + a1 R(x0 , x) + a2 R2 (x0 , x1 , x).

iv) Mt cch tng t, trong trng hp tng qut, vi i = 0, 1, . . . , n, ta
chng minh c

N (x) = a0 + a1 R(x0 , x) + + an Rn (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , x)

(2.3)

l a thc duy nht tha mn iu kin ca bi ton ni suy Newton (2.2)

v ta gi a thc ny l a thc ni suy Newton.
19

Tht vy, d thy rng deg N (x) n. Ngoi ra, ng vi mi i(i =

0, 1, 2, .., n) ta c:
N (i) (x) = ai + ai+1 R(xi , x) + + an Rni (xi , xi+1 , . . . , xn1 , x).
T suy ra

N (i) (xi ) = ai , i = 0, 1, 2, .., n.

Cui cng, ta chng minh tnh duy nht nghim ca bi ton ni suy
Newton.
Gi s tn ti a thc N (x) c bc deg N (x) n cng tha mn iu
kin ca bi ton 2.2 th khi , a thc P (x) = N (x) N (x) cng c bc

deg(P (x)) n v tha mn iu kin

P (i) (xi ) = 0, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
Khi , theo cch xy dng a thc N (x) trn, ng vi trng hp ai =

0, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, ta suy ra P (x) 0, v do N (x) = N (x).

Nhn xt 2.1. Nh lu trn rng a thc ni suy Taylor (1.6)
l trng hp ring ca a thc ni suy Newton (2.3) ng vi trng hp

xi = x0 , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. Cng thc khai trin hm s f (x) thnh chui

tha mn iu kin
f (i) (xi ) = ai , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
c gi l khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov.
Cng thc khai trin Taylor-Gontcharov c rt nhiu ng dng trong vic
gii cc bi ton bin hn hp th nht ca phng trnh vi phn. Bn c
quan tm n vn l thuyt v ng dng ca cc dng ni suy tru tng
v ni suy c in xin tm c trong [5].

2.1.2

Cng thc khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov

Tng t nh vi khai trin Taylor, sau khi gii c bi ton Ni suy

Newton, vn t ra l xp x mt hm s bi mt a thc khi bit o
hm ti mt s im. chnh l ni dung ca cng thc khai trin TaylorGontcharov.
20

Trc ht, tng t nh lm vi khai trin Taylor, ta xt mt s bi

ton sau y:
Bi ton 2.3. (Xem [1], trang 91) Gi s hm f xc nh trn tp R
trong l hp ca cc khong m trn trc thc. Gi s f kh vi cp i
ti im xi , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. Hy xc nh cc a thc Pn (x) c bc
(i)

khng qu n sao cho Pn (xi ) = f (i) (xi ), i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.

Gii.
t f (i) (xi ) = ai , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. Khi , t li gii ca bi ton ni
suy Newton, ta thy ngay a thc:

Pn (x) = a0 + a1 R(x0 , x) + + an Rn (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , x)



l a thc duy nht tha mn yu cu ca bi ton trn.

Bi ton 2.4. Cho xi R, i = 0, 1, ..., n. Khi , a thc Q(x) c bc

n + 1 (deg Q(x) = n + 1), h s cao nht bng 1 v tha mn iu kin

(k)
Qn+1 (xk ) = 0, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n tn ti duy nht v xc nh bi
Qn+1 (x) = (n + 1)!Rn+1 (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn , x)
trong :

Rn+1 (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn , x) =

Zx Zt1

Ztn
...

x0 x1

dtn+1 dtn ...dt1 .

xn

Gii.
t

Qn+1 (x) = (n+1)!Rn+1 (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn , x) = (n+1)!

Zx Zt1

Ztn
...

x0 x1

dtn+1 dtn ...dt1 .

xn

Khi , ta d dng suy ra deg Q(x) = n + 1 v h s ca xn+1 bng 1. Mt

khc, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n ta c:
(k)

Qn+1 (x) = (n+1)!Rnk+1 (xk , xk+1 , . . . , xn , x) = (n+1)!

Zx Ztk+1
...
xk xk+1

21

Ztn
dtn+1 dtn ...dtk+1 .
xn

Do , ta c:
(k)

Qn+1 (xk ) = 0.
Suy ra:
(k)

Qn+1 (xk ) = 0, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
Nn Q(x) l a thc tha mn yu cu ca bi ton.
By gi ta chng minh tnh duy nht. Gi s tn ti a thc Qn+1 (x) c
bc deg Qn+1 (x) n + 1 cng tha mn iu kin ca bi ton 2.4 th khi
, a thc P (x) = Qn+1 (x) Qn+1 (x) cng c bc deg(P (x)) n v tha
mn iu kin

P (i) (xi ) = 0, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
Khi , ta suy ra P (x) 0, v do Qn+1 (x) = Qn+1 (x).

T cc bi ton trn ta c nh ngha sau:

nh ngha 2.1. Cho hm f kh vi cp i ti mi im xi , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
Khi , a thc

Pn (f ; x) = f (n) (xn ).Rn (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , x)

+f (n1) (xn1 ).Rn1 (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn2 , x) + + f 0 (x1 ).R(x0 , x) + f (x0 )
c gi l a thc ni suy Newton theo b ni suy x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ca hm

f.
nh ngha 2.2. Vi cc gi thit nh nh ngha 2.1, ta t:

f (x) := Pn (f ; x) + Rn (f ; x) = f (n) (xn ).Rn (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , x)

+f (n1) (xn1 )Rn1 (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn2 , x)+ +f 0 (x1 ).R(x0 , x)+f (x0 )+Rn+1 (f ; x).
(2.4)
Cng thc (2.4) c gi l cng thc khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov ca
hm f. Biu thc Rn+1 (f ; x) gi l phn d ca cng thc khai trin TaylorGontcharov.
Ta nhn thy rng, vi nhng iu kin khc nhau t ra i vi hm
f, phn d Rn+1 (f ; x) ca cng thc khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov s c
biu din bi cc cng thc khc nhau.
22

Li gii ca bi ton c lng hiu f (x) Pn (x) cng chnh l c lng

cc biu thc phn d ny. Trc ht, ta c kt qu sau:

nh l 2.1. Gi s f : (a, b) R kh vi v lin tc n cp n+ 1 trn

khong (a, b), xi (a, b), i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. Khi

f (x) = Pn (f ; x) + Rn+1 (f ; x)
trong , Rn+1 (f ; x) c xc nh bi:

Zx Zt1

Ztn
...

Rn+1 (f ; x) =
x0 x1

f (n+1) (tn+1 ).dtn+1 .dtn ...dt2 .dt1 .

(2.5)

xn

Chng minh.
Ta c:

Zx
f (x) = f (x0 ) +

f 0 (t1 )dt1 = f (x0 ) +

x0

Zx

f 0 (x1 ) +

= f (x0 ) +

f 0 (x1 )dt1 +

x0

f 00 (t2 ).dt2 dt1

x1

x0

Zx

Zt1

Zx Zt1

f 00 (t2 )dt2 dt1

x0 x1

= f (x0 ) + f 0 (x1 )R1 (x0 ; x) +

Zx Zt1

f 00 (t2 )dt2 dt1

x0 x1

= f (x0 ) + f 0 (x1 )R1 (x0 ; x) +

Zx Zt1
x0 x1

f 00 (x2 ) +

Zt2

f (3) (t3 )dt3 dt2 dt1

x2

= f (x0 ) + f 0 (x1 )R1 (x0 ; x) + f 00 (x2 )R2 (x0 ; x1 ; x) +

...

Zx Zt1 Zt2

f (3) (t3 )dt3 dt2 dt1

x0 x1 x2

= f (x0 )+f 0 (x1 )R1 (x0 ; x)+f 00 (x2 )R2 (x0 ; x1 ; x)+ +f (n) (xn )Rn (x0 ; x1 ; ...; xn1 ; x)
Zx Zt1 Zt2 Ztn
... f (n+1) (tn+1 )dtn+1 dtn ...dt2 dt1 = Pn (f ; x) + Rn+1 (f ; x).
+
x0 x1 x2

xn

23

T ta c

f (x) := Pn (f ; x) + Rn+1 (f ; x)
vi

Zx Zt1
Rn+1 (f ; x) =

Ztn
...

x0 x1

f (n+1) (tn+1 ).dtn+1 .dtn ...dt2 .dt1 .

xn

nh l c chng minh.

Nhn xt 2.2. Biu thc (2.5) cho ta cng thc xc nh phn d Rn+1 (f ; x)
trong khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov ca hm f (x). Cu hi t ra l phn
d ca khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov c th nh gi c ging nh khai
trin Taylor khng? V nu c th nh gi c dng tng t nh dng
Lagrange v dng Cauchy khng? Trong phn tip theo, ta s i nghin cu
vn .

2.2

Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov vi cc phn d

khc nhau

Trc ht, thun tin ta nhc li mt s k hiu mc trc:

Ri (x0 , x1 , . . . , xi1 , x) =

...
x0 x1

Zx Zt1
Rn+1 (f ; x) =

Zti1

Zx Zt1

Ztn
...

x0 x1

dt0 dt1 ...dti1 , i = 2, 3, . . . , N.

xi1

f (n+1) (tn+1 ).dtn+1 .dtn ...dt2 .dt1 .

xn

n gin, ta nh ngha php ton:

Zx
(Ri f )(x) = f (s)ds, i = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
xi

D thy:

Zx
(Ri 1)(x) =

ds.
xi

24

Zx Zt1
(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) =

Ztn
...

x0 x1

f (tn+1 ).dtn+1 .dtn ...dt2 .dt1 .

xn

c bit:

Zx Zt1
(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn )(x) =

Ztn
...

x0 x1

dtn+1 .dtn ...dt2 .dt1 = Rn+1 (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 ).

xn

Ta c mt s kt qu quan trng sau:

Mnh 2.1. Vi cc k hiu nh trn, ta c:

(i) (Rk f )(x) = (R0 f )(x) (R0 f )(xk ).

(2.6)

(ii) (Ri Rk f )(x) = (Ri R0 f )(x) (Ri )(x)(R0 f )(xk ).

(2.7)
n
X
n+1
(iii) (R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) = (R0 f )(x)
(R0 R1 ...Rk1 )(x)(R0nk+1 f )(xk ).
k=1

(2.8)
Chng minh.
i) Ta c:

Zx0

Zx
(Rk f )(x) =

f (s)ds =
xk

f (s)ds +
xk

f (s)ds
x0

Zxk

Zx
f (s)ds

Zx

x0

f (s)ds = (R0 f )(x) (R0 f )(xk ) (i).

x0

ii) S dng (i) ta c:

Zx
(Ri Rk f )(x) =

Zx Z t
Zxk
(Rk f )(t)dt = f (s)ds f (s)ds dt

xi

xi

Zx Z t

x0

Zxk

Zx
f (s)dsdt

=
xi x0

x0

dt
xi

f (s)ds
x0

= (Ri R0 f )(x) (Ri )(x)(R0 f )(xk ) (ii).

25

iii) Ta chng minh (2.8) bng phng php qui np. Ta c:

Vi n = 1 th t (2.7) ta c:

(R0 R1 f )(x) = (R02 f )(x) (R0 )(x)(R0 f )(x1 )

nn (2.8) ng.
Gi s (2.8) ng vi n, tc l:

(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) =

(R0n+1 f )(x)

n
X

(R0 R1 ...Rk1 )(x)(R0nk+1 f )(xk ).

k=1

Ta chng minh (2.8) ng vi n + 1, tht vy, p dng (ii) v gi thit qui

np ta c:

(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn+1 f )(x) = (R0 R1 R2 ...Rn1 ) [(Rn R0 f )(x) (Rn )(x)(R0 f )(xn+1 )]
=

R0n+1 (R0 f )(x)

n
X

(R0 R1 ...Rk1 )(x)(R0nk+1 R0 f )(xk )

k=1

(R0 R1 ...Rn1 Rn (R0 f )(xn+1 ) =

n+1
X

(R0n+2 f )(x)

(R0 R1 ...Rk1 )(x)(R0nk+1 f )(xk ).

k=1

Vy:

(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) =

(R0n+1 f )(x)

n
X

(R0 R1 ...Rk1 )(x)(R0nk+1 f )(xk ).

k=1

T (iii). Mnh c chng minh.

Mnh 2.2. Vi cc gi thit nh trn ta c

(R0k f )(x)

Zx
=

(x s)k1
f (s)ds, k = 1, 2, . . . .
(k 1)!

x0

Chng minh.
Ta chng minh qui np theo k . D thy vi k = 1 th (2.9) lun ng.
Gi s (2.9) ng vi k = n, tc l ta c:

(R0n f )(x)

Zx
=

(x s)n1
f (s)ds.
(n 1)!

x0

26

(2.9)

Ta chng minh (2.9) ng vi k = n + 1,tht vy, p dng cng thc tnh

tch phn tng phn, ta c

Zx

Zs

(x s)
(x s)
f (s)ds =
n!
n!

x0

Z
Zx
n1
x
(x s)
f (t)dt (s)ds
f (t)dtx0 +
(n 1)!

x0

Zx
=0+

(x s)n1
(n 1)!

x0

Zs

x0

x0

f (t)dt (s)ds = (R0n

x0

Zs

f (t)dt)(x)

x0

= (R0n R0 f )(x) = (R0n+1 f )(x).

Do , (2.9) ng vi k = n + 1 . T , mnh c chng minh.

H qu 2.1. T (2.8)v (2.9) ta c kt qu sau:

Zx
(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) =

(x s)n
f (s)ds
n!

x0

n
X

Rk (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)

k=1

Zxk

(xk s)nk
f (s)ds.
(n k)!

(2.10)

x0

nh l 2.2. Cho hm s f(x) lin tc trn [a; b]. Khi , vi mi x0 , x

[a; b] lun tn ti = x0 + (x x0 ) vi 0 < < 1 sao cho:

(R0k+1 f )(x)

(x x0 )k+1
= f ()
, k = 0, 1, 2....
(k + 1)!

Chng minh. T ng thc (2.9) ta c

(R0k+1 f )(x)

Zx
=

(x s)k
f (s)ds.
k!

x0

Theo nh l gi tr trung bnh ca tch phn, tn ti = x0 + (x x0 ) vi

0 < < 1 sao cho

(R0k+1 f )(x) = f ()

Zx

(x s)k
(x x0 )k+1
ds = f ()
.
k!
(k + 1)!

x0

Suy ra iu phi chng minh.

27

H qu 2.2. Gi s hm s f (x) lin tc trn [a; b], xi [a; b], i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n

v x l im bt k thuc [a; b]. Khi ta c

(x x0 )n+1
(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) = f ()
(n + 1)!

n
X

Rk (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)

k=1

f (k )
(xk x0 )nk+1
(n k + 1)!

(2.11)

nm gia x0 , x cn k nm gia x0 , xk .
Chng minh.
T ng thc (2.10) ta c

(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) =

Zx

(x s)
f (s)ds
n!

x0

n
X

Zxk

R (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)

k=1

(xk s)nk
f (s)ds.
(n k)!

x0

Sau , lp li cc bc chng minh tng t nh nh l trn, ta c ngay


T cc kt qu trn, ta c nh gi phn d trong khai trin Taylor Gontcharov di dng Lagrange v Cauchy nh sau.
iu phi chng minh.

2.2.1

Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov vi phn d dng Lagrange

nh l 2.3. Gi s hm s f (x) c o hm lin tc cp n + 1 trn [a; b]

v xi [a; b], i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, x l im bt k thuc [a; b]. Khi , lun tn
ti , i : = x0 + (x x0 ) v i = x0 + i (xi x0 )vi 0 < , i < 1 sao
cho phn d ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov c dng

Rn+1 (f ; x) =

f (n+1) ()
(x x0 )n+1
(n + 1)!

n
X
f (n+1) (k ) k
R (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)(xk x0 )nk+1 .
(n k + 1)!

(2.12)

k=1

(Phn d dng Lagrange)

Chng minh. Trong (2.11), ta ch vic thay hm f (x) bi hm f (n+1) (x)
ta s c ngay (2.12).

28

Nhn xt 2.3. Trong trng hp c bit, khi xi = x0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , n th

cng thc phn d ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov di dng Lagrange
c dng

f (n+1) ()
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
(x x0 )n+1
(n + 1)!
s trng vi cng thc phn d di dng Lagrange ca khai trin Taylor ti
im x0 (1.17)

2.2.2

Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov vi phn d dng Cauchy

nh l 2.4. Gi s hm s f (x) lin tc trn [a; b] v x, x0 [a; b].Khi

, tn ti : 0 < < 1 sao cho

(1 )k (x x0 )k+1
, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
= f (x0 + (x x0 ))
k!

(R0k+1 f )(x)
Chng minh.

T ng thc (2.9) ta c

(R0k+1 f )(x)

Zx
=

(x s)k
f (s)ds.
k!

x0

Khng mt tng qut, ta gi s rng x0 x. Khi , t

(x s)k
f (s).
x0 sx
k!
(x s)k
M (x) = sup
f (s).
k!
x0 sx
m(x) = inf

Suy ra

m(x)(x x0 ) (R0k+1 f )(x) M (x)(x x0 ).

Hay

(R0k+1 f )(x)
m(x)
M (x).
x x0
Theo nh l Bonzano - Cauchy tn ti : 0 < < 1 sao cho = x0 + (x

x0 ) tha mn
(R0k+1 f )(x) (x )k
=
f ().
x x0
k!
29

Tc l

(R0k+1 f )(x)

((x x0 (x x0 ))k
=
f ((x + (x x0 )) (x x0 )
k!
(1 )k (x x0 )k+1
.
= f ((x + (x x0 ))
k!

Vy

(1 )k (x x0 )k+1
, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
= f ((x + (x x0 ))
k!
(pcm).

T (2.8) v vi cch nh gi tng t nh nh l 2.4, ta c ngay h qu
sau
(R0k+1 f )(x)

H qu 2.3. Gi s hm s f (x) lin tc trn [a; b], xi [a; b], i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n

v x l im bt k thuc [a; b]. Khi

(1 )n (x x0 )n+1
(R0 R1 R2 ...Rn f )(x) = f (x0 + (x x0 ))
n!

n
X

Rk (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)f (x0 + k (xk x0 ))

k=1

(1 k )nk
(xk x0 )nk+1
(n k)!
(2.13)

trong , , k (0; 1), k = 0, 1, . . . , n.

By gi, nu thay f (x) bi f (n+1) (x) trong (2.13), ta thu c cng thc
phn d dng Cauchy trong khai trin Taylor-Gontcharov ca hm f (x) nh
sau
nh l 2.5. Gi s hm s f (x) c o hm lin tc n cp n + 1 trn
on [a; b] v xi [a; b], i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, x l im bt k thuc [a; b]. Khi
, phn d dng Cauchy trong khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov ca hm f (x)
c dng

Rn+1 (f ; x) = f
n
X

(n+1)

(1 )n (x x0 )n+1
(x0 + (x x0 ))

n!

(1 k )nk

(xk x0 )nk+1
R (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)f
(x0 + k (xk x0 ))
(n k)!
k=1
(2.14)
trong 0 < , k < 1, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
(Phn d dng Cauchy)
k

(n+1)

30

Nhn xt 2.4. Trong trng hp c bit, khi xi = x0 , i = 1, . . . , n th

cng thc phn d ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov di dng Cauchy

Rn+1 (f ; x) = f

(n+1)

(1 )n (x x0 )n+1
(x0 + (x x0 ))
;0 < < 1
n!

s trng vi cng thc phn d di dng Cauchy ca khai trin Taylor ti

im x0 m ta bit (1.18).

2.3

S hi t trong khai trin Taylor v khai trin

Taylor- Gontcharov

Nh trn ta bit, khai trin Taylor ca hm s f (x) ti im x = x0

c dng

f (x) =

n
X
f (k) (x0 )
k=0

k!

(x x0 )k + Rn+1 (f ; x)

vi phn d dng Lagrange

f (n+1) ()
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
(x x0 )n+1 , = x0 + (x x0 ), 0 < < 1.
(n + 1)!
Cu hi t ra l: Khi x x0 th c dn ti mt gi tr xc nh no
hay khng? gii quyt vn ny, trc ht ta i xt mt s trng hp
ring.
i) Khai trin Taylor bc 1 ca hm f (x) ti im x = x0 c dng


f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 x0 + 1 (x x0 ) (x x0 )
T

f (x) f (x0 )
f 0 x0 + 1 (x x0 ) =
.
x x0

(2.15)

f 0 x0 + 1 (x x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) + f 00 ().1 (x x0 )

(2.16)

Mt khc ta li c

trong nm gia x0 v x0 + 1 (x x0 ) v khi x x0 th x0 . Rt

1 t (2.16) ta c


f 0 x0 + 1 (x x0 ) f 0 (x0 )
1 =
.
f 00 ().(x x0 )
31

(2.17)

Kt hp vi (2.15) ta c

f (x) f (x0 ) f 0 (x0 )(x x0 )

1 =
.
f 00 ().(x x0 )2

(2.18)

Chuyn qua gii hn khi x x0 ta c

f (x) f (x0 ) f 0 (x0 )(x x0 )

.
lim 1 = lim
xx0
xx0
f 00 ().(x x0 )2
Gii hn ny c dng

0
0

nn p dng qui tc LHospital lin tip 2 ln ta c

f 0 (x) f 0 (x0 )
lim 1 = lim
xx0
xx0 2f 00 ().(x x0 ) + (x x0 )2 f (3) (). 0
1
f 00 (x)


 = .
= lim
xx0 2f 00 () + (x x0 ) 4f (3) (). 0 + (x x0 ) f (4) ()( 0 )2 + f (3) ()( 00 )
2
Vy

1
lim 1 = .
xx0
2
ii)Khai trin Taylor bc 2 ca hm f (x) ti im x = x0 c dng:


00
x
+

(x

x
)
f
0
2
0
(x x0 )2 .
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) +
2!
T

f 00 x0 + 2 (x x0 ) =

h
i
0
2! f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 )
(x x0 )2

(2.19)

Mt khc

f 00 x0 + 2 (x x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) + f (3) ()2 (x x0 )

(2.20)

trong nm gia x0 v x0 + 2 (x x0 ) v khi x x0 th x0 . Rt

2 t (2.20) ta c


f 00 x0 + 2 (x x0 ) f 00 (x0 )
1 =
.
f (3) ().(x x0 )
Kt hp vi (2.19) ta c
h
i
0
2! f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 ) f 00 (x0 )(x x0 )2
2 =
.
f (3) ().(x x0 )3
32

(2.21)

(2.22)

Chuyn qua gii hn khi x x0 ta c

h
i
0
2! f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 ) f 00 (x0 )(x x0 )2
lim 2 = lim
.
xx0
xx0
f (3) ().(x x0 )3
S dng qui tc LHospital lin tip 3 ln ta c

2!f (3) (x)

.
xx0 3!f (3) () + o(x x0 )

lim 2 = lim

xx0

V khi x x0 th x0 nn suy ra

1
lim 2 = .
xx0
3
L lun tng t , ta c bi ton sau y
Bi ton 2.5. Trong khai trin Taylor ca hm s f (x) ti im x = x0

f (x) =

n1 (k)
X
f (x0 )
k=0

k!

(x x0 )k + Rn (f ; x)

vi phn d

f (n) ()
Rn (f ; x) =
(x x0 )n , = x0 + n (x x0 ), 0 < < 1.
n!
Ta lun c

lim n =

xx0

1
.
n+1

Nhn xt 2.5. Ta bit rng ni suy Taylor l trng hp ring ca ni

suy Newton v khai trin Taylor l trng hp ring ca khai trin TaylorGontcharov. Cu hi t nhin t ra sau bi ton (2.5) l trong cng thc
phn d ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov c nhng tnh cht ging nh
nhng tnh cht m ta nghin cu trn khng?
gii quyt vn ny, trc ht ta i xt mt s trng hp ring.
i) Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov bc 1 ca hm f (x) theo hai mc ni
suy x0 , x1 c dng

f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x1 )(x x0 ) + R2 (f ; x)

33

trong



f x0 + 1 (x x0 )
00

R2 (f ; x) =

2!

(x x0 )2 R(x0 , x)

Zx1

f 00 (s)ds.

x0

T ta c

Zx1

 h
i
00
0
00
f x0 +1 (xx0 ) = f (x)f (x0 )f (x1 )(xx0 )+(xx0 ) f (s)ds

2!
.
(x x0 )2

x0

Mt khc, ta li c


00
f x0 + 1 (x x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) + f (3) ()1 (x x0 )
trong nm gia x0 v x0 + 1 (x x0 ) v khi x x0 th x0 . Khi

00


x0 + 1 (x x0 ) f 00 (x0 )

1 =

f (3) ()(x x0 )
h
i
Rx1 00
0
2! f (x) f (x0 ) f (x1 )(x x0 ) + (x x0 ) f (s)ds f 00 (x0 )(x x0 )2
=

f (3) ()(x x0

x0
)3

Suy ra

lim 1 =

xx0

h
i
Rx1 00
0
2! f (x) f (x0 ) f (x1 )(x x0 ) + (x x0 ) f (s)ds f 00 (x0 )(x x0 )2
lim

f (3) ()(x x0

xx0

= lim

xx0

x0
)3

h

i
0
0
0
2! f (x) f (x0 ) f (x1 )(x x0 ) + (x x0 ) f (x1 ) f (x0 )
f 00 (x0 )(x x0 )2
h

!
.

!
f (3) ()(x x0 )3

i
2 f (x) f (x1 ) + f (x1 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 )
0

= lim

00

3f (3) ()(x x0 )2 + (x x0 )3 f (4) (). 0

h
i
0
0
00
2 f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 )

xx0

= lim

xx0

3f (3) ()(x x0 )2 + (x x0 )3 f (4) (). 0

34

h
i
00
00
2 f (x) f (x0 )
= lim

xx0

3.2f (3) ()(x x0 ) + o(x x0 )2

2f (3) (x)
.
= lim
xx0 3.2f (3) () + o(x x0 )
V khi x x0 th x0 nn t ta c

1
lim 1 = .
xx0
3
ii) Trong trng hp tng qut, ta c
Bi ton 2.6. Trong khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov ca hm s f (x) theo
cc mc ni suy x0 , x1 , . . . , xn

f (x) = Pn (f ; x) + Rn+1 (f ; x)
vi

f (n+1) (x0 + n (x x0 ))
(x x0 )n+1
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
(n + 1)!
n
X
f (n+1) (k ) k

R (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)(xk x0 )nk+1

(n k + 1)!
k=1

k nm gia x0 v xk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
ta lun c

lim n =

xx0

1
.
n+2

Gii.
Khai trin Taylor-Gontcharov ca hm f (x) theo cc mc ni suy x0 , x1 , . . . , xn
c dng

f (x) = Pn (f ; x) + Rn+1 (f ; x)
=

n
X

ak Rk (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x) + (R0n+1 f (n+1) )(x)

k=0
n
X

Rk (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk ).

k=1

Li c
(i)

f (x) =

n
X

ak Rki (xi , ..., xk1 , x) + (R0ni+1 f (n+1) )(x)

k=i

35

n
X

Rki (xi , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk ).

k=i

Do
(i)

f (x0 ) =

n
X

ak Rki (xi , ..., xk1 , x0 ) + (R0ni+1 f (n+1) )(x0 )

k=i

n
X

Rki (xi , ..., xk1 , x0 )(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk ).

k=i

Do (R0ni+1 f (n+1) )(x0 ) = 0 nn ta c

(i)

f (x0 )

n
X

ak Rki (xi ...xk1 , x0 )+

k=i

n
X

Rki (xi , ..., xk1 , x0 )(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk ) = 0, i = 0, 1, . . . , n. (2.23)

k=i

Mt khc, xt khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov ca hm f (x)) theo cc mc

ni suy x0 , x1 , . . . , xn

f (x) = Pn (f ; x) + Rn+1 (f ; x) =

n
X

ak Rk (x0 x1 ...xk1 , x) + Rn+1 (f ; x)

k=0

vi phn d

Rn+1 (f ; x) =

(R0n+1 f (n+1) )(x)

n
X

Rk (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk )

k=1

f (n+1)


x0 + n (x x0 )

n+1

(xx0 )

(n + 1)!

n
X

Rk (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk ).

k=1

Suy ra


(n+1)
f
x0 + n (x x0 ) =

X
(n + 1)! h
f (x)
ak Rk (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)
n+1
(x x0 )
k=0

n
X

(x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk )

k=1

Mt khc

(n+1)


x0 + n (x x0 ) = f (n+1) (x0 ) + f (n+2) ().n (x x0 )
36

trong nm gia x0 v x0 + n (x x0 ) v khi x x0 th x0 . Khi

(n+1)


x0 + n (x x0 ) f (n+1) (x0 )

n =

f (n+2) ()(x x0 )
n
h

X
ak Rk (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)+
= (n + 1)! f (x)
k=0

n
X

(x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk )

k=1

(n+1)

n+1

(x0 )(x x0 )

i.h

(n+2)

(n+2)

()(x x0 )

i
.

Suy ra
n
h

X
ak Rk (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)+
lim n = lim (n + 1)! f (x)

xx0

xx0

n
X

k=0
k

(x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk )

k=1

(n+1)

(n+1)

(x0 )(x x0 )

i.h

(n+2)

(n+2)

()(x x0 )

0
nn p dng qui tc LHospital ta c
0
n
h

X
0
lim n = lim (n + 1)! f (x)
ak Rk1 (x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)+

Gii hn ny c dng v nh

xx0

xx0

n
X

k=1
k1

(x0 , x1 , ..., xk1 , x)(R0nk+1 f (n+1) )(xk )

k=1

(n + 1)f

(n+1)

(x0 )(x x0 )

i.h

(n + 2)f

(n+2)

(n+1)

()(x x0 )

n+2

+ o(x x0 )

0
Nhng theo (2.23) th gii hn trn vn c dng v nh , tip tc p dng
0
qui tc LHospital lin tip n + 1 ln ta c
h
i
(n+1)
(n+1)
(n + 1)! f
(x) f
(x0 )
lim n = lim
xx0
xx0 (n + 2)!f (n+2) ()(x x0 ) + o(x x0 )2
(n + 1)!f (n+2) (x)
= lim
xx0 (n + 2)!f (n+2) () + o(x x0 )
37

1
.
n+2

Vy

lim n =

xx0

1
.
n+2


2.4

Bi ton ni suy Newton i vi hm a thc

nhiu bin.

Nh ta bit, khai trin Taylor c th m rng cho hm nhiu bin vi

cc kt qu tng t. Cu hi t nhin c t ra l: i vi hm a thc
nhiu bin s, bi ton ni suy Taylor v bi ton ni suy Newton c tn ti
khng? V nu tn ti th n c dng nh th no? Trong mc ny, ta s i
tm hiu vn trn. C th, cho tnh ton n gin, ta s xt vi hm
a thc hai bin s.
Trc ht, ta s m rng bi ton ni suy Taylor.

2.4.1

Bi ton ni suy Taylor i vi hm a thc nhiu bin

Bi ton 2.7 (Bi ton ni suy Taylor). Cho (x0 , y0 ) R2 v cc s

thc aij , i, j N, 0 i + j n . Tm a thc hai bin P (x, y) c bc

deg P (x, y) n v tha mn

kP
(x0 , y0 ) = aij , i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
xi y j
Gii. Trc ht, d thy rng a thc

P (x, y) =

n
X

ij (x x0 )i (y y0 )j , i + j = 0, 1, 2, ..., n, i, j N.

i+j=0

c bc deg P (x, y) n. Tip theo, ta cn xc nh cc h s ij R sao cho

P (x, y) tha mn iu kin

i+j P
(x0 , y0 ) = aij , i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
xi y j

38

Ln lt ly o hm P (x, y) n cp th k, k = i + j = 0, 1, 2, ..., n ti

(x, y) = (x0 , y0 ), ta c
i+j P
(x0 , y0 ) = ij i!j!, i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
xi y j
S dng gi thit

i+j P
(x0 , y0 ) = aij , i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
xi y j
Ta suy ra

aij
, i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
i!j!
Thay gi tr ca ij vo biu thc ca P (x, y), ta thu c
ij =

n
X
aij
P (x, y) =
(x x0 )i (y y0 )j , i + j = 0, 1, 2, ..., n, i, j N. (2.24)
i!j!
i+j=0

Tng t nh trng hp mt bin, ta d dng chng minh c a thc

P (x, y) nhn c (2.24) l a thc duy nht tha mn iu kin ca bi

ton 2.7.
nh ngha 2.3. a thc
n
X
aij
P (x, y) =
(x x0 )i (y y0 )j , i + j = 0, 1, 2, ..., n, i, j N.
i!j!
i+j=0

c gi l a thc ni suy Taylor.

2.4.2

Bi ton ni suy Newton i vi hm a thc nhiu bin.

Bi ton 2.8. (Bi ton ni suy Newton)

Cho (xi , yj ) R2 v cc s thc aij , i, j {0, 1, 2, ..., n}, 0 i + j n.
Tm a thc hai bin N (x, y) c bc deg N n v tha mn

i+j N
(xi , yj ) = aij , i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
xi y j
Gii. Trc ht, ta nhc li k hiu dng trong phn trc.
Vi mi i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, ta k hiu

Ri (x0 , x1 , . . . , xi1 , x) =

Zti1

Zx Zt1
...
x0 x1

39

xi1

dt0 dt1 ...dti1 .

Sau y, ta xt mt s trng hp ring.

i) Nu n = 0 (ng vi i = j = 0) th ta c deg(N (x, y)) = 0 v N (x0 , y0 ) =

a00 , v do N (x; y) = a00 .

ii) Nu n = 1 (ng vi i , j = 0,1), th ta c

N (x, y) = ax + by + c

N (x0 , y0 ) = ax0 + by0 + c = a00

N
(x1 ; y0 ) = a = a10
x

(x0 ; y1 ) = b = a01
y

T suy ra N (x) = a00 + a10 (x x0 ) + a01 (y y0 ) hay

N (x) = a00 + a10 R(x0 , x) + a01 R(y0 , y)

iii) Nu n = 2 (ng vi i + j = 0, 1, 2), th ta c

N (x, y) = ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + ex + f y + g

T gi thit ta c

N (x0 , y0 ) = ax20 + bx0 y0 + cy02 + ex0 + f y0 + g = a00

(x1 ; y0 ) = 2ax1 + by0 + e = a10

(x0 ; y1 ) = 2cy1 + bx0 + f = a01

2N

(x2 ; y0 ) = 2a = a20

2N

(x0 ; y2 ) = 2c = a02

2N

(x1 ; y1 ) = b = a11 .
xy

T ta c


N (x; y) = a00 + a10 (x x0 ) + a01 (y y0 ) + a20
40


(x x1 )2 (x0 x1 )2

+
2
2


(y y1 )2 (y0 y1 )2
+a02

+ a11 (x x0 )(y y0 )
2
2
h
i h
= a00 + a10 R(x0 , x) + a01 R(y0 , y) + a20 R2 (x0 , x1 , x) + a11 R(x0 , x)R(y0 , y)
i
2
+a02 R (y0 , y1 , y) .


iv) Nu n = 3 (ng vi i + j = 0, 1, 2, 3), lm tng t ta c

h
i
N (x; y) = a00 + a10 R(x0 , x) + a01 R(y0 , y)

h
i
2
2
+ a20 R (x0 , x1 , x) + a11 R(x0 , x)R(y0 , y) + a02 R (y0 , y1 , y)

h
+ a30 R3 (x0 , x1 , x2 , x) + a21 R2 (x0 , x1 , x)R(y0 , y) + a12 R(x0 , x)R2 (y0 , y1 , y)+
i
+a30 R (y0 , y1 , y2 , y) .
3

v) Mt cch tng t, trong trng hp tng qut, vi i, j N, i + j

{0, 1, . . . , n}, ta chng minh c

X
N (x, y) =
aij Ri (x0 , x1 , ..., xi1 , x).Rj (y0 , y1 , ..., yj1 , y).

(2.25)

0i+jn

L a thc duy nht tha mn iu kin ca bi ton ni suy Newton (2.7)

v ta gi a thc ny l a thc ni suy Newton cho hm hai bin s.
Tht vy, d thy rng deg(N (x)) n. Ngoi ra, ng vi mi cp (i, j) :

i + j = 0, 1, 2, .., n, theo tnh cht ca Ri (x0 , x1 , . . . , xi1 , x) phn trc,

ta c
i+j N
(x, y) = aij , i, j N, i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
xi y j
Cui cng, ta chng minh tnh duy nht nghim ca bi ton ni suy
Newton.
Gi s tn ti a thc N (x, y) c bc deg N (x, y) n cng tha mn
iu kin ca bi ton 2.7 th khi , a thc P (x, y) = N (x, y) N (x, y)
cng c bc deg(P (x, y) n v tha mn iu kin

i+j P
(xi , yj ) = 0, i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
xi y j
41

Khi , theo cch xy dng a thc N (x, y) trn, ng vi trng hp

aij = 0, i + j = k, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n, i, j N, ta suy ra P (x, y) 0, v do

N (x, y) = N (x, y).
.
Nhn xt 2.6. Nh lu trn rng a thc ni suy Taylor l trng hp
ring ca a thc ni suy Newton. D dng thy rng iu cng ng vi
trng hp hm a thc hai bin s khi xi = x0 , yj = y0 , i + j = 0, 1, ..., n.

42

CHNG 3

MT S BI TON P DNG

3.1
3.1.1

Khai trin Taylor ca mt s hm s cp v ng

dng
c lng v nh gi sai s

Khai trin Taylor ca hm s f (x) thng c s dng trong trng hp

c bit x0 = 0 v c gi l cng thc Maclaurin. Trong trng hp ny,
cc phn d dng Cauchy v Lagrange c dng
f (n+1) (x) n+1
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
x , 0 < < 1 (dng Lagrange).
(n + 1)!

f (n+1) (x)
(1 )n xn+1 , 0 < < 1 (dng Cauchy).
Rn+1 (f ; x) =
(n + 1)!
Sau y ta xt khai trin Maclaurin i vi mt s hm s cp v a ra cc
nh gi v phn d ca n cng nh mt s ng dng khc.

V d 3.1. Hm f (x) = ex , x R c f (n) (x) = ex , x R. Do

x2
xn
e =1+x+
+ +
+ Rn (x),
2!
n!
1
Rn (x) =
ex xn+1 , 0 < < 1.
(n + 1)!
x

Ta c

|x|n+1 x
|Rn (x)|
e 0(n ), x R
(n + 1)!

V d 3.2. Hm f (x) = sin x c



(n)
f (x) = sin x + n
, n = 0, 1, . . . ,
2
43

00

f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, f

f
Do

(2n+1)

(3)

(0) = 1, ..., f

(2n)

 
= 0,
(0) = sin 2n
2

i
(0) = sin (2n + 1)
= (1)n .
2
h

x3 x5
(1)n1 x2n1
sin x = x
+
... +
+ R2n+1 (x),
3!
5!
(2n 1)!


sin x + (2n + 1) 2 x2n+1
R2n+1 (x) =
, 0 < < 1.
(2n + 1)!

(3.1)

Suy ra

|R2n+1 (x)|

|x|2n+1
0(n ), x R.
(2n + 1)!

V d 3.3. Hm f (x) = cos x c


 (n)
n
(n)
f (x) = cos x + n
, f (0) = cos
,
2
2


(n)
, n = 1, 2, . . . .
f (x) = cos x + n
2
Cng thc Maclaurin theo cc ly tha ca x vi phn d di ng Lagrange
c dng
2(n1)
x2 x4
n1 x
cos x = 1
+
... + (1)
+ R2n (x),
2!
4!
[2(n 1)]!

x2n

R2n (x) =
cos x + 2n
0(n ), x R.
(2n)!
2

V d 3.4. Xt hm s f (x) = ln(1 + x) xc nh v kh vi v hn ln ng

xn1
x2
vi mi x > 1 v f (x) = x + + (1)n
+ Rn (x). Trong trng
2
n1
hp ny ta vit hai cng tc phn d

Rn (x) =

(1)n+1 xn
,0 < < 1
n(1 + x)n
(dng Lagrange);

n+1

Rn (x) = (1)

xn
(1 + x)

44

1
1 + x

n1
,0 < < 1

(dng Cauchy).
Gi s 0 x 1. Khi , p dng cng thc phn d dng Lagrange ta c

1 n
|x| 0(n ).
n
Trong trng hp 1 < x < 0, cng thc phn d dng Lagrange khng
cho ta kt lun v dng iu ca Rn (v y ch bit 0 < < 1 v
= (x, n)). S dng cng thc phn d dng Cauchy ta c
|Rn (x)|

|Rn (x)| <

|x|n
0(n ), 0 < |x| < 1,
1 |x|

1
< 1. Trong trng hp x > 1, Rn (x) 9 0 khi n .
1 + x
thy r iu ny ta t
v rng 0 <

S(x) = x

x2
xn1
+ (1)n
.
2
n1

Khi

Sn (x) + Rn (x) = Sn+1 (x) + Rn+1 (x)

v

n+1 x

Rn (x) Rn+1 (x) = (1 )

.
n
Vi x > 1 v n v phi ca ng thc trn khng dn n 0. Do
, Rn (x) khng dn n 0 khi n v khng tha mn tiu chun tn
ti gii hn Cauchy.
Nh vy phn d Rn (x) ca cng thc Taylor i vi hm ln(1 + x) ch
dn n 0 vi 1 < x < 1.
Xt hm f (x) = (1 + x)m . i vi hm ny ta ch cn xt m R\N. Ta
c
f (n) (x) = m(m 1)...(m n + 1)(1 + x)mn ,
f (n) (0) = m(m 1)...(m n + 1).
Cng thc Taylor theo cc ly tha ca x c dng

(1+x)m = 1+mx+

m(m 1) 2
m(m 1)...(m n + 1) n1
x + +
x +Rn (x).
2!
(n 1)!

45

Khi , phn d di dng Lagrange c dng

Rn =

m(m 1)...(m n + 1) n
x (1 + x)mn .
n!

V di dng Cauchy

m(m 1)...(m n + 1) n
x (1 + x)m1
Rn =
(n 1)!

1
1 + x

n1
.

Vi 0 x < 1, th theo trn ta c vi n > m

|Rn |

|m(m 1)...(m n + 1)| n

|x| 0(n ).
n!

Tht vy, ta t

Un =

m(m 1)...(m n + 1) n
x .
(n 1)!

Khi ,

|Un+1 | |m n|
=
|x|.
|Un |
n+1
Suy ra

|m n|
|x||Un |.
n+1
|m n|
Vi n ln, v phi nh hn 1 v
1 khi n v 0 x < 1.
n+1
Do dy (Un ) c gii hn u no . Chuyn qua gii hn ng thc trn
khi n , ta thu c |u| = |x|.|u| hay u = 0. Do Rn 0(n )
vi 0 x < 1.
Vi 1 < x < 0 th t cng thc phn d di dng Cauchy ta c
|Un+1 | =

|Rn | C

|m(m 1)...(m n + 1)| n

|x| .
(n 1)!

Trong , C l s ph thuc x nhng khng ph thuc n.

Tht vy, c lng |Rn (x)|, ta xt
n1 
n1

1
1

=1
1 + x
1
v vi m 1 > 0 th

(1 + x)m1 2m1 .
46

(3.2)

Khi m 1 < 0

(1 + x)m1 <

1
.
(1 |x|)1m

T suy ra (3.2). Bng cch chng minh tng t nh phn trc ta d

dng thy rng Rn 0 khi n
Nhn xt 3.1. Vn mu cht trong vic tm cng thc Taylor i vi
hm f cho trc l tnh cc h s an ca n. Cc h s ny c tnh theo
f (n) (a)
cng thc an =
. Tuy nhin cng thc tng qut ny thng t tin
n!
li do vic tnh ton cc o hm cp cao qu cng knh. Thng thng cc
h s ca a thc Taylor Tn (f ; x) c tnh bng cch s dng cc khai trin
nh nu trn.
By gi ta xt mt vi v d. cho tin li, ta tm cng thc Taylor vi
phn d di dng Peano.
V d 3.5. Khai trin hm f (x) =
hng o(xn ).

Ta c

1
theo cng thc Maclaurin n s
2x + 3

1
=
2x + 3

1
2
3(1 + x)
3

S dng khai trin

n

X
1
=
(1)k xk + o(xn ).
1+x
k=0

Ta c

k
X
1
k 2
=
(1) k+1 xk + o(xn ).
2x + 3
3
k=0

V d 3.6. Hm f (x) = ln(5 4x) c



4
ln(5 4x) = ln 5 + ln 1 x .
5
Theo cng thc khai trin trn, ta thu c
 k
n
X
1 4
ln(5 4x) = ln 5
xk + o(xn ).
k 5
k=0

47

V d 3.7. Xt hm s

f (x) = ln

3+x
.
2x

Trc ht ta nhn xt rng nu

f (x) =

n
X

ak (x x0 )k + o((x x0 )n )

k=0

g(x) =

n
X

bk (x x0 )k + o((x x0 )n ).

k=0

Th

f (x) + g(x) =

n
X

(ak + bk )(x x0 )k + o((x x0 )n ).

k=0

T ng thc



3
x
x
f (x) = ln + ln 1 +
ln 1
2
3
2
suy ra

3 X1
f (x) = ln +
2
k

k=0

1
(1)k1
+
2k
3k

xk + o(xn ).

V d 3.8. Xt hm s

f (x) =

x2 + 5
.
x2 + x 12

khai trin cng thc Taylor cc hm hu t thng thng, ta biu din

hm hu t di dng tng ca a thc v cc phn thc ti gin. Ta c

f (x) = 1

3
2
2
3




+
=1

x+4 x3
4 1 + x4
3 1 x3

n
n
k
3X
2 X xk
kx
=1
+ o(xn )
(1) k
k
4
4
3
3
k=0
k=0

n 
X
5
3(1)k+1
2
= +
k+1 xk + o(xn ).
k+1
12
4
3
k=0

48

3.1.2

Tnh gii hn hm s.

Nh thy trn, khai trin Taylor cho ta cng thc n gin v cng
rt tng qut xc nh phn chnh ca hm s. Do , tm gii hn,
ngi ta thng dng cng thc khai trin Taylor ti mt cp no .

V d 3.9. Tnh gii hn

sin(sin x) x 3 1 x2
.
lim
x0
x5
Gii. V mu s l a thc x5 nn ta cn khai trin t s thnh a thc
Taylor vi chnh xc n o(x5 ) khi x 0.
V sin x x khi x 0 nn o(x5 ) = o(sin5 x) khi x 0.
Theo cng thc Taylor, ta c

x3
x5
sin x = x
+
+ o(x5 )
6
120
v

sin3 x sin5 x
+
+ o(sin5 x), x 0.
sin(sin x) = sin x
6
120

Khi


3
x3
x5
5
sin x = x
+
+ o(x )
6
120
3

= [x + (x)]3 = x3 + 3x2 (x) + 3x2 (x) + 3 (x),

trong

x5
x3
x3
5
(x) = +
+ o(x ) .
6
120
6
Suy ra

x9
x6
5
3
= o(x ), (x)
= o(x5 ) khi x 0.
x (x)
36
216
Tip theo, ta s chng minh rng
2

sin5 x = x5 + o(x5 ), x 0.
Tht vy, v

(x)

x3
, x 0.
6

nn

sin5 x = x5 + o(x5 ), x 0.
49

Nh vy, khi x 0 ta c

x3 x5
sin(sin x) = x
+
+ o(x5 ).
3
10
Tng t

p
1
1
3
x 1 x2 = x(1 x2 x4 + o(x4 ))
3
9
1
1
= x x3 x5 + o(x5 )), x 0.
3
9
Do

p
19
3
sin(sin x) x 1 x2 = x5 + o(x5 ).
90

Vy nn



sin(sin x) x 3 1 x2
19 o(x5 )
19
=
lim
=
lim
+
.
x0 90
x0
x5
x5
90
V d 3.10. Tnh gii hn

lim

x0

1 + 2 tan x ex + x2
.
arcsin x sin x

Gii. T s v mu s ca phn thc u l nhng v cng b khi x 0.

V

x3
sin x = x
+ o(x3 )
6
v

arcsin x = x +

x3
+ o(x3 ), x 0
6

nn mu s c dng

x3
arcsin x sin x =
+ o(x3 ), x 0.
3
T , ta cn khai trin t s vi chnh xc n o(x3 ). Ta c

x2 x3
e =1+x+
+
+ o(x3 ), x 0,
2!
3!
x

1
1
1
1 + t = 1 + t t2 + t3 + o(t3 ), t 0.
2
8
16
50

x3
tan x = x +
+ o(x3 ), x 0.
3
Vy nn

1
1
1
1 + 2 tan x = 1 + (2 tan x) (2 tan x)2 + (2 tan x)3 + o(tan3 x)
2
8
16

x3 x2 x3

+
+ o(x3 )
=1+x+
3
2
2
2
x
5
=1+x
+ x3 + o(x3 ), x 0.
2
6
Khi t s c khai trin l

2
1 + 2 tan x ex + x2 = x3 + o(x3 ), x 0
3
T suy ra

lim

x0

2 3
x + o(x3 )
1 + 2 tan x ex + x2
3
= lim
= 2.
x0 1 3
arcsin x sin x
3
x + o(x )
3

V d 3.11. Tnh gii hn

tan(tan x) sin(sin x)
.
x0
tan x sin x
lim

Gii. Theo cng thc Taylor vi n = 3, ta c

x3
tan x = x +
+ o(x3 ), x 0,
3
x3
+ o(x3 ), x 0.
6
Khi , theo tnh cht ca khai trin Taylor i vi hm hp ta c
sin x = x

x3
tan(tan x) = tan(x +
+ o(x3 ))
3

3
3
x3
1
x
=x+
+ o(x3 ) +
x+
+ o(x3 )
3
3
3
2
= x + x3 + o(x3 ), x 0,
3
x3
sin(sin x) = sin(x
+ o(x3 ))
6
51


3
3
x3
1
x
=x
+ o(x3 )
x
+ o(x3 )
6
6
6
1
= x x3 + o(x3 ), x 0.
3
Vy nn

tan(tan x) sin(sin x)
x0
tan x sin x
x3 + o(x3 )
= lim 3
= 2.
x0 x
+ o(x3 )
2
V d 3.12. Tnh gii hn


1
1
lim

x0 x2
sin2 x
lim

0
Gii. Gii hn cn tm c dng . Ta bin i v dng nh
0
sau


1
1
lim

x0 x2
sin2 x
 2

sin x x2
= lim
x0
x2 sin2 x
!
3
[x x6 + o(x3 )]2 x2
= lim
x0
x2 [x + o(x)]2
!
4
x3 + o(x4 )
1
= lim
=
2
2
2
x0
x [x + o(x )]
3
Vy


lim

x0

1
1

x2 sin2 x


=

1
3

V d 3.13. Tnh gii hn

r
r 


1
x
x
lim+
a arctan
b arctan
(a > 0, b > 0).
x0 x x
a
b

0
Gii. Gii hn cho c dng 0.. Ta a v dng bng php
0
i bin.

t x = t th t2 = x v khi x 0+ th t 0+ . Ta c
r
r 


1
x
x
lim+
a arctan
b arctan
x0 x x
a
b
52

a arctan

t
a

b arctan

t
b

.
t3
V mu s l a thc bc ba nn ta cn khai trin Taylor t s chnh xc
n 0(t3 ). Khi t 0+ th
"
#
r
3

3
t
t
t3
t
a arctan
= a + t3 3 a + o( 3 ) = t +
+ o(t3 ), t 0+ ,
a
3a
a
3 a
= lim
t0

r
b arctan

Khi

t
=
b

"

3
t
t
t3
+ o(t3 ), t 0+ .
b + t3 3 b + o( 3 ) = t +
3b
b
3 b

r 
x
x
lim+
a arctan
b arctan
x0 x x
a
b




t3
t3
+ o(t3 ) t + 3b
+ o(t3 )
t + 3a
= lim
t0
t3
ab 3
3
ab
3a t + o(t )
=
.
= lim
3
t0
t
3ab
1

Vy

r
r 


1
ab
x
x
=
lim+
a arctan
b arctan
.
x0 x x
a
b
3ab

V d 3.14. Tnh gii hn

3

lim (cos(x.ex ) ln(1 x) x)cot x .

x0

Gii. Gii hn cn tm c dng 1 . Ta c

3

lim cot x3 ln f (x)

lim (cos(x.ex ) ln(1 x) x)cot x = ex0

x0

vi

f (x) = cos(x.ex ) ln(1 x) x.

Ta cn tnh

lim cot x3 ln[cos(x.ex ) ln(1 x) x].

x0

rng

cot x3 =

1
1
=
, x 0.
tan x3
x3 + o(x3 )
53

Do ta cn phi khai trin hm [f (x) 1] theo cng thc Taylor tng

ng vi o(x3 ) bng cch s dng cc khai trin sau

xex = x + x2 + o(x2 ), x 0.
t2
cos t = 1 + o(t3 ), t 0.
2!
Suy ra

x2
cos xe = 1
x3 + o(x3 ), x 0.
2
x2 x3
ln(1 x) = x +
+
+ o(x3 ), x 0.
2
3
x

Ta thu c

2
f (x) 1 = x3 + o(x3 ), x 0
3

32 x3 + o(x3 )
2
=
lim 3
3
x0 x + o(x )
3

Vy
3

lim (cos(x.ex ) ln(1 x) x)cot x = e 3 .

x0

3.2

Khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov vi bi ton c

lng hm s

Trong mc ny, ta s xt khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov ca mt s hm c

th cng nh nh gi c lng phn d ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov.
V d 3.15. Xc nh cc tam thc bc hai f (x) tha mn iu kin

f (0) = 1; f 0 (3) = 0; f 00 (5) = 5.

Gii. Theo cng thc ni suy Newton trong trng hp n = 2 ta c


(x 3)2 (0 3)2
0
00
f (x) = f (0) + f (3)(x 0) + f (5)

2
2


(x 3)2 9
= 1 + 5

.
2
2
Hay
5
f (x) = x2 15x 1.
2
54

V d 3.16. Xc nh a thc bc ba f (x) tha mn cc iu kin

f (n) (3n + 1) = n3 3n2 + n + 1, n = 0, 1, 2, 3.

Gii. a thc f (x) cn tm phi tha mn cc iu kin sau

f (1) = 1; f 0 (4) = 0; f 00 (7) = 1; f (3) (10) = 4.

Theo cng thc ni suy Newton trong trng hp n = 3, ta nhn c a
thc cn tm c dng

2
87
1135
f (x) = x3 x2 + 84x
.
3
6
6
V d 3.17. Vi hm f (x) = ex , x R ta c f (n) (x) = ex , x R vi cc
mc ni suy x0 = 0; x1 = 1; x2 = 2 ta c

f (0) = 1; f 0 (0) = e; f 00 (2) = e2 .

Do , a thc ni suy Newton bc 2 ca f (x) c dng

Zx
P2 (x) = 1 + e
0

dt1 + e2

Zx Zt1
0

dt2 dt1 = 1 + ex + e2


(x 1)2 1

.
2
2

T , khai trin Taylor-Gontcharov ca hm s f (x) = ex vi cc mc ni

suy trn c dng
x

e = 1 + ex + e


(x 1)2 1

+ R3 (f ; x).
2
2

Trong , phn d R3 (f ; x) c xc nh bi

R3 (f ; x) =

f (3) ()
f (3) (1 ) 1
(x x0 )3
R (x0 , x)(x1 x0 )2
3!
2!



e
e 1
f (3) (2 ) 2
R (x0 , x1 , x)(x2 x0 ) = x3 x e2 (x 1)2 1 .
1!
6
2
Trong , nm gia x v 0; 1 (0; 1), 2 (0; 2).

V d 3.18. Xt hm f (x) = sin x vi cc mc ni suy x0 = ; x1 = ; x2 =

6
4

; x3 = . Ta c
3
2

f (n) (x) = sin(x + n ), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

2

55

Mt khc

1 0
2 00
3

f( ) = ; f ( ) =
; f ( ) = ; f ( ) = 0.
6
2
4
2
3
2
2
Do , phn d trong khai trin Taylor-Gontcharov n bc 3 ca hm s

f (x) = sin x l
f (4) ()

f (4) (1 ) 3
R4 (f ; x) =
(x )4
4!
6
3! 1728

Zx

f (4) (2 ) 2
dt
.
2!
36

f (4) (3 )
.

1!
3

Zx Zt1
dt2 dt1

Zx Zt1 Zt2
dt3 .dt2 .dt1



sin
4 sin 1 3

sin 2 2
2
2
=
(x )
(x )
.
(x )
4!
6
3! 1728
6
2! 72
4
144



3
sin 3 1
.
(x )3
(x )
.

1! 3 6
3
288
4
1296

Trong , nm gia x v ; 1 ( ; ), 2 ( ; ); 3 ( ; ).
6
6 4
6 3
6 2
V d 3.19. Cho N (x) l a thc c bc deg N (x) 3 v tho mn cc
iu kin

|N (k) (k)| 1 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
Chng minh rng

|N (x)|

11
x [0, 3].
2

Gii. p dng cng thc ni suy Newton ti cc nt ni suy xi = i 1,

i = 1, 2, 3, 4 , ta c
N (x) = N (0) + N 0 (1)R(0, x) + N (2)R2 (0, 1, x) + N (3) (3)R3 (0, 1, 2, x),
trong

Z
R(0, x) =
R2 (0, 1, x) =

dt = x,

0
x Z t1

dtdt1 =
0

56

x
(x 2),
2!

x Z t1

t2

R (0, 1, 2, x) =

dtdt2 dt1 =
0

x
(x 3)2 .
3!

Khi

x
x
N (x) = N (0) + N 0 (1)x + N (2) (x 2) + N (3) (3) (x 3)2 .
2!
3!
T gi thit bi ton ta suy ra

 x

x
 

2
|N (x)| 1 + |x| +  (x 2) +  (x 3) 
2!
3!
x
x
1 + x + (x 2) + (x 3)2 .
2!
3!
t

x
x
(x 2) + (x 3)2
2!
3!
1
1
3
= x3 x2 + x + 1.
6
2
2

f (x) = 1 + x +

Kho st hm s f (x) trn [0, 3] ta c

f (x) f (3) =

11
.
2

Vy

11
.
2
V d 3.20. Cho N (x) l a thc c bc deg N (x) 5 c dng
|N (x)|

N (x) = a5 x5 + a4 x4 + a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
v tho mn cc iu kin

|N (4) (4)| 1 , |N (5) (5)| 1.

Tm gi tr ln nht ca |N (4) (x)| trn [1, 6].
Gii. Ta nhn thy N (4) (x) l hm s bc nht nn gi tr ln nht ca

N (x) trn [1, 6] s t c ti x = 1 hoc x = 6.

Do vy |N (4) (x)| cng s t gi tr ln nht trn [1, 6] ti mt trong
hai u mt x = 1 hoc x = 6.
p dng cng thc ni suy Newton ti cc nt ni suy xi = i 1 ,
i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , ta c
N (x) = N (0) + N 0 (1)R(0, x) + N (2)R2 (0, 1, x) + N (3) (3)R3 (0, 1, 2, x)
57

+N (4) (4)R4 (0, 1, 2, 3, x) + N (5) (5)R5 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, x),

trong

R4 (0, 1, 2, 3, x) =

Zx Zt1 Zt2 Zt3

dtdt3 dt2 dt1 =
0

R5 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, x) =

x
(x 4)3 ,
4!

Zx Zt1 Zt2 Zt3 Zt4

dtdt4 dt3 dt2 dt1 =
0

x
(x 5)4 .
5!

Suy ra

N (4) (x) = N (4) (4) + N (5) (5)(x 4).

Khi

N (4) (1) = N (4) (4) 5N (5) (5),

N (4) (6) = N (4) (4) + 2N (5) (5).
T gi thit bi ton, ta suy ra

|N (4) (1)| = |N (4) (4) 5N (5) (5)| 6,

|N (4) (6)| = |N (4) (4) + 2N (5) (5)| 3.
Vy gi tr ln nht ca |N (4) (x)| bng 6 ti x = 1.
Tng t nh vi khai trin Taylor, vi khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov ta
cng c nhn xt sau
Nhn xt 3.1. Vn mu cht trong vic tm cng thc nh gi phn
d ca cng thc khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov i vi hm f cng vi cc
mc ni suy xi cho trc l vic tnh o hm cp cao ca hm f v biu
thc Rk (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x). Tuy nhin, vic tnh o hm cp cao ca mt
hm s nhiu khi khng n gin. Bn cnh , khi mc ni suy tng ln th
vic tnh ton biu thc Rk (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x) kh phc tp. Do , trong
cc v d trn, v gi tr ca mc ni suy nh nn ta mi a ra c biu
thc nh gi phn d ca f (x) mt cch chnh xc. Cn trong trng hp
tng qut, ta ch c th a ra nh gi di dng Lagrange v Cauchy
nh trong (2.12) v (2.14).

58

Tuy nhin, trong trng hp hm f (x) c o hm gii ni

|f (n) (x)| M, x [a; b], n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

ta c kt qu sau
Bi ton 3.1. Gi s hm s f (x) lin tc trn [a; b], c o hm mi cp
trn [a; b] v xi [a; b], i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. Khi , nu M > 0 sao cho

|f (n) (x)| M, x [a; b], n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

th Rn+1 (f ; x) 0 khi n .
Gii. Theo cng thc xc nh ca Rn+1 (f ; x) ta c

Rn+1 (f ; x) =

f (n+1) ()
(x x0 )n+1
(n + 1)!

n
X
f (n+1) (k ) k
R (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)(x x0 )nk+1 .

(n k + 1)!
k=1

Mt khc:


  Zx Zt1 Ztk1

 k
 

...
dtk dtk1 ...dt1 
R (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x) = 
x0 x1

xk1

 Zb Zt1 Ztk1

1



...
dtk dtk1 ...dt1  = (b a)k .
k!
a

Do
n

 M (b a)(n+1) X
1
M


+
. (b a)k (b a)nk+1
Rn+1 (f ; x)
(n + 1)!
(n k + 1)! k!
k=1

"
= M (b a)(n+1)

1
+
(n + 1)!

"

n
X
k=1

n
X

1
k!(n k + 1)!

1
1
n 
n

+
(n + 1)!
!
n

+
1
!
2
k=1 2
#
"
n
1
n
 .
+ n 
= M (b a)(n+1)
(n + 1)!
!
n

+
1
!
2
2

M (b a)(n+1)

59

V n Z nn n = 2p + i, (i = 0, 1). Khi ta c


h
i
1
2p + i


2p+i+1
+
.
Rn+1 (f ; x) M (b a)
(2p + i + 1)! p!(p + i + 1)!
Trng hp 1. Nu i = 0, ta c


h (b a)2p+1  (b a)p  (b a)2p i
2


+
.
0(p ).
Rn+1 (f ; x) M
(2p + 1)!
p!
(p + 1)
Trng hp 2. Nu i = 1, ta c


h (b a)2p+2  (b a)p  (b a)2 (2p + 1) i
2


+
.
0(p ).
Rn+1 (f ; x) M
(2p + 2)!
p!
(p + 1)(p + 2)
Vy Rn+1 (f ; x) 0 khi n .

60

KT LUN

Lun vn trnh by v thu c

- Mt s kt qu c bn v bi ton ni suy Taylor, khai trin Taylor,
nh gi cng thc phn d v s hi t ca khai trin Taylor.
- a ra cng thc nghim ca bi ton ni suy Newton, biu din hm
s f (x) theo cng thc khai trin Taylor- Gontcharov v c bit a ra cc
nh gi phn d ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov ca hm f (x) di hai
dng Lagrange v Cauchy. Bn cnh , lun vn nh gi s hi t ca
khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov v khi qut ha bi ton ni suy Newton
i vi hm a thc nhiu bin.
- Mt s ng dng ca khai trin Taylor v khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov
trong vic c lng v nh gi sai s, tnh gii hn hm s....
- Mt s hng nghin cu c th pht trin t ti ny l
1. Khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov i vi hm nhiu bin v nh gi phn
d ca n.
2. Cc ng dng ca khai trin Taylor - Gontcharov trong phng trnh vi
phn, trong l thuyt cc bi ton bin....
V thi gian v kin thc cn hn ch nn lun vn chc chn khng trnh
khi nhng thiu st. Tc gi rt mong nhn c s quan tm, ng gp
kin ca cc thy c v cc bn ng nghip bn lun vn c hon
thin hn.
Tc gi xin chn thnh cm n!

61

TI LIU THAM KHO

[1] Nguyn Vn Mu, Cc bi ton ni suy v p dng, NXBGD, 2007.

[2] Nguyn Vn Mu, a thc i s v phn thc hu t, NXBGD,
2004.
[3] Nguyn Xun Lim, Gii tch, tp I, NXB Gio dc 1998.
[4] Nguyn Duy Tin, Trn c Long, Bi ging gii tch, NXB i
hc Quc gia H ni 2004.
[5] Nguyen Van Mau, Algebraic Elements and Boundary Value Problems
in Linear Spaces, VNU Publishers, Hanoi 2005.
[6] Przeworska-Rolewicz, D. Equations with Transformed Argument. An
Algebraic Approach, Amsterdam-Warsaw 1973.
[7] Przeworska-Rolewicz, D. Algebraic Analysis, PWN - Polish Scientific Publishers and D. Reidel Publishing Company, Warszawa - Dordrecht, 1988.

62