Cauchy stress tensor

can be demonstrated that the components of the Cauchy

stress tensor in every material point in the body satisfy
the equilibrium equations (Cauchys equations of motion
for zero acceleration). At the same time, according to the
principle of conservation of angular momentum, equilibrium requires that the summation of moments with respect to an arbitrary point is zero, which leads to the conclusion that the stress tensor is symmetric, thus having
only six independent stress components, instead of the
original nine.
There are certain invariants associated with the stress tensor, whose values do not depend upon the coordinate system chosen, or the area element upon which the stress
tensor operates. These are the three eigenvalues of the
stress tensor, which are called the principal stresses.
Figure 2.3 Components of stress in three dimensions

In continuum mechanics, the Cauchy stress tensor 1 Euler-Cauchy stress principle , true stress tensor,[1] or simply called the stress tenstress vector
sor is a second order tensor named after Augustin-Louis
Cauchy. The tensor consists of nine components ij that
completely dene the state of stress at a point inside a ma- Main article: Continuum mechanics
The EulerCauchy stress principle states that upon
terial in the deformed state, placement, or conguration.
The tensor relates a unit-length direction vector n to the
stress vector T(n) across an imaginary surface perpendicular to n:
T(n) = n

(n)

or Tj

= ij ni .

where,

11
= 21
31

12
22
32

13
xx
23 yx
33
zx

xy
yy
zy

xz
x
yz yx
zz
zx

xy
y
zy

xz
yz
z

The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the system of coordinates. A
graphical representation of this transformation law is the
Mohrs circle for stress.

Figure 2.1a Internal distribution of contact forces and couple

stresses on a dierential dS of the internal surface S in a continuum, as a result of the interaction between the two portions of
the continuum separated by the surface

The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies experiencing small deformations: It is a central concept in the linear theory of elasticity. For large
deformations, also called nite deformations, other measures of stress are required, such as the PiolaKirchho
stress tensor, the Biot stress tensor, and the Kirchho
stress tensor.

any surface (real or imaginary) that divides the body, the

action of one part of the body on the other is equivalent
(equipollent) to the system of distributed forces and couples
on the surface dividing the body,[2] and it is represented by
a eld T(n) , called the stress vector, dened on the surface
S and assumed to depend continuously on the surfaces
unit vector n .[3][4]:p.6696

According to the principle of conservation of linear mo- To formulate the EulerCauchy stress principle, consider
mentum, if the continuum body is in static equilibrium it an imaginary surface S passing through an internal ma1

1 EULER-CAUCHY STRESS PRINCIPLE - STRESS VECTOR

contact forces F , following Eulers equations of motion,
internal contact forces and moments are transmitted from
point to point in the body, and from one segment to the
other through the dividing surface S , due to the mechanical contact of one portion of the continuum onto the other
(Figure 2.1a and 2.1b). On an element of area S containing P , with normal vector n , the force distribution
is equipollent to a contact force F and surface moment
M . In particular, the contact force is given by

F = T(n) S
where T(n) is the mean surface traction.
Figure 2.1b Internal distribution of contact forces and couple
stresses on a dierential dS of the internal surface S in a continuum, as a result of the interaction between the two portions of
the continuum separated by the surface

Cauchys stress principle asserts[6]:p.47102 that as S becomes very small and tends to zero the ratio F/S
becomes dF/dS and the couple stress vector M vanishes. In specic elds of continuum mechanics the couple stress is assumed not to vanish; however, classical
branches of continuum mechanics address non-polar materials which do not consider couple stresses and body
moments.
The resultant vector dF/dS is dened as the surface traction,[7] also called stress vector,[8] traction,[4] or traction
(n)
vector.[6] given by T(n) = Ti ei at the point P associated with a plane with a normal vector n :

(n)

Ti
Figure 2.1c Stress vector on an internal surface S with normal
vector n. Depending on the orientation of the plane under consideration, the stress vector may not necessarily be perpendicular
to that plane, i.e. parallel to n , and can be resolved into two
components: one component normal to the plane, called normal
stress n , and another component parallel to this plane, called
the shearing stress .

= lim

S0

Fi
dFi
=
.
S
dS

This equation means that the stress vector depends on its

location in the body and the orientation of the plane on
which it is acting.

This implies that the balancing action of internal contact

forces generates a contact force density or Cauchy traction
eld [5] T(n, x, t) that represents a distribution of internal contact forces throughout the volume of the body in
a particular conguration of the body at a given time t .
It is not a vector eld because it depends not only on the
terial point P dividing the continuous body into two segposition x of a particular material point, but also on the
ments, as seen in Figure 2.1a or 2.1b (one may use either
local orientation of the surface element as dened by its
the cutting plane diagram or the diagram with the arbinormal vector n .[9]
trary volume inside the continuum enclosed by the surDepending on the orientation of the plane under considerface S ).
ation, the stress vector may not necessarily be perpendicFollowing the classical dynamics of Newton and Euler,
ular to that plane, i.e. parallel to n , and can be resolved
the motion of a material body is produced by the action
into two components (Figure 2.1c):
of externally applied forces which are assumed to be of
two kinds: surface forces F and body forces b .[5] Thus,
one normal to the plane, called normal stress
the total force F applied to a body or to a portion of the
body can be expressed as:
dFn
Fn
=
,
n = lim
S0 S
dS
F =b+F
Only surface forces will be discussed in this article as they
are relevant to the Cauchy stress tensor.
When the body is subjected to external surface forces or

where dFn is the normal component of the

force dF to the dierential area dS
and the other parallel to this plane, called the shear
stress

3
Fs
dFs
=
,
S0 S
dS

To prove this expression, consider a tetrahedron with

three faces oriented in the coordinate planes, and with
an innitesimal area dA oriented in an arbitrary direcwhere dFs is the tangential component of the
tion specied by a normal unit vector n (Figure 2.2). The
force dF to the dierential surface area dS .
tetrahedron is formed by slicing the innitesimal element
The shear stress can be further decomposed
along an arbitrary plane n. The stress vector on this plane
into two mutually perpendicular vectors.
is denoted by T(n) . The stress vectors acting on the faces
of the tetrahedron are denoted as T(e1 ) , T(e2 ) , and T(e3 ) ,
and are by denition the components ij of the stress ten1.1 Cauchys postulate
sor . This tetrahedron is sometimes called the Cauchy
According to the Cauchy Postulate, the stress vector T(n) tetrahedron. The equilibrium of forces, i.e. Eulers rst
remains unchanged for all surfaces passing through the law of motion (Newtons second law of motion), gives:
point P and having the same normal vector n at P ,[7][10]
(
)
i.e., having a common tangent at P . This means that the
h
(n)
(e1 )
(e2 )
(e3 )
stress vector is a function of the normal vector n only, and T dAT
dA1 T
dA2 T
dA3 =
dA a,
3
is not inuenced by the curvature of the internal surfaces.
where the right-hand-side represents the product of the
= lim

1.2

Cauchys fundamental lemma

A consequence of Cauchys postulate is Cauchys Fundamental Lemma,[1][7][11] also called the Cauchy reciprocal
theorem,[12]:p.103130 which states that the stress vectors
acting on opposite sides of the same surface are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction. Cauchys fundamental lemma is equivalent to Newtons third law of
motion of action and reaction, and is expressed as

T(n) = T(n) .

Cauchys stress theoremstress

tensor

The state of stress at a point in the body is then dened by

all the stress vectors T(n) associated with all planes (innite in number) that pass through that point.[13] However, according to Cauchys fundamental theorem,[11] also
called Cauchys stress theorem,[1] merely by knowing the
stress vectors on three mutually perpendicular planes, the
stress vector on any other plane passing through that point
can be found through coordinate transformation equations.

Figure 2.2. Stress vector acting on a plane with normal unit vector n.
A note on the sign convention: The tetrahedron is formed by
slicing a parallelepiped along an arbitrary plane n. So, the force
acting on the plane n is the reaction exerted by the other half of
the parallelepiped and has an opposite sign.

mass enclosed by the tetrahedron and its acceleration:

is the density, a is the acceleration, and h is the height of
the tetrahedron, considering the plane n as the base. The
area of the faces of the tetrahedron perpendicular to the
Cauchys stress theorem states that there exists a second- axes can be found by projecting dA into each face (using
order tensor eld (x, t), called the Cauchy stress tensor, the dot product):
independent of n, such that T is a linear function of n:
dA1 = (n e1 ) dA = n1 dA,
T

(n)

=n

or

(n)
Tj

= ij ni .

dA2 = (n e2 ) dA = n2 dA,

This equation implies that the stress vector T(n) at any dA3 = (n e3 ) dA = n3 dA,
point P in a continuum associated with a plane with nor- and then substituting into the equation to cancel out dA:
mal unit vector n can be expressed as a function of the
stress vectors on the planes perpendicular to the coordi( )
nate axes, i.e. in terms of the components ij of the stress
h
(n)
(e1 )
(e2 )
(e3 )
a.
T T n1 T n2 T n3 =
tensor .
3

CAUCHYS STRESS THEOREMSTRESS TENSOR

To consider the limiting case as the tetrahedron shrinks to or, equivalently,

a point, h must go to 0 (intuitively, the plane n is translated
along n toward O). As a result, the right-hand-side of the
(n)
equation approaches 0, so
Tj = ij ni .
Alternatively, in matrix form we have
T

(n)

(e1 )

=T

(e2 )

n1 + T

n2 + T

(e3 )

n3 .

Assuming a material element (Figure 2.3) with planes

perpendicular to the coordinate axes of a Cartesian coordinate system, the stress vectors associated with each of
the element planes, i.e. T(e1 ) , T(e2 ) , and T(e3 ) can be decomposed into a normal component and two shear components, i.e. components in the direction of the three coordinate axes. For the particular case of a surface with
normal unit vector oriented in the direction of the x1 -axis,
denote the normal stress by 11 , and the two shear stresses
as 12 and 13 :

(e1 )

e1 +T2

(e2 )

e1 +T2

(e3 )

e1 +T2

T(e1 ) = T1
T(e2 ) = T1
T(e3 ) = T1

(n)

T2

(n)

T3

[
= n1

n2

] 11
n3 21
31

12
22
32

13
23 .
33

The Voigt notation representation of the Cauchy stress

tensor takes advantage of the symmetry of the stress tensor to express the stress as a six-dimensional vector of the
form:
[
= 1

]T

[
11

22

33

(e1 )

The Voigt notation is used extensively in representing

e3 = 11 e1 +12 e2 +13 estress-strain
3,
relations in solid mechanics and for compu-

(e2 )

tational eciency in numerical structural mechanics softe3 = 21 e1 +22 e2 +23 eware.

3,

(e1 )

e2 +T3

(e2 )

e2 +T3

(e3 )

e2 +T3

(e3 )

23

13

e3 = 31 e1 +32 e2 +33 e3 ,

2.1 Transformation rule of the stress tensor

In index notation this is

(ei )

[
(n)
T1

It can be shown that the stress tensor is a contravariant

second order tensor, which is a statement of how it transThe nine components ij of the stress vectors are the forms under a change of the coordinate system. From
components of a second-order Cartesian tensor called the an xi-system to an xi' -system, the components ij in the
Cauchy stress tensor, which completely denes the state of initial system are transformed into the components ij'
stress at a point and is given by
in the new system according to the tensor transformation
rule (Figure 2.4):

T(ei ) = Tj

ej = ij ej .

(e )
T 1
11

= ij = T(e2 ) = 21
31
T(e3 )

xy xz
x xy xz

yy ij
yz
= aim ajnyx
mn yor yz
=, AAT ,
zy zz
zx zy z
where A is a rotation matrix with components aij. In mawhere 11 , 22 , and 33 are normal stresses, and 12 , 13 , trix form this is
21 , 23 , 31 , and 32 are shear stresses. The rst index
i indicates that the stress acts on a plane normal to the

xi-axis, and the second index j denotes the direction in

11
12
13
a11 a12 a13
11 12 13
a11

which the stress acts. A stress component is positive if it 21
22
23
= a21 a22 a23 21 22 23 a12

acts in the positive direction of the coordinate axes, and

31
32
33
a31 a32 a33
31 32 33
a13
if the plane where it acts has an outward normal vector
Expanding the matrix operation, and simplifying terms
pointing in the positive coordinate direction.
using the symmetry of the stress tensor, gives
Thus, using the components of the stress tensor
12
22
32

T(n) = T(e1 ) n1 + T(e2 ) n2 + T(e3 ) n3

=

T(ei ) ni

i=1

= (ij ej ) ni
= ij ni ej

13
xx
23 yx
33
zx

a21
a22
a23

11
= a211 11 +a212 22 +a213 33 +2a11 a12 12 +2a11 a13 13 +2a12 a13 23 ,

22
= a221 11 +a222 22 +a223 33 +2a21 a22 12 +2a21 a23 13 +2a22 a23 23 ,

33
= a231 11 +a232 22 +a233 33 +2a31 a32 12 +2a31 a33 13 +2a32 a33 23 ,

12
=a11 a21 11 + a12 a22 22 + a13 a23 33
+ (a11 a22 + a12 a21 )12 + (a12 a23 + a13 a22 )23 + (a11 a23 + a1

3.2

Cauchys second law of motion

Figure 2.4 Transformation of the stress tensor

23
=a21 a31 11 + a22 a32 22 + a23 a33 33

+ (a21 a32 + a22 a31 )12 + (a22 a33 + a23 a32 )23 + (a21 a33 + a23 a31 )13 ,

13

=a11 a31 11 + a12 a32 22 + a13 a33 33

+ (a11 a32 + a12 a31 )12 + (a12 a33 + a13 a32 )23 + (a11 a33 + a13 a31 )13 .

The Mohr circle for stress is a graphical representation of

this transformation of stresses.
Figure 4. Continuum body in equilibrium

2.2

Normal and shear stresses

can be demonstrated that the components of the Cauchy

stress tensor in every material point in the body satisfy
The magnitude of the normal stress component of any
the equilibrium equations.
stress vector T(n) acting on an arbitrary plane with normal
unit vector n at a given point, in terms of the components
ij of the stress tensor , is the dot product of the stress
ji,j + Fi = 0
vector and the normal unit vector:
For example, for a hydrostatic uid in equilibrium conditions, the stress tensor takes on the form:
(n)
n = T n
(n)

ij = pij

= T i ni
= ij ni nj .

where p is the hydrostatic pressure, and ij

The magnitude of the shear stress component , acting kronecker delta.
orthogonal to the vector n, can then be found using the
Pythagorean theorem:

n =
=

T (n)

)2

3.2 Cauchys second law of motion

n2

(n) (n)
Ti Ti n2 ,

where
(

T (n)

)2

(n)

is the

(n)

= Ti Ti

According to the principle of conservation of angular

momentum, equilibrium requires that the summation of
moments with respect to an arbitrary point is zero, which
leads to the conclusion that the stress tensor is symmetric,
thus having only six independent stress components, instead of the original nine:

= (ij nj ) (ik nk ) = ij ik nj nk .
ij = ji

Balance laws - Cauchys equations of motion

However, in the presence of couple-stresses, i.e. moments per unit volume, the stress tensor is nonsymmetric. This also is the case when the Knudsen num3.1 Cauchys rst law of motion
ber is close to one, Kn 1 , or the continuum is a
According to the principle of conservation of linear mo- non-Newtonian uid, which can lead to rotationally nonmentum, if the continuum body is in static equilibrium it invariant uids, such as polymers.

4 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRESS INVARIANTS

Principal stresses and stress invariants

Expanding the determinant leads to the characteristic

equation

At every point in a stressed body there are at least three |ij ij | = 3 + I1 2 I2 + I3 = 0

planes, called principal planes, with normal vectors n ,
called principal directions, where the corresponding stress where
vector is perpendicular to the plane, i.e., parallel or in the
same direction as the normal vector n , and where there
are no normal shear stresses n . The three stresses normal I1 = 11 + 22 + 33
= kk = tr()
to these principal planes are called principal stresses.

 

 

 

 
The components ij of the stress tensor depend on the I2 = 22 23  + 11 13  + 11 12 
32 33  31 33  21 22 
orientation of the coordinate system at the point under
2
2
2
consideration. However, the stress tensor itself is a phys= 11 22 + 22 33 + 11 33 12
23
31
ical quantity and as such, it is independent of the coor]
1
1[
= (ii jj ij ji ) =
tr()2 tr( 2 )
dinate system chosen to represent it. There are certain
2
2
invariants associated with every tensor which are also inI3 = det(ij ) = det()
dependent of the coordinate system. For example, a vec2
2
2
= 11 22 33 + 212 23 31 12
33 23
11 31
22
tor is a simple tensor of rank one. In three dimensions,
it has three components. The value of these components The characteristic equation has three real roots , i.e.
i
will depend on the coordinate system chosen to represent not imaginary due to the symmetry of the stress tensor.
the vector, but the magnitude of the vector is a physical The = max ( , , ) , = min ( , , ) and
1
1
2
3
3
1
2
3
quantity (a scalar) and is independent of the Cartesian co- = I , are the principal stresses, functions
2
1
1
3
ordinate system chosen to represent the vector. Similarly, of the eigenvalues . The eigenvalues are the roots of
i
every second rank tensor (such as the stress and the strain the CayleyHamilton theorem. The principal stresses are
tensors) has three independent invariant quantities asso- unique for a given stress tensor. Therefore, from the charciated with it. One set of such invariants are the principal acteristic equation, the coecients I , I and I , called
1
2
3
stresses of the stress tensor, which are just the eigenval- the rst, second, and third stress invariants, respectively,
ues of the stress tensor. Their direction vectors are the always have the same value regardless of the coordinate
principal directions or eigenvectors.
systems orientation.
A stress vector parallel to the normal unit vector n is given For each eigenvalue, there is a non-trivial solution for n
j
by:
in the equation (ij ij ) nj = 0 . These solutions are
the principal directions or eigenvectors dening the plane
where the principal stresses act. The principal stresses
T(n) = n = n n
and principal directions characterize the stress at a point
and are independent of the orientation.
where is a constant of proportionality, and in this particular case corresponds to the magnitudes n of the normal A coordinate system with axes oriented to the principal
directions implies that the normal stresses are the princistress vectors or principal stresses.
pal stresses and the stress tensor is represented by a diag(n)
Knowing that Ti = ij nj and ni = ij nj , we have
onal matrix:
(n)

Ti

1
ij = 0
0

= ni

ij nj = ni
ij nj ni = 0

0
2
0

0
0
3

The principal stresses can be combined to form the stress

invariants, I1 , I2 , and I3 . The rst and third invariant
This is a homogeneous system, i.e. equal to zero, of three are the trace and determinant respectively, of the stress
linear equations where nj are the unknowns. To obtain tensor. Thus,
a nontrivial (non-zero) solution for nj , the determinant
matrix of the coecients must be equal to zero, i.e. the
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3
system is singular. Thus,
(ij ij ) nj = 0


11
12

22
|ij ij | =  21
 31
32


13 
23  = 0
33 

I2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1
I3 = 1 2 3
Because of its simplicity, the principal coordinate system
is often useful when considering the state of the elastic

6.1

Invariants of the stress deviator tensor

medium at a particular point. Principal stresses are often

2. a deviatoric component called the stress deviator tenexpressed in the following equation for evaluating stresses
sor, sij , which tends to distort it.
in the x and y directions or axial and bending stresses on a
part.[14]:p.5859 The principal normal stresses can then be So:
used to calculate the von Mises stress and ultimately the
safety factor and margin of safety.

x + y

1 , 2 =
2

ij = sij + ij ,
x y
2

)2
2
+ xy

where is the mean stress given by

Using just the part of the equation under the square root = kk = 11 + 22 + 33 = 1 I1 .
3
3
3
is equal to the maximum and minimum shear stress for
plus and minus. This is shown as:
Pressure ( p ) is generally dened as negative one-third the
trace of the stress tensor minus any stress the divergence
of the velocity contributes with, i.e.
(
)2
x y
2
+ xy
max , min =
2
uk
uk

p = u =
=
,
xk
xk

Maximum and minimum shear

stresses

where is a proportionality constant, is the divergence

operator, xk is the k:th Cartesian coordinate, u is the
velocity and uk is the k:th Cartesian component of u .

The maximum shear stress or maximum principal shear The deviatoric stress tensor can be obtained by subtractstress is equal to one-half the dierence between the ing the hydrostatic stress tensor from the Cauchy stress
largest and smallest principal stresses, and acts on the tensor:
plane that bisects the angle between the directions of the
largest and smallest principal stresses, i.e. the plane of the
kk
maximum shear stress is oriented 45 from the principal
sij = ij
ij ,
stress planes. The maximum shear stress is expressed as
3

s11 s12 s13

11 12 13
0 0
s21 s22 s23 = 21 22 23 0 0
1
s31 s32 s33
31 32 33
0 0
max = |max min |

2
11
12
13
Assuming 1 2 3 then
22
23 .
= 21
31
32
33
max =

1
|1 3 |
2

6.1 Invariants of the stress deviator tensor

When the stress tensor is non zero the normal stress com- As it is a second order tensor, the stress deviator tensor
ponent acting on the plane for the maximum shear stress also has a set of invariants, which can be obtained usis non-zero and it is equal to
ing the same procedure used to calculate the invariants
of the stress tensor. It can be shown that the principal
n = 12 (1 + 3 )
directions of the stress deviator tensor sij are the same
as the principal directions of the stress tensor ij . Thus,
the characteristic equation is

Stress deviator tensor

|sij ij | = 3 + J1 2 + J2 + J3 = 0,

The stress tensor ij can be expressed as the sum of two where J1 , J2 and J3 are the rst, second, and third deviother stress tensors:
atoric stress invariants, respectively. Their values are the
same (invariant) regardless of the orientation of the coor1. a mean hydrostatic stress tensor or volumetric stress dinate system chosen. These deviatoric stress invariants
tensor or mean normal stress tensor, ij , which can be expressed as a function of the components of sij
tends to change the volume of the stressed body; and or its principal values s1 , s2 , and s3 , or alternatively, as

REFERENCES

a function of ij or its principal values 1 , 2 , and 3 . The normal and shear components of the stress tensor on
Thus,
these planes are called octahedral normal stress oct and
octahedral shear stress oct , respectively.
Knowing that the stress tensor of point O (Figure 6) in
the principal axes is

J1 = skk = 0,
J2 = 12 sij sji = 21 tr(s2 )

= 12 (s21 + s22 + s23 )

[
]
21 0 2 0
2
2
2
2
1
= 6 (11 22 ) + (22 33 ) + (33 11 ) +12=+023 +31 0
2
ij
[
]
0
0 3
= 61 (1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2
]
[
1
1
2
2
1 2
the stress vector on an octahedral plane is then given by:
= 3 I1 I2 =
tr( ) tr() ,
2
3
J3 = det(sij )
(n)

= 13 sij sjk ski = 13 tr(s3 )

= s1 s2 s3
=

2 3
27 I1

1
3 I1 I2

+ I3 =

Toct = ij ni ej
1
3

= 1 n1 e1 + 2 n2 e2 + 3 n3 e3
[
]
3
2
3 1
2
tr( ) tr( )tr() + 9 tr()=
. 3 (1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 )

Because skk = 0 , the stress deviator tensor is in a state The normal component of the stress vector at point O asof pure shear.
sociated with the octahedral plane is
A quantity called the equivalent stress or von Mises stress
is commonly used in solid mechanics. The equivalent
stress is dened as

e =

(n)

oct = Ti ni
= ij ni nj

= 1 n1 n1 + 2 n2 n2 + 3 n3 n3

3 J2 = 12 [(1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2 ] .= 1 (1 + 2 + 3 ) = 1 I1
3

which is the mean normal stress or hydrostatic stress. This

value is the same in all eight octahedral planes. The shear
stress on the octahedral plane is then

Octahedral stresses

(n) (n)
Ti Ti n2
[
]1/2
= 13 (12 + 22 + 32 ) 19 (1 + 2 + 3 )2

[
]1/2
= 13 (1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2
= 13 2I12 6I2 =

oct =

8 References
[1] Fridtjov Irgens (2008), Continuum
Springer. ISBN 3-540-74297-2

Mechanics.

[2] Truesdell & Toupin 1960

[3] Peter Chadwick (1999), Continuum Mechanics: Concise
Theory and Problems. Dover Publications, series Books
on Physics. ISBN 0-486-40180-4. pages
Figure 6. Octahedral stress planes

Considering the principal directions as the coordinate

axes, a plane whose normal vector makes equal angles
with each of the principal
axes (i.e. having direction

cosines equal to |1/ 3| ) is called an octahedral plane.

There are a total of eight octahedral planes (Figure 6).

[4] Yuan-cheng Fung and Pin Tong (2001) Classical and

Computational Solid Mechanics. World Scientic.
ISBN 981-02-4124-0
[5] Smith & Truesdell p.97
[6] G. Thomas Mase and George E. Mase (1999),
Continuum Mechanics for Engineers (2nd edition).
CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1855-6

[7] I-Shih Liu (2002), Continuum Mechanics. Springer

ISBN 3-540-43019-9
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Theory of Elasticity for Scientists and Engineers.
Springer. ISBN 0-8176-4072-X
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Mechanics (2nd edition). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-38723330-X
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Structural Engineers. J. Ross Publishing ISBN 1932159-75-4
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of Continuum Mechanics. Alpha Science. ISBN 817319-244-8
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Continua. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43809-0

10

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Cauchy stress tensor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_stress_tensor?oldid=708799441 Contributors: Michael Hardy, BenFrantzDale, Jorge Stol, BD2412, KaiMartin, Sanpaz, RussBot, Dhollm, Myasuda, Marek69, Malcolmxl5, Bbanerje, Jasper Deng,
AgadaUrbanit, Arbitrarily0, Yobot, Materialscientist, Imveracious, FrescoBot, Earthandmoon, Wisapi, Bor75, Slawekb, Clubdcfdtl, Perfran, Mkotowicz, Das O2 and Anonymous: 24

9.2

Images

File:Cauchy_tetrahedron.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Cauchy_tetrahedron.svg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sanpaz
File:Components_stress_tensor_cartesian.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Components_stress_
tensor_cartesian.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sanpaz
File:Equilibrium_equation_body.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Equilibrium_equation_body.svg
License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nicoguaro
File:Internal_forces_in_continuum.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Internal_forces_in_
continuum.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sanpaz
File:Internal_forces_in_continuum_2.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Internal_forces_in_
continuum_2.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sanpaz
File:Octahedral_stress_planes.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Octahedral_stress_planes.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Octahedral_stress_planes.png Original artist: Octahedral_stress_planes.png: Sanpaz
File:Stress_transformation_3D.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Stress_transformation_3D.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sanpaz
File:Stress_vector.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Stress_vector.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sanpaz

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0